3£L

Underground environment and mine ventilation / A-2.42 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.1

4. How does the speed of a mine fan affect the air quantity, water gau
and H. P. of the fan motor ? CHAPTER 3
What are the different ways to vary the quantity of air going down t
mine ?
5. Compare the forcing fan with an exhaust fan.
DISTRIBUTION OF AIR AND ITS
6. What is meant by fan characteristics? What is a non-overloading CONTROL
characteristic ?
7. Draw up the code of Standing Orders to be observed in the event of Air in a mine is coursed to the working places by the use of brick
stoppage of the main ventilating fan of a gas^y mine. stoppings, doors, brattice cloth, air-crossing, air pipes and regulators. The
leakage of air should be avoided and it should be noted that a good proportion
8. What do you understand by "adequate ventilation" in a coal mine?
of air leaks through faulty arrangement of cover the shaft mouth and its lifted
What should be the air velocity at the working face and other important up by the detaching hook when the cage ascends to the surface. The best
places in a coal mine ? arrangement is an air lock which encloses the shaft fully. Conventional air
lock has two doors on each outlet so that when one is opened, the other
9. A 200 m long longwall face is ventilated by two gate roads each 300
remains closed. The walls of the air lock have large windows with glass for
m long. Calculate the quantity that will flow along the face when a natural light.
ventilating pressure of 150 Pa is applied acros the gate roads at the
The various devices used for distribution and control of air in a mine
outbye end. The face has a resistance of 0.6 Ns r per 100 m length.
are shown on the mine plane by signs, of which the most common are shown
2 8

Neglect leakage between gate roads. in the appendix of this Part A.

4 Ventilation Stoppings have to be made of incombustible material
and therefore are of brick or stone. The thickness of a ventilation stopping is
o o o minimum 38 cms of brick or stone in lime or cement and plastered to prevent
leakage of air (D.G.M.S. Cir. No. 17 of 1964).
^ Aircrossings are constructed where intake air and return air currents
have to cross each other. These should be leakage-proof, fireproof and have
ample cross-section. Normally an air crossing is constructed at a place where
it has reasonably long life and the ground free from rock movement.
Air crossing m gassy coal mines (deg. 2 and 3) should be explosion-proof
(Fig. 3.1).
cifr—-"iSoors are used on those roads which are required for haulage or
travelling purposes. If a door is no longer required for ventilation it should be
taken off the hinges & kept away. The ventilation door must be arranged to
close automatically and with this object the frame of the door is so fitted that
the top leans about 50mm-75mm forward in the direction of air pressure.
The door, of course, should open against the intake air so that the air pressure
normally keeps it closed.
 V
Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.3
Distribution of air & its control/A-3.2
Ascensional and descensional ventillation :
Ascensional ventilation implies taking the intake ventilating air to
the lowest point of a district or face and allow it to travel to higher levels to
ventilate the district or face before it goes to the return. Descensional ventilation
implies taking the air to the rise side of a district and allow it to travel to
lower levels as it ventilates the working places. In Fig. 3.3 the split A has
ascensional ventilation.
Ascensional ventilation is preferable because :
1. Firedamp being lighter than air, is readily carried to higher levels.
\\\\/)// >\\v/// wwy/^ww///) ww///)\\\s/// w\\///y \ss // \\\\y, ?~w
2. Natural ventilation pressure assists the fan ventilation because the air
Fig. 3.1 Aircosting gets hot during its travel in the mine and has a tendency to go to
higher levels.
& A regulator is a window of adjustable opening in a brick stopping.
3. If the fan should stop, the air will continue to flow in the same direction
The shutter ofthe regulator can be locked in position to prevent tampering by
by natural ventilation.
workers. Introduction of a regulator in a roadway increases the resistance to
air current and it should, therefore, be used on the return side of a district Descensional ventilation has some advantages in hot deep mines.
whose ventilation has to be reduced and fixed in a place where all the air of The main advantage is the air has not to pass over water drains ofthe dip side
the district has to pass. Obviously a regulator cannot be placed on haulage and it reaches the working face in drier and cooler condition. At one deep mine
roads. The regulator has the effect of reducing the air flowing in the regulated uc c) in Raniganj field worked by
c) DC
split and at the same time increasing (although not to the same extent) the

t m\ i
advancing longwall and hydraulic
volume of air flowing in the
unregulated split. If a return airway
| D,D sand stowing the dip side face of
the double unit longwall face had
is common to two districts and one • INTAKE K 71

pj a relative humidity at 93% with

of the districts has to be regulated, f U
7, RETURN |
the regultor must be placed in the ascensional ventilation because the
intake airway of the split to be SPLIT B intake air was passing over drains
(DESCENSIONAL)
regulated. It such intake airway is of water coming out from stowed
to be used for traffic of tubs or n SPLIT A
(ASCENSIONAL) goaf. When that particular face was
workers it is not possible to fit the u ventilated by descensional
regulator in a stopping and it
should therefore be fitted in a
| RETURN i UU\
U-
t ventilation, the relative humidity
_v:v:&v::%^%'v::^ ventilation door. INTAKE came down to 65%.
i—h
Fig. 3.3 Ascensional and descensional ventilation.
Fig. 3.2 A regulator
Homotropal and Antitropal ventilation :
Brattice partitions are erected to course the ventilating current
upto the working face in a narrow heading e.g. in the main heading or When the air and mineral flow in the same direction, the ventilation
companion heading in bord and pillar working. Only the roads inbye of the is known as homotropal ventilation.
last connecting gallery or roadway should be fitted with a brattice partition When air and mineral flow in opposite directions the ventilation is
which is, however, useful only for a limited length. Long stone drifts and headings, said to be antitropal. This would apply to split A in Fig. 3.3. where coal flows
if partitioned by brattice cloth, will not give adequate quantity of air at the face on conveyors in the direction opposite to air current (conveyor is assumed in
and an auxiliary fan is usually the convenient arrangement for properventilation. intake road).
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.4 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.5
With homotropal ventilation the velocity of air relative to coal is less Splitting supplies fresh air to each ventilating district. As the overall
as compared to that in antitropal ventilation. The amount of coal dust at the resistance ofthe mine is reduced, for the same water gauge produced by fan
face is therefore less with homotropal than in case of antitropal ventilation. k and the same H.P. of motor, a much larger total quantity of air circulates
Homotropal ventilation has other advantages in respect of humidity and dealing through the mine. Air velocities are reduced in the roadways and at the face
with fire in mines having longwall faces. and coal dust formation is lessened. The reduced velocity of air has reduced
Splitting: drying effect on the coal dust. Fire, gas emission, on roof fall in a district,
resulting in derangement of its ventilation does not affect other districts. Splits
With a view to have fresh air in a district, unpolluted by human reduce the doors on haulage roads but increase the number of aircrossings.
breathing or gas emission in other districts, a branch of air current
(also called split) is taken from the main air current which travels inbye In a mine a large number of splits result in proportionately less quanity
from the DC shaft. Each ventilating district is ventilated by a separate split. in each district and consequently reduced velocity which may not be able to
A ventilating district, as defined in the Regulations, means such part of a clear off gas or may not provide adequate ventilation to the district.
mine below ground as has an independent intake airway commencing from a The number of splits should be such that the air velocity is not unduly
main intake airway, and an independent return terminating at a main return low and that the ventilation is adequate as defined in the mining Regulations.
airway. If an intake airway has two, three or more splits branching off it, the As far as practicable all the splits should be of the same resistance but some
intake airway has the splits in parallel and the combined frictional resistance split maybe required to carry more air because of its extensive working faces
of the main intake airway and splits is much less than that ofthe main intake or more gas emission. The minimum air velocity at the working faces is stated
airway alone. The resistance follows nearly the same laws as are applicable in earlier chapter (see mining Regulations).
to electrical resistance in parallel and in series. The combined resistance of an underground system of roadways having
one or more splits is given by the formula.

