NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES

CRIME AND THE LABOR MARKET

Richard B. Freeman

Working Paper No. 1031

NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH

1050 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge MA 02138

November 1982

I have benefited from discussion with Llad Phillips and Edward

Leamer. Written for the Institute for Contemporary Studies, Crime
and Public Policy (James Q. Wilson, editor). The research reported
here is part of the NBER's research program in Labor Studies. Any
opinions expressed are those of the author and not those of the
National Bureau of Economic Research.
 NBER Working Paper #1031
November 1982

Crime and the Labor Market

ABSTBACT

Much work on crime has focussed on the effect of criminal

sanctions on crime, ignoring (except as a control variable) the effect
of labor market conditions on crime. This study reviews studies of
time series, cross area, and individual evidence pertaining to the effect
of unnployment and other labor market variables on crime and conpares
the "slrength" of the labor market-crime and the sanctions-crime relations.
It corcludes that there is a labor market-crime link but link
that this

is not well estimated by existing studies and is weaker than the sanctions-
crime link. The rise in crime in recent years does not appear to be
greatly due to the perforrnanoe of the labor market.

Richard B. Freeman
National Bureau of Economic Research
1050 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02138

(617) 868—3915
 2

CRIME AND ThE LABOR MARKET

'Are there people really walking around saying there is no

relationship between crime and unemployment? Are we beating a
dead horse here? Is there a unanimous consensus on the subject or
do we have something more to prove?" (Congressman John Conyers,
cited in Unemployment and Crime, Hearings before the Subcommittee
on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary House of
Representatives, Ninety—fifth Congress, Serial No. 47, p. 90)

The notion that the labor market, through unemployment, is an

important determinant of the crime level has a definite appeal.

Someone with a full—time high—paying job is, most of us believe, less

likely to engage in crime, particularly economic crime, than someone

out of work. After all, iSn't idle time the devil's handmaiden?

Despite the plausibilty of the claim that high unemployment

causes crime, empirical analysis shows at best a moderate link between

unemployment and crime. In some analyses the expected significant

postive relation is found, but in others, it is not. Similarly, some

studies find a significant postive relation between poverty (measured

in various ways) and crime while others do not. While no one would

gainsay a relationship between the labor market and crime, the strength

and magnitude of the link are more subtle and difficult to determine

than one might expect.

 3

This essay examines modern research on the relation between the

labor market and crime. While there have been some reviews of the
literature (Gillespie, Witte and Orsogh, Witte and Long) the effect of
crime has not received
the labor market, especially unemployment, on

the same attention as the effect of criminal sanctions on crime rates

(see National Academy of Sciences Panel on Research on Deterrent and

Incapacitative Effects, 1978, and Philip J. Cooke "Research in Criminal

Deterrance Laying the Groundwork for the Second Decade"). This

imbalance in the current state of analysis is unfortunate, for it

directs more attention to the 'stick of deterrence than to the

the fact that the
'carrot' of improved employment prospects, despite

underlying behavior presumably depends on both.

The essay begins with a brief review of the economic rationale

for expecting the labor market to influence crime, considers the

various methods used by social scientists to study the expected

relationship, and then turns to the main issue: the empirical findings

of the various studies. In this review I make an effort to delineate

carefully differences among types of studies in a way which will

hopefully illuminate the meaning of the work and provide suggestions

the "something more" needed for
for additional analyses that may yield

a "unanimous consensus."
 4

What Labor Market — Crime Link Should We Expect?

As a starting point, let us consider briefly the modern

analysis of the economics of crime', which underlies work on the effect

of the labor market as well as on the effect of criminal sanctions on

crime. The modern work is grounded on an individual choice model,

which treats the decision to engage in crime in the same manner as a

decision to engage in any other potential money—making activity. It

postulates that an individual chooses to commit a crime depending on

the expected benefits and costs. The benefit from crime depends on the

chance of success and the money (utility) obtained; the expected cost

depends on the chance of being caught (1 minus the probability of

success) and convicted, the criminal sanctions and the earnings lost as

a result of imprisonment and the time allotted to the criminal

activity. In this framework the labor market is expected to influence

crime through the cost side: workers with high paying jobs will

presumably commit less crime than workers with low paying jobs or the

unemployed because the higher paid face a greater opportunity cost from

crime. Their time is more valuable in legitimate activities and they

risk losing more income if they are incarcerated than lower wage or

unemployed persons. Because crime is risky, moreover, the analysis

directs attention to risk attitudes in the decision, with further

behavioral consequences. Essentially the economic model treats crime

like any other career or activity choice, in which persons respond

positively to the benefits and negatively to the costs of choosing the

activity.
 5

respond to incentives in
Since few would disagree that people

rational ways, the issue in analysis is the magnitude of such responses

show up in observed data or
—— whether they are important enough to
to matter in that behavior.
whether they are too small or unimportant
majority of studies have had an
It is for this reason that the vast

empirical orientation.

