Computer Networks

UNIT 1

Ms. Diksha S S W.
What is Computer Network?
• A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting the nodes are known as communication
channels.
• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical fibres or optical
links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
• Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided among several computers. Instead, a
single computer handles an entire task, each separate computer handles a subset.
Following are the advantages of Distributed processing:[Distributed processing, also known as distributed
computing, is defined as using a network of computers to perform specific tasks with one main computer used for
more complicated tasks. An example of distributed processing is a peer-to-peer network.]
• Security: It provides limited interaction that a user can have with the entire system. For example, a bank allows
the users to access their own accounts through an ATM without allowing them to access the bank's entire
database.
• Faster problem solving: Multiple computers can solve the problem faster than a single machine working alone.
• Security through redundancy: Multiple computers running the same program at the same time can provide the
security through redundancy. For example, if four computers run the same program and any computer has a
hardware error, then other computers can override it.
 Major components of a computer
network are:
1. NIC(National interface card)
• NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with
another device. The network interface card contains the hardware
addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify
the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the
correct destination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
• Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In
Wireless NIC, a connection is made using the antenna that
employs the radio wave technology.
• Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the
medium.
2. Hub
• Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub
distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.

3. Switches
• Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data
to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the
network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say
that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.
4. Cables and connectors
• Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of
cables:
• Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
• Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive
than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
• Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams. It
provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared
to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Fibre cable Twisted pair cable Coaxial cable

5. Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly
used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple
computers.

6. Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A
modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a
separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.
Uses Of Computer Network
• Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical
location of the resource and user.
• Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server
is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system
administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the
server remotely.
• Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an
email system which the employees use for daily communication.
• E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.
Features Of Computer network
1. Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For example, we can do video conferencing,
email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.
2. File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network provides us to share the files with each
other.
3. Back up and Roll back is easy
Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main server.
4. Software and Hardware sharing
We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to
install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.
4. Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and applications.
5. Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so that we can extend the
network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection and data of the transmission speed also decreases,
this increases the chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the routing or switching devices.
6. Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware failure.
 Uses of computer Network
1. Business Applications
Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data among the users on the network
without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
Networks called VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) may be used to join the individual networks at different sites into
one extended network. In other words, a user happens to be 15,000 km away from his data should not prevent him
from using the data as though they were local. VPN stands for "Virtual Private Network" and describes the opportunity
to establish a protected network connection when using public networks. VPNs encrypt your internet traffic and
disguise your online identity
Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central computer used to
store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the
information stored in the server remotely.
Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users. For example, a
company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees use for daily communication.
Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network instead of by the phone company. This
technology is called IP telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used. The microphone and
speaker at each end may belong to a VoIP-enabled phone or the employee’s computer
E-commerce (business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers): Computer network is also important in
businesses. We can do the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.
2. Home Applications
Some of the most important uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
• Access to remote information: Access to remote information involves interaction· between a person and a remote database.
Access to remote information comes in many forms like:
(i) Home shopping, paying telephone, electricity bills, e-banking, on line share market etc.
(ii) Newspaper is. On-line and is personalized, digital library consisting of books, magazines, scientific journals etc.
(iii) World wide web which contains information about the arts, business, cooking, government, health, history, hobbies, recreation,
science, sports etc.
• Person-to-person communication: Person to person communication includes:
(i) Electronic-mail (e-mail)
(ii) Real time e-mail i.e. video conferencing allows remote users to communicate with no delay by seeing and hearing each other.
Video-conferencing is being used for remote school, getting medical opinion from distant specialists etc.
(iii) Worldwide newsgroups in which one person posts a message and all other subscribers to the newsgroup can read it or give their
feedback’s.
• Interactive entertainment: Interactive entertainment includes:
(i) Multi-person real-time simulation games.
(ii) Video on demand.
(iii) Participation in live TV programs likes quiz, contest, discussions etc.
In short, the ability to merge information, communication and entertainment will surely give rise to a massive new industry based on
computer networking.
• Electronic commerce
3. Mobile Users
Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and Mobile phones, is one of the fastest-growing segment of the
entire computer industry.
Connectivity to the Internet enables many of these mobile uses. Wireless hotspots based on the 802.11 standard
are another kind of wireless network for mobile computers.
Wireless networks are of great value to fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles, and repairpersons for keeping in
contact with their home base. For example, in many cities, taxi drivers are independent businessmen, rather than
being employees of a taxi company.
Wireless networks are also important to the military. If you have to be able to fight a war anywhere on Earth at short
notice, counting on using the local networking infrastructure is probably not a good idea. It is better to bring your own.
Text messaging or texting is tremendously popular. It lets a mobile phone user type a short message that is then
delivered by the cellular network to another mobile subscriber. Few people would have predicted ten years ago that
having teenagers tediously typing short text messages on mobile phones would be an immense money maker for
telephone companies. But texting (or Short Message Service as it is known outside the U.S.) is very profitable since it
costs the carrier but a tiny fraction of one cent to relay a text message, a service for which they charge far more.
Since mobile phones know their locations, often because they are equipped with GPS (Global Positioning System)
receivers, some services are intentionally location dependent. Mobile maps and directions are an obvious candidate
as your GPS-enabled phone and car probably have a better idea of where you are than you do.
An area in which mobile phones are now starting to be used is m-commerce (mobile-commerce). Short text
messages from the mobile are used to authorize payments for food in vending machines, movie tickets, and other
small items instead of cash and credit cards. The charge then appears on the mobile phone bill. When equipped with
NFC (Near Field Communication) technology the mobile can act as an RFID smartcard and interact with a nearby
reader for payment.
Sensor networks are made up of nodes that gather and wirelessly relay information they sense about the state of the
physical world. The nodes may be part of familiar items such as cars or phones, or they may be small separate
devices. For example, your car might gather data on its location, speed, vibration, and fuel efficiency from its on-board
diagnostic system and upload this information to a database. Those data can help find potholes, plan trips around
congested roads, and tell you if you are a ‘‘gas guzzler’’ compared to other drivers on the same stretch of road
4. Social Issues
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of other applications allow people to share their views with
like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will
arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like politics, religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply
offensive to some people. Worse yet, they may not be politically correct. Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to text; high-resolution
color photographs and video clips are easily shared over computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that
posting certain material (e.g., verbal attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and that such
content must be censored.
Communication Breakdown
Socializing within a family unit has always been important, as it strengthens the bonds between us and ensures cohesion within the group.
But with more and more households owning several computers and numerous portable devices granting access to information and
entertainment, some argue that this is leading to a lack of family communication.
If each member is engrossed in their laptop, smartphone or tablet each evening, even communal things like watching television are
compromised. Meanwhile, you can see whole families who are out to dinner and still staring into a touchscreen rather than talking to one
another.
And if you’re the one driving to that family dinner and texting while driving, you’re a distracted driver, increasing your risk of crashing, and
potentially causing death and injury.
Increase your digital wellbeing by allowing technology to improve your life and not to become a distraction to your life and others. Your life
and others are more important than technology
Defamation of Character
The only means of getting in touch with major corporations or famous people in the public eye prior to the advent of digital communication
was via a stiffly written letter. This was, of course, accessible only to the intended recipient and thus a very private way for the disgruntled to
vent their spleen. But first message boards and now social media services like Facebook and Twitter are being used to defame people and
businesses in an intrinsically public manner.
This has led to arrests, lawsuits and the threat of placing stricter controls over what can and cannot be posted to such services. It has also
caused heartache and woe for many individuals, helping to perpetuate a massive, international rumour mill which pays little heed to facts or
the threat of legal action.
Identity Theft
• Fraud is another spurious activity that has been able to evolve in the wake of easily accessible computers and the internet.
• Perhaps most problematic and prevalent of the various fraudulent activities is identity theft, in which personal details of innocent
people are harvested by a third party so that they can be used for malicious purposes. This includes carrying out illicit online
transactions and other damaging activities that can have serious ramifications.
Cyber Bullying
• As with the defamation of public figures, the internet and computers have also made it easier for spiteful people to attack people they
know personally as well as perfect strangers via the anonymous platforms that are available to them.
• This has led to serious incidents of cyber bullying involving both children and adults, sometimes with tragic consequences. The
problem with these techniques is that they tend to go under the radar to an even greater degree than traditional bullying, which makes
it harder to detect and correct.
Gaming Addiction
• Whilst computers and the internet have made it easier for gambling addicts to get their fix, a new type of addiction has also arisen, in
