The Sentence and Its Parts: Part - Section I - Grammar Review

PART – Ι
SECTION I – GRAMMAR REVIEW

UNIT – I
THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS
A. Sentence Exercise – 1
A group of words which makes complete sense is a Underline the subject parts in the following sentences.
sentence.
1. The train arrived late.
Examples 2. He was the captain of his team.
3. There was a large crowd on the platform to receive the
(1) Birds fly. team.
(2) It is a good college. 4. Birds of the same feather flock together.
(3) The children of that school wear blue uniform. 5. The Prime Minister with all his Cabinet members has
(4) This is the theory which throws light on submitted his resignation to the President.
superconductivity.
Exercise – 2
B. Parts of a sentence
Underline the predicate parts in the following sentences.
A sentence can be divided into two parts:
(1) Subject and (2) Predicate 1. Aeroplanes fly over my house frequently.
2. They are shortly moving out of their house.
Here are some sentences divided into the two parts. 3. He is suffering from a fever.
4. The college is equipped with new furniture.
A B 5. The Secretary and the members of the club have been
(subject) (predicate) discussing the issue since morning.
1. Birds fly. Now study the following sentences:

2. Mohan is an engineer.
3. He teaches Engineering Group A
Graphics.
4. This intelligent girl has passed her 1. There is a beautiful garden in front of my house.
examination in the first 2. It has been raining heavily since morning.
division. 3. There is a phone call for your friend.
5. The President of India has awarded him a
gold medal. Note : The words underlined in these sentences are not
real subjects. They are said to be grammatical or dummy
Notes: subjects.
(1) The words underlined in Part A are Subject words and Now study the following sentences:
those underlined in Part B are Verbs.
(2) The Subject is a noun or a pronoun with or without Group B
other words going with it.
(3) The Predicate is the verb with or without other words 1. Here come my friends and their parents.
going with it (other words may be object, complement, 2. There go the principal and the members of the
adverb, adverb phrase, etc.). teaching staff.
(4) The subject of the sentence usually comes first but
occasionally the predicate precedes. Note : In these sentences you notice that the predicate
part precedes the subject part. This is called S.P and P.P
Example inversion. This construction is allowed in standard English.
• Down went the Royal Francis. This is used for emphasis.
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UNIT – II
PARTS OF SPEECH – IDENTIFICATION
English words (according to their functions in a sentence) 3. He is a capable teacher.
can be classified into Parts of Speech as follows: verb
4. She has a car.
1. Noun 5. Adverb verb
2. Pronoun 6. Preposition
3. Adjective 7. Conjunction ADVERB
4. Verb 8. Interjection
A word that modifies an adjective or a verb or another
NOUN adverb.
A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, 1. I am deeply grateful to you for your timely help.
animal, thing etc. adv adj
Examples: Rajitha, Hyderabad, lion, table, etc. 2. This horse runs very fast.
v adv adv
PRONOUN
3. He read the passage quickly.
A word used instead of a noun. v adv
Examples: he, she, it, they, etc. PREPOSITION
ADJECTIVE A preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to

show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or
A word that qualifies or describes a noun or a pronoun. pronoun stands in relation to something else.
Examples: 1. Work in the college begins at 10 a.m.

2. He wrote the document with a pen.
1. Our team played a good game. 3. The Professor gave a lecture on superconductivity.
adj. noun 4. I washed my plate after I had eaten.
2. Every sentence that he spoke was listened to with
adj. noun In the above sentences, the words underlined are called
great attention. prepositions.
3. All these proposals are good. CONJUNCTION (Connector)
noun adj.
A Conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or
Note: Some words are used either as pronouns or as sentences.
adjectives as in the following examples.
1. Delhi and Kolkata are densely populated cities.
Pronoun Adjective 2. She must be either the President or the Secretary of
Y.M.C.A.
a. These are good 1. These students are 3. The professor read the essay and was impressed by
students. good. it.
b. Each of these 2. Each book has some 4. He is not only intelligent but also industrious.
books is worth special features worth
reading. reading. INTERJECTION
c. Some of the 3. Some problems are A word which expresses a strong or sudden feeling such as
problems are difficult to solve. surprise, joy, fear, sorrow, etc. It is not grammatically
difficult to solve. connected with the rest of the sentence. Usually, an
d. Either of you can 4. Either book is good for exclamatory mark is put after it.
participate in the reference.
competition. Examples: Ah!, Hurrah!, Well!, Dear!, Oh!
1. Alas! she is dead.
VERB 2. Hurrah! we won the match.
A verb expresses what the subject of a sentence is or Note:

does, or has, or what is done to it. As words are divided into different
parts of speech, depending on the work they do in the
1. Dr. Rao teaches English. sentences, it is not possible to say to which part of speech
verb a word belongs unless we see what function it performs in
2. He has taught the subject for twenty-five years. the sentence.
verb
UNIT – III
PHRASES AND CLAUSES
PHRASE Note: When the noun clause is an object or a
A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb. There complement, the conjunction that may be omitted.
are three types of phrases.
Example:
1. Noun Phrase I believed he was right. (I believed that he was right)
A fifty year old man is seen in the garden. v o
2. Adjective Phrase
I was sure he was right. (I was sure that he was right)
This chain is made of gold.
adj compl
3. Adverb Phrase
Please place the chemicals in the store-room. e. in apposition to the noun before it.
The suggestion, that the meeting should be
Note: A 'finite verb' is a word that denotes tense and a N N.Cl (in apposition)
'non-finite' is a verb which does not. adjourned, was unanimously accepted.
Examples: f. Wh - clauses as Noun Clauses
1. He has written some books. Wh - clauses perform all the five functions that the
(finite verb) (present perfect tense) 'that' clauses do. In addition to these, they can function
2. Speaking on the occasion, the Minister said as the objects of prepositions.
(non-finite verb) Examples:
prohibition would be lifted soon. Subject:
What you say is true. Where he lives is a mystery.
There are three types of non-finites in English: INFINITIVE, Object:
GERUND, PARTICIPLE. I don't know what he would say to this proposal.
(*Please note that there is a separate chapter on non- Subject Complement:
finites.) The question is who will bell the cat.
In apposition:
CLAUSE My question, who is responsible for the loss, has not
A Clause is a group of words which contains a 'finite verb'. been answered.
Adjectival Complement:
Clauses are of two types: I wasn't sure whose fault it was.
1. Main Clause Object of a Preposition:
2. Subordinate Clause We were not aware of what they were doing.
A Main Clause is also called a Principal Clause or an g. If/whether clauses as noun clauses:
Independent Clause because it makes complete sense. - I asked him if/whether he can speak French.
- I don't know if/whether he has been appointed or
A Subordinate Clause, which can also be called a not.
Dependent Clause, is divided into three types: - I don't care whether he attends the meeting or
not.
NOUN CLAUSE, ADJECTIVE CLAUSE, ADVERB - Whether or not he comes doesn't worry my boss.
CLAUSE
2. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES: (also called relative clauses).
Now study the uses (functions) of these three types of It does the work of an Adjective. It qualifies a noun or
clauses. a pronoun in the main clause.
1. THE NOUN CLAUSE is used as a. The young man who was here a little while ago
antecedent adj . cl
a. the subject of a verb. is the President of the union.
That he will be appointed to the job is certain.
s v b. I have finished reading the novel (that) you gave me.
b. the object of a verb. ant. adj. cl
We knew that the plan was impractical.
c. This is the story (which) my friend wrote.
v o
ant. adj. cl
Note: ( ) indicates optional use, i.e., may or may not be
c. the complement of a verb.
used.
Our hope is that he will secure first rank.
v compl Notes:
1. The words who, that, and which introducing the
d. the complement of an adjective. relative clauses are relative pronouns.
We were certain that he would pass. 2. Who is used to refer to persons; and sometimes it is
adj compl used in referring to animals. That is used to refer to
I am hopeful that he will agree to our proposal. persons or things; and which is used to refer to things,
adj compl animals etc.
3. The noun or noun phrase, which a relative pronoun It rained very heavily for two days so that the rivers
refers to is called its antecedent (ant.) and lakes were flooded.
Special Note 1: The object form `whom', can also function f. Adverbial clause of condition:
as a relative pronoun introducing adjective clauses. (if/unless)
If he apologizes to me, I shall forgive him.
Example:
This is the person whom you want to meet. g. Adverbial clause of concession:
(though, although, even though)
Special Note 2: When the adjective clause defines a Though he is intelligent he cannot argue well.
place, time, or reason, we use where, when, and why in
place of the relative adverbs. h. Adverbial clause of manner:
You may complete the work as you please.
Examples:
1. We visited the place where Mrs. Gandhi was Exercise – 3
assassinated. (place)
2. At a time when prices are high, we must reduce our In each of the following sentences you will find a word/ a
expenditure. (time) group of words underlined. Write (P) or (C) in the bracket
3. Could you tell me the reason why he has not been to denote the phrase or clause respectively, as the case
appointed? (reason) may be.
Note: The Possessive form whose can also introduce a 1. Mangoes are expensive this year. ( )
relative clause. ‘whose’ can be used in speaking of 2. I found this book in the university library. ( )
persons, animals and also things without life. 3. This is the novel which Saul Bellow has
written. ( )
Example: The doctor whose car I bought wants to buy it 4. Smoke from vehicle exhausts causes air
back. pollution. ( )
5. He bought the house which belonged to his friend.
3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: ( )
Adverbial Clauses are of different kinds. They modify
the verbs to which they are connected in meaning i.e., Exercise – 4
they do the work of an Adverb.
Given below are a few sentences in which clauses are
a. Adverbial Clauses of Time: underlined. Identify the type of clause, (Noun clause,
(The conjunctions used are : when, as, while, till/until, Adjective clause, Adverb clause) in each sentence and
before, after, as soon as, whenever, since, as long as, write its name in the brackets provided against each
etc.) sentence.
Example: Some persons in the audience were asleep 1. He reached the place when the sun had set.
while the chief guest was speaking. ( )
2. Because you have done this, you must explain
b. Adverbial clause of place: it. ( )
You may go wherever you like. 3. If you can do it fast, please do so. ( )
4. The table which has a broken leg is from the staff
c. Adverbial clause of Reason or Cause : room. ( )
(as, because, since, now that) 5. He expects that he would get through the examination.
You can be punctual to school now that you have a ( )
school bus. 6. He is very rich, yet he is unhappy. ( )
7. Although he is an industrious student, he failed in the
examination. ( )
d. Adverbial clause of Purpose: 8. The children clapped as the clown entered the ring.
(so that, that, in order that) ( )
The police officer went in plain clothes so that no one 9. People started running out as soon as the accident
might recognize him. took place. ( )
10. Please answer the call for me in case I go out.
e. Adverbial clause of Result or Effect: ( )
(that, so that, that)
UNIT – IV
CONDITIONALS
There is a great variety of conditional sentences. Note: This is an unlikely condition. This is called unreal
The two main divisions are: condition used for impossible or unreal situations.
Type A: The past tense is used in the ‘if-clause’ and would,