Methods of Studi

Social scientists have sought to measure the impact of labor

market conditions on crime using four distinct types of studies, each

relation
of which has advantages and disadvantages for pinning down the

under study:
the crime rate is compared
(1) Time series analyses in which
and related labor market indicators over
to the level of unemployment
examine the effect of the
time. This is the most direct way to

business cycle on crime and thus for answering the question of what
Time
might happen to crime levels if overall job prospects improved.
suffer from a myriad of problems, the
series analysis does, however,

most serious of which is the collinearity of variables (the tendency

for many variables to move together over time, providing little

independent effect of each). It
variation from which to discern the
a time series analysis
also suffers from an interpretative problem:

which shows that crime varies over the business cycle can be
affects the timing rather
interpreted as indicating that unemployment
for
than the level of crime. A person who decides to commit a robbery,
 7

relations. In the case at hand, it turns out that in several studies

crime is inversely related to the percentage nonwhite in an area. At

face value, this implies either that blacks are less likely to be

criminals or that black areas are subject to less crime that white

areas —— both highly questionable conclusions in light of other data.

(3) Comparisons of individuals who Commit crimes with those

who do not. Analyzing the economic model of crime with data for

individuals has the advantage of focusing on actual decision—makers.

For charateristics of individuals that are relatively fixed (race, sex,

age, education) it provides a useful tool for inferring differences in

crime rates. For variables that change or are potentially controlled

by the individual, however, there are serious inference problems. One

could, for example, interpret the fact that criminals are more likely

to be unemployed than others in two ways: as supporting the claim that

unemployment led the person into crime, or as indicating that the

person was unemployed because he/she planned a crime. The direction of

the causal link is, in the absence of other information, impossible to

determine.

(4) Social experiments, in which the government alters the

labor market opportunities for criminals, as in the Baltimore Living

Insurance for Ex—prisoners Project or the Transitional Aid Research

Project (TARP)2. Conceptually, an appropriate experiment to test the

unemployment — crime link is to provide jobs at specified levels of pay

to part of the released prisoner population while letting the other

 6

recession because of a lack

example, may be more likely to rob during a

of alternatives, but he/she might commit the crime even if unemployment

were always lower than at present. The analogy here is with a woman
who decides to work one quarter out of the year. When stores put on
many people near Christmas, she rationally chooses to work at that
season, but in the absence of such seasonal demand for labor, she would

still work one quarter a year.

(2) Cross—sectional (ecological) analysis of crime rates and

Because crime rates
labor market conditions across geographic areas.

and other factors vary widely across states or cities, providing

considerable variation in data, many analysts seek to infer the causes

of crime from cross—sectional data. In contrast to time series

analysis, cross—section studies are more likely to reveal "permanent"

responses to crime rates to unemployment than to reflect the timing of

decisions and are generally free from collinearity problems. They,

however, suffer from their own set of inference problems: the

possibility that areas differ in both labor market and crime for

reasons having to do with the unmeasured 'nature' of the area,

producing spurious or hiding true relations; the possibility that

migration of criminals, say from high unemployment to low unemployment

areas may eliminate the link of unemployment to crime in area data,

despite the fact that high unemployment conditions create more

arising from the
criminals; and the 'ecological correlation' problem

difficulty of making inferences about individual behavior from area

 TABLE 1: WHAT THE TIME SERIES STUDIES SHOW
Author and Nature of Study Effects of Effects of Effect of Comparison to
Unemployment Labor Force Other Labor Deterrence Variable
Participation Market Variables
0'
Fleisher, Analysis of Age Specific Arrest yes
Rates in 3 Cities, 1930s — 1950s
Phillips, Votey and Maxwell, Analysis of yes yes
Age Specific Arrest Rates, 1 — 19 Year Olds,
1952 — 1967
Phillips, Analysis of 18 — 19 Year Olds yes yes
Arrest Rates, 1964 — 1977
Phillips and Ray, Analysis of California yes
Homicide Rate unemployment is
(3 1/3 year lag) weaker
Brenner (1978), Analysis of Homicide, yes yes, per
Arrest Rates and Unemployment, 1940 — 1973,
1952 — 1975 capita income
Danziger and Wheeler, Analysis of Property no
Crime Rates, 1949 — 1970 yes, income
inequality
Ehrlich (1975), Analysis of Murder Rate,
yes yes yes, median
1933 — 1969 unemployment is
income weaker
Orsagh, Analysis of Crime Rate, 1950 — 1974 yes
Leveson, Analysis of Crime Rate and Youth yes
Unemployment
Land and Felson, Various Crimes 1947 — 1972
yes unemployment is
weaker
Source; see bibliography
— indicates did not include variable in analysis
 8