D.C. 1 1 1 1 1

U.C.
VR VJR7
where R is the combined (or equivalent) resistance of the system of
roadways and R R , R etc. are the resistance of individual splits. The effect
v 2 N

on the quantity flowing is illustrated by the following examples.

Example 1:
A total quantity of 100 m /min of air is passing through two splits.
3

One airway is 2.5m x 1.5m and 100m long, and the other, with similar
lining, is 2m x 1.5m and 125m long. Calculate the quantity of air passing in
8
each split.
B
Answer: Since the two splits are subjected to the same pressure, and
the nature of lining is the same, from the equation.
n KSQ ,
P = — — . w e have
2

A 3

A „ z A
Q a J— o r Q a .
Fig. 3.4 Splitting of air current (Schematic) F is passage to the fan drift. V S y perimeter x length
 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.7
Distribution of air & its control/ A-3.6

Relative quantity in split N o . l -

| (2.5xl.5)
-\J2(2 5 + 15)xl00
3
Q l : ° °
2 7T : : : 3 : i IS
or Q, : Q : Q : : 1 : 0.709 : 0.579
2 3

= 0.2567 Sum of the relative quantities = 1 + 0.709 +0.579 = 2.288

. I (2xl.5)3 Quantity in split No. 1 = 200 x — — = 83.03m /min 3

Relative quantity in split No. z - (2 + 1 5)x 125 V 2.288

0 709
= 0.1757 Quantity in split No. 2 = 2 0 0 x — — = 61.97 m / min 3

z.zoo
Sum of the relative quantities = 0.4324 Quantity in split No. 3 = 200 - (88.03 + 61.97)
0 2567 = 50m /min.
3

Actual quantity of air in split No. 1 = — x 100

H 0.4324 0 579
= 59.37 mVmin. [Check: Quantity in split No. 3 = 200 x —
2.288
Actual quantity of air in split NO. 2 = 100 - 59.37
= 50.6 mVmin]
= 40.63 mVmin.
Leakage of Air:
0 1757
[ Check : quantity in split No. 2 = — x 100 The sources of leakage of air that goes down the mine are :
0.4324 1. Doors of the fan drift and air lock. If the air lock is provided with
= 40.63 mVmin glass windows to admit natural light at the pit top, a broken glass
pane causes heavy leakage.
Example 2 :
2. Where air lock is not provided, the space between the cages and shaft
Three splits in parallel, of similar cross-section and same type of walls and also between the cages and pit top leading level is a source
roadway surface, are respectively 300m, 600m and 900m long. Calculate the of leakage. If the pit top landing level is covered by a wooden lid
quantity of air which would flow in each if the total quantity is 200 m /min. 3
which is lifted by the ascending cage, the arrangement permits of
substantial leakage and it is heavy when the lid is lifted by the winding
KSQ'
Answer: From the relation p = rope capel and the cage is resting at the pit top.
A 3
3. Ventilation stoppings, ventilation doors and air crossing.
2 PA 3 PA : 4. In the longwall method of coal mining, the roadside pack walls if the
KS K x L x Perimeter goaf is not solid stowed.
5. Broken or crushed pillars of coal.
Since A, K and perimeter are constant here,
6. Wrong siting of underground booster fan.
1 Because of leakage the total quantity of air that reaches the working
Qa
faces is only 25 to 50% of that circulated by the main fan. The bord and pillar
1 1 1 method of coal mining is notorious for poor ventilation at the working faces
Qi:Q :Q compared to the longwall method.
^300 '600 V900
2 3
 Distribution of air & its control/ A-3.8
Elements of Mining Technology'-2 / A-3.9
Under average coditions 45 to 55% of air circulated by fan reaches
Air shaft Operating shaft Air shaft
the working face in an in-the-seam-worked coal mine, slightly higher
(55-65%) in the case of coal mines worked by horizon mining, and still
higher in metal mines. Periodical ventilation surveys for the quantity can give
an idea ofthe leakages which can be reduced, if not completely avoided, by
the following measures.

1. Air locks at the pit top should be of proper design.

2. Doors of the air locks and of the fan drift should have rubber lining
for leakage-proof closing.
3. Precautions should be taken to see that both the doors of an air lock
are not opened stimultaneously and this point should be impressed
upon the workers. If possible the doors should be mechanically
interlocked so that when one is open, the other can-not be opened.
4. Have the underground intake and return as far apart as possible and
have very few connections between them. If possible, the main return Fig. 3.5 Boundary ventillation system commonly adopted to metal mines.

and main intake of the mine should be kept in different seams. In most of the coal mines, however, the standard practice is to use
.idjacent shafts as intake and return shafts and very often the main intake and
Care must be taken to locate major airways in strong undisturbed
icturn airways underground are also adjacent, resulting in much leakage and
ground to reduce leakage. necessitating use of many controlling and regulating devices.
5. All the underground ventilation doors, ventilation stoppings and
aircrossing should be well constructed and maintained.
6. In longwall method of coal mining roadside packwalls should be
well constructed to avoid leakage through them.
7. Where the pillars of coal/mineral are broken or cracked, sometimes
due to heavy roof pressure as in the vicinity of depillaring/stopping
area or near fault zones, they should be coated by a spray of cement-
mortar.
8. For reducing leakage it is preferable to use a large number of low
pressure fans in series than a single fan producing high pressure.
A system of ventilation normally adopted in metal mines is the boundary
ventillation system. This is possible where the D.C. and U.C. shafts are located
at opposite ends of the property and the air from the intake to the return side
is practically eliminated. The fresh and cool intake air goes to the lowest
levels where rock temperature is the hottest.
Fig. 3.6 Air distribution in bord-and-pillar workings.
 Distribution of air & its control/ A-3.10 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.11

Compared to the other air locks the German type air-lock is not
constructed above the banking level but below it. The pit top is completely
covered with steel joists and thick wooden planks except for two rectangular
openings for passage of the cages. In these openings two hollow boxes of M':S.
v:v>:>>: GOAF
•"•X*X*X* .v/Xv X*X*X-X»X-X plates, open at the top and bottom, are suspended rigidly from the above
X'X'XwXyX^X^X^XvX^X^
X'X'X-X'X'X'X'XvXvXvX* mentioned shaft top covering and their length is equal to the height of the
cages. The pit top banking level is flush with the pit top covering and the
1' 1 GOAF >>•:
space between the shaft walls and pit top wooden covering is closed by
rubber linings.