Those with clauses that contain a condition that may or could, or might + the simple verb is used in the main
may not be fulfilled. clause.
These are called clauses of open condition or factual
condition. Type – ΙΙΙ
If she had come to my house,
Example: past perf.
What shall we do if it rains? I would have given her your message.
would + have + past participle
In the above example the speaker does not declare that (She didn't come to my house)
the condition will be realized or that it will not be realized.
He leaves the questions open or unanswered. Note: This is a closed condition.
The speaker here merely puts forward the possibility that it
may rain. When the past perfect is used in the ‘if-clause’, would,
More examples: could, or might + have + the past participle are used in
• Don’t come unless I tell you to come. the main clause.
• We shall go provided the weather is fine.
We can summarize the usage of the conditionals
Type B: discussed above as follows:
Those with clauses in which a theoretical condition is put
forward. If clause Main clause
These are clauses in which the condition is combined with
improbability or unreality. If + present . . . . . . . future (result)
• He would come if he had time. If + past . . . . . . . would + verb(result)
• If you were a bird, you could fly. If + past perfect . . . . . . . would + have + past
Conditional clauses may be introduced by if (even if, if participle (result)
only), so long as, suppose or supposing (that), on condition
(that), provided (that), and for a negative condition, unless NOTES:
(which means the same as if ….not, but is more emphatic).
In case (this is used to introduce a contingency or (A) In general, avoid using would in the if-clause.
possibility against which a precaution is needed). (B) If the if-conditionals express a
• If you have enough money, why don’t you buy a (i) doubt or supposition or
house? (ii) a wish or desire, the form of the verb to be used is
• So long as you return the book faithfully, I will lend it to ‘were’.
you with pleasure. Examples:
• You’d better take an umbrella with you in case it rains. If he were rich, he would go to the U.S.A. for higher
studies.
If – Conditionals: If I were a bird, I would fly to England without a visa.
Type – I EXAMPLES OF ERRORS IN THE USAGE OF

Look at the following example. CONDITIONALS:
If he comes to the library, I will give him these books.
pres. fut. The following examples will make clear some of the common
(It is possible that he will come) mistakes committed in the usage of conditionals.
Note: This is an open condition i.e., this expresses a
possible situation. A. WRONG: If I will win the contest, I will buy a new house.
In the above example, the present tense is used in the RIGHT: If I win the contest, I will buy a new house.
if - clause (or conditional clause), and the future tense
is used in the result clause. B. WRONG: If I had been there, I would make a speech.
Type – II RIGHT: If I were there, I would make a speech.

If I had been there, I would have made a
If she practised well, she could win the game. speech.
(She doesn't practise well)
C. WRONG: If I would have a degree from that
If she came to my house, I would give her your University, I would get a good job.
message.
(She doesn't come to my house) RIGHT: If I had a degree from that University,
I would get a good job.
UNIT – V
TYPES OF SENTENCES (STRUCTURAL)
A sentence, for the purpose of analysis, can be examined Analysis:
from the point of view of its structure. Depending on the
number of clauses it contains, a sentence can be called In sentence 1, there are two main clauses.
SIMPLE, COMPLEX or COMPOUND. In sentence 2, there are three main clauses.
Let us look at each of these types of sentences with
examples. So each of them is a compound sentence.
I. SIMPLE SENTENCE Some more examples of compound sentences:
A simple sentence is one which contains only one subject 1. I went to his farmhouse several times, but I was
and one predicate. unable to meet him.
(The subject : Person or thing about which something is
said). 2. He is very intelligent, yet he has failed in the
(The predicate : What is said about the subject). examination.
In other words a simple sentence contains only one main
clause. It does not have subordinate clauses. 3. Many doctors are attending on him, still he is not out of
danger.
Examples:
1. My father is a senior manager in this organisation. 4. He is very tired, for he has been working since
subject (s) The predicate (p) morning.
2. Chandigarh is a planned city. 5. There is no quorum, so the meeting was adjourned.