part fend on their own. Presumably the group with jobs would have a

lower crime rate. Since individuals would be assigned to the groups

one could be able to infer the direction of causality of any linkage as

being from unemployment to crime. In fact, most experiments have not

provided offenders with job

'guaranteed' persons jobs but rather have
which have
placement and income support for several months after prison

more complex effects on behavior3. Even if the 'appropriate'

experiment worked, we should note the danger of 'experimental

contamination' in the sense that jobs generated by a governmental

those generated in a free market.

program may differ from

In short, none of the methods used to study the labor market —

answer to somewhat
crime link are perfect. Each provides a potential
different questions, and each is subject to the problems of

nonlaboratorY data analysis. If each method yielded similar results,

dead horse here,' and we would have a
we might indeed be 'beating a

concensus. As we shall soon see, however, the methods yield

unanimous

somewhat different results, requiring a careful assessment of the

meaning and consistency of the work.

The Time SeriesRSUlt8

Table 1 provides a capsule summary of the results of a variety

of time series analyses of the link between labor market factors and
crime, and where available of the link between deterrence variables,

of criminal sentences) and

(such as chances of being convicted, length

crime as well. The models vary greatly in time coverage, explanatory

factors, and in statistical technique, ranging from single regressions

 PLI1T OF CIUME *Ii\J[Mp SY1I4L HSLP 15 *
I
* 1980
(,L * 1979
I
1975 1976
I *
* 1977 A 1978
C. ".1 +
I * 197'.
I I
4L
A I
i * 1973 * 1971
4 * 1970 * 1972
P
I— I
*1969
U I * 1968
U I
(I
I *1967
1966
A ?. * 1965 * 196'.
C I
F I *1963
Y '.U $ *1962
I * 1960 * 1961
I * 1959 * 1958
I *1957
19s3 195k * 955 * 195'.
t * 1952
1948 * 1950 * 19'+9
1 •( +
+
?9 t $ '_t $ +_____t_________ - ...
3,S 141 £1.7 s.c 5.9 ô.5 1.1 1.7 R3
iNF.MP1yNT PATE
FIGURE 1
 10

of changes in crime on changes in unemployment (Phillips) to

sophisticated time series systems models (Phillips and Ray). All of

the models examine the effect of unemployment rates on crime; some also

examine the effect of labor force participation rates; because of

collinearity with time, only a few also look at other labor market

variables, such as income; three contain deterrence variables whose

impact can be compared to that of unemployment, in terms of

significance or magnitude.

The general finding from these studies is that unemployment

and/or labor participation rates have the expected impact on crime

rates, but that the effect tends to be modest in magnitude, explaining

little if any of the upward trend of crime in the periods studied. The

labor participation rate is often found to have a closer link to crime

than unemployment, suggesting that those who leave the labor force are

the most crime prone. In the few studies which include income

variables, the level of income (interpreted as a measure of gains to

crime) was positively related to crime; while income inequality is also

found to be positively related to crime. The three studies which

included deterrent variables found them to be more closely related to

crime than were the labor market variables.

To provide a flavor of the time series evidence, I have graphed

in figure 1 the relation between the uniform crime rate and

unemployment rate for the period 1947 to 1980. The crime rate is

dominated by an upward trend but there is a definite cyclical component

related to unemployment which can be seen in the scatter diagram. A

 13

Long, I have made a crude tabulation of the results of these studies,

dividing the findings into four categories: Those with strong

(statistically significant) effects in the expected direction; those

with weak (insignificant) effects in the expected direction; and those

with strong and weak effects in the opposite direction. The results

for unemployment (or labor force participation), for income variables

viewed as measures of the incentive to commit crime and as the

incentive to choose legitimate work, and criminal sanctions, are given

in Table 2 in terms of the number of studies fitting into each

category. Because analysts usually estimate more than one equation,

with somewhat different results, the categorization is rough, based on

an overall evaluation of the findings. While undoubtedly one could

change some of the classifications, the table provides a reasonable

picture of the tone of results.