The hollow steel boxes suspended from the pit top covering are also
lined with rubber sheets throughout the length and also at the top and bottom
openings.A trapezoid shaped covering of aluminium to cover the bridle
/ F/g. 3.7 Air distribution in longwall workings; double-unit face.
(suspension) chains is provided and it has a small opening for the passage of
AirLocks:, safety hook. This trapezoidal shaped aluminium box rests on the pit top
At a number of mines the type of air lock provided consists of only 1 covering the corresponding cage at the pit bottom but can be lifted by it when
simple covering at the top of a shaft which is lifted up by the upcoming cage. ascending. The small opening at the top ofthe trapezoidal aluminium body is
In this design heavy leakage of air, as much as 30% of the quantity of covered by a separate wooden lid with a small hole for the winding rope.
circulated by mechanical ventilator, takes place when the cage is resting When the ascending cage approaches the banking level the safety hook first
the pit top. Such a design of the airlock therefore cannot be considered lifts the wooden lid over the aluminium boxing which is itself lifted, a second
suitable. later, by the ascending cage. The space of guide ropes between adjacent cage
is also covered with a woode- ,rame lined with rubber-sheets and small
The suitable airlock designs are :
openings are provided in the fi, i me for the requirnK 11. .A guide rope shoes as
1. Standard type of air-lock at the top of a shaft enclosing part of the p the cage moves up and down. The rubber linings at various openings prevent
top. leakage of air.
2. Guillotine type of doors which are provided in a vertical steel
fitted within the headgear.
3. German type of a airlock which forms an airlock inside the shaft.
The German type air-lock below banking level.
 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.13
Distribution of air & its control/A-3.12
A booster is a more or less permanent installation designed to pass the whole
An air lock of this type is provided at Chinakuri Colliery. of the air circulating in the district or districts concerned. An auxiliary fan, on
W I N D I N G RO^PE
the other hand, is a more or less temporary installation designed to pass only
WOODEN COVER
WITH R U B B E R LINING a proportion of the air circulating in the district and it is used for
ALL ROUND SHAFT
i. long headings or stone drifts which are carried in advance of the
normal ventilating current and thus constitute dead ends, or
it clearing of roof fall which has obstructed the normal air supply.
A booster fan may be placed in the return to act as an exhaust fan
or it may be placed in the intake to act as a forcing fan. It is usually of axial
WOODEN BLOCKS TO
flow type and the manner of its installation is shown in Fig. 3.9.
GUARD GUIDE ROPES

RUBBER .SQMETRICVIEW SUSP^Dffi CTEEL^

LINING O P E N AT TOP & BOTTOM

Fig* 3.9 Installation of boosterfan : air screw fan.

The axial flow fan placed in the byte pass of an intake air way is
shown in Fig. 3.9. It is a forcing fan. A door provides access to the motor
room and an air lock provides for passage of men and materials (if equipped
with haulage track). The installation advantages, viz. (i) compactness (ii) the
fan can be mounted directly in the path of ventilating air as air flows axially
througii XL a small size axial flow fan up to 0.5m diam. fitted with a
direct driving motor can be mounted in the canvas ventilation tube used for
ventilating a long split.
R U B B E R LINING
Auxiliary: 1 As already stated an auxiliary fan is used in the mines
for the ventilation of development headings, for narrow workings in coal and
SECTION ON A- B
NOT T O S C A L E
for stone drifts which are carried in advance of the normal ventilating current.
Fig. 3.8 The German type air lock. Axial flow fans are preferred to centrifugal fans as auxialliary ventilators.
An auxiliary fan should be so installed that there is no possibility of recirculation
Booster and auxiliary fans : ofthe air supplied by it to the working place. The quantity of air taken by an
A common arrangement to improve the quantity of air in one or more auxiliary fan should not exceed l/3rd ofthe quantity in the air current from
districts having high resistance, without increasing the total quantity of air which the fan takes its supply. (D.G.M.S Cir. No. 82 of 1963 places this limit
circulated by the main surface fan, is the installation of a booster fan.
 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.15
Distribution of air & its control/A-3.14
Auxiliary fans are not provided with arrangement for volume control
•is it would make die fan heavy but on some large fans an inlet-vane or damper
at — of the air current from which the fan takes its air supply.) The site of
Control is provided to regulate the air quantity.
installation should be a sufficient distance outside the actual heading it (lontra-rotating Axial-Flow fan :
is intended to ventilate. A forcing fan therefore should be placed on the
This fan consists of two impellers rotating in opposite directions.
intake side and an auxiliary exhausting fan on the return side of the drift
The impellers are enclosed within a cylindrical casing and each impeller is
it has to ventilate and the minimum distance between the fan and the
driven by its own motor. The downstream impeller assists in restoring axial
corner of the drift/road to be ventilated should be 5m as shown in the How of the air which has received circular motion when passing through the
Fig. 3.10. 111 )stream impeller. This helps the efficiency of the fan, and it can develop upto
» » » » » » » » » » » » » VANNVWkSVm V j times the w.g. developeed by a single impeller without guide vanes. The fan
w.g. can be regulated by allowing downstream impeller to be idle. When
i cversed the fan produces nearly 60% of the normal air quantity.
These fans can be coupled together in series for getting higher water gauge,
3F777777! (fig. 3.11).
5m—| I*- 5 m-*-

Fig. 3.10 Installation of auxiliary fan, A-a forcing fan; B-an exhaust fan.
Fig. 3.11 Contra-rotating axial-flow fan.
All metallic parts of an auxiliary fan installation should be carried to Air Tubes:
avoid build up of electrostatic charges which can ignite methane by sparking. The air ofthe auxiliary fan (forcing type) is supplied to the working
The quantity of air to be circulated by an auxiliary fan depends upon face through sheet steel air-tubes or through canvas tubing which is made of
the rate of gas emission in the drift/roadway and varies from one installation fabric impregnated with rubber to make it airtight and resistant to dampness
to another. In general terms it may be said that the quantity per minute should and mine gases. The canvas tubing is light, easy to handle and can be rolled
be 7m per m of the working face.
3 2
up for easy transport. Normally it is available in lengths of 8 or 16m. Just
Auxiliary ventilators, compared to boosters, are much smaller in size before short-firing the last few lengths near the face should be withdrawn to
and are used for ventilating shafts, drifts, tunnels and long development avoid damage by blasting. In the case of exhausting auxiliary ventilator the
headings, particularly in metal mines, where the small size of working place usual canvas tubing cannot be used and only the sheet steel air-tubes have to
does not permit bratticing. be installed; the air reaches the working face through the entire cross-section
 Distribution of air & its contiol/ A-3.16 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.17

