Dark and illuminated characteristics of photovoltaic solar modules.

Part I: Influence of
dark electrical stress
Jean Zaraket, Michel Aillerie, and Chafic Salame

Citation: AIP Conference Proceedings 1758, 020016 (2016); doi: 10.1063/1.4959392

View online: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4959392
View Table of Contents: http://aip.scitation.org/toc/apc/1758/1
Published by the American Institute of Physics

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 Dark and Illuminated Characteristics of Photovoltaic
Solar Modules. Part I: Influence of Dark Electrical Stress
Jean Zaraket 1, 2, 3, a,), Michel Aillerie 2, 3, b), and Chafic Salame1,4, c)
1
CEER, Faculty of Sciences II, Lebanese University, B.P 90656 Jdeidet El Mten, Lebanon
2
Université de Lorraine, LMOPS, EA 4423, 57070 Metz, France.
3
CentraleSupelec, LMOPS, 57070 Metz, France
4
CNRSL, National Council for Scientific Research, Beirut, Lebanon

a)
jean_z_1980@hotmail.com
b)
aillerie@metz.supelec.fr
c)
salame@ul.edu.lb

Abstract.The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effect of electric reverse stress currents on the performance of photovoltaic
solar modules.The effect of the reverse stress current induced into the solar cell structure on the IV characteristics and parameters
in the dark and illuminated conditions at room temperature for several common periods of time. A digital double exponential
model was used to analyze the experimental measurements.
The changes in characteristics which are caused from the effect of a reverse current introduced for different stress levels
simulated the effect of accumulated extreme reverse currents that can occur in the solar cells and modules as result of shading
and other different reasons. The paper contributes to the research on the adverse effects of reverse currents on the normal
functioning of cells and solar modules.

Keywords: Solar cell/module, Photovoltaic, Reverse current, Current–voltage characteristics, Diffusion and Recombination
current, Shunt.

INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic research has been attributing a lot of results and recommendations during the past decade or so due
to the increase demand on the use of photovoltaic solar cells in producing clean and productive energy. This type of
research tackled mainly the effect of a reverse current on the dark [1] and / or the illuminated electrical properties of
solar cells. The previously mentioned reverse current may occur as a result of many factors. These factors are
closely related to certain defects in the solar cell which may be related to material, design or manufacturing defects
or even such defects related to a kind of shading or even temperature changes of the solar cells itself [2,3] .In brief,
most types of defects, which will be discussed in what follows, will be the cause of a reverse current having certain
stress levels for a certain period of time intervals.
A solar cell is treated as a diode of larger area silicon p-n junction forward bias with a photovoltage. This
photovoltage is created from the dislocation of the electrons as a result of incident photons within the junction or
diode. Any disturbance of this electron flow, mainly through the silicon crystal /crystals or the cell junction, is due
to what is considered as material defects, such as grain boundaries, dislocations, or any other inhomogeneity in the
microstructure, will have a large impact on a part or on the over whole performance of the solar cell.[4,5]
Shading or partial shading on a solar module or array has demonstrated to influence the I-V characteristics and
reduce the total output of the solar cell. This problem may become more serious when the shaded cells get reverse
biased, leading to a high resistance diode, which will get overheated when the difference in illumination is high
enough. The overheating of the diode will eventually lead to serious damage in the photovoltaic cell. [6,7]

Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability

AIP Conf. Proc. 1758, 020016-1–020016-10; doi: 10.1063/1.4959392
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-1416-7/$30.00

020016-1
The reverse current is also referred to certain fault currents and environmental conditions in photovoltaic arrays with
several strings connected in parallel to form a PV array with a direct-current output equal to the sum of the PV string
outputs. The panel circuitry can be then referred to as the PV generator. Standards, such as the Australian Standard
AS/NZ5033 “Installation of PV Arrays”, recommend fuses to protect both cabling and PV modules in case of the
occurrence of these fault conditions. The relationship between acceptable reverse current levels and exposure
durations of reverse currents on PV modules are compared with trip current of fuses and typical time delays
experienced with fuse tripping. [8]

An extensive investigation about the effect of a reverse current on the performance and efficiency of a PV solar
module, on the dark as well as on the illuminated I-V characteristic of solar cells is needed. This work focuses on the
experimental quantitative measurement of the effect of reverse currenton dark and illuminated characteristics by
applying a high level of electric stress in the opposite electron flow direction of the solar module to simulate a
damaging reverse bias affecting the module over a certain period of time. The results and discussion offered aimed
to contribute to material, performance and efficiency of photovoltaic solar module research.