With respect to unemployment the majority of studies yield

insignificant relations between unemployment and crime but of those

that yield significant results, all are in the "correct" direction and

the majority show a positive relation. Whether this is to be taken as

strong or weak evidence for the existence of an unemployment — crime

relation is up to the reader to decide for him or herself. The

preponderance of evidence is more favorable to a positive linkage than

not, but if one was anticipating an overwhelmingly strong relation, one

will be severely disappointed.

 12

multivariate regression of the crime rate on the unemployment and a

trend variable (with allowance for serial correlation) yields an

estimate of the effect of a one unit change in unemployment on the

uniform crime rate per 100,000 inhabitants of .05, of moderate

statistical significance4. This coefficient indicates that a doubling

of the unemployment rate from 5 percent to 10 percent would raise the

crime rate by 5 percent in the l980s, though whether this would

represent a permanent increase in crime or simply a shifting in crime

from the low to high unemployment year cannot be determined.

Overall, while not all of the analyses in Table 1 yield

significant results and while none show unemployment to be the dominant

determinant of crime, they lend overall support to the notion that crime

varies over the business cycle.

The Cross—Section Results

There have been a large number of studies comparing crime rates

across states, cities, or SMSAs. Sample sizes, variables included, and

the periods covered differ considerably. In recent years many of the

studies have been of a simultaneous equations type, with restrictions

designed to identify the effect of deterrent variables; the labor

marketfactors are always taken as exogenous. A typical model includes

an equation relating crime to criminal penalties or resources spent on
labor market conditions, and other factors; and a second
police,
equation for the level of criminal penalties or police resources.

From the reviews of the literature by Gillespie and Witte and

 15

The results with respect to other labor market variables are

similar. Income of the overall population in an area taken as a

measure of the possible gain from economic crime and various measures

of the income of the poor, often the fraction of the population in

poverty, viewed as an indicator of the opportunity cost of crime,

obtain estimated effects which are in the right direction, and

significant in a fair number but not a majority of cases.

For purposes of comparison Table 2 also provides a count of

estimated effects of criminal sanctions. Here, the results are

noticeably stronger, with the majority of studies finding strong

impacts in the anticipated direction.

There are two possible reasons for the differential impact of

the labor market and deterrence variables. One possibility is that

considerable effort has gone into measuring deterrence while the labor

market factors, usually entered solely as "controls," have not received

such careful attentioii As a result, it is likely that the deterrence

variables are better measured than are the labor market variables,

biasing the coefficient of the latter toward zero relative to the

coefficients of the former5. For example, most cross—section studies

use a simple aggregate unemployment rate whereas the level of crime

among young people out of the labor force suggests a youth—out—of—

labor—force measure would be better. A second related reason may be

the different specificity of the variables: deterrence variables

relate directly to the options facing potential criminals, while

general labor market variables do not: the potential criminal may be

 14

TABLE 2: Scorecard. for Results of Cross—SQctional AnyL°f

Labor Market Crime Link

Number of studies with specified link to crime

Stong Weak Weak Strong

Correct Correct Incorrect Incorrect
Direction Direction Direction Direction

4 7 4 0
1. Unemployment

3 3 1
2. Income as Incentive 5
to Commit Crime
(Average Income)

4 3 1 0
3. Income as Cost of
Crime (Income of
Poor; Percent of
Population in
Poverty

4. Criminal sanctions 10 3 4 0

Source: Based on the following studies listed in the bibliography:

Allison, Bartel, Ehrlich (1974, 1979), Fleisher, Forst, Greenwood and
Wadycki, Creison, Gylys, Hoch, Land and Felson, Mathur, McPheters and
Stronge, Nagel, Pogue, Quinney, Sjoquist, Swimmer, Weicher.
 17

they will have lower skills, lower wages when working, and considerably

more unemployment than the average (see Table 3 for documentation).

Isnt this clearcut evidence that unemployment and poor labor market

performance are a major cause of crime? Why does it, on the face, tell

a stronger story than the time series and cross—section evidence just

examined?

There are several possible explanations for the stronger

relation between unemployment and labor market performance in the

individual than in aggregate data.

(1) The individual data may not be reflecting the effect of

unemployment (other labor market failures) on crime but, rather, the

fact that the criminal population consists of people who are unable to

succeed in the mainstream society due to "underlying personal

characteristics." That is, the cause of both the unemployment and

criminal activity may be a third variable having to do with the

individuals attributes. If this were the case, changes in labor

market conditions would have little or no effect on the persor(s life

in crime, although we would always find the criminal having a poor work

record.
 16

quite responsive to his own unemployment (or wage) prospects but those

prospects may be only weakly related to aggregate market conditions.

Finally, how should we assess the scorecard results in Table 2?