the form of addiction to videogames. This is something that can impact people of all ages and leads inevitably to a number of
problems, from the social to the financial.
• Professionals are beginning to take gaming addiction seriously and combat it in the same way as other diseases.
Privacy
• Whilst high profile cases of online identity theft and fraud should have caused people to become more careful about how they use
their personal information, issues of privacy and a lack of appreciation for the risks are still widespread.
• This extends beyond simply giving away private data via chat rooms, message boards and e-commerce sites and extends into the
compromising world of social media.
• Employers are now combing Facebook and Twitter to effectively do background checks on potential employees, paying particular
attention to those that have not chosen to use privacy settings to prevent anyone from getting a look at their details.
Education
The educational properties of computers are well known and universally lauded, but having all the information
in existence on tap has its own issues.
In particular, the practice of plagiarism has become a major problem, as students can simply copy and paste
whole chunks of text from online sources without attributing the work to anyone else. This has become the
bane of educational institutions, which tend to come down hard on detected plagiarists in order to discourage
similar activities from others.
Terrorism & Crime
Computers have been a positive force in allowing for the creation of global movements and righteous activism
in a number of forms. However, the other side of the coin is that terrorists and organized criminals also exploit
the web for their own nefarious purposes.
Businesses, governments and individuals are all at risk of cyber attack and the perpetrators can often act
anonymously from a country with no extradition agreements.
Sexuality
This is a less clear cut topic, but there are fears that unmitigated access to pornography for adolescents is
shaping the sexual proclivities and expectations of young people in problematic ways.
Network hardware
• Broadcast links and point-to-point links are two types of transmission technologies
that are in widespread use. Point-to-point links is a connection between individual
pairs of machines.
• In this connection, a short message from the source to the destination is sent which
is called a “packet”. This packet may have to visit one or more intermediate
machines before it reaches the destination, therefore finding good routes within the
network is important in point-to-point transmission.
• A point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver is called unicasting.
Broadcast links is in contrast a communication channel that is shared by all the
machines in the network.
• The difference between point-to-point and broadcast, is that in broadcast networks,
the packets are sent by any machine and received by all the other machines.
• Multicasting is a transmission method in which copies of a single packet is
transmitted to the group of the host in the network interested in receiving the
packet.
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects computers/devices within the range of an
individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a person’s range typically within a range of 10 meters(33
feet) it is called as Personal Area Network.
• A Personal Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and
other and other entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles etc.
Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) :
• Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN, and Wired PAN.
These are explained as following below.
1. Wireless PAN –
• Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and
ultrawideband etc.
2. Wired PAN –
• Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firewire or
USB (Universal Serial Bus).
Examples of PAN :
Body Area Network –
• It is a mobile network that moves with a persona range for example when person connects his smart
phone to the Bluetooth headphone and moves in the market that refers to a body area network.
Offline Network –
• In this multiple devices are connected through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. The devices attached to your computer
including printers, mouse, speakers, and other appliances are integrated using a Personal Area Network
(PAN) and do not use internet. So a communication network is formed between the devices used in a
small single space for example home.
Home Office –
• In Home Office setup a separate smaller network is setup for work purpose which is separate from the
network used by other home appliances. This network works as a separate body with multiple other
devices connected for office work purpose.
Advantages and disadvantages of PAN –
These are some of the Advantages of PAN :
• PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network range.
• It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
• It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
• It is easy portable.
• Needs less technical skill to use.
These are some of the disadvantages of PAN :
• Low network coverage area/range.
• Limited to relatively low data rates.
• Devices are not compatible with each other.
• Inbuilt WPAN devices are little bit costly.
Applications of PAN –
• Home and Offices
• Organizations and Business sector
• Medical and Hospital
• School and College Education
• Military and Defense
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral
devices which are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory,
home, and office building. It is a widely useful network for sharing
resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The simplest
type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's
home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission
medium.
• It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices
across several buildings.
Characteristics of LAN
Here are important characteristics of a LAN network:
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN
systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring
and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
Here are pros/benefits of using LAN:
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can
share local area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of
hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of
purchasing the licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the
server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked
computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data
more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer
resources, but the initial cost of installing Local Area Networks
is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN
user, so it does not offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization
in case LAN admin is not able to secure centralized data
repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as
there are issues related to software setup and hardware failures
WAN (Wide Area Network)
WAN
• WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer
network that which is spread across a large geographical area.
WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which
connects with other LAN's using telephone lines and radio
waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
Characteristics of LAN:
• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore,
all can access to the latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using
WAN.
Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:
• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices
situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.
Disadvantage of WAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using WAN:
• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of
different technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired
and wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN
A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer
network across an entire city, college campus, or a small region.
This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited
to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of
configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles.
Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
Here are pros/benefits of using MAN system:
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/ cons of using the MAN network:
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
Other Types of Networks
Some other important types of networks:
• WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)
• Storage Area Network
• System Area Network
• Home Area Network
• POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
• Enterprise private network
• Campus Area Network
• Virtual Area Network
1) WLAN
• WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices using wireless
communication within a limited area like home, school, or office building. It gives users an ability
to move around within a local coverage area which may be connected to the network. Today
most modern day's WLAN systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)
• A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level data
storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and tape
libraries.
3) System-Area Network
• System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in
server-to-server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on a SAN
network operate as a single system at quite high speed.
4) Passive Optical Local Area Network
• POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured cabling. It allows
you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps.
• POLAN allows you to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical signal from a
single-mode optical fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.
5) Home Area Network (HAN):
• A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to
form a local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States,
about 15 million homes have more than one computer.
• This type of network helps computer owners to interconnect with multiple computers.
This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and other peripherals.
6) Enterprise Private Network :
• Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned by businesses that
want to securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer
resources.
7) Campus Area Network (CAN):
• A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific
geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of
campus buildings to connect all the academic departments.
8) Virtual Private Network:
• A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or
users together. The VPN network uses "virtual" connections routed through the internet
from the enterprise's private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote site.
• It is a free or paid service that keeps your web browsing secure and private over public
WiFi hotspots.
NETWORK SOFTWARE
1. Protocol Hierarchies
• Protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed.