ofthe road and foul air returns through the sheet-steel tubing to the exhausti Booster fan and neutral line :
fan. Flexible canvas or PVC ducting incorporating wire armouring embedded A booster fan, as already stated is installed to increase the quantity of
in the fabric is available for exhaust ventilation. Such ducting is expensive but air passing in a split or ventilating district of high resistance, Such split may
does not collapse under suction. The air tubes of an auxiliary fan can b| be either a long single split or one in parallel with another split. When the fan
suspended from hangers fixed in the roof-supporting steel arches, or they can
is installed the w.g. on the return side ofthe split, at least for some distance,
be supported on long steel spikes inserted into the sides of a drift/roadway.
increases in relation to that on the intake side and there is some position in the
D.G.M.S Circular No. 82 of 1963 contains the following instruction! ventilation system ofthe split where, after the installation ofthe booster fan,
on the use of auxiliary fan underground. there is no pressure drop between the intake and the return. Such position is
"With a view" to preventing re-circulation of air which could lead to known as the neutral line and it is shown as the line NL in Fig. 3.12. The Fig.
a dangerous situation in a mine, it is recommended that the following rules shows a single district which has to be ventilated by a booster to be installed
should be observed in all mines where auxiliary fans are installed. on the return side. Let us assume that drop of pressure from the junction of
intake and the split, X, to the junction of the split with the return, Y, is 50mm.
1. To prevent recirculation of air the quantity of dir taken by an auxiliary A is the midpoint of the longwall face.
fan shall not exceed one half of the quantity in the current from
which the air passing through the fan is drawn provided that this rule Before the installation of a booster every point on the intake is at a
shall not apply where the inlet and outiet ends ofthe duct are separated higher pressure than any point on the return side and the pressure drop, for the
by doors or seals. sake of simplicity, may be assumed to be at uniform rate from X to A (25mm)
and from A to Y (25mm), the total drop from X to Y being 50mm, represented
2. All auxiliary fan installations, which draw air from an intake airway
on the graph by the dotted line XA and AY.
and feed it into a return airway, shall be examined once at least in
every week by the Ventilation Officer to check that the quantity of air
passing in the intake airway on the inlet side of the fan or fans (if
more than one fan is drawing air from the same airway) is sufficient
for the proper ventilation of the inbye workings where fan/fans is/are
running.
3. Before any auxiliary fan is installed the quantity of air flowing in the
airway at the point where it is proposed to install it, shall be measured
(a) to avoid the possibility of recirculation, (b) for the proper ventilation
of inbye district when the fan is running.
4. (i) If it is necessary to regulate an auxiliary fan, it shall be done in such
a way as to prevent unauthorised or inadevertant alternation.
(ii) Fans delivering air through flexible ducting shall not be regulated by
constricting the ducting.
(Hi) Fans with rigid ducting shall not be regulated by placing loose
obstructions such as bricks or stones in the ducting.
5. No person other than an official of the mine, ventilation officer or a
person authorised by the manager to do so shall regulate the quantity
of air passing through or delivered by any auxiliary fan.
F2
The main provisions of the above instructions are included in the Fig. 3.12 Booster fan and the neutral line.
amendments to mining Regulations in 1972.
Fj and F are two alternative positions of the booster.
2
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.18 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.19
After the installation of the booster at the point F p the general Let resistance of regulator to \.
effect is to
When the flow in the two splits is equal, R + R = R B R A

(a) increase the volume of air in the split,

Or, \\ R - Rg = 2.22 - 1.25 = 0.97 resistance units.
(b) increase the pressure dropfromX to A to some value over 25mm
A

as P = RQ . The higher pressure drop from X to the face A is shown by a

2 1-2 _ 2
steeper line XA The same quantity flows from the face to the booster and
r Area of regulator = f— ~ - 1 zz m

therefore the rate of fall of w.g. represented by the line A D from the face to F
l 1

is the same as from X to A At D the booster boosts up the water gauge by, say
r

35mm, represented by the line DM. The total air leaving'the booster at F x 800 = R Q +R (^j
T 2 A = 0.245 Q + ^ - p - Q
2 2

passes to the point Y and the rate of fall of water gauge, say, per m length of
road is the same as from X to A A to D, and from M to Y. The point P lies on
v r

the neutral line NL and at this point there is no pressure difference between o r Q = — = 1000 or Q=Vl000 = 31.6m /s
2 3

intake and the return. At any point between Fj and P the return w.g. is higher 0.8
than intake w.g. and a leakage of foul return air can take place on the intake
across the ventilation stoppings and other places of leakage. If the booster is Example (S.I.):
placed close to the neutral line NL between P and Fj the leakage is negligible
as the pressure difference between intake and return is then small. If the booster A mine fan produces a pressure of 500 Pa and passes 25m /s of air in 3

is placed at some other point outbye of NL, say at F , the neutral line is not
2
i he mine. The mine has trunk airways and two splits A and B. Air flow in split
developed and the intake pressure always exceeds that of the return. One A is 15m /s and in split B, 10 m /s. With a view to increase the air flow in
3 3

disadvantage, however, is that there is considerable pressure difference between split B to 15 m /s a booster is to be installed in it. Calculate the size ofthe
3

the intake the return and the leakage, if it takes place, is maximum (from booster if the resistance ofthe shafts and trunk airways is 0.2 resistance units.
intake to return).
Answer:
Let R = Resistance of Split A,
Example (S.I.):
A :

resistance of split B,
Two ventilation splits A and B pass 15 and 20 m /s of air respectively
:
3

with a pressure drop of 500 Pa across them. The trunk airways consume a • resistance of shafts and trunk airways,
pressure of 300 Pa. If the air flow in the two splits is to be equal by installing P B = pressure generated by the booster fan,
a regulator, calculate the size of the regulator, assuming the fan pressure to
quantity in split A after booster installation
remain constant before and after installation of a regulator. What will be the Qa =
air flow in the mine after fitting of the regulator. quantity in split B after booster installation.
Qb =
and total quantity flowing in the mine after booster fitting.
Answer: Qt =
Before installation ofthe booster.
Resistance of split A, R. = = 2.22 units
15 2 500 = x25 + R x 15 = R,. x 25 + R„ x l O
2 A 2 2 2

Resistance of split B, R = -^5- = 1.25 units

R
or \= 1.67 resistance units
20 2 and 3.75 resistance units, since R, = 0.2 units.
Resistance of trunk airways, R_ = = 0.245 units After installation ofthe booster,
35
500 = R Q + R ( Q - Q )
2

Let the new quantity in the mine after installation ofthe regulator in
T T2 A T B 2

split B be Q m /s.
3
= 0.2 Q T2 + 1.67 (Q - 15) since Q = 15m /s,
T 2 B 3
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.20 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.21
By solving the above equation, we get After installation of booster in B, the whole of the main fan pressure
Q = 29 m /s, neglecting the negative value of Q.
T 3 r is consumed in overcoming the resistance of shafts and trunk airways. If Q is
In relation to flow in split B, ilie quantity flowing through trunk airways as well as through split B after
installation of booster, and assuming main fan pressure to remain unchanged.
500 + P = R ^
B 2

= 3.75 x 225 + 0.2 x 29 2

1200 = 1.28 Q or Q = 30.62 m /s.
2 3

which gives P = 512 Pa.

B
Resistance of split B = 400/10 = 4 Ns n r
2 2 8

Therefore critical pressure of the booster = 4 (30.62) 2

The points to note from the above examples are :

= 3750 Pa = 3.75 kPa.
1. An increase in the air-flow in the boosted district increases the total
The general considerations in installing a booster should be :
quantity passing in the mine.
2. The increased quantity results in a greater pressure loss in the shaft! 1. Is the installation of a booster in a particular split justified ?
and trunk airways and thus reduces the pressure available for air 2. What should be its site and what effect it will have on the general
flow across the splits. system of ventilation ?
3. Horse power remaining the same, the main mine fan generates less 3. Will it cause recirculation of the foul return air ?
pressure when circulating a larger quantity of air in the mine. 4. What w.g. should it develop ?
4. This causes a reduction in the quantity of air in the unboosted split.
If the booster is placed too for inbye of the neutral point in either
Too large a booster in one split can cause stoppage of air current or intake or return, a zone for recirculation will inevitably occur if the booster is
even reversal of air current in the other splits, particularly, if the trunk resistance placed too far outbye ofthe neutral line the pressure difference between intake
is high compared to the resistance of the splits. If there are two splits in and return will be increased and excessive leakage will occur in the normal
parallel and the pressure of one is boosted by a booster, in theory, the booster direction. Though this will not be dangerous, it will be inefficient.
has a critical pressure at which the pressure difference at the point of
splitting drops to zero. All the air then passes through the booster while the ait For installation of booster seven days notice has to be given to the
passing in the unboosted split-in parallel is nil. The selection ofthe size of a •l.D.M.S.
booster and its location need, therefore, careful planning. Compressed air jets:
Example (SI): Where compressed air is available underground, as in most of the
metal mines, quantity of air at the working face can be increased by admission
Find the critical pressure for a booster fan to be installed as per thai of only a small compressed air jet in an air tube. The small quantity purposely
following data. introduced in the air tube increases the air flow by about 20% at the face. A
The main surface fan at a mine developes a pressure of 1.2. KPa Of venturi-tube blower having a convergent-divergent tube is more efficient in
this 0.8 KPa is consumed in the shafts and trunk airways and 0.4 kPa is used this respect and increase the flow by nearly 30%.
up in ventilating two splits A and B. Air flow in split A is 15 m /s and in B,
3

