Optical Fibers

Topics:
• Introduction
• Definition
• Parts of Optical Fibre
• Types
 Step Index
 Graded Index Fibres
• Parameters of Optical Fibres
 Acceptance Angle
 Acceptance Cone
 Numerical Aperture (NA)
 Cont…….
Topics:
• Normalized Frequency
• Number of Modes
• Attenuation in Optical Fibres
• Dispersion
1. Intermodal Dispersion
2. Intramodal Dispersion
• Applications
1. Optical fibres in Communication
2. Sensors
 Introduction:
• Optical fibers are
long, thin strands of
very pure glass
usually 125 µm in
diameter. They are
arranged in bundles
called optical cables
and used to transmit
light signals over long
distances.
 What is optical fiber
• Optical fibers are very fine fibers of glass. They consist of
a glass core, roughly fifty micrometres in diameter,
surrounded by a glass "optical cladding" giving an
outside diameter of about 125 micrometres. They make
use of total internal reflection to confine light within the
core of the fiber.
 Parts of Optical Fiber
• Core – thin glass center of the fiber where
light travels.
• Cladding – outer optical material
surrounding the core.
• Buffer Coating – plastic
coating that protects
the fiber.
Optical Fiber
Transmission of Light Through Optical
Fibers
• Total Internal Reflection
 Reflection & refraction

μ2< μ 1 2 μ 2< μ 1 μ 2< μ 1

2
1 1 1= c
1> c
μ1 1 μ1 c μ1

Snell’s law Critical angle Total internal

reflection
2
sin c
1
Total Internal Reflection
• The angle of the
light is always
greater than the
critical angle.
• Cladding does not
absorb any light
from the core.
• The extent that the
signal degrades
depends upon the
purity of the glass
and the wavelength
of the transmitted
light.
Fiber Technology
 THE OPTICAL FIBER
CLADDING
AIR or JACKET (Lower index)
Dia ~ 125 µm

CORE
(Higher index)
Dia ~ 5 – 50 µm

μclad

μcore

μclad
 PROPAGATION THROUGH
AN OPTICAL FIBER

fast

input output

t fast slow
t
 Types of optical fibres

Based on their transmission properties and the

structure they are of two types

1. Single Mode Fibre

2. Multimode Fibre

(a) Step Index Fibres

(b) Graded Index Fibres
Single (Mono) Mode :
This is called so because the refractive index of the fibre ‘step’
up as we move from the cladding to the core and this type of
fibre allows single mode to propagate at a time due to very
small diameter of its core.
μ clad
μcore
μ clad

 In this fibre, the refractive indices of the

cladding and the core remain constant

 In this fibre, the size of its core

(diameter) is typically around 9-10
μm.
Multimode fibre :

This is called so because it allow more than one mode to

propagate. Over more than 100 modes can propagate
through multimode fibres at a time. The size of its core is
typically around 50 μm or 62.5 μm.

Two Types

 Step Index Fibres

 Graded Index Fibres

 Multimode Step Index Fibres:
No of propagating modes α Core diameter/ Wavelength

Typically the core diameter is 50 μm to 100 μm and Numerical

Aperture (NA) varies from 0.20 to 0.29 respectively

Due to higher value of NA , and larger core size in this case,

fibre connections and launching of light is very easy
Due to several modes, the effect of dispersion gets increased,
i.e. the modes arrive at the fibre end slightly different times
and so spreading of pulses takes place.
μclad
μ core
μ clad
 Multimode Graded Index Fibres:
In this fibre, the refractive index of the core decreases with
increasing radial distance from the fibre axis.
The value of the refractive index is highest at the centre of the
core and decreases to a value at the edge of the core that
equal the refractive index of the cladding.

μclad
μcore
μclad

By this type of fibre design, the dispersion of the modes is

compensated. Also, light wave follow sinusoidal paths along
the fibre.
The profile of the refractive index is nearly parabolic that
results in continual refocusing of the ray in the core, and
minimizing the model dispersion.
Standard graded index fibres typically have a core diameter of
50 μm or 62.5 μm and the cladding diameter of 125 μm.

Advantage of Graded Index Fibre over Step Index Fibre

Decrease in the modal dispersion

 Advantage of Single Mode Fibre over Multi Mode Fibre

Lower signal loss and a higher information capacity or

bandwidth than multimode fibres as the signal loss
depends on the operational wavelength.

These fibres are capable of transferring higher amount of

data due to low fibre dispersion.

 Single mode fibres are known as low loss fibres

Comparison
 Fiber types Cont…….
SM
Single-Mode

MM-SI
Multi-Mode
Step Index

MM-GI
Multi-Mode
Graded Index

refractive
index
 Cont…….
singlemode multimode
Types of Fibers
step-index step-index

μclad
μcore
μclad

μclad
μcore
μclad

μclad
GRIN

μcore
μclad
Fiber Types Cont……

© 2006, VDV Works LLC

 PROPAGATION THROUGH
AN OPTICAL FIBER
By grading the index profile in the core, the pulse
broadening was reduced, but it was suggested in 1980 that
one could make single-mode fibers which will allow only
“one path” through the fiber, thereby removing the pulse
broadening
input output

t t
μclad
μcore
μclad
 GRADIENT-INDEX OPTICAL FIBER
μclad

μcore

μclad
input output

t fast slow
t
Longer path is now located in lower index region; the larger time taken
is compensated by faster travel leading to less pulse broadening
 Acceptance angle
• acceptance angle: In fiber optics, half the vertex angle of that
cone within which optical power may be coupled into bound
modes of an optical fiber.

• Note 1: The axis of the cone is collinear with the fiber axis, the
vertex of the cone is on the fiber end-face, and the base of the
cone faces the optical power source.

• Note 2: The acceptance angle is measured with respect to the

fiber axis.

• Note 3: Rays entering an optical fiber at angles greater than the

acceptance angle are coupled into unbound modes.
Acceptance angle Cont………

Multimode fiber
n0
n0 μ2
0 μ1
c

2
Critical angle: sin c
1
 Numerical Aperture
Multimode fiber
μ0
n0 μ2
0 μ1
c

Numerical aperture:
2 2
NA 0 sin 0 sin 0 1 2 for 0 1
if 1 2 :
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 NA 1 2 2 2
2
2 1 1

Here Δ is the relative refractive index difference NA 0.1 0 , max 6

Or fractional refractive index
 Acceptance Cone
Ls
Acceptance A B
Cone
o θr d
θr
θ0

The cone
associated with
Acceptance angle θ0:
the angle 2θ0 is 2 2
sin 0 1 2
called the
acceptance cone 0 sin 1
1
2
2
2
 Parameters of Optical fibres
2 2
sin
Acceptance angle = 0 1 2

1 2 2
0 sin 1 2

Acceptance Cone = 2θ0

2 2
Numerical Aperture (NA) = Sinθ0 = 1 2

Skip Distance Ls= d 1

1
0 sin i

1
2
Number of reflections Nr = 1
d 1
0 sin i
 Numerical Problems
Activity 1: The refractive indices for core and cladding for a
step index fibre are 1.52 and 1.41 respectively
Caculate (1) Critical angle (2) Numerical Aperture
(3) The maximum incidence angle

Hints: Given Here =μ1 = μcore = 1.52, and μ2 = μclad = 1.41

Ans = 68.060
Critical angle θc = sin-1 (μ2/ μ1)
2 2 Ans = 0.568
Numerical Aperture 1 2

2 2
Maximum incidence angle (θ0)= sin 1
1 2

Ans θ0 = 34.60
 Numerical Problems
Activity 2: A light ray enters from air to a fibre. The refractive
Index of air is 1.0. The fibre has refractive index of core is
equal to 1.5 and that of cladding is 1.48. Find the critical
Angle, the fractional refractive index, the acceptance angle and
Numerical aperture.
Hints: Given Here =μ0 = μair = 1.0; μ1 = μcore = 1.5, and μ2 = μclad
= 1.48
Critical angle θc = sin-1 (μ2/ μ1) Ans: θc = 80.630
1 2
Fractional Refractive index = 1.33% of light
1
Ans = 0.568
2 2
Numerical Aperture 1 2

1 2 2
Acceptance angle (θ0) = sin 1 2 Ans θ0 = 14.130
 Numerical Problems
Activity 3: Calculate the refractive indices of the core and
cladding material of fibre from the following data:
NA = 0.22, Δμr = 0.012 and
core cladding
r
core

Hints:
Fractional Refractive index 1 2

Numerical Aperture 2 2
1 2

Ans : μ1= 1.424 = μcore and μ2= 0.988 μ1 = 1.41 = μcladding

Allowed Modes and Normalized Frequency
2
Maximum Number of modes that 1 d
propagate successively in the fibre mm NA
2
d
mm

Hence, number of possible modes will be larger for higher ratio d/λ

For multimode fibres mm > 2 OR

d 2
For single mode fibres mm < 2 NA
As is evident the parameter mm decides the number of possible
modes since this parameter depends on core diameter d and
the numerical aperture NA. Therefore, the number of allowed
modes would be different for fibres of different core diameters.
 V number: determines how many modes a fiber
supports
2 d 2 d
V-parameter V 1
2
2
2
NA

Single-mode fiber: V 2.405

Normalized d d 2 2
Frequency n NA 1 2

Therefore, the number of modes mm in terms of

normalized frequency is
2
n 2 a 2 2 2 a
mm V n1 n2 NA
2
 Numerical Problems

Activity 4: An optical fibre operating at 1.50 μm has a small

Value of core diameter 5.0 μm and fractional refractive index
difference of 0.0075. Calculate the normalized frequency
and acceptance angle, given μ2 = 1.4.
 Cut-off Wavelength
Definition: the wavelength below which multiple
modes of light can be propagated along a particular
fiber, i.e., λ> = λ c, single mode, λ < λc, multi-mode

2 d
c NA
2.405
 Attenuation in optical Fiber
• When light travels along the fibre, there is a loss of
optical power, which is called attenuation.

Definition:
Attenuation: Ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the
optical output power (Po)

Optical Input power: The power transmitted into the fibre

from an optical source

Optical output power: The power received at the fibre end

 Fiber Attenuation Cont……..
This relation defines the signal attenuation or absorption
coefficient in terms of length L of the fibre:

10 Pi
log 10
L P0
Length L of the fibre is expressed in kilometers
Here, the unit of Attenuation is decibels/kilometer i.e. dB/km.