In its evaluation of studies of the effect of deterrence on crime, the

NAS—NRC Panel on Research on Deterrent and IncapactitatiVe Effects

concluded that "we cannot yet assert that the evidence warrants an

affirmative conclusion regarding deterrance . . . (although) . . the

.

evidence certainly favors a proposition supporting deterrence more than

it favors one asserting that deterrence is absent. . . ." (p. 7) As

the results with deterrence variables are generally stronger than those

with labor market variables, readers who agree with the Panel

conclusion will be even more circumspect in reaching the affirmative

conclusion regarding unemployment and other labor market factors. They

will agree with Orsagh and Witte that the economic model of crime, "as

that model relates to unemployment and income is not confirmed by tests

performed on aggregate data sets" (p. 8). After all, more coefficients

on the labor market variables are insignificant than significant. My

view is more positive with respect to both the deterrence and labor

market results. It is, however, clear that the evidence is not strong

enough to yield Congressman Conyers 'unanimous consensus.

Studies of Individuals

Take a group of convicted criminals. Compare their work record

with that of other citizens of the same age and sex. Invariably one

will find that the criminals will have a much more spotty work history:
 19

(2) The potential criminal may have chosen unemployment in

preparation for criminal activity. He/she could have had a job but

turned it down in favor of criminal activity. In this case

unemployment per se is not the cause of crime, though the overall

rewards from work relative to crime may have influenced the

individual's decision.

(3) Potential criminals are, indeed, responsive to

unemployment and legitimate earnings opportunities, but as argued

earlier their economic choices are weakly linked to the overall

economy, so that aggregate analyses fail to capture the micro—relation.

This would be the case if criminals tend to come from the back of the

'job queue' so that their employment chances are only vaguely affected

by the overall level of unemployment: when the market is good,

employers hire other workers before the potential criminal, with the

result that it takes huge swings in the overall level or special

programs to raise their employment chances.

These three explanations suggest that the unemployment — crime

link found in comparison of criminal and noncritninal work records

cannot be used to infer what happens to criminal activity when labor

market conditions change. Explanations (1) and (2) differ

fundamentally from (3), however, in that they suggest that changes in

unemployment/legitimate wage possibilities for criminals are (within

normal ranges of variation) likely to have little impact on their

criminal behavior whereas (3) suggests that if properly measured the

market opportunities facing the potential criminal would indeed reveal

 18

TABLE 3: Preimprisonment Work Experience of Arrestees

Georgia Texas Washington D.C.

A. Proportion unemployed at 48% 47% 46%

time of arrest

B. Type of employment

Unskilled labor 45% 15% 41%

Semiskilled labor 48% 62% 11%

C. Reported wages earned $136 $148

per week

D. Percentage earnings below 50%

$3.00 per hour

Source: Georgia and Texas, for TARP participants from Rossi, Berk, and
Lenihan, Table 7.6, p. 131. Washington D.C. from "A Supplemental Report
by the Office of Criminal Justice Plans and Analysis" in Unemployment
and Crime Hearin, pp. 111 — 112.
 21

"supported work" , in which a major effort is made to provide a social

environment encouraging work as opposed to crime. These studies give

us an indication of how ex—criminals (who, because of recividism and

the concentration of crime among a small subset of the population, can

be assumed to cause a large proportion of crime) respond to their

labor market incentives. They also have the advantage that the

incentives are controlled by the experimenter, providing, a truly

exogenous labor market variable for study. If these studies showed a

strong link between unemployment (other labor market factors) and

crime, the case for a sizeable significant relation would be greatly

enhanced.

Unfortunately, like the other evidence in the field, these

studies, while generally supportive of a labor market — crime link, do

not give a uniform picture either of our ability to alter labor market

opportunities to reduce criminal behavior or the relation between

unemployment or earnings and crime. As Table 4 shows, some studies

have successfully altered behavior (the Baltimore LIFE experiment,
Project Wildcat, Operation Pathfinder) while others have not done so

(Parole Reintegration Projects, Supported Work, Project Development

Support Services, the diverse manpower programs surveyed by Taggart).

The recent and statistically sophisticated study of the TARP

experimental program, by Rossi et al showed essentially no difference

in recividism between the experimental group (who received unemployment

compensation so that they could better search for jobs after release
 20

a significant response to these opportunities.