The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different

machines are called peers. The peers may be software
processes, hardware devices, or even human beings. In other
words, it is the peers that communicate by using the protocol to
talk to each other.

In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one

machine to layer n on another machine. Instead, each layer
passes data and control information to the layer immediately
below it, until the lowest layer is reached.

Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The

interface defines which primitive operations and services the
lower layer makes available to the upper one. When network
designers decide how many layers to include in a network
and what each one should do, one of the most important
considerations is defining clean interfaces between the layers.

A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. A

list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per
Design Issues for the Layers
• Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data transfer. So, an
important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.
• Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to congestion. Also, when
new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design
should be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such additions and alterations.
• Addressing
At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of computers. So, a
naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each
message.
• Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So, the layers
need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods so as to protect data packets while
they are transferred.
• Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is received by the
receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be
implemented.
Resource Allocation
• Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The
main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The
allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference among the hosts occurs and
there is optimal usage of the resources.
Statistical Multiplexing
• It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being transferred from
the source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a
fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.
Routing
• There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an
optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing
algorithms that are used in network systems.
Security
• A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and
surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent
unauthorized access to data through authentication and cryptography.
Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless
Service
Service Primitives
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations)
available to user processes to access the service. These primitives
tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken
by a peer entity.
• The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from
those of connectionless service.
Connection
oriented
service
primitives
The relationship of services to
protocols
• Services and protocols are distinct concepts. This distinction is so
important that we emphasize it again here. A service is a set of primitives
(operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it. The service defines
what operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but
it says nothing at all about how these operations are implemented. A
service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer
being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.
• A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning
of the packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within
a layer. Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions. They
are free to change their protocols at will, provided they do not change the
service visible to their users. In this way, the service and the protocol are
completely decoupled. This is a key concept that any network designer
should understand well.
REFERENCE MODELS
The OSI Reference Model
The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity.
• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
• Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
• The lower 4 layers are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network
• The upper Three layers of the OSI model are orientated more toward services to the applications
 Physical layer

• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
Data-Link Layer
•This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data
frames.
•It defines the format of the data on the network.
•It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two
or more devices.
•It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each
device that resides on a local network. Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer
•It contains two sub-layers: to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the
• Logical Link Control Layer hardware destination and source address.
•Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
Network layer of the receiver that is receiving. address mentioned in the header.
• It identifies the address of the network layer •Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
protocol from the header. the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting
• It also provides flow control. station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the
• Media Access Control Layer receiving station, with lower processing speed.
•Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
• A Media access control layer is a link between the (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer
Logical Link Control layer and the network's which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer.
If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment
physical layer. for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the •Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
network. communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
 Network Layer
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices
on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network
layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
Transport Layer
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol
• It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
• It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
• When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination.
The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
• User Datagram Protocol
• User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
• It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable
Functions of Transport Layer:
• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of
data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or
port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer
and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the
message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies
each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message
based on their sequence numbers.
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and connectionless
service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end rather than across
a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather
than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any
error.
Session layer
• It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain
and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog
controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some
checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of
the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.
 Presentation Layer
• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different
encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between
the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent
format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important
in multimedia such as text, audio, video
Application Layer
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource
allocation, etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application
layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to
retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed
database sources and is used to provide that global information
about various objects.
TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each
of them provides specific functionality.
 • The Link Layer
All these requirements led to the
choice of a packet-switching network
based
on a connectionless layer that runs
across different networks. The lowest
layer in the model, the link layer
describes what links such as serial
lines and classic Ethernet must do to
meet the needs of this
connectionless internet layer. It is not
really a layer at all, in the normal
sense of the term, but rather an
interface between hosts and
transmission links. Early material on
the TCP/IP model has little to say
about it.
Internet Layer
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the
destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are
used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An IP
protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP
datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is
known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be
done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original
message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct
delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can
be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
The Transport Layer
• The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the transport
layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on
a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer. Two end-to-end transport protocols
have been defined here. The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable
connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be
delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. It segments the incoming
byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer. At the
destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the
output stream. TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a
slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.
• The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control
and wish to provide their own. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type
request-reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than
accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video
Application Layer
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model
• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact
with the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be
considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to
interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.
• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
Example networks
1. Internet
The Internet is not really a network at all, but a vast collection of different networks that use certain common protocols and provide certain
common services. It is an unusual system in that it was not planned by anyone and is not controlled by anyone.
ARPANET
ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency NET. ARPANET was first network which consisted of distributed control. It was
first to implement TCP/IP protocols. It was basically beginning of Internet with use of these technologies. It was designed with a basic idea in
mind that was to communicate with scientific users among an institute or university.
Characteristics of ARPANET :
1. It is basically a type of WAN.
2. It used concept of Packet Switching Network.
3. It used Interface Message Processors(IMPs) for sub-netting.
4. ARPANETs software was split into two parts- a host and a subnet.