The main causes of attenuation in optical fibre are:

(a)Absorption
(b)Scattering
(c)Bending losses
Each mechanism of loss is influenced by the properties of fibre
Material and fibre structure.
 Fiber Attenuation Cont……..
Absorption losses over a length L of fiber can be described
by the usual exponential law for light intensity (or irradiance) I

L
I I 0e
Where I0 is the initial intensity or the irradiance of the light.
The attenuation profile is shown in figure which shows the amount of
Attenuation is also wavelength dependent.

In the figure, two

absorption peaks at
1.25 μm and 1.4 μm
are observed which are
respectively due to the
peculiarities of the
single mode fibre and
the traces of water
remaining in the fibre as
an impurity.

For commercially available fibers

Loss 0.5 dB/km @ 1310 nm

0.25 dB/km @ 1550 nm
 Dispersion
• A pulse of light sent into a fibre broaden in time as it
propagate through the fibre. This phenomenon is
known as pulse dispersion.

• Intermodal Dispersion: Different rays take different

times to propagate through a given length of the fibre.
Or Different modes travel with different speeds

• Intarmodal dispersion: Any given source emits over a

range of wavelength and because of the intrinsic
property of the material of the fibre, different
wavelength takes different amount of time to
propagate along the same path.
 Dispersion in Fiber Optics

• Dispersion occurs when photons from the same light

pulse take slight different paths along the optical fiber.
Because some paths will be longer or shorter than other
paths the photons will arrive at different times thus
smearing the shape of the pulse.
• Over long distances, one pulse may merge with another pulse.
When this happens, the receiving device will not be able to
distinguish between pulses.

The dispersive effects in a single mode fibre are much smaller than a
multimode fibre. Due to dispersion, optical pulses in optical fibres
spread and hence the signal spread over long distances.
 Pulse Dispersion in Optical Fibre

In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the

phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency.
Such medium is called a dispersive medium.
 Intermodal Dispersion
Different rays take
different times to
propagate through a given
length of the fibre.
In the language of wave
optics, this is known as
intermodal dispersion
because it arises due to
the different modes
travelling with different
speeds.
 Intramodal Dispersion

Any given light source emits

over a range of wavelength
and because of the intrinsic
property of the material of the
fibre, different wavelengths
takes different amounts of
time to propagate along the
same path. This is known as
material dispersion or
intramodel dispersion
 Cont……..
There are several factors that cause dispersion in
optical fibres.
For Example:
(1) In multimode fibres different axial speeds of different
transverse modes cause intermodal dispersion that limits
the performance of the fibre.
(2) In singe mode fibres, though intermodal dispersion
is eliminated, chromatic dispersion occures because of
The slight variation in the index of the glass with the
wavelength of the light.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fibre because the
spreading optical pulses limit the rate that pulses can
follow one another on the fibre and still remain
distinguishable at the receiver.
 Chromatic Dispersion
For example, when white light passes through a prism some of the
wavelengths of light bend more because their refractive index is
higher, i.e. they travel slower This is what gives us the "Spectrum" of
white light. The "red' and "orange" light travel slowest and so are bent
most while the "violet" and "blue" travel fastest and so are bent less. All
the other colours lie in between

Figure -The Dispersion of White Light

Massage Modulator Optical
Input (Transmitter) Source

Optical
Fibre Optics Communication Fibre

Demodulator Optical
Destination (Receiver) detector
 A TYPICAL OPTICAL
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Electrical Signal Electrical Signal
Optical Fiber

Optical Source External

LED or Laser Modulator

Connector/
Optical
Splice
Optical Detector
PIN Diode Amplifier

Processing electronics
 Optical Fibre Sensors
Optical Fibre sensors are fibre based devices that are used for
sensing some typical quantities like temperature of
mechanical strain.

These sensors are sometime used for sensing vibrations,

pressure, acceleration or concentrations of chemical species

Principle: When a light beam is sent through a optical fibre,

then its parameters either in the fibre or several fibre
Braggs grating experience subtle change. Then the light
reaches a detector arrangement measure these changes.
The light may be changed in five of its optical properties i.e.
intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength and spectral
distribution.
 Optical Fibre Sensors

(A) Intrinsic Sensors (B) Extrinsic Sensors

(A) Intrinsic Sensors

Fibre
Pressure

Light A Light
Source B Detector
Pressure
•In this type of fibres, sensing medium is itself fibre
•Measure the variation in Intensity of transmitted light signals
•Useful in measuring the force being exerted between the two objects
•If one apply the pressure then due to micro bending losses the light
•intensity at the detector will decrease
•If we remove the pressure the intensity will increase.
 (B) Extrinsic Sensors
•The delivery of light and its collection is done by the fibre

•Used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity,

acceleration, torque and twisting.

•A major benefit of these sensors is their ability to reach

places which are otherwise inaccessible .

FOR EXAMPLE:

Useful to measure the temperature inside aircraft jet engine.

Used to measure the internal temperature of electrical

transformer.
(B) Extrinsic Sensors Cont……..

Light Light
Source Detector

Feed Fibre l
Return Fibre

The amount of light launched into the return fibre will

decrease as the distance between the two fibers is
increased. However if length is decreased the light
intensity collected by the receiver will decrease. This
way these optical fibre sensors are capable of
determining small shifts between objects.
Advantages of optical fibres compared with
Traditional metal communication lines:
1. Fibre optics cables can carry more data as their bandwidth is
greater than metal cables

2. Fibre optics cables are less susceptible (sensitive) then metal cables
to interference.

3. Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.

4. Through fibre optic cables the data can be transmitted digitally rather
than analogically.

5. Attenuation through fibre cables is very low in transmitting the data

over a long distance, so there is no need of repeaters (thing that
repeats)
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries
light along its length.
Fiber optics

Applied science Engineering

Optical fibers are widely used as these
• permits transmission over longer distances
•and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of
communications.
•Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss, and they are also immune to
electromagnetic interference.
 Areas of Applications
• Carry plain old telephone service (POTS)
• For transmission of data
• Transmitting broadband signals
• In the biomedical industry
• Non-Communication Applications (sensors etc…)
• Telecommunications
• Local Area Networks
• Cable TV
• Optical Fiber Sensors
 The advantages of fiber optic over wire
cable

• Thinner
• Less Expensive
• Higher carrying capacity
• Digital signals
• Less signal degradation
• Light weight
• Light signal
• Non-flammable
• Low power
• Flexible
 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS…

 The terminating equipment is still costly as compared to copper

equipment.

1. IT has to be handled carefully.

2. Optical fiber is more expensive per meter than copper

Communication is not totally in optical domain, so repeated

electric –optical – electrical conversion is needed.

1. Tapping is not possible. Specialized equipment is needed to tap a

fiber.

1. Optical fiber splicing (joining by interweaving strands) is a

specialized technique and needs expertly trained manpower.
 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS…

1. The splicing (joining by interweaving strands) and testing

equipments are very expensive as compared to copper
equipments.

2. Optical fiber can not be join together as easily as copper cable. It

requires training and expensive splicing (joining by interweaving
strands) and measurement equipment.
 A Light Sources

LED (Light emitting diode) ILD (injection laser diode)

 Optical source
TRANSMITTER

FIBER

Performance
+ – Modulation speed
Fiber-coupled power
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

– +
Typical performance data
Power in MM-fiber: 100 W
Power in SM-fiber: 1 W
Direct Modulation Bandwidth: 100 MHz
 Laser

Typical performance

Power (in fiber): 5-10 mW

Max: 100-300 mW
Direct Modulation Bandwidth: 1-10 GHz
• Telecommunications

• Internet Access

• Cable and Satellite

Television

• Decorative Light Source

 Characteristics
• Glass Core

• Glass Cladding

• Ultra Pure Ultra Transparent Glass

• Made Of Silicon Dioxide

• Low Attenuation

• Popular among industries

Towers
Buildings
Towers
Installation of Antennas
Thank You
Any Questions or Comments?
Unit 1: Fiber optic communications
system
Electromagnetic Spectrum & Optical spectral
bands, Key elements of fiber optic
communications system, Advantages of optical
fiber communication over other communication
systems, Ray theory transmission: TIR,
Acceptance angle, Numerical aperture,
Electromagnetic mode theory for optical
propagation: phase and group velocity, cutoff
wavelength & group delay. Fiber types according
to materials used; refractive index profiles &
mode transmission. Optical fibers: Fiber Materials,
Fiber Fabrication & Cable design. State of art:
Materials & fabrication Technology
Electromagnetic spectrum and optical spectrum
bands
Frequency in Hz
6
3x104 3x10 3x1022
3x10 10
3x10 12 3x1014 3x1016 3x1020
AM-FM radio & VHF TV
Long wavelengths

Ultra-violet
Visible light
Infrared
Microwaves

Cosmic rays
X-rays

γ-rays
104 102 1 10-2 10-4 -6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14
10
Free space wavelength in meters
The electromagnetic spectrum-a few more details

• Evidence for the wave nature of light

3
 Classes of transmission media

• Transmission Medium, or channel, is the actual physical

path that data follows from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Copper cable is the oldest, cheapest, and the most
common form of transmission medium to date.
• Optical Fiber is being used increasingly for high-speed
applications.
 Propagation methods

1. Ground Propagation, 2. Sky Propagation, 3. Line of

Sight Propagation
 What is Light ?
• Light is the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum from approximately 300nm to 2000nm.
Light is an electromagnetic wave that satisfies
Maxwell’s Equations. The electromagnetic
spectrum is a range of frequencies classified into
groups.
 Spectral Characteristics
Optical Region
UV Visible Infra Red

Invisible Invisible
wavelength

Light: 850 nm
980 nm
•Ultra-Violet (UV) 1310 nm
•Visible 1480 nm
•Infrared (IR) 1550 nm

Communication Wavelengths: 1625 nm

•850, 1310, 1550 nm

Low Loss Wavelengths
Specialty Wavelengths:
Most of the frequencies in fiber optic systems are In the
Infrared i.e most FOC systems operate in infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Wavelength and frequency are related by:

Where v is the velocity of the wave in the

medium. In free space, v = c = 3 x108m/s
Partial Optical Spectrum (we are concerned with)
Ultraviolet Visible Infrared

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0

Wavelength (μm)
Blue Red
Fiber optic systems must have low loss. For
glass, low loss occurs at several wavelengths.
The major portion/ regions (called windows)
are in infrared spectrum as also stated earlier:
Wavelength Window
0.8-0.9 μm First Window
~1.300 μm Second Window
~1.550 μm Third Window
~1.600 μm Fourth Window
 Key Elements of Optical
Communication System

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
Fiber splice
1
1
2 2
3 3
Optical fiber
Coding Laser diode Photodiode
+ decoder

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
 ADVANTAGES OF FIBERS
A. Fibers are insulators as opposed to conducting
wires with 1) No current, 2) No radiation from the
sides of the fiber, and, 3) No coupling between
adjacent fibers and therefore do not pickup noise
from high power transmission lines while passing
through nearby regions.
B. Fibers reject interference. The forms of
interference as “RFI” (TV, radio, radar/any electronic
signal) / “EMI” (lightening/sparking/any EM
radiation) / “EMP” (pulses due to nuclear events)
have no affect on fiber systems.
 ADVANTAGES OF FIBERS
C. Security: Fiber systems are difficult to tap.