Studies of recividism among actual releasees provide one,

albeit imperfect, way of analyzing the response of one set of potential

criminals, ex—offenders, to their own labor market experience. In an

analysis of 641 men who were in prison in North Carolina in 1969 or

1971 Anne Witte found that whereas the wage level received on their

first job tended to decrease arrests or conviction the variable

measuring unemployment had an unexpected negative effect as well,

giving a rather mixed picture of the effect of labor market on the

behavior of these persons. The Rossi—Berk—Lenihan analysis of TARP

participants in Texas and Georgia, by contrast, showed a significant

tradeoff between number of arrests and weeks employed, with those

employed longer having fewer arrests. In addition, however, they found
a weak or anomalous relation between their measure of the labor market

(unemployment in the county of the release) and the individual's

employment experience, so that the aggregate market variable had no

effect on the individual's behavior.

At present there are too few studies of individual behavior to

reach any overall assessment.

Results of Social Experiments

In recent years several social experiments have been developed

to evaluate the responses of ex—offenders to job market incentives.

The programs have varied from job placement, to provision of money to

give ex—offenders some financial security until they find a job to

 23

from prison) and the control population. Rossi et al develop a model

explaining the failure of the program to reduce crime as resulting from

the negative impact of employment on crime and the sizeable impact of

unemployment compensation on acceptance of jobs. Viewed in this light,

the TARP experiment supports the link between unemployment and crime,

although the experiment itself did not succeed due to failure to allow

for greater unemployment for those receiving unemployment compensation.

However, as noted earlier, there was little relation between aggregate

labor market conditions and recividistn. By contrast the Baltimore LIFE

experiment, on which TARP was modeled, found a stronger link between

unemployment in the city and crime than between the individuaYs own

work experience and crime. While these two studies lend some support

to the unemployment — crime link, there are enough failed experiments

to call into question our ability to predict how the labor market —

crime link will indeed operate in a particular instance.

Conclusion

So, what in fact do we know about the relation between the

labor market and crime?

As a broad generalization, the bulk of the studies examined

here show some connection between unemployment (and other labor market

variables) and crime but they fail to document a well—defined clearly

quantifiable linkage. We know:

(1) There is a cyclical pattern to crime rate, with crime rising

over the cycle with unemployment.

 22

of Economic
TABLE 4: Some Expimefltal
Incentives on Recivi-diSm
Results of Providing
Program (Analysis) Economic Incentives

Work disincentives of TARP

1. TransitiOnal Aid Research Project,
reduced employment,
prisoners given up to 6 months of increasing crime, while
unemployment insurance to reduce payments reduced crime, for
economic incentive for economic those with some employment,
crime [Rossi, et all. with no net effect. Large
unemplOymentcr3.me relation.

for Ex— Financial aid reduced crime;

2. Baltimore Living Insurance unemployment in city at time
Prisoners(LIF'E) Project, ex—prisoflers of release also affected
given financial aid and job placement crime, no job placement
aerviceS [Rossi, el al; Mellon and
effects.
Thornton; IC. Lenihan

No sizeable significant
3. Supported Work Experiment, ex— effects on crime.
offenders provided with subsidized
employment and social support for
working [Manpower Demonstration
Research Corporation]

for Ex— Programs generally

4. Diverse Manpower Programs ineffective.
Offenders, a variety of vocational
training and placement programs
[Taggart I

Reduced criminal activity

5. Project Wildcat, employment and
but many employed controls
social support for ex drug addicts
bad high recividism
[Vera Institute]

Little postive impact.

6. Parole Reintegration ProjectS
stipends or grants given to
parolees to ease transition
to work [Taggert; Pilavin and
Gartner]
 25

market on crime is not an open—and—shut case in which research results

are so definitive that there is no need for further work. The work is,

however, more supportive of a link than of the opposite conclusion.

 24

(2) There is evidence that criminals tend to have poorer

work records than noncriniinals, but only limited evidence that,

once a person embarks on crime, moderate changes in these market

opportunities will cause them to choose legitimate earnings channels.

(3) Cities and states have widely different crime rates

loosely linked to labor market conditions.

(4) In studies that include measures of criminal sanctions and

labor market factors, sanctions tend to have a greater impact on

criminal behavior than market factors.

How is the reader to evaluate the results?

For the person who strongly believes unemployment causes crime,

there is nothing in the empirical evidence to cause him/her to abandon

that belief. Weak or modest empirical support should not strengthen

One's belief, but also should not lead one to abandon an initial

strongly held view. On the other hand, the stronger evidence on the
deterrent effect of sanctions, should alter one's view of the relative
impact of the "carrot" and the 'stick.'
For the person who believes crime is unaffected by the labor
market, there is also no reason to abandon his/her views, though he/she

should be moved in the direction of believing "there is some difficult—

to—measure relation."
Overall, returning to Congressman Conyers question with
which we began the essay —— the impact of unemployment and the labor
 27

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allison, John P. 1972. "Econoniic Factors and the Rate of Crime," Land

Economics, 2:48 (May) 193—196.