s p
3. Microbiology is an interesting subject for me. Note: In the above examples, the underlined words are
s p called coordinating conjunctions. Coordinating
conjunctions join main clauses.
Note that there is only one finite verb in each of the above
sentences. That means there is only one clause. One The following is a list of some co-ordinating conjunctions
clause sentence is a simple sentence.
and, as well as, also, too, both ….. and, not only …….. but
2. COMPOUND SENTENCE also, now, well, either ….. or, neither …….. nor, otherwise,
or else, still, yet, only, however, whereas, but,
A compound sentence is one which contains two or more nevertheless, therefore, for, so then, so then.
main or principal clauses. It may or may not have
subordinate clauses. 3. COMPLEX SENTENCE
In other words a compound sentence consists of two or A complex sentence is one which contains only one main
more independent sentences joined together by a clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
coordinating conjunction.
Study the following examples.
Example:
He is poor yet he is happy. Example: 1
If you work hard you will pass.
The above sentence consists of two parts.
(i) He is poor. In the above example, the clause ‘you will pass’ makes
(ii) He is happy. good sense by itself, and hence can stand by itself. This is
called the principal or independent clause.
These two are joined by the co-ordinating conjunction ‘yet’.
In the above example, each part contains a subject and a The clause “If you work hard,” cannot stand independently,
predicate of its own i.e., each part is called a clause. it depends on the clause, “you will pass”. It is therefore
called a dependent or a subordinate clause.
Each clause makes good sense by itself, and hence can
stand independent of the other. Hence, each is called a Example: 2
principal clause or a main clause. As soon as the meeting began, a member said that he
wanted to raise a point of order.
Study the following examples.
Analysis:
Examples:
This sentence has only one main clause and two
1. You may either stay in the hostel or stay with your subordinate clauses. Therefore, this is a complex sentence.
relatives.
2. The flowers were blooming, the birds were singing, Subordinate clause 1: That he wanted to raise a point of
and spring was in the air. order.
Subordinate clause 2 : As soon as the meeting began. 3. A hundred per cent in English is too high a score to
Main clause: A member said achieve.
4. On account of mismanagement, the company suffered
Some more examples of Complex Sentences: a great loss.
5. In spite of being supplied with the best weapons, the
1. The children rode an elephant when they visited the army could not win the battle.
zoo. 6. The rooms were so selected as to enable me to reach
2. I think that the president will not accept this proposal. the place of my interview.
3. They were so tired that they simply had to sit down to 7. It is in the field of education that the seed of
take rest. secularism has to be sown at the earliest stage
4. He knew that he had to get someone to cut down the possible so that the plant can be carefully nurtured as
trees in the garden. it grows.
5. If you want a passport, you must consult the passport 8. Our hope that the clouds would disperse, was
issuing authority in the city. cheering.
9. To most people a long journey by motorcar is
In the above examples, the underlined words are called exhausting and disagreeable.
subordinating conjunctions which introduce subordinate 10. Although mountains are undoubtedly impressive, they
classes. have a kind of dreadful monotony that makes people
like me, feel hostile to their beauty.
The following is a list of some subordinating conjunctions. 11. He could not take up the journey owing to ill–health.
12. The explanation which he gave was not convincing.
after, before, since, as soon as, while, until, as, so long as, 13. John may not be clever but he is very hardworking.
till, in order to, lest, so that, that because, since, as, 14. She is studying hard so that she may pass with flying
supposing, unless, whether, on condition, so ….. that, than, colours.
no less than, as, as much as, so far as, according as, as if 15. The management is not happy with his performance.
though, although, however, notwithstanding, as even if, 16. He confessed that he was guilty after being
whatever, whichever interrogated by the police
Exercise – 5 17. I missed the opportunity but I don’t regret it.
18. Unless we do the work perfectly our teacher will not be
Identify the type of sentence - Simple, Complex or satisfied.
Compound. 19. If you don’t take care of your health, you will fall ill.
20. Life is full of ups and downs; yet we cling to it.
1. As soon as the boy saw the cobra, he began to
run.
2. The South Pole is too cold for human beings to live in.
UNIT – VI
TYPES OF SENTENCES (SEMANTIC)
Based on the meaning (Semantic), sentences are Examples:
categorised into: Can I help you?
What shall we have for lunch?
1. Assertive sentences Is the bus late this morning?
2. Imperative sentences
3. Interrogative sentences EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
4. Exclamatory sentences
5. Affirmative sentences Sentences that express surprise, admiration, pity, sorrow
6. Negative sentences and other feelings in an emphatic way are called
exclamatory sentences.
ASSERTIVE SENTENCES (OR) DECLARATIVE Examples:
SENTENCES How fast time flies!
What a beautiful view we have from here!
Sentences which state facts, describe things, or report What a wonderful piece of art this is!
events are called assertive or declarative sentences What a tragedy!
Examples:
Dr. Mohan teaches English. AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES
Varanasi is on the banks of the Ganga.
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh. You have seen that all the sentences given above as
examples are statements, commands, questions and
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES exclamations. They affirm something in a positive way.
They are affirmative sentences.
Sentences that express an order, a request, advice, a
direction, a suggestion, a command, etc. are imperative NEGATIVE SENTENCES
sentences. These sentences start with the verb, and the
subject (You) is understood. Look at the following sentences.
Examples:
Examples: He is not a rich man.
Take these books to the library. I cannot complete this work today.
Get me a cup of coffee, please. They don't understand our difficulties.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender. I have never watched a test match.
Note: All these are also statements but they use words such as
There are some sentences which express 'commands' in NOT and NEVER and are negative in meaning. They are
an indirect way. Let is used at the beginning of these called negative sentences.
sentences. Subject is not omitted but expressed in these
sentences. Note : Commands can also be negative.
Example: Don't touch those glass exhibits.
Examples:
Let the manager talk to the director first. Sentences of this kind are called negative commands or
Let's start at once. prohibitions. There can also be questions which are
Let the boys assemble in the auditorium for the seminar. negative:
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES Hasn't he got a car?

Why didn't you come to the class in time?
Sentences that are used to make enquiries and to ask
questions are interrogative or question sentences. Sentences of this kind are called negative questions.
UNIT – VII
NON-FINITES
Verbs can be classified as ‘To’ is very commonly used with the infinite, but it is not a
(i) Finites and (ii) Non-finites. necessary sign of the infinitive. The following verbs take
the infinitive without ‘to’.
A Finite Verb is a verb that denotes tense. (i) The principal verbs: can, must, let, make, bid, dare,
please need.
Example:
(ii) Verbs denoting some kind of perception: see, hear,
He goes to school. feel, watch, know, think etc.
‘goes’ represents the simple present tense. Examples:
Similarly ‘went’, ‘gone’ are the other forms of the verb. 1. Make her do the work.
These have been discussed in a later chapter. 2. You need not go there.
3. Please go there.
Non-finites are verb forms which do not give complete 4. Let him stand there.
(finite) meaning. They have none of the tenses, have no
number and take no modals (auxiliary verbs). There are
The infinitive without ‘to’ is used after had better, had
four types of non-finites :
rather, had sooner, would rather, sooner than, rather than.
1. Infinitive
2. Gerund Examples:
3. Present participle 1. You had better meet your uncle.
4. Past participle 2. He would rather fight than give up.
3. I had rather write than play.
Look at these sentences: 4. She had sooner run than walk.
1. She wants to buy a new house. (Infinitive) Exercise – 6

2. Buying a new house needs money. (Gerund)
3. I found him looking for a new house. (Present
participle) Rewrite the following sentences using to, wherever
4. Wounded in the war the soldier was brought to the necessary, before the verbs given in the brackets.
medical camp. (Past participle)
1. Dr. Rao asked his daughter ___________ home
THE INFINITIVES before 9 o' clock. (come)
2. If you have planned ____________ the airport before
1. Look at the forms of the infinitive in the following five, you had better _________ at once.
sentences: (reach, start)
a. Rajitha wanted to learn photography.
3. He wouldn't let anyone ___________ his bicycle.
b. She is reported to be learning it.
(use)
c. She is reported to have learnt painting already.
d. She is known to have been learning music for the 4. We wanted __________ the house where Mahatma
last five years. Gandhi was born. (see)
5. He would rather _______ than _________ a lie.
In these sentences you see four forms of the infinitive. The (die, tell)
following are the structures of these four infinitives.
THE GERUND
Sentence (a) to + verb
Sentence (b) to be + verb -ing (present participle) The gerund and the present participle have the same form,
Sentence (c) to have + past participle
verb + ing : swimming, walking, cutting, etc. (the gerund is
Sentence (d) to have + past participle of be + verb -ing
also called the verbal noun)
Some of these forms have the corresponding passive
voice. Uses of the gerund:
to learn - to be learnt: a. As the subject of a verb:

There is a great deal to be learnt in photography. Swimming is a good exercise.
To have asked - to have been asked: Smoking is injurious to health.
He was happy to have been asked to deliver the Speaking is easier than writing.
convocation address.
Looking after children needs a lot of patience.
2. The infinitives shown above have the word to before
them. b. As the object of a verb:
But look at these sentences: He likes reading detective novels.
a. The mother made the child drink the medicine. Would you mind returning these books to him?
b. Then she let the child go out and play. I hate waiting at bus stop.
c. As the object of a preposition: THE PARTICIPLE
The minister inaugurated the school by lighting a lamp.
He was fined for being drunk. Look at the words underlined in these sentences.
He is thinking of resigning his job.
They resumed their journey after resting for an hour. (i) The crying child gets milk.
(ii) We found a man running for the bus.
d. As the subject complement: (iii) Inaugurating the seminar, the Education Minister
Talking to him is wasting time. spoke about the prohibition policy.
Seeing is believing.
The words underlined are participles. There are two types
Note : of participles.
When a Noun or Pronoun is placed before a Gerund, it (1) The Present Participle
must be in the possessive case. (2) The Past Participle
The form of the Present Participle:

Example:
Verb + ing Example: cry + ing
• I was pleased at Robert coming here (Incorrect)
• I was pleased at Robert’s coming here (correct) The form of the Past Participle:
• They insisted upon me writing the essay. (Incorrect) V + ed Example: wound + ed
• They insisted upon my writing the essay. (correct) (OR)
V + en Example: drunk + en
But the possessive case cannot be used with the Gerund
in the following cases. Wrong use of participles:
(i) When the Noun denotes a lifeless thing.
1. Whenever a participle is used, the Noun or Pronoun to
Example: which it refers, must also be mentioned.
Look at the following sentence:
There is no danger of the wall’s falling down. (Incorrect)
There is no danger of the wall falling down. (correct) While taking a bath, the shampoo bottle fell.
Note : What is wrong with this sentence?
The sentence, as it stands means that the ‘shampoo bottle’

1) The following verbs can take either an infinitive or a
gerund as an object. was taking a bath. In other words there is no noun or
pronoun to which the participle ‘taking’ refers. Hence, the
continue regret try propose
sentence should be re-written, as ‘while I was taking bath,
forget neglect remember learn
the shampoo bottle fell.’
Given below are a few more examples.
2) The following verbs can be followed by the infinitive (to
+ v) as the direct object. 1. Being a rainy day, I did not go out. (Incorrect)
agree forbid learn offer It being a rainy a day, I did not go out. (Correct)
care forget plan decide 2. Crossing the road a truck hit her. (incorrect) While she
hope pretend deserve intend was crossing the road a truck hit her.
mean refuse fail (Correct)
3) The following verbs can be followed by the gerund (V Note:

+ ing) as the direct object. (1) Sometimes the spellings of the past participles are
admit deny postpone appreciate different in the case of some verbs.
enjoy practise avoid finish Example: come, hit etc.
stop cannot help keep suggest (2) Sometimes, the present participle and the past
consider participle can function like adjectives.
Examples:
4) The following verb phrases (verb + preposition) can be
(1) The wounded soldier was carried to the
followed by the gerund (v + ing). Remember that
past. part.
gerunds, not infinitives, follow prepositions in general.
medical camp.
decide on think about keep on think of
(2) A rolling stone gathers no moss.
plan on put off look forward to
pre. part.
SECTION II – CORRECTION OF SENTENCES
UNIT – I
CORRECT USE OF NOUNS
A noun is a naming word. It is the name of a person, place, Uncountable nouns fall into the following groups:
thing, animal, concept, river etc. Nouns are divided into five
main kinds. (a) Things which are considered in mass or quantity and
not in numbers: sugar, sand, hair, dust etc.
1. Common Noun: (b) Materials: wood, cloth, silver, gold, iron, etc.
A name given in common to every person or (c) Liquids: water, milk, oil, ink, honey, etc.
thing of the same class is called a common noun. (d) Gases: steam, mist, nitrogen, air, etc.
(e) Natural phenomena: heat, cold, electricity, lightning,
Examples: etc.
• Hyderabad is a big city. (f) Abstract nouns: stages of life, states of mind, qualities,
• She is a good girl. processes, actions, ideas, etc.:
courage, happiness, freedom, attention, childhood,
2. Proper Noun: honesty, enjoyment.
The name of a particular person or place is called a Note: A number of words used to refer to qualities,
Proper Noun. states, actions, etc, are however countable. These
Examples: may be considered exceptions.
• King Solomon was a wise king. Examples: joys, sorrows, dreams, miseries, etc.
• Kalidas was a great poet. (g) Branches of learning : Economics, Mathematics,
Politics etc.
3. Collective Noun:
It is the name of a number of persons or things taken Note: There are some uncountable nouns which we refer
together and spoken of as whole. to in parts. When we do so, we use them with expressions
Examples: such as a piece of, a grain of, a kilo of, etc. Here is a list of
• A herd of cattle is grazing in the field. such expressions:
• A bunch of keys is on the table.
a piece of chalk a piece of information
4. Abstract Noun: a cake of soap a piece of furniture
The name of a quality, a state of mind or a stage of life a block of ice a loaf of bread
is called an Abstract noun. a piece of advice a log of wood etc.
Examples: These expressions have their plural forms: pieces of