D. Compatibility: Fibers are compatible with

conventional electronics.

E. Corrosion resistant: Fiber, as opposed to

wire systems, resist corrosion.

F. Large temperature range: Glass melts at high

temperatures.
 ADVANTAGES OF FIBERS
• So, to summarize with, for advantages of fiber
are it’s Greater information capacity, Wider
band-width with higher data rates, Low
transmission loss, Immune to electromagnetic
noise / cross talk / environment / static
interference, Light in weight, Durable, safe,
convenient and Unaffected by atmospheric
agents.
A few disadvantages are: 1. expensive over short
distance, 2. requires skilled installers, and 3. adding
additional nodes is difficult.
Refraction and reflection
of a wave
 Total internal reflection
■Trapping light in the fiber
 Total Internal Reflection
As the angle of incidence in the optically denser
medium becomes larger, the refracted angle
becomes π/2.
Beyond this no refraction is possible and light rays
becomes totally internally reflected.
This point is known as critical angle of incidence.
In practice there is some tunneling of optical
energy through the interface which can be
explained by electromagnetic theory of light.
 Total Internal Reflection

Critical Angle, θc

Only for n1 > n2

n1 cosθc = n2 cos 00 , θc = cos-1(n2/n1)

Critical angle
 Total internal reflection is observed even when the
Fiber is bent (of course up to a certain maximum
limit)!!

Illustration of total internal

reflection

Depicting acceptance cone for the

ray to get into the optical fiber
 So, an optical fiber is a waveguide for light
consists of basic three concentric sections:
Core: inner part where wave propagates
Cladding: outer part used to keep wave in core
Buffer with Jacket : protective coating with outer
protective shield

plastic jacket glass or plastic fiber core

cladding
 Single fiber structure

So, an Optical Fiber is a dielectric waveguide that

operates at optical frequencies.
Single solid dielectric cylinder of radius ‘a’ and
index of refraction ‘n1’ known as core of fiber
surrounded by solid dielectric cladding which has
index ‘n2’ that is less than n1.
 • Cladding
1. Reduces scattering loss that results from
dielectric discontinuities at core surfaces,
2. Adds mechanical strength,
3. Protects core from absorbing contaminants
with which it could come in contact.
 Factors affecting the launching the light
from ‘launching zone’ are known to be
1.Intensity
2.Area
3.AcceptanceAngle, and,
4.Fresnell Loss:
This return loss is the loss of signal power resulting
from the reflection caused at a discontinuity in a
optical fiber (usually expressed as a ratio in
decibels) and related to both standing wave ratio
(SWR) and reflection coefficient (Γ).
• When optical fibers are connected, optical power may be
reflected back into the source fiber that gets lost.
• This reflection loss, called Fresnel reflection, occurs at
every fiber interface and caused by a step-change in
refractive index at fiber joint.
• In most cases, the step change in refractive index is
caused by the ends of each fiber being separated by a
small air gap.
• The fraction of incident light reflected at fiber is given as
R = [ ( n 1 - n0 ) / ( n 1 + n0 ) ] 2
• Where n1 is the refractive index of the fiber core and n0 is
the refractive index of the medium between the two
fibers.
 Types of optical fibers
• Single mode
– only one signal can be transmitted.
– use of single frequency.

• Multi mode
– Several signals can be transmitted.
– Several frequencies used to modulate
the signal.
Single mode fiber with
step index profile
 Mode propagation in SISMF

Only axial ray is permitted to travel without any

zigzagged path.
Single mode sustains only one mode of
propagation whereas multimode contains many
modes.
LASER is required to excite single mode.
 Index profile, fiber cross-section & ray
path and typical dimensions of single
mode step index

Refractive index makes abrupt change or is made to

vary as a function of the radial distance from the
centre of the fiber.
 Index profile, fiber cross-section & ray
path and typical dimensions of multi
mode step index

Refractive index makes abrupt change or is made to

vary as a function of the radial distance from the
centre of the fiber.
 Advantages & disadvantages of SISMF
Advantages
1. Minimum dispersion (since all rays travel same
length) and identical light-pulse reproduction at
receiving end.
2. Wider band width availability
3. Higher information transmission rates (bps)
Disadvantages
1. Difficult coupling of light from and into
2. Laser source is the need
3. Expensive and difficult to manufacture
 Advantages & disadvantages of SIMMF
Advantages
1. Inexpensive and simple to manufacture
2. Coupling of light is easier
Disadvantages
1. Spreading out of ray and hence more
distortion
2. Band-width and information transfer
rates are less
 Multimode Graded index fiber
(MMGIF)
• It is a intermediate fiber having
moderate characteristics between
SMSIF & MMSIF.
• It shows easy coupling than SMSIF
but difficult than MMSIF.
• It shows more distortion than SMSIF
and less than MMSIF.
 Index profile, fiber cross-section & ray
path and typical dimensions of multi
mode graded index

Refractive index makes gradual change or is made to vary as a

function of the radial distance from the centre of the fiber.
 Another view of Multimode
step/graded index

•Large radii of multimode makes it easier to launch

light into the fiber.
•Even LEDs can excite multimode.
MULTIMODE v/s SINGLE MODE wrt Total Internal
Reflection

For short distance

Easy to work with
Used in LAN’s

For short distance

Easy to work with
Used in LAN’s
Provides more band
width than first one
at 850 nm

For long distance

Difficult to work
with
Used in phone /
CATV companies
 Typical core and cladding diameters

Type Core (mm) Cladding (mm)

Single mode 8 125

Multimode 50 125

62.5 125

100 140
 Numerical Aperture (NA)
Originally defined for microscope objectives.

NA = n sinθ

Calculation of numerical aperture:

NA = max sin θ0 for trapped ray

NA = (n12 – n22)1/2
 Unit 2:
Optical Fiber for Telecommunication
Transmission characteristics of optical
fibers: Attenuation due to absorption,
scattering & bending, Signal Distortion in
optical fibers: Intra modal Dispersion:
Material & Waveguide dispersion;
Intermodal dispersion: MMSI, MMGI &
modal noise; Overall fiber dispersion: MM
& SM fibers. Special use fibers: Dispersion
shifted (DSF), NZDSF, Dispersion flattened,
Polarization maintaining fibers, Fiber
Nonlinearities. State of art: Fiber
Fiber optic Communication Systems

• What limits the transmission

capability?
• Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers
–Signal Attenuation
–Signal Distortion
–Non- Linearity's in fibers
 Fiber Losses

Attenuation Losses Signal Distortion

causing Dispersion

Absorption Scattering Bending

Intra-modal Inter-modal
Losses losses Losses dispersion dispersion

Atomic
defects Rayleigh Macro

Material dispersion
Intrinsic
Mie
Micro Waveguide dispersion
Stimulated
Extrinsic
Brillion

Stimulated
Raman
 Signal Attenuation

• Signal Loss or Fiber loss is important

that determines the maximum
repeater- less separation of signals.
• This is because, Amplifiers and
Repeaters are expensive to
1. Fabricate,
2. Install, and,
3. Maintain.
 If a signal reaches the receiver with very low
power,
1. It cannot be detected,
2. The information may not be clear, or,
3. Transmission errors will occur.
Therefore, it is essential that the loss in the
fiber be as low as possible.
 Attenuation Mechanisms
Losses may be classified as:
Absorption, Scattering, Geometric effects.

• Atomic Absorption of light photons.

• Scattering of light by flaws and impurities.
• Geometric effect is due to bending of fiber .

Radiative Losses are also observed due to

Reflection of light by splices & Connectors.
 Absorption Mechanisms
1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass
composition.
2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in
the glass fiber material.
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent
atoms of the glass fiber material.
 ABSORPTION LOSS
1. Intrinsic Absorption

All materials absorb certain bands of

frequencies that is the inherent characteristics
of glass material.
This is due to resonant vibrations of atoms and
molecules.
For silica glass, these losses occur in the UV
region and also have peaks in the IR region in
the wavelength range of 7 to 12 μm.
 Absorption for a Silica Glass Fiber

100
Glass Absorption
ATTENUATION (dB/km)

in UV Glass
10 Absorption
in IR
1

0.1

0.01 0.5 0.6 0.7 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 5 10

WAVELENGTH (μm)
 ABSORPTION LOSS
2. Impurities absorption
(a) Metal ions
Fe, Cu, and Ni, absorb light in the 0.6 - 1.6
μm range. The fiber must be free of these
impurities.
(b) Hydroxyl ion (OH)
This is the most important impurity.
Peak OH absorption occurs at 2.73, 1.37,
0.95 μm.
 ABSORPTION LOSS
3. Atomic Defects
The word ‘Atomic defect’ is also used as a general
world in which Gamma ray, x-ray, neutron, and
electron bombardment like activities cause atomic
changes that are absorbing.
 Scattering Losses
These losses occur because during
fiber manufacturing there may be
1. Microscopic variations in the
material density.
2. Compositional Fluctuations.
3. Structural defects.
 Rayleigh Scattering Loss
The molecules in glass are randomly located.
Why?
• The glass is formed using heat, that causes a
random movement of the molecules.
• While cooling, it is solidified and molecules are
frozen in their random locations.
• The result is a random density.
•Random density yields a random refractive index
through the material.
• Thus, photons are scattered at the random
boundaries of the changing refractive indices.
 Rayleigh Scattering is the scattering of
electromagnetic waves by objects having size
small compared to the wavelength. The
amount of scattering varies as

As λ decreases the scattering increases greatly.