Bartel, Ann P. 1979. "Women and Crime: An Economic Analysis,"

Economic Inquiry, 17:1 (January) 29—51.

Becker, C.S. 1968. "Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach,"

Journal of Political Economy, 76:2 (March/April) 169—217.

Brenner, H. 1976. Estimating the Social Cost of National Economic

Policy: Implications for Mental and Physical Health, and Criminal

Aggression. (October) Paper No. 5 in Vol. 1 — Employment,

Achieving the Goals of the Employment Act of 1946, Thirteenth

Anniversary Review, Joint Economic Committee.

Brenner, H. 1978. Statement, Unemployment and Crime, Hearings Before

the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary of the

House of Representatives.
 26

FOOTNOTES

Fleisher, Becker, and Ehrlich.

1. This work was pioneered by

2. These are described later in this essay.

for instance, reduces the need to

3. Unemployment aid after release,

engage in crime to make money but also may keep a person

unemployed for a longer period of time, increasing the likelihood

leads to crime. See Rossi et
of criminal activity, if unemployment

al.

4. The specific regression result is

crime + .05 unemployment + .13 time

(1.55) (9.02)

R2 = .75 p = .84
t—statistiCs, R2 is the
where the numbers in parentheses are

proportion of variance explained and p is the first order serial

correlation parameter.

one cannot be certain of the

5. While in a multivariate regression
in one variable on another due to
impact of measurement error

correlations between variables and possibly between measurement

the
error in one and other variables, under reasonable assumptions

result in the text is correct.

 29

Fleisher, B.M. 1963. "The Effects of Unemployment on Juvenile

Delinquency," Journal of Political Economy, 71:6 (December) 543—

555.

Fleisher, BM. 1966a "The Effect of Income on Delinquency," American

Economic Review, 56:5, (March) 118-137.

Forst, B. 1976. "Participation in Illegtimate Activities: Further

Empirical Findings," Policy Analysis, 2:3 (Summer) 477—492.

Gillespie, LW. 1975. Economic Factors in Crime and Delinquency: A

Critical Review of the Empirical Evidence. Final report submitted

to the National Institute for Law Enforcement and Criminal

Justice.

Gylys, J.A. 1970. "The Causes of Crime and Application of Regional

Analysis," Atlanta Economic Review, 20:9 (September) 34—37.

Greenwood, M. and Wadycki, W.J. (1973) "Crime Rates and Public

Expenditures for Police Protection: Their Interaction," Review

of Social Economy, 31 (2): 138—151.

Grieson, R.E. (1972) "The Determinants of Juvenile Arrests," Working

Paper No. 87. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T., Department of Economics.

 28

Center for Econometric Studies of the Justice System. Hoover

Institution. (1979). "A Review of Some of the Results in

Estimating the Social Cost of National Economic Policy:

Implications for Mental and Physical Health, and Criminal

Aggression." Mimeo.

Cook, Philip J. "Research in Criminal Deterrence: Laying the

Groundwork for the Second Decade," Crime and Justice: An Annual

Review of Research, Norval Morris and Michael Tonry, editors,

v. 2, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

Cook, P.J. 1975. "The Correctional Carrot: Better Jobs for Parolees,"

Policy Analysis, 1 (Winter) 11—51.

Danziger, S. and Wheeler, D. 1975a. "The Economics of Crime:

Punishment or Income Redistribution," Review of Social Economy,

__\ 11)
)3.L \Uet.UUeLI 11
iiJJL.

Ehrlich, Issac. 1973. "Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A

Theoretical and Empirical Investigation," Journal of Political

81 (May/June), 521—65.

Ehrlich, Issac. 1975. "The Deterrent Effect of Capital Punishment: A

Question of Life and Death," American Economic Review, 65:3 (June)

397—417.
 31

McPheters, Lee R. and William B. Stronge, 1976. "Law Enforcement

Expenditures and Urban Crime," in McPheters, Lee R. and William B.

Stronge, eds. The Economics of Crime and Law Enforcement,

Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher.

Morris, Douglas and Luther Tweeten. 1971. "The Costs of Controlling

Crime: A Study in the Economics of City Life," Annals of Regional

Science, 5:1 (June) 33—50.

Nagel, J. 1978. Prepared Statement, Unemployment and Crime, Hearings

Before the Subcommitte on Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary

of the House of Representatives.

National Academy of Sciences National Research Council. 1978.