10m /s. What should be the critical pressure of the booster to be installed in
3

split B ? •
Answer:
Installation of booster in split B will reduce the flow of air in split A qZZnZEB. g ZZZZZZZZlZlZZZZZZZZZZZBZZZZk
to zero. AIR TUBE
Now the quantity passing through the trunk airways before installation
of booster = 10 + 15 = 25m /s. 3
= 2
Resistance of trunk airways and shafts = 800/25 = 1.28 units.2
Fig. 3.13 Compressed air jets
 Distribution of air & its control/ A-3.22 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.23

Removal of gas accumulation in a large cavity : VENTILATION SURVEY :

An overman or Assistant Manager has sometimes to deal with such A ventilation survey is carried out to investigate the ventilation system
cases. A place is considered to be dangerous due to gas if it is 1.25% or more, of a mine and to find out the adequacy ofthe ventilation system, the points of
or measurable by the flame safety lamp. Suppose the cavity is 15m long and leakage and the extent of leakage, and the steps necessary for further
4m high above rail level on an intake and haulage road (Fig. 3.14). improvemet. The investigation is generally done in the following three ways.
1. Quantity surveying: This involves the measurement of the air velocity
The steps to be taken are as follows:
and the quantity of air flowing in various parts of the mine.
1. Withdraw all workers from the inbye side. 2. Pressure surveying: This involves the measurement of the air velocity
2. Cut off electric supply to the inbye workings where the intake air is and the quantity of air flowing in various parts of the mine.
passing from the cavity. 3. Qualitative surveying: This involves the determination of the freedamp
3. Install ventilation tubing 0.6m dia. made of galvanised iron sheets content at different strategic points in the mine and chemical analysis
extending from the cavity to nearest stopping by puncturing a hole in ofthe air samples, if necessary. If the firedamp content in the general
the stopping. body of return air of ventilating district exceeds 0.75%, the ventilation
4. The firedamp is sucked gradually to the return through the air tubes is inadequate.
and passes straight away to the U.C. shaft Quantity Surveying:
Such surveying is necessary (i) to ascertain the distribution of air in
the main roads, ventilation districts and at the working faces, (ii) to locate
leakages between intakes and returns, (iii) to know the efficiency of fan during
fan tests.
The quantity of air going down the mine and at other points has to be
measured periodically as per requirements ofthe Mining Regulations. (Once
in 14 or 30 days).

/////////
Quantity of air passing per minute at a place is given by the formula
INTAKE Q = A x V
where A = cross-sectional area of the roadway in m 2

and V = average velocity of air in m/min, at the place.

MAIN RETURN
The instruments that are used for measurement of air velocity are the
anemometer, the velometer, the pitot tube (already described in earlier chapter)
Fig. 3.14 Removal of gas accumulation in a large cavity
(For profilometer sea at the end of chapter).
In a mine the quantity of air measured at the entrance or at the
5. Inform the manager about the gas accumulation and its clearance. working places is always less than the quantity at the outlet of exhaust fan
To prevent firedamp accumulation in such a place again it is better to in upcast shaft because of (i) warming of the air during passage along
support the high cavity and pack it with boiler ash or sand. If this is not the roadways, (ii) admixture with gases given off from the strata, and
possible, leave the air tube permanently in position. (iii) expansion of the air due to reduction of the barometric pressure.
If the cavity were on the return side, it would suffice to erect a hurdle The increase in the quantity of air due to expansion in the upcast shaft can be
screen on the road so that air has to pass to the cavity over the hurdle screei roughly taken as 1% for every 100m depth and provision should be made for
and clear up the gas. this when estimating the quantity of air required to be circulated by the fan.
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.24
Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.25
Anemometer: Move the instrument throughout the cross-section of the roadway as shown by
It is an instrument to determine the distance travelled by air in a i he path in the Fig. 3.15. After 2,3 or 4 minutes declutch the instrument and
given time and is used where the air velocities are between 60m and simultaneously stop the stop-watch. Take the reacting. The difference indicates
lOOOm/min. One type of anemometer (Fig. 3.15) consists of a small fan having i he distance travelled by air in the time recorded by the stop-watch. The average
its vanes at 40° to 50° to the direction of air flow. The travelling air rotates the velocity of air is then calculated.
vanes and through gearing arrangement the pointers on the dials of the In some models of anemometer the pointers on all the dials can be
anemometer record the distance travelled. There are usually one large and I >rought to zero by operation of a lever before using the instrument for purposes
3-4 small inner dials and a little practice is required in taking readings ofthe of calculating air travel.
instrument. The gears of the anemometer can be engaged or disengaged by The places where average velocity of air has to be measured should
a clutch. he selected on the following considerations.
1. The roadway should have nearly uniform cross-section for nearly 15m
on either side, and it should be straight.
2. The cross-section should be such that its area can be easily calculated.
3. It should be away from bends, junctions and places having sudden
changes in cross-section, andfreefromobstructions which may cause
turbulent air flow.
Electronic Anemometer:
Nanda Manufacturing Company is marketing an electronic
anemometer which possesses the following features:
Right - Dotted line indicates 1. Solid state circuitry with integrated circuits.
Fig. 3.15 Left-Anemometer. Right Doited line indicates 2. Sensing head : non contact type fully encapsulated electronic
Anemometer Range: 0 - 1.00.000m path of anemometer movement
transducer using principle of change in capacitance.
Possible measuring wind speed 1 — 15 mis 3. Indicator unit: measuring accuracy: ± 2%
4. Measurement of air velocity in 3 ranges.
When using the instrument in an underground roadway it should be
held away from the body of the observer and the plane of rotation ofthe vanes (i) 0.25-25m/s (ii) 0.25- 5 m/s (iii) 0.25-10m/s.
should be as near as normal to the direction of air flow. To determine the The battery used is Eveready type 276-P two nos.
velocity of air a stop-watch is essential in conjunction with an anemometer.
Velometer:
The instrument can be held at the end of a stick to avoid obstruction by the
body ofthe observer. The velometer is an instrument which directiy indicates the air velocity
To determine the average velocity of air at any point of a roadway in m/s at any point of observation. In an underground mine to find the average
velocity the spot readings should be taken at a number uf equally spaced
note the reading of the pointers ofthe instrument and with the instrument in
points over the cross-section of the roadway and the average value should then
declutched position hold it in the roadway away from the body. Keep stop-
he calculated.
watch ready at hand. At the desired moment set the stop-watch in motion and
stimultaneously engage at the gears of the anemometer by the clutch Nanda manufacturing Company is marketing a velometer which
arrangement. The instrument now records the distance travelled by the air. directly reads the flow of air or gases. The use of micro-circuits makes the
instrument not only compact and trouble free but also permits measurement
 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.27
Distribution of air & its control/ A-3.26
3. A time constant switch which selects one of three time constants,
of airflowto an accuracy of ± 2%. Besides the advanced electronics, the design
15, 30 or 60 sees, to 63% of total step change.
incorporates many outstanding features like the specially designed vanes
pivoted on jewels which make it extremely sensitive to air flow. 4. An alarm set point adjutment for 0-100% of the range selected, with
an alarm operating on a falling level.