EXPERIMENTAL

A series of small commercial off the shelf, amorphous silicon, solar photovoltaic modules 6x6 (36 cells) 3.8 v and
85 mA were collected from the local consumer market. These modules and are generally used to power up
calculators and other small electronic gadgets. In this experiment, the photovoltaic modules were placed under stress
in the dark in order to compare their behavior under dark and later under illuminated conditions of 87 klux. To
simulate the reverse current that occurs in the solar module when partially shaded, modules underwent several
quantities of reverse current stress levels induced in the laboratory through the pn junction. The reverse stress
current values ranged from 10 mA up to 80 mA by adjusting 10 min time intervals. Data was collected for each
procedure and presented in this paper. The testing module of the work done is presented in figure 1.

FIGURE 1. Testing module

The results presented contain both experimental electrical characterization along with some mathematical
calculation used to determine the junction parameters through an equivalent circuit model of the module. The
general mathematical description of the output characteristics for a PV cell has been studied for over the past four
decades. The equivalent circuit of the general model consists of a photo current, a diode, a parallel resistor
expressing a leakage current, and a series resistor describing an internal resistance to the current flow [9].An even
more precise mathematical description of a solar cell, which is called the double exponential model, as shown in
Figure 2, is derived from the physical behavior of solar cells constructed from polycrystalline silicon. This model is
composed of a two ideal diodes, a series resistance Rs and a parallel shunt resistance Rsh. It considers the calculation
of both series and shunt resistances along with the junction ideality factor A, and the components of the diode
diffusion I01 and recombination I02 saturation currents. [4]

020016-2
 FIGURE 2.Idealized equivalent circuit of a double exponential model [7]

Experimentally collected I-V curves were introduced into specially designed software developed under
Matlab/Simulink environment that performs numerical calculations based on the double exponential model of a p-n
junction formulated by the following equation [10]:

ܸ െ ܴ‫ ݏ‬Ǥ ‫ܫ‬ ܸ െ ܴ‫ ݏ‬Ǥ ‫ܫ‬ ܸ െ ܴ‫ ݏ‬Ǥ ‫ܫ‬

‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬01 ൜‡š’ ൬ ൰ െ ͳൠ ൅ ‫ܫ‬02 ൜‡š’ ൬ ൰ െ ͳൠ ൅ ሺͳሻ
ܸܶ ‫ܸܶܣ‬ ܴ‫݄ݏ‬

where: I: represents the intensity of the total cell (A) ; I 02 is the reverse saturation current corresponding to
generation and recombination of electrons and holes in the depletion region; I01 is the reverse saturation current
corresponding to the diffusion and recombination of electrons and holes in the p- and n-side, respectively; V is the
applied voltage, VT=KT/q is the thermal voltage, q is the elementary electron charge = 1.6 × 10−19 C, k is the
Boltzmann constant =1.38 ×10-23 J/K, T is the absolute cell temperature, A is the ideality factor >1 and R Sh is the
shunt resistance, RS is the parasitic series resistance [11]

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The reverse current and I-V characteristics

The reverse stress currents of values 10 mA up to 80mA were injected by setting the time for 10 minutes in each
case. At each step, the current was interrupted to collect the I-V characteristics. The shape of the I-V curve does not
change from that of a cell, for a module or array of PV cells. However, it is scaled based on the number of cells
connected in series and in parallel. When m is the number of cells connected in parallel, and n is the number of cells
connected in series, and Isc (short circuit current) and Voc (open circuit voltage) are values for individual cells; an I-
V curve having n.Voc value of intersection with the x-axis and m.Isc value of intersection with the y-axis may be
created.

The results of the forward log I-V characteristics are shown in figure 3 before and after the application of the stress
for 10 min reverse current from 10 up to 80 mA in the dark condition. Whereas figure 4 represents the forward log I-
V characteristics under the same conditions of stress levels in the illuminated condition. The reverse current is
maintained by a programmable current source. It was noticed that the cells in the module went out of order in the
dark case when the current was greater or equal to 80 mA, while the cells in the module went out of order at 70 mA
in the illuminated case.

When plotted in logarithmic scale, the obtained dark I-V curves could be divided in two parts. The first extending
from 0V to approximately 2V, the nominal operation voltage V oc as defined by the manufacturer, and is related to a
leakage current within the module (<Voc), supposedly negligible in normal operating conditions. The second part
extending from 2V to 7V, when the module is subjected to a reverse current, leading to a considerable increase of
the leakage current after 10 minutes and then it almost stabilizes as the time progresses. This is a major indication
that their exists some defected regions in the photovoltaic module that are leaking current at very low voltage, and
these defected regions are created as soon as a reverse current is applied. These regions were shown in previous
research results [4]when observed under a microscope. The regions in concern are the result of surface heated spots,
increasing in surface temperature as the reverse currents are applied, and are responsible for the leakage that appears
on the I-V characteristic.