Deterrence and Incapacitation: Estimating the Effects of Criminal

Sanctions on Crime Rates, (Washington: NAS).

Orsagh, Thomas and Witte, Ann. 1980. "Economic Status and Crime:

Implications for Offender Rehabilitation," University of North

Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Phillips, Liad. "Some Aspects of the Social Pathological Behavioral

Effects of Unemployment Among Young People," The Economics of

Minimum Wages, Simon Rottenberg, ed., Washington and London:

American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.

 30

Hoch, Irving. 1974. "FactorS in Urban Crime," iofUr.

Economics, 1:2 (April) 184-229.

Land, K.C. and Felson, M. 1976. "A General Framework for Building
Social Indicator Models: Including an Analysis of
Dynamic Macro
Changes in Crime Rates and Police Expenditures," American Journal

of Sociology, 82:3 (November) 565—604.

Lenihan, K. 1977. Unlockij1& the Secpn4Gate,

Research and Development

Department of Labor, (Washington D.C. GPO 1977).

Monograph, u.s.

Long, Sharon and Witte, Ann. 1980. "Current Economic Trends:

Implications for Crime and Criminal Justice," University of North

Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Mallar, D.C. and V.D. Thornton. 1978.

'ransitiOnal Aid for Released

Prisoners Evidence from the LIFE Experiment," Journal of Human

Resources, Vol. 13 208—236.

Corporation. (1981) Final Report on the

Manpower Demonstration Research

National Su orte4Work Demonstrati.Ofl. New York: MDRC.

Mathur, Vijay. 1978. "Economics of Crime: An Investigation of the

Deterrent Hypothesis for Urban Areas," Reyiew pf Ecolomicsa.Bd

Statistics, 60 459—60.
 33

Rossi, P.H., R.A. Berk, and K. Lenihan. 1980. Money. Work and Crime.

New York: Academic Press.

Sjoquist, D.L. 1973. "Property Crime and Economic Behavior: Some

Empirical Results," American Economic Review, 63:3 (June) 439—446.

Swimmer, Eugene. 1974a. "Measurement of the Effectiveness of Urban Law

Enforcement —— A Simultaneous Approach," Southern Economic

Journal, 40:4 (April) 618—630.

Taggart, Robert. 1973. The Prison of Unemployment. Baltimore, MD:

Johns Hopkins University Press.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1977) Unlocking the Second Gate. Washington,

D.C.: G.P.O.

U.S. House of Representatives, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on

Crime of the Committee of the Judiciary, 1978, Unemployment and

Crime, (G.P.O.).

Vandaele, W. (1978) "An Econometric Model of Auto Theft in the United

States." In Economic Models of Criminal Behavior, J.M. Heineke,

ed., Amsterdam: North—Holland.

 32

Phillips, Liad and Ray, Subhash. "The Dynamics of Deterrence: Some

Contrasting Evidence for Index Felonies," University of

California at Santa Barbara.

Phillips, Llad and Ray, Subhash. (1982) "Evidence on the Identification

and Causality Dispute About the Death Penalty," forthcoming,

AppliedTimeSerieS Anlysi, O.P. Anderson and M.R. Perryman,

editors. North—Holland Publishing Co.

Phillips, L., H.L. Votey, Jr. and D. Maxwell. 1972. "Crime, Youth and

the Labor Market," Journal of Political Economy, 80 (May—June,

Part I) 491—504.

Piliavin, Irving and Gartner, Rosemary. 1979. "Assumptions and

Achievements of Manpower Programs for Offenders: Implications for

Supported Work," Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion

Paper No. 541. University of Wisconsin at Madison.

Pogue, Thomas F. 1975. "Effects of Police Expenditures on Crime Rates:

Some Evidence," Public Finance Quarterly, 3:1 (January) 14—44.

Quinney, Richard. 1966. "Structural Characteristics, Population, Areas,

and Crime Rates in the United States," Journal of Criminal Law

Crirninoj.gy.and Polj.cft Science, 57:1 (March) 45—52.

 34

Weicher, John C. 1970. "The Effect of Income on Delinquency: Comment,"

American Economic Review, 60:1 (March) 249—256.

Witte, A.D. 1979. Unemployment and Crime: Insights from Research on

Individuals, statement prepared for the Hearings of the Joint

Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress on the "Social Costs of

Unemployment."

Witte, A.D. 1980. "Estimating the Economic Model of Crime with

Individual Data," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 94 (February)

57—84.

Witte, Ann and Long, Sharon. "Executive Summary of Some Thoughts

Concerning the Effects of Recession on the Level of Illegal

Activity," University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.