 A traveling wave having attenuation is given as

For Rayleigh scattering,

The loss can be expressed (approximately) by
 Attenuation for a Silica Glass Fiber

100
OH Absorption Peak
ATTENUATION (dB/km)

10

1 Rayleigh
Scattering Loss
0.1

0.01
0.5 0.6 0.7 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 5 10
WAVELENGTH (μm)
 Attenuation for a Silica Glass Fiber
100
Total Fiber Loss
10
ATTENUATION (dB/km)

0.1

0.01
0.5 0.6 0.7 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 5 10
WAVELENGTH (μm)
The loss is clearly lower at the longer wavelengths.
 Radiative Losses
Due to Leaky Modes, Mode Coupling, Fiber Bending
Fiber Loss:
0.35 dB/Km at
Fresnel
300nm reflections
0.2 dB/Km at Abrupt shifts at
splice points
1500nm
OPTICAL
Minimum POWER
Reduction LEVEL Fresnel
reflection
Expected in at fiber
Fiber imperfection
future is end

0.01dB/Km.
DISTANC
 Bending Losses/ Geometric Effect
• Bending loss also called Geometric effect loss
occur due to bending of fiber externally or
internally.
• Two types of bending losses:
• Macroscopic Bends:: Bends with radii larger
compared to fiber diameter.
• Microscopic Bends:: Occur due to random
and repetitive fluctuations in the radius of
curvature of the fiber axis.
 Geometric Effects
So, Bending of the fiber causes attenuation. Two types of
bending are macrobending and microbending.
1. Macroscopic - Large scale fiber bending with curvature
radius R

n1 θ1
θ2 Radiation

θ1 > θc but θ2 < θc R

1. θ1 > θc but θ2 will be less than θ1 and may be less
than θc in which case radiation losses would occur.
2. Since, higher-ordered modes travel closest to θc and
thus are more likely to radiate at bends than lower
ordered modes.
3. Fibers do not break unless bent with a very small
radius of curvature (on the order of 1 cm or less).
4. To reduce losses, curves should typically be more
than 5 cm radius.
Another view of Macro-bending
Loss
 2. Microscopic Bends
•Small axial distortions in the core.
•Usually created during the cabling process.
•Micro-bends couple light between modes
and scatter some light out of the core.
 Attenuation of a Silica Glass Fiber
Wavelength Loss
0.8 μm 3 dB/km
1.3 μm 0.5 dB/km
1.55 μm 0.2 dB/km
3.0
Total Loss OH Absorption Peak
2.5
ATTENUATION (dB/km)

2
1.5
1
0.5 Rayleigh Scattering

0 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
WAVELENGTH (nm)
 Attenuation of All Plastic Fiber
Wavelength Loss
570 nm 100 dB/km
670 nm 160 dB/km
5000
ATTENUATION (dB/km)

2000

1000
500
300
200
100
50
400 500 600 700 800
WAVELENGTH (nm)
Different Attenuation in different materials
in different regions of spectrum
Exact Loss Spectra of three different fiber
material
0.50
SiO2
0.45
AlF3
0.40
ZBLAN
0.35

LOSS 0.30
dB/m 0.25
0.20
0.15

0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
WAVELENGTH ( micrometer)
 Pulse Distortion In Fibers

Signals are distorted by:

•Modal Distortion
•Material Dispersion
•Waveguide Dispersion
•Polarization-Mode Dispersion
Modal distortion does not depend on source
wavelength or spectral width and is divided into
two categories as inter modal and intra modal
distortion .
The total pulse spread is determined as:

The total dispersive pulse spread is given as:

• Inter-modal dispersion appears because
different modes (ray paths) travels different
distances and reaches at receiving end at
different times. When these fractions
combines; the resulting output pulse get
broaden.
Δtmodal = [L/(2cn2)](NA)2
In other words Inter-modal / Multimode group
delay or dispersion is the variation in group
velocity among the propagation modes at a single
frequency.
Inter-modal Dispersion
• Intra-modal dispersion (also called
chromatic dispersion) is caused by the
dependence of the optical property of
fiber material on wave-length.
 So, Different colors of light travel at different
speeds and Spectral broadening is caused by
differential group delay.
• Chromatic Dispersion: Effect and consequences
❖The refractive index has a wavelength
dependent factor.
❖Different Wavelengths do not travel at the same
speed.
❖The higher frequencies travel faster than the
lower frequencies.
❖ The resulting effect is a broadening of the
signal and a consequent interference.
• As pulses travel down the fiber, they spread and
overlap.
• This produces inter symbol interference (ISI) and
makes it difficult to separate the pulses, i.e., it
becomes difficult to separate the data bits
increasing the bit error rate.
• This will limit the data rate i.e. more separation
between the pulses.
• Thus, dispersion limits the data transmission
capability in terms of Gbit/s.km i.e. (data rate
distance product).
• Dispersion in multimode fibers:
Each mode travels with its own
velocity.
• Dispersion in single mode fibers:
The refractive index is a function
of the wavelength and we do not
have single wave length sources as
all sources have a finite spectral
width.
 Dispersion in SIMMF

Input Refractive Mode propagation Output

light index light
pulse profile pulse

T Δt
T
 Dispersion in GIMMF

Input Refractive Mode propagation Output

light index light
pulse profile pulse

T
 Dispersion in SISMF

Input Refractive Mode propagation Output

light index light
pulse profile pulse
 Now, the chromatic dispersion or intra
modal dispersion may be
sub-categorized into two specific class
viz.
1. Material dispersion (Dispersion caused by the
material) , and,
2. Wave guide dispersion (Dispersion caused by the
structure of the waveguide)
Material dispersion occurs because
fiber’s refractive index depends
upon wave-length of light.
Δtchrom = D(λ)L.Δλ
D(λ) is chromatic dispersion parameter
(Ps/nm.km), L is fiber length (km), and
Δλ is spectral width of source.

110 Material Dispersion for Pure Silica

M
(ps/nm.km)
1.3 1.55
0.82 λ(μm)
-20
 PULSE DISTORTION AND
INFORMATION RATE IN FIBERS
Distortion in Single-Mode Fibers
Single-mode fibers have only material
and waveguide dispersion.
In the 0.8 - 0.9 μm range, material
dispersion dominates.
 Pulse Spread by Material Dispersion
for a Single-Mode Fiber

20 LED 0.25
PULSE 10 LD 0.053-dB
5 0.8 0.1
OPTICAL
SPREAD 2 λ = 0.7 μm
0.25
BAND-
PER 1 0.5 -WIDTH
UNIT
1 LENGH
1.1
0.5
0.2 1 2.5 PRODUCT
LENGTH 0.9
(GHz.km)
0.1 5
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
(ns/km)
SOURCE SPECTRAL WIDTH (nm)
Wave-guide dispersion contributes to intra model
dispersion which is known to be negligible in
MMF. It is developed when propagation constant is
dependent on wavelength.
5
3 Waveguide Dispersion in a
Step-Index Fiber
1
0
0.6 1.3 1.8
λ (μm)

In fact material and wave guide dispersions are

dependent on each other.
Compensation for Pulse broadening
• If the pulse broadening introduced by the
dispersive behavior of the fiber, can be
compensated by another phenomenon
which can produce pulse compression, the
pulses can travel without broadening, thus
eliminating any inter symbol interference
(ISI).
• The pulses those can travel through the
fibers without undergoing any pulse
broadening are called solitary pulses.
Unit 3: Optical Sources & Transmitters

Introduction to optical sources: Wavelength

and Material Considerations, LEDs &
semiconductor LASERs: principle of working &
their Characteristics. Line coding Different
modulation schemes, Optical transmitters:
LED drive circuits for digital and analog
transmission. Power launching & Coupling:
Fiber optic splices, connectors & couplers &
Coupling losses. State of art: LEDs and LASERs
 Optical sources : Comparative over-view of
LED and LASER
LED LASER

Incoherent (because of Coherent (because of

spontaneous emission) stimulated emission)
Without Optical resonator With optical resonator

For multimode fibers only For multi and single

mode fiber

Upto 100 Mbits/s Upto 10 Gbits/s

 LEDs – Light Emitting Diode
•Emits incoherent light through spontaneous
emission.
•Used for Multimode systems with 100-200 Mb/s
rates.
•Broad spectral width and wide output pattern.
•850nm region: GaAs and AlGaAs
•1300–1550nm region: InGaAsP and InP
This is a full color, four pin, RGB light
emitting diode of size 5 mm diameter.
This is a high power, multicolor LED
with emitter, star and housing
Principle of Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Direct band gap material
• Readily available recombination
• Conversion of electrical energy
to optical energy

Selection of material for LED

manufacturing to be used in
optical fiber communication
becomes important that
What wavelength we wish to
get from it, and,
What should be the band gap of
the material!
 Forward biased diode

• Holes and Electrons recombine

• In some group III - V compounds, A few II - VI compounds,

the electrons & holes recombine to produce radiation.
 Homo-junction and Hetero-junctions

Based on the material requirement to form the

LED; there are two classes.
In Homo-junctions the carriers and light is not
confined while opposite is the case with
Hetero-junctions.
InP IIInGaAsP InP
N-type (Intrinsic) P-type

Homo-junction Hetero-junction
Material specification
 Types of LED’s
Based on the structural requirement (of LED) for OFC;
There are two types of LED used:
• Surface Emitting LED’s:
1. Short optical Links with Large NA fibers,
2. Data rates less than 20 Mbps,
3. Coupling lens used to increase efficiency.
• Edge Emitting LED’s:
1. Higher data rates>100Mbps,
2. Multimode and Single Mode fibers
 Fiber Surface Emitting LED
Bonding material
Circular
etched well

Metallization

substrate

Confinement
Double
layers
hetero-ju
nction
layers
SiO2 isolation SiO2 isolation
Metalization
Circular
Active metal
region contact
Heat Sink
 Edge Emitting LED
Stripe contact The output beam
defining active is lambertain in
area the plain of the pn
junction (θ1200=‫)װ‬
and highly
Active directional
area perpendicular to
the pn junction (θ┴
≈300)

Substrate
SiO2 isolation layer

Heat Sink
Double
hetero-junction
Metelization layers
for electric
contacts θ┴
Light guiding
In-coherent θ‫װ‬
layers
optical output
beam
 Comparison between S-LEDs And E-LEDs

• SLED’s generally radiate more power into air ( 2.5 to 3

times) than ELED’s since the emitted light is less
effected by re-absorption.
• SLED’s couples more optical power into large NA
(greater than 3 ) than ELED where as the opposite is
true for low NA’s.
• SLED’s shows Less coupling efficiency as compared to
ELED’s.
• SLED’s have poor modulation bandwidth than ELED’s.
• SLED’s have broader bandwidth than ELED’s.
TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF
LED
 LED Spectral Profile
We are interested to see how change in wavelength
causes change in the intensity.
 LASER as a Source
LASER Basic Operation