Fig. 3.16 Velometer, Directly reads air Velocity. Range 0-15 m/s (N.M.C.)

The instrument consists of a sensing head and an indicator unit.

The head is either mounted on the indicator unit or a portable head with
extension cable and a polarised connector is available.
The head incorportaes a rotating vane type non-optical, non magnetic
and non-contact transducer which is unaffected by virbations, dust, temperature
or hiiinidity. This transducer generates electrical signals having a frequency
directly porportional to the rate of air flow through the head. These signals
are then converted to a direct current, which drives an indicating meter calibrated
in terms of flow rate per minute or meters per second.

BA 4 air velocity monitor:

It consists of the following parts:
Detector H e a d : The detector head measures air velocity between
0 and 10 m/s using a vortex shedding sensor which has no moving parts. Fig. 3.17 BA-4 air velocity monitor. (Right) Detector head.
There are three ranges 0.2 m/s, 0.5 m/s and 0. lOm/s, selectable by a switch
in the Control Unit. Each range is individually calibrated and therefore for In normal operation an integral lampflashesonce every 16 seconds
best accuracy the instrument should be used on the most sensitive range and in alarm condition, once every second, Some fault conditions cause the
appropriate to the air velocity being measured. Connection to the Control Unit lamp to cease flashing.
is by way of a 6-way socket and a cable which is available in various standard In addition to sockets for connection of the Detector Head and Power
lengths. Supply Unit, there is a recorder socket which provides a 0.4 - 2.0 volt D.C.
Control Unit: This unit houses an indicating meter, an alarm lamp signal corresponding to zero to full scale in each range for the recorder unit
and switches to control the BA4 system. The meter is scaled for the three and an alarm socket which provides a volt free relay contact which closes and
ranges mentioned above. The controls are: opens as the alarm lamp flashes on and off. In addition the alarm socket
provides an analogue output of 0.4-2.0 volt D.C. signal corresponding to zero
1. A power switch is OFF, battery Check, and ON >
to full scale on each range.
2. A range switch which selects one of the three ranges.
 Distribution of air & its control/ A- 3.28 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.29
Recorder Unit: This unit contains a Rustrak Recorder, a time marker
Smoke generator :
and clock battery. The recorder normally indicates the air velocity being
When the smoke generator is to be used, the tip of glass tube is broken
measured but every hour the signal is disconnected and the Recorder indicates
off. Now bulb is squeezed. Air charged with tetrachloride vapour issues from
below the offset zero. The chart speed is approximately 12.7 mm/hr and
reference should be made to the time event marks for the exact time place. i he tip immediately forming a while vapour. The cloud consists of fine particles
which are suspended in the atmospher longer than ordinary dust and are
Battery Packs : Two battery packs are available. readily carried along by the air current. When the apparatus is not in use the
1. A 7Ah which may be float-charged underground by means of a I ip is convered by the rubber cap.
flameproof power supply with intrinsically safe output to enable
instrument operation during week-end shutdown periods when mains Precaution :
power supply is disconnected. When surface charged, this battery It is advisable that before using the smoke generator upper opening
will supply sufficient power for approximately five days. and lower opening ofthe glass tube is cleaned by any pin or hard wire. This is
2. A 20Ah battery surface-charged only, to supply power for essential because, when the apparatus is not in use, the chemical vapours
approximately twelve days. As an alternative to battery packs a choke the tube stem.
flameproof mains supply with intrinsically safe output can be provided Applications:
to power the BA4 directly. (a) For determining low velocity below the range of an ordinary
anemometer (below 1 metre per second).
Smoke generator for low velocity:
(b) For testing air tightness of seals or stoppings.
The smoke or dust can sometimes be used to measure air velocity.
In a metal mine, smoke can be easily produced by burning a fuse. Two men Pressure Surveying :
standing about 100 m apart with stopwatches in hand, measure the time The basic principle behind the pressure survey in a mine is Bernoulli's
taken for the smoke or other visible vapour to travel from position of one theorem which states; when a fluid flows through a passage of varying cross-
person to the position of another person. In a coal mine, the visible smoke section, the total energy ofthe moving steam remains constant, assuming no
cloud is produced by a simple arrangement shown in Fig. 3.18. friction losses.
Smoke generator consists of glass tube containing granulated pumice The total energy is the sum total of the kinetic energy and pressure
stone saturated with anhydrous tin or titanium tetrachloride. energy and so it follows that a reduction in the velocity energy is accompanied
Glass tube is fitted with a rubber aspirator bulb by rubber tubes at by a corresponding increase in the pressure energy.
one end and the other end is in the form of a tip covered by a rubber cap. A pressure survey can be carried out in two ways:
1. By ascertaining the total pressure of the air at each point with aneroid
barometers and then calculating the pressure difference.
2. By using a very sensitive inclined manometer.
The first method involves the use
of two sensitive, recently calibrated
aneroid barometers which should
be taken underground at least 24
hours before the start of the
pressure survey, so that they may
adjust themselves to the
underground pressure conditions.
This method is not much adopted
in our mines.
Fig. 3.18 Smoke generator
Fig. 3.19 Portable manometer
 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.31
Distribution of air & its control/ A- 3.30
A complete and systematic ventilation survey of a mine maybe carried
The other method uses sensitive inclined manometer (containing out in late summer and in late winter if there is no rapid change in the mine
alcohol), is simple and is generally adopted. The other accessories required characteristic. In shallow mines working with natural ventilation only, a
for carrying out the pressure survey with the help of inclined manometer are: quarterly survey is however, desirable. In very deep mines only the annual
two flexible rubber hose pipes, each 100m long; spirit level; measuring tape; survey should suffice. Before a booster fan is to be installed underground it is
ventilation plan; a tripod. (Fig. 3.20). essential to carry out a complete ventilation survey to study the possible effects
The stations at which pressure drops have to be measured are marked of the booster installation. Quantity measurement are to be made, under the
on the ventilation plan after a reconnaissance of the mine. The considerations Indian Coal Mines Regulations, once in 14 days in gassy coal mines (deg. 2
that apply to selection of stations for measurement of air quantity with the and deg. 3 mines) and once in 30 days in deg. 1 gassy mines.
help of anemometer apply in this respect also. The day on which pressure The points where the measurement have to be made for a pressure
survey (and in fact, any ventilation survey) is to be conducted should be a rest survey and a quantity survey are marked underground as permanent stations.
day in which ventilation appliances in the mine remain undisturbed. The fan
speed also should be constant during the period of the ventilation survey. It is Ventilation of deep mines and airconditioning :
essential that ventilation conditions should be maintained as steady as possible Ventilation of deep mines over 600 m pose the following problems:
during the pressure survey (and also during the quantity survey). 1. The strata temperature gradually increases, raising the temperature
of the mine air.
A B
2. Deep mines are dry, so the air current carries much underground
dust.
uM 3. In coal mines, the deeper mines are known to be more gassy than the
shallow ones; the quantity of gas liberated therefore increases and
needs large quantity of fan air.
4. The resistance to air current is high due to the large depth of the
Fig. 3.20 Pressure survey with inclined manometer. A and B are stations; shafts and powerful fans developing large w.g. are required.
dotted line indicates, rubber tubing; M-inclined manometer.
5. Capital investment on shaft sinking, shaft winders, etc. is high. Interest
To note the total pressure drop between the two adjacent stations
on such heavy capital investment and depreciation forms a sizeable
spread flexible hoses, connect them to inclined manometer placed midway amount of cost per tonne and to keep the cost of production low, deep
between adjacent stations and keep the hose ends facing the air current. See mines have to be planned for large outputs which require circulation
that (i) manometer base which rests on the tripod is level, and (ii) there is no of large air quantities. The main roadways have therefore to be of
leakage at the joints of hose pipes with the limbs of the manometer. ample cross-section for the large volumes of air.
Note the readings ofthe manometer and record them in a meausrement The circulation of large quantities of air at a high w.g. requires
book. powerful mechanical ventilators. Moreover high velocity of air current is
Generally pressure survey and quantity survey are carried out by the uncomfortable to the underground workers and to keep the ventilation adequate
same team (usually of 3 men) at the same time; therefore the readings ofthe with reasonable velocity of air current, the following measures are sometimes
ventilation survey are tabulated as follows : adopted:
(a) Methane drainage in the case of coal mines,
(b) Binding of dust instead of wetting it as wetting increases the humidity
g B <U
of air,
3 | V|
H U
i a