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The heated regions create a weak area in the module, increasing during the stress regime, and forcing the electrons
to flow through the junction along a certain oriented path. The second part of the curves (>V oc) is hardly changing
for a reverse current of 10 mA through 80 mA. These curves are only experiencing shifting up in current in certain
orders as the reverse current is been increased. The previous mentioned order is seen to have a certain pattern
directly related to the value of the reverse current. This means that the altering in the module’s function and
performance is directly related to the amount of reverse current encountered. This issue maybe of crucial importance
mainly when researching the amount of degradation in the photovoltaic modules, when the possibility of them
getting reverse biased.

The above mentioned results may be seen in a more dramatic presentation when compared to those of the
illuminated condition. This is due to the fact that the module is in the operating condition. The values of the current
as well as the voltage are seen to be shifted into much higher orders but the same explanation of the current leakage,
due to some heated spots, seems to be still applicable and valid.

0.1 T=10min
reverse stress current
caracteristic in dark
0.01
current I (A)

0.001

100mA
1E-4
10 mA
20mA
40mA
1E-5 60mA
80mA
without stress
1E-6

1E-7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voltage V (V)

FIGURE 3.Log I vs V for different reverse current stress levels in the dark condition

T=10min
reverse stress current
characteristics in light
0.1
Current I (A)

0.01 20mA
30mA
40mA
50mA
60mA
without stress

1E-3
5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8
voltage V (V)

FIGURE 4. Log I vs V for different reverse current stress levels in the illuminated condition

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The reverse characteristic of the module is measured by applying a reverse voltage through the junction to verify
that no current is flowing, a large current means that the module is out of order and is no more functioning. Figures
5 and 6 show the reverse characteristics of the used modules, before and then when fused by a 10 mA up to 80 mA
current, in the dark and illuminated conditions respectively, and plotted in a log I-V scale.

T=10min
reverse stress current
0.01
characteristics in dark
Reverse current (A)
1E-3

1E-4
10mA
20mA
1E-5 40mA
60mA
80mA
1E-6
without stress

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Reverse voltage (v)

FIGURE 5. Log reverse I vs reverse V for different reverse current stress levels (dark)

0.08
0.07 T=10min
0.06
reverse stress current
characteristics in light
0.05
Reverse current (A)

0.04

0.03

0.02
10mA
40mA
60mA
80mA
without stress

0 20 40 60 80 100
Reverse voltage (V)

FIGURE 6. Log reverse I vs reverse V for different reverse current stress levels (illuminated)

A considerable increase in the reverse current is observed as soon as the stressing current is applied even during the
first 10 minutes, after which this variation becomes stable. This observation is applicable for both the dark and the
illuminated states with the difference in the measured reverse current levels. The major degradation in the module,
in fact, was produced right after the application of the stressing current producing some burned and destroyed zones
in the module, and forming current passages, forcing the charges to escape through them without the need to damage
other possible undamaged areas. This clearly explains the previously mentioned observations in the figures 5 and 6
respectively, where junction seems to still function as the stressing currents are intensified.
.

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 Shunt and series resistances vs. stress current
The shunt resistance and the series resistance for both the dark and illuminated conditions,shown if Figures 7 and 8
respectively, were calculated based on a double exponential model, each I-V curve was uploaded to a special
software that calculates the electrical parameters. The shunt resistance is in fact the inverse of the slope of the linear
part of the curve IV of the reverse bias which is calculated as [12-14]:Rsh = ΔVreverse polarization / Δ Ireverse
polarization. This parameter should be higher for an unstressed device and as the stressing currents are applied the
slope of the I-V curves increases resulting in the drop in shunt resistance. The previously mentioned observation is
seen in Figure 7 where the shunt resistance values decrease to about 30x103 ohms in the dark and to about 300 ohms
in the illuminated condition, and then stabilize especially after the application of 20 mA stressing current. A higher
value of the leakage current means that a smaller shunt resistance is obtained. As the leakage is stabilized, due to the
fact that no more parts of the cells are subjected to destruction, the values of both the shunt and series resistance
changes no more.

Dark
100000
illuminated

10000
Rsh (ohm)

1000

100
10 20 30 40 50 60
Current (mA)
reverse stress current

FIGURE 7. Log Shunt resistance (Rsh) vs Current (in Dark and light)

30

25

20
Series Resistance Rs (ohm)

15 Dark
illuminated

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Current (mA)
reverse stress current
FIGURE 8. Log Series resistance (Rs) vs Current (in Dark and light)

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For the sake of comparison, and may be useful information, the ratio of the shunt resistance in the dark to that in the
illuminated condition Rsh (dark) / Rsh (light), in the stressed case came to be in the order of 100 times. On the other
hand, the same ratio of the series resistance came to be in the order of 5 times. These ratios show a quantitative
value of the effect of degradation, as the result of applying stress currents, on the performance of the modules. To
prove that these ratios will have any meaning, further testing should be performed on different photovoltaic
modules. If these ratios will remain the same or somewhat similar, then they will be creating a platform to the
degradation prediction of the effect of reverse current stresses in both the dark and illuminated conditions. This
information may be also useful in the production and future design of photovoltaic solar cells and modules.