Basic 3 processes : 1.Absorption, 2.Spontaneous

emission, 3.Stimulated emission
 Principle Of LASER action
1)Absorption:
When a photon with certain energy is incident on an
electron in a semiconductor at the ground state (lower
energy level ) the electron absorbs the energy and shifts
to the higher energy level(E2). The energy now acquired
by the electron is (E2-E1).
2)Spontaneous Emission
After the absorption process the electrons at the
higher energy level are in an excited state. Now if
there is no incident light ,they fall back to the lower
energy level during which they give up the energy
acquired during absorption in the form of
radiation.The spontaneous emission process is as
shown in the figure below:
3)Stimulated Emission
Once the external photon strikes to this excited
atom,this leaves its position from the higher energy
level and & it will emit the photon. Thus 2 photons
are available at the output,one which is striking on the
atom and other coming out because of excited
emission of two photons and the light amplification
takes place. These two photons are in same phase and
traveling in the same direction.
 LASER DIODE
Most CW laser diodes are heterojunction edge
emitters as shown below:
Junction
Region

~0.1 - n
0.3 μm p
300 μm 10 μm
 Detailed construction of
Semiconductor Laser Diode

Metellization layer
GaAs substrate
n-AlGaAs confinement
layer (≈1μm)
n-AlGaAs active layer (≈
p-AlGaAs confinement 0.1-0.3 μm)
layer (≈1μm)

p-GaAs contact (≈1μm)

SiO2 insulation

Metellization

Strip contact
 Comparison between LED and LASER
LED LASER
Low efficiency & slow response high efficiency & fast response
time time
Lower data transmission rate higher data transmission rate

In-coherent beam & broad o/p coherent beam & narrow o/p
spectrum spectrum
Low launch power & high high launch power & low
dispersion dispersion
High distortion level at o/p Less distortion
Simple construction and Complicated construction but
Suitable for shorter Suitable for longer transmission
transmission distances distances
Less temperature dependent More temperature dependent
with life time of107hours with life time of107hours
Splices, Couplers, Connectors [Joints ]
Splices:
are joints in OCS which are of permanent or
semi-permanent nature.
Couplers:
are joints which provide either splitting-out of
light from main fiber to it’s branches or
combining the light from many fibers to the
main fiber.
Connectors:
are removable type of joints in OCS.
 Splice
Fiber splicing: Splicing is categorized as fusion
splicing and adhesive splicing.
• Following are important splicing
techniques
o Fusion splice (permanent joint)
o V- groove mechanical splice*
o Elastic-tube splice*

* removable type of joints

 Fusion splice (permanent joint)

Electric arc/
laser fusion
welder

Optical
fibers to
be spliced

Micro-manipuletable-
fiber holders
In fusion splicing the fiber ends are pre-aligned, butted
and provided with thermal bonding using electrical/laser
welding.
 V- groove mechanical adhesive splice

Fiber to be spliced

Clamped fiber
ends V-grooved
substrate

In this splicing, prepared ends of fiber are butted

in V-shaped groove and than bonded using
adhesive.
 Elastic-tube splice

Capillary tube size Elastic material

less than fiber radii

Inserted fiber
Fiber being inserted

Axial
Tapered alignment
opening

In elastic tube splicing, fibers are inserted from the two

ends of a capillary of a size less than fiber radii that
provides all sort of alignment automatically.
 Coupling
Source to fiber coupling
• Source to fiber coupling is an important
task and this coupling efficiency is given as
η = Pf /Ps

Pf is power coupled to fiber

Ps is power emitted by the source
Coupling from an LED to a Fiber
A. Surface-Emitting Diode with Etched Well

Fiber

n
Junction
p
B. Edge-Emitting Diode

n
p Fiber
LED
The coupling efficiency is related to the
parameters like

❖ Numerical Aperture

❖ Core size

❖ Refractive index profile

❖ Core-cladding index difference

❖ Size and radiance of source

Following care is to be taken to minimize source to
fiber coupling loss
• Presence of any air
gap betn source & Source
Fiber
fiber reflects back the
light at the boundary
and coupling
Reflection Loss
efficiency is reduced.

Proper joints, use of appropriate matching fluid at contacts

reduces this loss and increases the efficiency.
• There should not be
area mismatch of
source and fiber.
When the source area Source
Fiber Core
becomes wider than
the core area, the
reduction in the Area Mismatch Loss

efficiency is observed.
 Power coupling & losses
Optical Source radiation
source pattern
chip

Fiber
acceptance
angle
Active
area
Lost power

Diagram of an optical source coupled to an optical

fiber.
It may be observed that the light outside the acceptance
angle is lost.
 Optical fiber connector
An optical fiber connector terminates
the end of an optical fiber, and enables
quicker connection and disconnection
than splicing.
The connectors mechanically couple and
align the cores of fibers so that light can
pass.
Good/efficient connectors loose very
little light due to reflection or
misalignment of the fibers.
 So, these are fiber connectors with features of
1. Low insertion loss,
2. low return loss, and,
3. High repeatability
that have applications in fiber devices and
systems.

LC [local/lucent/little connector]
FC(fiber channel) connector
 The FC connector is a fiber-optic connector
with a threaded body, which is designed for
use in high-vibration environments.
It is commonly used with both single-mode
optical fiber and polarization-maintaining
optical fiber.
FC connectors are used in data
communication, telecommunications,
measurement equipment, and single-mode
lasers.
 Connector design
In general, Features of a good connector
design are:
• Low Insertion Loss
• Low Return Loss
• Ease of installation
• Low cost
• Reliability
• Low environmental sensitivity
• Ease of use
Unit 4: Optical detectors & Receivers
Introduction: Material Considerations, PN,
P-i-N, Avalanche photodiodes & photo
transistors: Principle of working &
characteristics and relative merits and
demerits of photodiodes. Receiver Noise:
Noise considerations in PN, P-i-N & Avalanche
photodiodes. Receiver structures, State of art:
Optical detectors & detection scheme
 Requirements of Optical detector
• High sensitivity at the operating
wavelength
• High Fidelity (precision in
reproduction)
• Large electrical response to the
optical signal
• Short response time to obtain a
suitable bandwidth
•Minimum noise introduced
by the detector
•Stability of performance
characteristics
•Small Size
•Low bias voltage
•High reliability and Low cost
 Criteria for photodiodes
While talking about the criteria to be
observed to select photo diode for OFC,
following parameters are considered:
• 1.Responsivity
• 2.Spectral response
• 3. Rise time
• 4. Quantum Efficiency
• 1.Responsivity: The ratio of Out-put
current to the input optic power i.e.
R = Ip/P0 amp/watt or volts/watt.
• 2.Spectral response: Variation of
responsivity with Wavelength.
• 3. Rise time: The time in which output
detector current reaches from 10 to 90%
of it’s final value when optic input power
variation is a step.
• Quantum efficiency is defined as fraction of
incident photons absorbed by photo detector
and generated electrons collected at detector
terminal.
η = (no. of electrons collected) /
(no. of incident photons)
= (re)/(rp)
• The quantum efficiency is dependent on
‘absorption coefficient’, thus calculated for
particular photon wavelength.
 Quantum efficiency & responsivity
• Since quantum efficiency does not include
photon energy, the performance of photo
detector is often determined in terms of it’s
‘Responsivity’.
R = (Ip)/(Po) A/W
• Here, numerator is output photon current
and denominator is incident optical power.
• Since E = hf; incident photon rate may be
written as the ratio of incident optical power
and photon energy i.e. rp = Po/hf.
Since, re = η r p
= η Po / h f,
Therefore,
Ip = η P o e / h f
Thus,
R = η e / h f,
Again since
f = c / λ,
Thus,
R = η e λ / hc
The term responsivity includes the
parameters as Quantum efficiency, charge,
wavelength, plank’s constant, velocity of light.
Responsivity in A/W RESPONSIVITY v/s WAVELENGTH

0.8
Ideal photo diode

0.4 ‘Si’ photo diode

λc Long wavelength cut off point

0.5 1.0
Wavelength in µm
• When energy of incident photon is greater
than or equal to the ‘band gap energy’ of the
material (of which detector is made), i.e.
Energy = (hc / λ) ≥ Eg or, λ ≤ (hc / Eg)
• This wavelength is threshold for detection
called long wavelength cut off point given as:
λc = hc / Eg
• Thus, for intrinsic photo detector, longest
wavelength to be detected is λc only. This
criteria is used while selecting the material for
making the detector.
 Types of Photodiodes
•PN Photodiode
•P-I-N Photodiode
•Avalanche Photodiode
•Phototransistor
•Photo Darlington Pair
 P-I-N photodiode

A thick, lightly doped intrinsic layer

sandwiched between thin p and n
regions.

p i n
 Intrinsic semiconductor layer in the
middle has:
1. no charges,
2. high resistance,
3. high electric field,
4. high probability of accepting photons
to generate electron-hole pairs.
 ELD of PIN diode
Photo generated electron
Eg P
-
Conduction band
i
+ N
Striking of
photon of
energy
Valance band
hν>Eg

Photo generated hole

Depletion layer
 Types of P-I-N photodiodes:
(1)Front Illuminated, and (2) Rear Illuminated.
Front Illuminated Photodiode
Ep
Operation at 0.8-0.9
μm Metal
Contacts
Depletion layer 20-50
μm Depletion
region 5μm
Quantum efficiency
80%
Fast response as 1ns Metal
Contacts
Low dark current as
1na
 Rear Illuminated Photo diode
Light is allowed to
enter from the
substrate in the
heterostructure. Metal
Contacts
Low dark current
as 1na Depletion
region Ep
Efficiency reaches
to
approximately100 Metal
% Contacts
 Important parameters

• Drift time of photo-carriers: tdrift=

width of depl. Layer/max.drift velosity =W/vd
• Diffusion time: tdiffusion=
distance for diffusion/2.minority carrier diffu.
Coeff.
• 3dB band width of photodiode:
Bm=1/2.π.tdrift=Vd/2. π.W
• Response time = 1/Bm
Advantages of P-I-N photodiode
• Intrinsic layer is thick, so more number of
incident photons enter into this layer and
generate electron hole pair, so results in
the high quantum efficiency of the device.
• Reverse biasing voltage is small (usually 50)
because the thickness of the depletion
region is controlled by the thickness of the
intrinsic layer, not by reverse voltage.
• High bandwidth ( Efforts to improve the
bandwidth of 110 Ghz).
 Avalanche Photodiode
• Drawbacks of P-I-N photodiode: Need of an
amplifier to magnify the photocurrent
produced by the photodiode.