d o g
bO.S bo

Cc) Sending conditioned air underground by reducing its temperature to

-J ^a nearly 0°C and eliminating its water content as far as practicable,
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.32 Elements of Mining Te.chnology-2 / A-3.33
(d) Use of descensional ventilation. A brine pump circulates brine (a weak solution of calcium chloride
(e) Arranging winding of coal/mineral in the return airway and in th at a sp. gr. 1.22) through the network of tubes placed in the evaporator and
upcast shaft. extending in the path ofthe atmospheric air forced down the D.C. shaft by a
forcing fan. The chilled refrigerant passing through the evaporator absorbs
(f) Use of comp. air operated equipment instead of electrically operated
I he heat ofthe brine and the cold brine cools the atmospheric air on its way to
machines. The compressed air is cooled and its moisture content
the D.C. shaft. The liquid refrigerant is converted into gaseous state by the
considerably reduced by proper devices before sending it underground. heat extracted from the brine and is sucked into the compressor cylinder for
The Compressed air mains are located in the D.C. shaft and intake further recirculation.
airways and the water condensed in these compressed air mains is
The condenser consists of a network of tubes outside which the gaseous
drained out automatically by suitables devices fitted on the mains at
refrigerant (under a high temperature and pressure as a result of compression)
intervals.
passes and the internal surface of the tubes is in contact with the circulating
(g) By covering the undergound drains to minimise their water evaporation water (called coolant) at nearly atmospheric temperature. The water absorbs
and entry into circulating air current. heatfromthe refrigerant and the resultant hot water is pumped to form sprays
which dissipates the heat to the atmosphere. The cooling pond collects the
(h) Use of protable air coolers or semiportable spot coolers in hot stopes
water ofthe sprays for circulation.
or development districts of metal mines.
A good refrigerant should have a large latent heat of evaporation and
(j) Installation of booster fan underground in air splits with high
should evaporate and condense as near the atmospheric temperature and
resistance.
pressure as possible. The refrigerant is usually ammonia in the industrial type
In deep mines like the gold mines at Rand in South Africa, the gold refrigerant plants used on the surface. Its critical temperature is 131°C and
mines at Kolar Gold Field and some coal mines of Germany (over 1200m critical pressure 113 atmospheres. The gas is cheap and has the largest heat of
deep) conditioned air at nearly 3°C is sent down the mine. The air conditioning evaporation compared to other refrigerants but is toxic and corrosive for brass
plant consists essentially ofthe following units. and copper. However, leakage of the gas in a refrigeration system can be
easily detected because of its smell and corrosion can be avoided by selection
1. The refrigerant circulation system,
of suitable alloys for construction of the refrigeration system.
2. The brine circulation systm, Other refrigerants include freon, carbon dioxide, methyl chloride,
3. Coolant circulation system etc. For underground air cooling plant the gas Freon-12 is used as a refrigerant
(dichloro-difluoro-methane; chemical formula CF Cl ). It is. a harmless,
2 2

In the refrigerant circulation system, the refrigerant (usually ammonia colourless gas and does not affect C.I., steel and other metals. At atmospheric
gas) is compressed by a compressor and the gas, at a high temperature and pressure its boiling point is 29.4°C. Its disadvantages are : (1) It is about 7
pressure resulting from compression, passes through an oil separator which times as costly as other refrigerants like ammonia. (2) As it is odourless, its
extracts any oil picked up from the compressor cylinder. The oil-free gas leakage cannot be detected, unlike ammonia and the joints in the plant should
passes outside the tubes of a condenser where it is cooled to nearly atmospheric be tight.
temperature by circulating water. This results in liquefaction of most of the Although carbon di-oxide can reduce compressor size due to its low
refrigerant gas which then passes thorough a float regulator and when passing specific volume, it is not suitable for use at mines because of its low critical
through its needle valve, the gaseous portion suddenly expands resulting in temperature (32°C) and toxicity.
drastic lowering of its temperature to nearly - 12°C. The liquid portion ofthe I In confined places of underground workings ammonia should not be
refrigerant being in contact with the expanded gaseous refrigerant, also cools used as it is toxic and forms and explosive mixture with air, if present 30% by
down to nearly the same temperature. The refrigerant, most of it in the liquid volume.
state and part of it in the gaseous state at nearly -12°C goes to evaporator Brine is preferred to water when the air has to be cooled to a fairly
low temperature (nearabout the freezing point of water) because brine
(also called vaporiser).
has a lower freezing point and hence is less likely to freeze in pipe lines.
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.34 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.35
Calcium chloride and sodium chloride solutions are the commonly used brines liquid ammonia in the evaporator is vaporised an drawn into the cylinder and
as they remain liquid under all temperatures commonly encountered. is then compressed. After the extracttion of heat from ammonia the cooling
They have a relatively high specific heat and are fairly stable. water gets warm and is cooled again in a spray pond.
The capcity of an airconditioning plant is expressed in tonnes.
In the evaporator a weak calcium chloride solution (sp. gr. 1.22) is
A 1-tonne plant removes 3024 kcal/hr heat from the air passing through it.
circulated by 3 brine circulating pumps, each of 4.9 mVmin capacity.
The brine on leaving the evaporator, gets cooled and the cold brine is then
circulated through the cooler. A 2-stage axial-flow fan, 2400 mm dia., pushes
the air to be cooled over the cooler pipes. The brine, after cooling the air, gets
warm and has to be cooled again by the vaporisation of liquid ammonia in
I he evaporator.