Advantages of ARPANET :
• ARPANET was designed to service even in a Nuclear Attack.
• It was used for collaborations through E-mails.
• It created an advancement in transfer of important files and data of defense.
Limitations of ARPANET :
• Increased number of LAN connections resulted in difficulty handling.
• It was unable to cope-up with advancement in technology
 Architecture of Internet
• The architecture of the Internet is ever-changing due to continuous changes in the
technologies as well as the nature of the service provided. The heterogeneity and vastness
of the Internet make it difficult to describe every aspect of its architecture.
• The overall architecture can be described in three levels −
1. Backbone ISP (Internet Service Provider)
2. Regional ISPs
3. Clients
• Backbone ISP (Internet Service Provider) − Backbone ISPs are large international backbone networks.
They are equipped with thousands of routers and store enormous amounts of information in data
centers, connected through high bandwidth fiber optic links.
• Everyone needs to connect with a backbone ISP to access the entire Internet.
• There are different ways through which a client can connect to the ISP. A commonly used way is DSL
(Digital Subscriber Line) which reuses the telephone connection of the user for transmission of digital
data.
• The user uses a dial-up connection instead of the telephone call. Connectivity is also done by sending
signals over cable TV system that reuses unused cable TV channels for data transmission.
• For high-speed Internet access, the connectivity can be done through FTTH (Fiber to the Home), that
uses optical fibers for transmitting data.
• Nowadays, most Internet access is done through the wireless connection to mobile phones from fixed
subscribers, who transmit data within their coverage area.
Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Phones
Third generation mobile phones, or “3G Internet” mobile phones, is a set of standards for wireless mobile
communication systems, that promises to deliver quality multimedia services along with high quality voice
transmission.
Areas of application
There are a number of use cases and applications for 3G technologies:
• Mobile networks. The 3G standard is most commonly used within mobile networks and their radio access
technology platforms.
• Mobile phones/smartphones. The most common 3G devices are mobile phones for basic voice and text
connectivity, as well as smartphones that provide more capabilities to users for data transfer and access.
3G-enabled smartphones helped drive development and adoption of mobile internet sites.
• Mobile broadband routers. For both consumer and business use cases, mobile broadband routers that support
the 3G standard can enable internet connectivity for endpoint devices that are attached to the router -- either via
a wire or Wi-Fi.
• Computer modems. 3G Universal Serial Bus (USB) modems for computer laptops enable cellular connectivity
for devices that don't have access to Wi-Fi or a wired network connection.
• Cellular backup. In various devices -- including wired routers and home alarm systems -- a cellular backup
option is sometimes available. Cellular backup enables the primary connectivity via a fixed wired connection, and
in the event of a failure, the device will fail over to use the cellular connection.
• Telematics. 3G is widely deployed to enable telematics applications for the automotive industry, enabling
vehicles to share information for transportation and fleet management use cases.
• 3G provides a peak speed of up to 14 Mbps and works at frequencies up to
2.1 gigahertz (GHz).
• 4G has a peak speed of up to 100 Mbps and works at frequencies up to 2.5
GHz. 4G technology includes multiple input, multiple output (MIMO) and
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) technologies to increase
speed and capacity over 3G.
• 5G has a theoretical peak speed of 20 Gbps and works at frequencies of up
to 95 GHz. 5G also offers the promise of reduced power consumption over
its predecessor, which will enable more use cases, including embedded
deployment for internet of things (IoT) devices.