P+ i p N+
 APD [avalanche photodiode]
• The quantum efficiency of the APD is M
times larger than that of a PIN photo
diode.
R(APD) = M x R(PIN)
M depends upon:
1 Accelerating voltage
2 Thickness of the gain region
3 Ratio of electrons to holes participating in
the ionization process.
M ranges from 10 to 500.
A. P. D.
 Comparisons of photo-detectors
pin photodiodes
Parameters Symbol Unit Si Ge InGaAs

Wavelength λ nm 400-1100 800-165 1100-1700

range 0
Responisvity Rresponsy A/W 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.5 0.75-0.95

Dark current ID nA 1-10 50-500 0.5-2.0

Rise time τr ns 0.5-1.0 0.1-0.5 0.05-0.5

Modulation Bm GHz 0.3-0.7 0.5-3.0 1-2

(bandwidth)
Bias voltage VB V 5 5-10 5
 Comparisons of photo-detectors
avalanche photodiodes (M is considered to be 10)
Parameters Symbol Unit Si Ge InGaAs

Wavelength λ nm 400-1100 800-1650 1100-170

range 0
Avalanche gain M - 20-400 50-200 10-40

Dark current ID nA 0.1-1.0 50-500 10-50

Rise time τr ns 0.1-2.0 0.5-0.8 0.1-0.5

Gain-bandwidth M.Bm GHz 100-400 2-10 20-250

Bias voltage VB V 150-400 20-40 20-30

• SNR i.e. Signal to noise ratio is given as
SNR db = 10 log [ PS / PN], where PS is
power of the signal and, PN is power of
total noise.
• BER is equal to number of errors
divided by total number of pulses
(ones and zeros). Total number of
pulses is bit rate B times ‘time
interval’. BER is thus not really a rate,
but a unit-less probability.
 Noise Sources in photodiode
The internal noise is categorized as
–Shot Noise
–Thermal Noise
The additional noise is categorized as
– Dark current Noise & leakage current
noise
– Excess Noise
 Shot Noise:
It arises because of discrete nature of
current flow in the device.
Deviation of the actual number of electrons
from the average numbers is known as shot
noise.
shot noise power:
Pn.(shot) = 2.Idark.q.Bw
Where Bw is operating bandwidth.
• The shot noise current is represented as:
• iNS = ΣN h(t - tN) - (ηe /hf)P
• i2NS = 2eIΔf
Δf is receiver’s bandwidth and I is average current.
• I = i S + ID
Where, iS is average of the signal current and ID
is average dark current.
The equivalent circuit for shot noise is just a noise
current generator, as shown below.

i2NS = 2eIΔf
 Thermal Noise:
It arises from the random motion of
electrons in a conductor. It appears within
the photo detector's load resistance. The
deviation of an instantaneous number of
electrons from their average value because
of temperature change is called Thermal
Noise. Thermal Noise is often called
Johnson noise .
Thermal noise power : Pn(thermal)= K .T. Bw
 The presence of thermal noise can be modeled by
equivalent circuit as shown below. The noise is
produced by a current source generating mean- square
current as shown in diagram below where k is
Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature in
degree K, ∆f is the receiver’s electrical band width.

RL v
2
i NT
= 4kTΔf /RL

The load resistor’s equivalent circuit where RL is an

ideal i.e. noiseless resistor.
Total noise power pN is given as
pN =pn.(shot) + pn.(thermal)
• Signal to noise ratio is given as

SNRdb = 10 log [ PS / PN]

where PS is power of the signal

and, PN is power of total noise
Dark current Noise:
The dark current noise arises due to dark
current which flows in the circuit when
the photodiode is in un-illuminated
environment under bias condition.
The magnitude of this current depends
on the
• Operating temperature
• Biased voltage
• Type of detectors
Excess Noise:
• It arises from avalanche photodiodes
because of the statistical nature of the
multiplication process.
• The excess noise increases with increase in
avalanche gain.
Unit 5: Design considerations in
optical links

Point to point Links: System design

considerations, Link Power budget, Rise
Time budget, Analog Links: CNR,
Multichannel transmission techniques.
Major elements of an optical fiber link
 System Block Diagram

Transmitter Optical
splice
Drive Optical
Source
circuit source Connector
Optical
coupler
Optical Optical-to- Optical
Tx electronics Rx
Regenerator

Fibre

Optical Optical Sink

amplifier Receiver
detector
 Source

Source
Modulation Multiplexing Modulation
coding
• Frequency
• Analogue
• Time
• Digital

External Internal

• Pulse shaping
• Channel coding
• Encryption etc.
 Receiver

Sampler
1st-stage 2nd-stage Pre-detection
filtering &
amplifier amplifier
detector

Demultiplexer

• Equalizer Demodulator

Decoder
Decryption

Output signal
COMPONENTS OF A GENERAL
OPTICAL SYSTEM

Analog (continuous)

Time

Digital (discrete)

1 0 1 0 1
Time
• The term noise figure ‘F’ is a
measure of the noise characteristics
of an amplifier. It is the ratio of ‘input-
signal to noise ratio’ to ‘output- signal
to noise ratio’.
F = (S/N)in / (S/N)out
• Amplifier Gain (G) = (Power of
output signal) / (Power of input
signal)
 Digital Links
Digital Transmission Systems
• The simplest transmission link shown
below is “point-to-point” link.
Simple Block Diagram of
Point-To-Point Link
Infor-
-matio Optical Optical
n trans- Receiv user
-mitter Optical fiber er
source
 • To analyze a link, we need to
know the basic three
parameters/information viz.:
1. Transmission distance
2. Data rate or channel width
3. Bit-error-rate
 Based on above information; selection of
optical fiber (single/multi mode) is done
and following details about the fiber is
collected.
1. Core size
2. core refractive index profile
3. Band width or dispersion
4. Attenuation
5. NA or Mode field diameter
• Than, appropriate source is selected
(LASER/LED) and following information
about the source is collected.
1.Emission wavelength
2. Spectral line width
3. Output power
4. Effective radiating area
5. Emission pattern
6. Number of emitting modes.
• Than, detector is chosen (PIN/APD) and
following information is collected about the
detector.

1. Responsivity
2. Operating wavelength
3. Speed
4. Sensitivity
•Link power budget and Rise
time budget are the methods to
analyze working of desired
system & it’s performance.
• In the Link power budget; for a specific
BER, power margin between ‘optical
transmitter output’ and ‘minimum receiver
sensitivity’ is determined and than margin
is allocated to connectors, splices, fiber
losses etc.
•In Rise time budget, it is checked that
the desired overall system performance is
achieved or not? It determines the
dispersion limitations of an optical fiber
link.
 • The system speed is limited by
1. Transmitter rise time ttx
2. Group velocity dispersion rise time tGVD
3. Modal dispersion rise time tmod
4. Receiver rise time trx

Here, σλ is the half power spectral width of the source, D

is dispersion, L is length, q is a constant (ranging from
0.5-1.0), B0 is band width of 1km length of cable
 System Considerations
• Selection of “wave length” to transmit
the data decides the components which
operates in this wavelength region.
• For example, if transmission distance
is small; operating wavelength may be
800-900 nm and if it is large; the
wavelength would be 1300/ 1550 nm
(where low attenuation & dispersion
occurs).
• While selecting a photo detector, we
determine, how much minimum optical
power is a must to fall on the
photo-detector to satisfy BER
requirement at the specified data rate.
• Selection of source requires the
parameters to be seen as signal
dispersion, data rate, transmission
distance and cost.
• Selection of optical fiber depends on
type of source and amount of dispersion
that can be tolerated.
 Link design details
• System performance & cost constraints are
two important factors in any communication
system.
• The key system requirements in link design
are :
• Data rate/bit rate per band width
• data transferred for a given band width

• Bit error rate per signal to noise ratio

• BER is the ratio of no. of bits incorrectly received to the total no.
of transmitted bits

• Transmission distance
 Optical power loss model for point to point link

Transmitter
Connector (lc) Receiver

Splices (lsp)

Photo
Optical
Detect
Source
or

αf
Fiber fly lead

Losses are calculated sequentially and added for the final budget.
• In a fiber optic system, optical fiber
loss occurs due to :

o Source to fiber coupling losses

o Connector loss
o Splices loss
o Fiber attenuation
o System margin loss due to component
ageing & temp. fluctuations
The link power budget provides
calculation details for probable losses
and additional power margin for
component ageing & temp. fluctuations.
• The power budget equation
Pd = P s – P r

Where Ps is power of the source and Pr is

receiver sensitivity.
Since, Pf = Pr + losses
and also, Pf = η.Ps
thus,
Pf – Pr = losses
Or, η.Ps - Pr = losses
Or, Pr = η.Ps – losses

Here
Losses = m.Lc + n.Ls + α.D + s
Losses = m.Lc + n.Ls + α.D + s

where, Lc- connector loss in dB.

Ls- splice loss in dB
m-No. of connectors
n-No. of splices
α-Fiber attenuation in dB/ Km
D-transmission distance in Km.
s-system margin(6-8 dB)
• The final power budget equation is
• Pd = P s – P r
= Ps – (η.Ps – losses)
= Ps – η.Ps + losses
= Ps (1 - η) + losses
= Ps (1 - η) + m.Lc + n.Ls + α.D + s

So the power budget equation is

Pd = Ps (1 - η) + m. Lc + n. Ls + α.D + s
 Analog Links
Analog transmission system
Electric
al Optical Optical Electrical
analog Optical Optical
transmitte Fiber analog O/P
I/P
amplifier detector signal to
signal r channel RF receiver
• Harmonic • Modal • ASE • Shot noise
distortion distortion noise
• Inter-modulation • Attenuation • Thermal
• RIN • Amplifier
• Group
• Laser clipping Velocity • APD gain
Dispersion

Basic elements of an analog link and the major

noise contributors
 Over-view

In an analog link, the transmitter contains LED/

LASER as optical source for which mid point of
linear output region is set first.