Measurement of the Ideality Factor

The value of the ideality factor can be estimated directly from the data of I-V by calculating the slope of the straight
regions dark lnIvs V, in the absence of the effects of series and shunt resistance.

Figure 9 shows the plot of the ideality factor vs the stress currents in both the dark and illuminated conditions. The
ideality factor of 2.5 in the dark did not show any changes or deviations with increasing the reverse stress current of
values 10, 20,40,60 and 80mA stress. The previously mentioned value of the ideality factor is considered relatively
high, providing additional information about the permanent damage in the solar photovoltaic modules due to the
deterioration of the internal junction structure. On the other hand, the ideality factor decreased to a good value of
about 1 when the module was illuminated. The illumination in this case decreased the ideality factor which reduced
the effect of the deterioration of the internal junction structure.

Dark
3 illuminated
A Ideality Factor

0
0 10 20 30 40
current (mA)

FIGURE9. Variation of the ideality factor vs I (mA) (in Dark and light)

The reverse recombination and diffusion currents behavior

The diffusion current is caused by the diffusion of carriers across the junction of the PV cell. In ideal operating
conditions of equilibrium, the net current from the PV cell is zero, because of the balancing effect of the diffusion,
drift and the recombination currents. Upon applying a current in the reverse direction of electron flow, this balance
is disturbed and due to overheating of the p-n junction and expanding the junction width, diffusion as well as
recombination currents will after a certain time start to increase.

The behavior of the recombination and diffusion currents in the dark and illuminated conditions as a function of
current is documented in Figures 14 and 16 respectively. Stable linearity is observed in the dark from the zero up to
40 mA while the linearity in the illuminated condition started from the 20 mA stress level.

020016-7
 For the sake of information and comparison,in 3 cases (10,20 and 30 Klux) , the ratio of the I01 (dark) / I01 (light)in
the non-stress case is in the order 10-4while in all other cases (20… 40mA) this ratio is in the order of 10-3.The Stress
increases slowly the diffusion current I01,This showsclearly that the effect under stress in lighting is more important
and significant because the diffusion of carriersis more active in lighting than in the dark.

1E-69

Dark
Diffusion current I01 (A)

1E-79 illuminated

1E-89

1E-99

1E-109
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
current(mA)
reverse stress current
FIGURE 10.Diffusion Current (I01) vs current (in Dark and light)

1E-21

1E-31

1E-41
Recombination current I02(A)

Dark
1E-51 illuminated
1E-61

1E-71

1E-81

1E-91

1E-101

1E-111

1E-121
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Current (mA)
reverse stress current

FIGURE 11.Log Recombination current (I02) vs current (in Dark and light)

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) after stress

At lower current values local and interrupted damaged islands, at both the surface and in the microstructure of the silicon
cells, are noticed. The breakdown sites are locations of grown-in crystal defects like grain boundaries, dislocations, and
material in homogeneities usually encountered in typical industrial and commercial multicrystalline silicon solar cells.
Shining spots on these damaged areas, looking like small pearls, are contributed mainly to the existence of oxides
concentrated in small amounts mainly on the edges of these defected areas.

020016-8
The damaged locations are seen to get in parallel to the electrical connection between different cells in the module. Round
flakes are also noticed indicating double surface layer damage. The shape, position, and areas of the damaged spots
documented are of great importance and may be directly related to the amount of reverse current. [2]
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)presented in Figure 12, the Comparison between the breakdown surface and no
breakdown, when Show that in surface vertical of the same cell after stress (injection of a reverse current). when the cell
is burned after stress ie the silicuim is separated to the plastic in cell.

FIGURE 12.Scanning electron microscope (SEM) after stress

CONCLUSIONS

Reverse currents showed to have degrading effects not only in the dark condition but also in under the
illuminated service condition of photovoltaic solar modules. This effect varies as the stress levels vary and is
effective after a certain period of time. The major degradation takes place right upon the application of the reverse
currents and after some time stabilizes to show linearity by a certain order. This order is shown clearly by comparing
the shunt resistance and the ideality factor in both the dark and illuminated conditions and after the application of the
different reverse stress current levels.
These conclusions are important in the quantitative formulation of the effect of reverse current in both the
dark and illuminated conditions of operation. By other words, the degradation in the photovoltaic cells or modules

020016-9
can be quantitatively predicted according to the stress levels due to shading for example, and thus the performance
of these cells can be controlled.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project has been funded by the Lebanese National Council for Scientific Research

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