Surface airconditioning plants are popular due to :

SPRAYS

1. Posisibility of using a cheap refrigerant like ammonia gas resulting

in cheapness ofthe plant.
COOLING WATER

2. Ease of disposal of waste heat.

CIRCUIT
EVAPORATOR

AIR I N T A K E 3. Ease of getting water at surface temperature and facility of its

circulation in unconfined space.
AMMONIA C I R C U I T

Fig. 3.21 Schematic diagram of the air conditioning plant at the surface
of Giffords shaft at Kolar Gold Field (800 te cap). ' 4. Convenience of operation, inspection and maintenance.
Surface plant produces large N.V.P. because of large temperature
Fig. 3.21 shows the airconditioning plant which was installed on the
surface at Gifford shaft of Champion Reef Mine, K.G.F. The following description difference of U.C. and D.C. air columns.
relates to it when it was in use. It is a 800-te capacity plant and cools the Underground air conditioning plants are used for circulating only a
intake air from 21°C (wet bulb temp.) to nearly 3°C saturated. The plant part of the air going to deeper levels. C0 or freon gas is generally used.
2

consists of a reciprocating compressor, an oil separator, a condenser (shell

and tubes type), an evaporator (shell and tubes type), cooling pond with water The limiting depth of a mine is determined by the air temperature
sprays, water pump, brine pump, a cooler. The cooler consists of a large coil and humidity, apart from considerations of strata pressure and roof control,
of 38mm bore steel pipes. as well as strength of hoist ropes.
Ammonia gas is compressed by a reciprocating cmpresor driven by a Spot Cooler :
300 kW, 300 r.p.m. motor. The compressed gas, after passing through an oil
separator, passes on to a condenser where it is cooled to liquification by In Mosabani copper mine and some other mines small capacity spot
circulating cold water by three 22kW pumps, each of 3 m / min. capacity. 3
coolers are used underground to provide cool air to places which are
The cooling water extracts the heat of compression of the gas and also the uncomfortably hot. A spot cooler is a semiportable, small sized air conditioning
latent heat of evaporation of ammonia. The liquified ammonia passes to the plant with a fan installed underground with the limited purpose of supplying
evaporator through the float regulator which so adjusts the flow that a constant conditioned air to few working faces. Its cooling capacity varies from 37,800
level of liquid ammonia is maintained in the evaporator. The compressor to 126,000 kcal/h. There are two types of spot coolers : (a) where the direct
compresses the gas during the onward stroke and during the return stroke a
evaporation of the refrigerant cools the air, and (b) where an intermediate
partial vacuum is created in the cylinder, as a result of which a part of the
coolant such as water is used. The compressors are usually ofthe reciprocating
 Distribution of air & its control/ A-3.3 6 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.37
type and the cooling of the compressed refrigerant is done in air-cooled
condensers. Through the spot coolers supply cool air at the working faces,
they have the disadvantage of leaving the rest of the mine hot.

Profilometer :
In a mine the cross-section of a roadway is rarely of a regulator
shape. For Measuring the area of a roadway of irregular shape, a suitable
device is a profilometer.

Construction:
The profilometer comprises a tripod stand with adjustable legs and a
quick clamping swivel ht ad permitting rotation in both horizontal and vertical
planes. A hook is provided at the bottom of the swivel head for suspending a
plumb line for centring purposes. On the top ofthe swivel head is screwed a
horizontal bar. On on * end of the bar 290mm away from the centre of the
swivel head is fixed n circular scale graduated in degrees with its plane at
right angles to the axis ofthe horizontal bar. On a horizontal axle central to
the circular scale is mounted a hub on bush bearing. The hub can be rotated
and clamped in any position by a clamping knob.

The hub carries a light radial arm of tubular aluminium, 9.3mm in

diameter and 1.06 m in length. Into this, slides a solid aluminium extension
arm graduated in centimeters. A clamping screw can clamp the extension
arm in any desired position. A pointer attached to the hub exactly opposite to
the radial arm reads the angular position ofthe arm on the circular scale.

The horizontal bar is suitably counterweighted against the weight of

the radial arm. It carries on top two vertical pins at the two ends for the
purpose of alignment

Operation: The tripod is set in the roadway section to be measured,

and its position and height so adjusted that the centre ofthe circular scale lies
roughly at the centre ofthe roadway cross-section and its plane in the plane of
the cross-section. The horizontal bar is rotated so as to lie along the axis of
the roadway with the help of the alignment pins. It is then levelled with the
help of a spirit level mounted on it. Fig. 3.22 roadway profilameter
 Distribution of air & its control/A-3.38
Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-3.39
The radial measuring arm is then rotated and clamped at the zero of
the circular scale. The sliding arm clamping screw is loosened and the arm | QUESTIONS |
extended till it touches the roadway perimeter. The reading on the sliding arm
is taken. This reading added to the length of the fixed arm gives the radial 1. What are the various devices used for coursing the mine air ? Give the
distance from the centre of the circular scale to the roadway perimeter at formula for calculating the area of a regulator.
zero degrees.
2. What is the difference between an auxiliary fan and a booster fan ?
The sliding arm is then loosened and telescoped into the fixed arm to Show by sketches the installation of an auxiliary fan of (a) forcing
the extent necessary. Simultaneously the hub carrying thefixedarm is loosened type (b) exhaust type.
and the arm rotated unit the tip ofthe sliding arm comes to a point of significant
3. In relation to a booster fan what is (a) neutral line, (b) critical pressure ?
change in the roadway profile. The sliding arms as well as the hub are now
clamped tight and the linear readings on the sliding arm and the angular What points should be borne in mind when installing a booster ?
reading on the circular scale noted. The process is repeated until the entire 4. How will you conduct a quantity survey in an underground mine ?
perimeter ofthe road-way is covered.
Describe the procedure.
Determination of roadway perimeter and cross-sectional area:
. 5. What problems arise in the working of a deep mine ? What are the
The radial distances are then plotted to a suitable scale at the different refrigerants used in an air-conditioning plant ? State their
corresponding angles. The locus of these points gives the profile (perimeter) advantages and disadvantages.
of the roadway. While the perimeter ofthe roadway is obtained by adding the
distances between these points, the area is measured by a planimeter or by
counting the number of squares contained in the profile if the plot is made on
O O O
a suitable square gird graph paper or by measuring the ordinates at close
uniform interval defining the roadway profile. The area is obtained from the
Simpson's rule:

Area = ~- (Sum of first and last ordinates)

+ 4 times the sum of even ordinates

+ 2 times the sum of odd ordinates
where, L = distance between ordinates.
 Elements of Mining Technology-2 / A-4.1
Distribution of air & its control/A-3.40

Conventions for signs on ventilation plans CHAPTER 4

Colour
Name
MINE FIRES AND SPONTANEOUS
Pillars and galleries in black
nnrn HEATING
Direction of air current Intake in blue
Return in Red
Branttice In red 3= To start a fire the following conditions are essential:

Doors In red nzn 1.

2.
Presence of a combustible material.
Presence of a source of ignition of sufficient intensity of heat.
Brick or stone ventilation stopping In red
t 3.
4.
Presence of oxygen.
Contact of combustible material and source of ignition for some time.
Fire dam, seal or stopping In red 3S
For the fire to continue after it starts a sufficient supply of oxygen or
air must be available. In the absence of oxygen the fire gradually dies down.
Explosion proof stopping In red
Classification of Fires :
Air crossing In black
Indian Standards Specifications Classifies fires as follows :
Regular In red
DRIFT
1. Class 'A'fires : These fires involve combustible materials e.g. timber,
Drift In burnt Hnun coal, rubber, conveyor belt, other carbonaceous material.
sienna; 1 IN 3
2. Class B'fires: These fires involve inflammable liquids e.g. lubrication
l
Gradient in black
oils, diesel, petrol and other fuel oils, greases, etc.
Explosion proof air crossing In black
3. Class 'Cfires: These fires involve gaseous fuels like LPG gas, butane,
Fault Red etc.

In red 4. Class V fires : These are metal fires such as melting iron, etc.
Water dam
5. Class 'E'fires : These fires involve live electrical equipments such as
Auxilary fan In red electric motors, generators, cables, oil-filled transformers, circuit
breakers, electronic equipments etc.
//// Uiii am LU
goaf
Class A' fires are generally quenched by water. Stone dust and sand
may be used if the fire is on a small scale and in its early stage. Overhead fires
cannot however be tackled by stone dust and sand.