If P(t) is envelop of output optical power, Pt is

optical output power at base current level, s(t)
is time-varying analog drive signal, and m is
modulation index; than, we write, P(t) = Pt
[1+ms(t)] and, m = Ppeak / Pt {as shown in
diagram next}.
For the sinusoidal received signal, the
carrier power ‘C’ at output of receiver in
2
units of A is

C =1/2(m Rugr M Pave)2

Where Rugr is unity gain responsivity of

photo detector, M is photo detector's
gain (unity for pin photodiode) and Pave
is average received optical power.
 Biasing conditions of a laser diode and it’s
response to analog signal modulation
Laser optical o/p power

Optical o/p
Ppeak waveform
Pt

∆I ∆I

Ith IB
Diode current

Modulating current
Waveform
• The analog signals are than
sent/transmitted using modulation
technique.
• Direct intensity modulation (in which
optical output from the source is
modulated by varying the current around
the bias point in proportion to message
signal level) is the simplest way to transmit
the information signal directly in the base
band.
 Optical Optical
source detector
Source derive
circuit (optical Fiber Amplifier Low
modulator) cable pass
filter

Baseband output
Baseband input

Analog optical fiber system

employing direct intensity modulation
Time domain representation showing direct
intensity modulation of optical carrier with a
base band analog signal
• Frequency dependence of amplitude,
phase and group delay in fiber are
required to be considered.
• Fiber attenuation is also important since
“carrier to noise” performance of the
system changes as a function of received
optical power (as shown next).
• Use of optical amplifier adds the noise
called “amplified spontaneous emission”
noise.
• At the end of the link, the optical detector
is placed.
 Carrier-to-noise ratio as a function
of optical power level at the receiver
•In this particular case, RIN
dominates at high powers.
•Quantum noise at intermediate
level gives 1-dB drop in C/N ratio
for each 1-dB power decrease.
•Receiver’s thermal noise yields 2-dB
C/N ratio roll-off per 1-dB drop in
received power at low light level.
 Relative Intensity Noise
When noise results from random
intensity fluctuations is termed as
‘relative intensity noise’ (RIN),
defined in terms of mean square
intensity variations. The resultant
mean square noise current is
given as
Relative intensity noise limit

Quantum noise limit

Carrier to noise ratio

Receiver noise limit
Multi-channel transmission techniques
• For multi-channels analog transmission;
multiplexing techniques are used in which a
no. of base band signals are super-imposed
on a set of N sub-carriers that have different
frequencies from f1, f2…fn.
• These modulated sub-carriers are then
combined electrically through “frequency
division multiplexing” to form a composite
signal that directly modulates a single optical
source.
 Multi-channel Amplitude modulation

This is the first application of “analog fiber

optical link” started in late 1980’s for cable TV
network with following specifications:
1. frequency band 50-88 and 120-550 MHz,
2. noise band width-4MHz,
3. channel band width- 6 MHz,
4. signal to noise ratio 47dB, and,
5. more than 80 channels.
Simplified example of frequency
division multiplexing
 Standard technique for frequency-division
multiplexing of N independent information bearing
signals

Compo- f1
f1 Comp-
site
FDM -osite
Optical FDM
RF Signal
Laser channel Signal
Modulated Power Optical Band
Signal Combin Transmitte Pass
Receiver
Frequency
er r Filter

fN fN
Multi channel amplitude modulation with reserved band
for FM broad-cast
 Multi-channel frequency modulation
• In multi-channel frequency modulation
each sub-carrier is frequency-modulated
by message signal.
• This requires a wider band width (30 MHz)
but yields a signal to noise ratio
improvement over the carrier to noise
ratio.
• S/N at the output of an FM detector is
much larger than C/N at the input of
detector.
 Sub-carrier multiplexing
• SCM is a technique in which multiplexing of
(1) multi-channel analog and, (2)
multi-channel digital signals with in the
same system is observed.
• Mixture of N independent analog & digital
base band signals (carrying any
information) are at the transmitter which are
mixed with local oscillator having frequency
fi (called sub-carriers ). This composite
FDM signal is used to derive a laser diode.
Then detection is seen as shown next.
 Basic concept of sub-carrier multiplexing

One can simultaneously send analog & digital signals by

frequency-division multiplexing them on different sub-carrier
frequencies.
 Unit 6: Advanced Optical Systems

Overview of WDM, Optical Amplifiers:

Classification of OAs, Principle of operation of
a Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) & Gain
calculations of Fabry Perot Amplifiers (FPA). SOA
applications: advantages and drawbacks,
Principle of operation of Erbium Doped Fiber
Amplifiers (EDFA), Gain and Noise in an
EDFA.WDM Couplers/ Splitters: Excess loss,
Insertion loss Coupling ratio, Isolation and
Uniformity properties. State of art: WDM
components.
 Wavelength division multiplexing

• Multiplexing is a process through which several

optical channels are combined in-to one channel.
• Several channels of information with slightly
different wavelength gets transmitted
simultaneously without interfering each other and
increasing ‘information carrying capacity’ of fiber
through WDM.
• WDM has a great potential for accommodating large
wavelengths with narrow spectral width in low
attenuation windows.
• WDM technology is extremely important
for fiber optic submarine networks. It is
used to significantly increase system
transmission capacity and to provide a
mechanism for creating multipoint
networks.
• The most important concern in the
design of amplifiers for WDM
transmission is transmission band
flatness.
The transmission bandwidth in 1310 & 1550 nm
window allowing many simultaneous channels with
narrow spectral width
A 2.0
t
t
e
n
u
a dB/Km
t 1.0
i
o 14 THz
n 15 THz Third window

Second window
0
900 1100 1300 1500 1700
Wavelength in nm
OFS operating modes illustrating WDM
Receiver
Transmitter λ
Tx Rx
Simplex

Tx λ1 Duplexer λ2 Tx

Rx Rx
λ2 Duplex λ1

Demultiplexer
λ1 Multiplexer λ1 Rx
Tx
λ2 λ1, λ2, …λn λ2
Tx Rx

λn λn
Rx
Tx
Multiplex
 Optic Multiplexer & De-multiplexer
One couples light from individual sources to the
transmitting fiber while the other separate them out.

λ1 Transmitting fibers

In put fibers
λ2 Multiplexer λ1, λ2, …λn
λn

Out put fibers

λ1, λ2, …λn λ1

De- λ2
Multiplexer
Transmitting fibers λn
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexor (MUX), Demultiplexor (DEMUX)
Sometimes just called a MUX
• Two or more simultaneous transmissions on
a single circuit.
– Transparent to end user.
• Multiplexing costs less.

7
 WDM: Simultaneous transmission of several independent
optical carriers along a single fiber.
DWDM: Dense wavelength-division multiplexing has a large
number of optical carriers.

λ1 λ1
λ2 Fiber λ2
λ3 λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , λ4 λ3
λ4 λ4
Input Output
Multiplexer Demultiplexer
 A fundamental WDM network

λ1 λ1
Tx Optical fiber Rx

λ2
Tx λ2 Rx

post-amplifier pre-amplifier

Tx Rx
λn In-line-amplifier
λn
Tunable
Receivers
sources

Wavelength Multiplexer
Wavelength De-Multiplexer
3-channel WDM network

λ1 λ1
1 1’

λ1, λ2, λ3
DMUX 2’ λ2
λ2 2 MUX

3’ λ3
3 λ3

Transmitter Receiver
 Full duplex network
with bidirectional multiplexer

R
T

λ1 λ1
MUX/ MUX/
DMUX DMUX
λ2
λ2

T
R

T: transmitter, R: receiver,
Advantages of WDM
1. The total channel capacity is increased using WDM
by the number of carriers.
2. Bi-directional operation is possible.
3. Fiber systems installed at an earlier time can be
upgraded to a higher capacity using WDM.
4. A WDM system can transmit voice, video and data on
separate wavelengths.
 Loss curves for a multiplexer/demultiplexer look like:

Ch. 1 Ch. 2 Ch. 3

0
L (dB)
-15

-30
1530 1534 1538 λ (nm)

The experiment for measuring this characteristic appears

on the next slide.
To obtain the demultiplexer characteristic, vary the input
wavelength and measure the power emerging from each
channel on the right.

Ch. 1
λn Ch. 2
Ch. 3
Input Ch. 4
Ch. 5
Demultiplexer Output
To obtain the multiplexer characteristic, reverse the
procedure, with inputs from the right.

Ch. 1
λn Ch. 2
Ch. 3
Output Ch. 4
Ch. 5
Multiplexer Input
Conclusions:
1. For a good WDM system we require
narrow linewidth light sources, and,
2. Sources having stable center
wavelengths
3. Multiplexers/demultiplexers are narrow
bandpass filters.
Multiplexer design is based on two mechanisms, viz. angular
dispersion and optical filtering.

• Prism and reflecting diffraction grating are

the examples of angular dispersion.
• Optical filters are made of thin layers of
transparent material of different
refractive indices. The interface within the
thin film causes filtering to pass certain
wavelengths & reflect the others.
Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Devices
These devices must spatially separate (or combine) optical
beams of different wavelengths.
Principal techniques are obviously:
• Angular dispersion
• Optical filtering
Examples of angular dispersion:
Glass Prism λ3
Demultiplexer λ2
λ1 , λ2, λ3
λ1
The prism works because the refractive index of the glass
is a function of the optical wavelength. That is: n = n(λ)
Thus, light of different wavelength is bent by different
amounts, (following to Snell’s law).

Multiplexer λ3

λ1 , λ2, λ3 λ2
λ1
Reflection Grating
(ruled grating or holographic grating)

λ1 , λ2 , λ3

λ1
λ2

λ3

Demultiplexer
Example of filter type multiplexer/demultiplexer:
The optical filter consists of thin (one-quarter wavelength)
layers of transparent materials having different refractive
indices.
Ex. n1 Substrate
n2
n1

n2
Operation of filter type multiplexer/demultiplexer: Filter 1
reflects λ1 and transmits λ2 and λ3.
Filter 2 reflects λ2 and transmits λ3.

λ1 , λ2 , λ3 λ2 , λ3 λ3

λ1 λ2
Filter 1 Filter 2

Multiplexer (combining wavelengths)

Demultiplexer (separating wavelengths)

Grating Multiplexer/Demultiplexer :

Grin Rod Lens

λ1 , λ2 , λ3

λ1
λ2
λ3 Grating
Fibers

Demultiplexer
 Some other principle components used for
networking are such as
• Attenuators, those
changes the light
intensity in the fiber &
are used for testing
receivers at various
light levels.

The rotation wheel has

Misaligned fibers also work for
different amount of absorbing
changing the light intensity by
material at different points for
varying the gap.
varying attenuation.
Circulators, those direct the signals sequentially
from one port to the next.
 Passive components

• Used in optical domain to split and

combine light streams e.g.
1. Coupler,
2. Power splitter,
3. Power tapes,
4. Star coupler etc.
 Basic star coupler concept for combining/splitting optical
powers
• A star coupler can combine as well as split the power.
• It combine the light streams from 2 or more input fibers
and divide them among several output fibers. Uniform
splitting for all wave-length is observed.
• A common fabrication method along with uniform heating
during coupler fabrication process is observed for making
as good as 64 i/p & o/p.

PI I

Star i (1/N)(P1+P2+….+PN)
Pi
coupler
PN N
Cross sectional view of a fused 2x2 fiber coupler
having a coupling region W and two tapered regions
of length L

Directional coupler
 Cross sectional top view of a uniformly symmetric
directional wave guide coupler with both guides
having width A=8 micro meter

Wave length response of the coupled power is shown next:

Wave length response of the coupled power
P2/P0 in the symmetric 2x2 guided wave-coupler
shown in ‘a’
 Cross sectional top view of a uniformly asymmetric
directional coupler in which one guide has a narrow
width B in coupling region

Wave length response of the coupled power is shown next:

Wave length response of coupled power
P2/P0 in the asymmetric 2x2 guided wave
coupler shown in ‘b’
4x4 fused fiber star coupler fabricated by twisting,
heating, & pulling on 4 fibers to fuse them together
8x8 star coupler formed by interconnecting 12, 2x2
couplers
 Optical Amplifier

In a optical link, signal amplification for

‘moderate-speed’ signal uses conventional
repeater (conversion of photon to electron,
electrical amplification, retiming, pulse
shaping and than conversion of electron to
photon), but for ‘high speed multi-wavelength
systems’ this process is complex and
expensive.
• Thus optical amplifiers are developed
which do not require inter conversion
of photon and electron for
amplification purpose.
Ideal Optical Amplifier
Pin Pout

In Out
• In optical amplifiers; in general,
some draw backs are observed.
1.Poor coupling to, and from, the
fiber gives loss rather than gain.
And,
2. The amplifier adds noise.
• But, there are also, some good
semiconductor amplifiers, available.
• Stimulated emission is the key
process of all optical amplifiers to
increase the power level of
light/optical signals.
• Optical amplifier does not have
optical feed back mechanism which
is necessary for lasing to take place.
Thus, in optical amplifier, generation
of light signal is not possible but only
boosting of available light signals.
Basic Operation of a generic
Optical Amplifier
General Applications of Optical
Amplifiers
In-line Optical Amplifier
(To increase Transmission distance)
Preamplifier
(To improve receiver sensitivity)
Power/ Booster of Transmitted Power
(Required to place the device immediately after an optical
transmitter to boost the transmitted power)
Optical Amplifier Gain Characteristics
Gain in dB
Erbium
20
Raman

Brillouin 50
MHz
TWSLA 10 bandwidth

1.42 1.46 1.50 1.54 1.60 1.64

Signal Wavelength in μm
1.Semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA)
(a) Fabry-Perot amplifier (resonant type)
(b) Traveling Wave amplifier (non- resonant
type)
2. Active / Doped fiber amplifiers (AFA/DFA)

Noise
Semiconductor optical Amplifier
Pout
Pin p
In Out
n
Antireflection Coating
• SOA consumes less power, has less
components and are more compact.
1.(a) In fabry-Perot amplifier, optical signal
enters the FP cavity and gets amplified by
forth & back reflections between the two
reflecting end facets.
A careful stabilization of temperature &
injection current is required as optical signal
gain is very sensitive to the variation in
amplifier temperature & input optical
frequency.
 Fabry-Perot Optical Amplifier

(a)

Current

In-Put Out-Put

Mirror Mirror
• 1.(b) In traveling wave amplifier (TWA), one
i.e. end facet has anti-reflection coating. Thus,
input signal gets amplified during ‘one single
pass’ through TWA.
• TWA shows large optical band width, high
saturation power and low polarization
sensitivity.
• TWA’s 3-dB band width is greater than FPA by
3 order of magnitude.
• Used as amplifier in 1300 nm window.
Comparison of Band width of FPA & TWA

Gain
GFPA

BWFPA

BWTWA

ω
ω0
• 2. In Doped Fiber Amplifier (DFA), active
medium is created by light doping of rare
earth element (Eu, Yb) in silica fiber core for
1550 nm window operation. For 1300 nm
window operation; active medium is
fluoride-based fibers with Nd/Pr doping.
• It shows low coupling loss, ability to pump the
device at more than one wave-lengths and
low dependence of gain on light polarization.
It also shows constant gain response for signal
modulation.
 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)

Pout (1.55 μm)

Pin (1.55 μm)
Erbium-Doped Fiber
In Out
WM WM

LD LD
LD Pump (1.48 or 0.98 μm)

WM: wavelength multiplexer

The gain is determined by integrating gain coefficient g(λ) over the
length l of EDF. The gain coefficient, normally expressed in ‘decibels
per meter’ is a sum of emission and absorption coefficients
weighted by the fractional population N2 and N1 (first excited and
ground state of Eu).
Gain coefficient in dB/m

10

Gain versus Wave-length in erbium-doped Silica fiber

0
1480 1500 1520 1540 1560
λ in nm
In above stated equations, Γs is confinement
factor of the single mode in the fiber core,
nEr is the concentration of Er ions in the
core, and σe(λ) & σa(λ) are respectively, the
signal emission and absorption cross
sections as functions of wavelength. The
spectra for the fully inverted gain
coefficient is g*(λ) and small signal
absorption coefficient is α(λ) for Eu doped
fiber with aluminum and germanium
co-doping in the core.
Allowed Energy States & Transitions in Er-doped
Glass Fibers

W4

W3

W2
1550 nm
Emission

W1
Erbium Energy Levels: Photon Emission

Fast Decay
Upper Laser Level
LD Pump
1.48 μm
(0.98 μm) 1.55 μm Emission

Lower Laser Level

The primary applications that have driven

EDFA to commercial development are
long-haul, terrestrial transport and under sea
transport system.
 Erbium Energy Levels: Amplification

LD Pump Upper Laser Level

1.48 μm
(0.98 μm) 1.55 μm Emission
Lower Laser Level

Bandwidth: 20 nm to 30 nm
Fiber length: 20 m to 30 m
Typical Gain: 30 dB (amplification by a factor of 1000)
 Emission and absorption spectra
α and g* in dB/m

Wavelength in nm
 Noise Figure
The noise figure, defined as the SNR at the o/p
divided by that corresponding to the shot noise of
the signal at the input, is a measure of degradation
of the signal by noise added by the amplifier.

Here, nsp is the spontaneous emission factor that

indicates the relative strengths of spontaneous
and stimulated emission processes. The closer nsp
is to 1 (i.e. the better the inversion), the lower the
NF.
Advantages of the EDFA
1. Easy coupling to the transmission fiber.
2. Amplifies analog and digital signals.
3. No modulation frequency or data rate limit.
4. Operates in the third (and fourth) window.
 Optical Networks

Optical networking became

important because of the need of
high speed information exchange
among computers and data storage
devices.
• The devices utilized by the user to
communicate are called “stations”/ “DTE (data
terminal equipment)”.
• Stations are connected by transmission paths,
called “network” formation.
• “Node” is a point where lines are terminated
or stations are connected.
• Transfer of information from source to
destination through nodes is called
“switching”.
• Selection of suitable path through a network is
called “routing”.
• When two networks using different
information exchange protocol are inter
connected; the “router” is used to translate
control information from one protocol to
another.
• The topology is “the logical manner” in which
nodes are linked to form a network.
• Three common “topologies” used for optical
network are as shown next.
Fiber optic network “BUS” topology

Station attachment lines

Stati Stati Stati

on on on
1 3 N

Opti Opti Opti Opti Opti

cal cal cal cal cal
coup coup coup coup coup
ler ler ler ler ler

Bus trunk line

Stati
Stati
on
on
2
N-1
Fiber optic network “RING” topology
Station attachment lines
Stati Stati
on on
2 3

Opti Opti
cal cal
coup coup
ler ler

Stati Opti Fiber Opti Stati

cal cal
on coup optic coup on
1 ler trunk ler i
Opti line
cal
coup
ler
Stati
on
N
Fiber optic network “STAR” topology

Stati
on
3
Stati
on
2 Star Trunk lines

Stati Stati
on on
1 i

Stati
on
N
• In the third generation;
• SONET (synchronous optical net work, that
is a standard signal format in north
America),
• SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy, that is a
standard signal format in rest of the world)
• These are time division multiplexing
schemes to use fiber optic transmission
lines, and, are accepted uniformly
world-wide.
• The two dimensional basic structure of SONET frame
consists of 90 column x 9 rows of bytes (1 byte = 8
bits). The complete SONET frame has a 125 μs
duration.
• Thus, transmission bit rate of basic SONET signal is
determined as synchronous transport signal-1 equal
to
STS-1 = (90 bytes/row)(9 row/frame) (8
bits/byte)(125 μs/frame) =51.84 Mb/s.
• It goes up to STS-N.
• Optical carrier link is denoted by OC-N.
• In SDH, basic rate is equal to STS-3 (which is
equal to 155.52 Mb/s) that is called
synchronous transport module-level 1(STM-1)
and it goes upto STM-M.
• While comparing SONET & SDH, we find that N
= 3M.
• In contrast to SONET, SDH does not distinguish
between a logical electrical signal (e.g. STS-N in
SONET) and a physical optical signal (e.g. OC-N).
 Basic structure of an STS-1 SONET frame
90 columns of bytes

Path overhead
Section Synchronous
9 rows
And, line Payload
Of
overhead Envelope (SPE)
bytes

3 columns
1 column
87 columns
Basic format of an STS-N SONET frame
90 x N columns of bytes

Path overhead
Section Synchronous
9 rows
And, line Payload
Of
overhead Envelope (SPE)
bytes

3xN columns
N column
87xN columns
SONET frame structure
 Commonly used SONET & SDH
transmission rates

SONET Electrical Line rate SDH

level level (Mb/s) equivalent
OC-1 STS-1 51.84 -
OC-3 STS-3 155.52 STM-1
OC-12 STS-12 622.08 STM-4
OC-24 STS-24 1244.16 STM-8
OC-48 STS-48 2488.32 STM-16
OC-96 STS-96 4976.64 STM-32
OC-192 STS-196 9953.28 STM-64
 SONET hierarchy speed
Speeds are classified as optical carrier-1 to 192.
 Basic details of SONET architecture
• SONET is a physical layer composed of four
sub-layers.
1. Photonic/optical sub-layer deals with source &
detector devices i.e. conversion of electrical to
optical signals.
2. The section sub-layer refers to signal regeneration at
specific length with error monitoring etc.
3. The line sub-layer looks the transportation SONET
payload along with multiplexing, synchronization
etc.
4. The path layer is used to transport data between
SONET & multiplexing equipments.
 Block diagram of SONET architecture
Payload Payload

multiplexer multiplexer

Path STS-1 STS-1 Path

MUX MUX

Line Line Line Line

Regenerator Regenerator

Sectio Sectio Sectio Sectio Sectio Sectio

n n n n n n

Photoni Photoni Photoni Photoni

Photoni Photoni
c c c c
c c