• Kindness is a virtue. chalk, cakes of soap, etc.
• Childhood is the happiest stage of one’s life.
Proper Nouns are not categorised either as Countable
5. Material Noun: Nouns or as Uncountable Nouns.
All those nouns, which are used to refer to metals and
materials, are called Material Nouns. Now study carefully some rules related to the correct use
of nouns:
Examples:
• This chain is made of gold. Rule 1:
• This house is built of brick. A proper noun becomes a common noun when it is used in
In the above examples ‘gold’ and ‘brick’ are material the plural form, or when an article is placed before it.
nouns.
Examples:
Nouns are further classified into two types depending on
whether they can be counted or not. There are five Gandhis in our college.
Vijay Kumar is the Milton of your college.
Ι. Countable nouns: Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.
Countable nouns are nouns that we can count: for eg.
boy - one boy, two boys, three boys, etc. Rule 2:
Note: The classes of nouns known as 'common nouns' A collective noun takes a singular verb when the whole
(boy, table, etc.) and 'collective nouns' (flock, group is considered as one unit.
regiment, crowd, troop, etc.) can be included in the
larger class of countable nouns. Examples:
The committee consists of five members.
ΙΙ. Uncountable Nouns: The family living next door has come from Madras.
(also called non-count nouns)
Uncountable nouns (NCNs) name things which we Note: If we refer to the members of the committee or family
cannot count or usually don't count. The classes of separately, the collective noun takes a plural verb, but it
nouns known as Material nouns and abstract nouns (the collective noun) remains singular in form for eg:
can be included in this category. The committee have taken their seats.
Rule 3: Rule 10:
An abstract noun can also be used as a common noun by The following nouns are always used in plural.
placing an article before it. Examples:
Example: cattle, police, people, vermin, poultry.
Rajani is a beauty (a beautiful girl)
Rule 11:
Rule 4: When a plural noun denotes a specific amount, length,
An abstract noun can also be used in the sense of a weight, quantity, etc. considered as a whole, the verb must
collective noun. When an abstract noun is used as a be in the singular form.
collective noun it takes a plural verb. Examples:
Examples: Ten thousand rupees is a large amount.
Youth are the pillars of the nation. (collective noun) Six kilometres is not a long distance for a runner like you.
Rule 5: Rule 12:

When a material noun denotes a mass of matter, it is not Inanimate objects (lifeless objects) which are remarkable
used in the plural form. for beauty, gentleness, gracefulness, tenderness,
Examples: weakness, and so on, are treated as feminine gender.
Their house is built of bricks and stones. (incorrect) Examples:
Their house is built of brick and stone. (correct) the moon, the earth, spring, virtue, peace, charity, fame,
nature, hope, justice, mercy, pity, fortune, truth, victory,
Rule 6: defeat, modesty, liberty etc.
Some nouns have the same form for the plural as well as
for the singular. The following are some nouns that belong Note: Poets refer to them as feminine gender.
to this category.
Examples: Rule 13:
sheep, species, deer, aircraft, offspring, yoke, space craft, Inanimate things which are known for strength, courage,
salmon etc. violence, superiority, and so forth, are treated as
masculine.
Rule 7:
Some nouns are used in the singular only. The following Examples:
are some nouns that belong to this category. the sun, death, summer, winter, war, anger, fear, thunder
Examples: etc.
advice, corn, grain, justice, clothing, information, poetry,
scenery, machinery, hair etc. Note: The possessive case of nouns is formed when we put
’s to the noun (apostrophe s)
Note: Advice is the noun form and Advise is the verb form.
The advice of the doctor is that I should not smoke. (noun) Example:
The doctor advised me not to smoke. (verb) • The girl’s dress.
• The boy’s pen
Similarly, Practice is noun and Practise is verb.
2. The possessive case is used with the nouns of living
Rule 8: things but not with inanimate objects.
There are some nouns which are used only in the plural • Table’s leg (incorrect)
form. • Leg of the table (correct)
Examples: 3. The possessive is used with the names of personified

scissors shears spectacles objects.
trousers pantaloons shorts • Death’s icy hands
bowels intestines biceps
Rule 14:
genitals gymnastics premises
When the noun is plural, and ends in s; the possessive
proceeds riches thanks
case is formed by adding only an apostrophe (after s).
nuptials outskirts gallows
Examples:
doldrums earnings
• Girls’ hostel
• Birds’ nests
Rule 9:
Some nouns are apparently plural in form but are singular
Rule 15:
in use.
When the noun is plural but does not end in s, the
possessive case is formed by adding ’s.
Examples:
Examples:
news, economics, physics, measles, mumps, ethics.
• Men’s club
• Children’s park
Note: summons is singular and summonses is plural.
• Women’s day
Rule 16: Exercise – 7
When a noun or a title consists of several words, the
possessive case is formed by adding ‘s to the last word.
Correct the following sentences where necessary.
Examples:
• The Prime Minister of India’s speech.
• The king of Bhutan’s visit to India….. 1. My friend gives me many advices regarding my future
career.
Rule 17: 2. The doctor has given me many informations about the
When two or more proper nouns are joined by ‘and’, and a disease.
common possession is meant, the possessive case will be 3. The magistrate has issued a summon asking me to
formed by adding ('s) to the last noun.
Examples: attend his court on Monday.
Amar and Kumar's house is really beautiful. 4. My hairs have turned grey recently.
5. Our office has purchased new furnitures for our
Note: This sentence denotes that the house belongs to department.
both Amar and Kumar. 6. He is one of the notorious troubles-maker in the town.
7. Four thiefs broke into my cousin's house
Rule 18:
When there are two nouns in apposition, the possessive yesterday.
case will be formed by adding ('s) to the second noun. 8. The H.M.T. factory has the latest machineries.
Examples: 9. His little daughter is capable of many mischiefs.
(i) Penicillin, Flemming’s discovery, has saved the lives 10. The magistrate has passed order for his release from
of many people. prison.
(ii) Mohan, the professor's son, is very intelligent.
11. This scissor will not cut such a hard wire.
Rule 19: 12. I have seen many cannons in the military parade
The possessive case of a compound noun will be formed ground.
by adding ('s) to the last word. 13. The beggar is begging for alm.
Examples: 14. He has lost all his luggages on his way home.
Sister-in-law's house. 15. The company wants to dispose of the equipment.
Commander-in-chief 's office.
16. She took great pain to write the essay properly.
Rule 20: 17. The first innings is over just now.
If the last syllable of a singular noun ends in ‘-s’ or –‘ce’ and the 18. These sceneries of Kashmir are beautiful.
noun is followed by the word "sake", the possessive case 19. My brother-in-laws will come to our house next week.
of the noun will be formed by adding (') only. 20. These golds have been brought from South Africa.
Examples:
for goodness' sake, for justice' sake.
for conscience' sake, for Jesus' sake.
UNIT – II
CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word used in the place of a noun. PRONOUNS OF NUMBER:
Examples:
Types of pronouns: (1) Of the ten guests, three were men.
(2) Many of them are not good books.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS OF QUANTITY :
Person Singular Plural Examples:
more, much, little, etc.
First person I We
Second person You You DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS:
Third person He, She, It They Look at the pronouns underlined in the sentences given
below:
Forms of pronouns: (cases)
Examples:
Nominative case Accusative case Possessive (1) Everyone has his own problems.
(subject) (object) (2) Either of these applicants can be employed.
(3) Neither of the students can get through the
I Me My Mine examination.
We Us Our Ours (4) Each of those players deserves a prize.
You You Your Yours (5) Everybody will be given a chance to participate in this
He Him His His match.
She Her Her Hers
It It Its Its These words, which are underlined, are distributive
They Them Their Theirs pronouns. They are called so because they refer to
persons considered individually. The distributive pronouns
Note: The forms my, our, your, his, her, its and their are are in the singular number and are therefore followed by
determiners. They can also be used as possessive singular verbs.
adjectives.
Note: 1. Neither is a negative word which is used to
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: refer to two persons or things.
Example: 2. None is also a negative word which is used
This book is his. to refer to more than two persons or things.
3. The usage: Each one of the boys ……
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS:
(is wrong because ‘one’ becomes redundant)
Examples:
(1) She washed herself at a well.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS:
(2) They killed themselves for no reason.
(3) I must blame myself for this. Look at these sentences:
EMPHATIC PRONOUNS: Examples:

(1) The two girls helped each other in every respect.
Example: (2) The political parties quarrelled with one another.
I offered to drive the car myself. She herself made the Each other and one another express a mutual or reciprocal
mistake. relationship. They are considered as single units, and are
called reciprocal pronouns or 'compound personal
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: pronouns'.
Examples: Note: Each other is usually used to refer to two persons or

(1) That is Dr. Rao's house. things and one another to more than two persons or things.
(2) Those are some new buildings.
(3) This is your passport. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: The words underlined in
(4) These are good books.
the following sentences are called interrogative pronouns
because they are used in questions.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS:
Example: Examples:
(1) Some are born great. (1) Who is the president of India?
(2) Anyone can take a horse to the pond, but no one can (2) Whose is this calculator?
make it drink. (3) To whom did you give the parcel?
(4) Which is the road to the hospital?
Other indefinite pronouns are: (5) What have you to do now?
somebody, anybody, anything, something, (the) other, (6) Whom did you borrow this book from?
others, another, nobody, nothing etc. (7) Whom did she refer to in her lecture?
RELATIVE PRONOUNS : Example:
Look at these sentences : You, he and I, will get an award for the good work we have
Examples: done.
(1) The gentleman who is speaking is our principal. Sequence:
(2) This is the gentleman whose guest I was in Bombay. Second person, third person and first person.
The words underlined are pronouns standing for the nouns Rule 4:
used before them. The nouns are called antecedents and When two singular nouns joined by and denote the same
the pronouns are called relative pronouns. They relate the person or thing, the pronoun used for them must be
adjective clauses to the main clauses. singular in number. The definite article the is placed before
the first noun.
RULES FOR USE OF PRONOUNS Example:
The accounts officer and treasurer should be careful in his
Now let us look at some aspects related to pronouns that work of keeping accounts.
will be helpful in answering questions in Sentence
Correction. Rule 5:
When two singular nouns are joined by ‘and’, and are
Rule 1: preceded by each or every, the pronoun must be in
Some important uses of the pronoun "it" are given below singular number.
with examples. Example:
Every student and every teacher took his or her seat.
(a) To introduce a sentence
Example: Rule 6:
It is not certain that the president will come. When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction
with some other word in the objective case, it must be in
(b) To give emphasis to the noun or pronoun that follows the objective or accusative case.
Example: Example:
It was you who began the quarrel with us. These clothes are for you and me.
(c) As an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb. Rule 7:

Examples: When a singular noun and a plural noun are combined by
It rains. or, either ... or, neither ... nor, the singular noun usually
It is snowing outside. comes first in the sentence, and the pronoun must be in
the plural number.
(d) In sentences showing distance Example:
Example: Either the manager or his subordinates failed in their duty
It is not far to walk. in sending the official message.
(e) In sentences indicating time. Rule 8:

Example: The personal pronouns - yours, ours, hers, theirs and its -
It is ten O'clock now. are written without the apostrophe (').
Examples:
(f) To introduce a phrase. Your's sincerely (wrong)
Example: Yours sincerely (Right)
It is decided to declare a holiday today.
Note: ‘It’s’ means ‘It is’ and not belonging to it.
(g) In exclamatory sentences. Example: It’s a mad dog which bites its tail.
Example:
What a beautiful book it is! Rule 9:
When a personal pronoun is used as a complement to the
(h) To introduce a that clause. verb to be, it (the pronoun) must be in the nominative case.
Example: Example:
It is said that smoking is injurious to health. It was he, who could solve the problem easily.
(i) As a sort of object in order to avoid repetition.
Example: Rule 10:
Let us fight it (the issue) out. A pronoun should be used in the objective case in a
sentence beginning with let.
Rule 2: Examples:
While confessing a fault (or expressing a negative idea) the Let him go to his office immediately.
sequence of the personal pronouns should be as follows: Let her submit the records in time.
Example:
I, you, and he are in the wrong and will be punished. Rule 11:
Sequence: One can be used to talk about people in general the
First person first, second person next and third person last. pronoun that follows one should be one's. (not his/her)*
Examples:
Rule 3: One should do his duty (wrong)
While expressing a positive idea or praise, the sequence of One should do one's duty (correct)
the personal pronouns should be as follows: {Note: But there is a controversy here. In American English
one can be followed by his or her. Students taking TOEFL (3) To refer to a sentence.
or GRE or GMAT or SAT should keep this in mind. Example:
However, usually one need not worry about this problem. He was said to be drunk, which was not true.
If a sentence begins with one, be sure that you or they
DOES NOT follow. Hence it is never correct to say: Rule 17:
If one takes this exam without studying, you are likely to Uses of THAT:
fail.
'That' is used in the following ways:
(1) For persons, lifeless things and small animals in the
Additional example: One should never tell his secrets to a
singular or in the plural number.
gossip if he wishes them to remain secret. (Correct)}
Examples:
Rule 12: This is the girl that failed in the exam.
A relative pronoun must always be placed as near its This is the radio that I bought yesterday.
antecedent as possible. Also, it must always agree with its (2) As a substitute for a singular noun already mentioned.
antecedent in number, gender and person. (pay attention to this use particularly in the
Example: comparative degree)
This is the manager who abused the clerk. Examples:
ant. rel. pr. The weather of Hyderabad is far better than Chennai
(wrong).
Rule 13: The weather of Hyderabad is far better than that of
Generally, the relative pronoun in the objective case is Chennai.
omitted. (3) After a noun phrase used as direct object.
Example:
I vividly remember the night that she came.
The student (whom is omitted) you wanted to punish is
(Here that is used in the sense of when)
absent today.
Rule 18:
Rule 14:
The pronouns who, whom and whose are generally used 'Either' and 'neither' are used in speaking of two persons or
for persons. places or things etc.
Who is used in the nominative case. Examples:
Whom is used in the objective case. Neither Mahesh nor Mohan is intelligent.
Whose is used in the possessive case. (negative meaning is implied)
Examples: Either Mahesh or Mohan is expected to get a prize.
1. Sarita is the student who got an award. (positive meaning is implied)
2. They are the thieves whom the police caught.
3. This is the student whose certificates are lost. Rule 19:
Uses of each other and one another
Rule 15: (1) Each other is used for two persons or things or places
When the relative pronoun is in different cases, one in the etc.
nominative and the other in the objective, it must be
Example:
mentioned twice, once for each verb.
These two students love each other.
Example:
The girl, who is my daughter and whom you met in the
library yesterday, left for Mumbai this morning. (2) One another is used for more than two persons or
things.
In the above example the subject of the sentence ‘the girl’ Example:
is also the object of the sentence. Hence both ‘who’ and Those four countries always disagree with one another.
‘whom’ are used.
Rule 20:
Rule 16: Each can come in three different positions in a sentence.
Uses of WHICH: (1) Each of the students got a prize. (initial)
'Which' is used in the following ways: (2) The students got a prize each. (end)
(1) For infants, small animals, and objects (3) The students were each given a prize (middle)
Examples:
This is the baby which was lost in the theatre. Rule 21:
This is the dog which my friend bought from the
ONE is used in the following ways :
Kennel's club.
(1) For people in general.
(2) When selection is expressed.
Examples:
Example:
One must try to do one's duty.
Which of these television sets do you want to
purchase? One must not be proud of oneself.
(2) In place of a noun previously mentioned. 6. If I were him, I would not misbehave like this.
Examples: 7. Everyone announced one's plans in the presence of
Give me a banana which is a fresh one. the President.
8. She helped everyone of those boys in doing their work.
Give me bananas which are fresh ones.
9. Every teacher and every student should do their duty.
10. Neither of the boys have submitted their records.
Rule 22: 11. She availed of the opportunity.
As regards anybody, everyone, everybody, etc. the 12. Those two companies always help one another.
pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender should be
used according to the context. 13. India and Pakistan should cooperate with one another
Example: in this matter.
Everyone of the boys got his hall ticket. 14. Dear students, enjoy during the holidays.
15. The committee were divided in its opinion regarding
Exercise – 8 this issue.
16. The team, after taking its bath, have gone for practice
Rewrite the following sentences after making the of cricket.
necessary corrections. 17. My opinion is the same as your.
18. We were told to let only you and she enter.
1. Between you and I, the secretary is not a gentleman. 19. This is the scientist which won the first prize.
2. One should do your duty honestly and sincerely. 20. His problems are the same as my.
3. Good students like you and he should study regularly.
4. You, he and I are in the wrong.
5. Only you and him can do this work fast.
UNIT – III
CORRECT USE OF ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun or a pronoun. Rule 1:
Most adjectives form their comparatives by the addition of -
Example: She is a good teacher. r or -er, and their superlative by the addition of -st or -est
adj. noun
(depending on the spelling) to the positive.
An adjective can be used in two ways: Examples:
(1) attributively Positive Comparative Superlative
(2) predicatively Great Greater Greatest
Brave Braver Bravest
An adjective is used attributively if it is placed immediately
before the noun it qualifies. Rule 2:
Example: She is a good teacher. Some adjectives (usually having more than two syllables in
adj. noun
the spelling) form their comparative by using the adverb
An adjective is used predicatively if it is used after the verb. more with the positive, and the superlative by using the
Example: Bimala is intelligent. adverb most with the positive.
v adj. Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
An adjective has three forms: Positive, Comparative, Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Superlative. These are the three degrees of comparison: interesting more interesting most interesting
Look at the following examples:

Rule 3:
Superlative degree : Mohan is the best student in the (very important) When two qualities in the same person or
class. thing are compared, the comparative degree is formed by
Comparative degree: Mohan is better than any other using more, instead of -r or -er with the positive.
student in the class. Example:
Positive degree : No other student in the class is Reddy is more wise than intelligent.
as good as Mohan. (This sentence means that Reddy is both wise and
intelligent. But his wisdom is greater than his intelligence.)
• The Positive Degree of an adjective is the adjective in
its simple form. It is used to refer to the mere
Rule 4:
existence of a particular quality.
• The comparative degree of an adjective denotes a When two objects are compared with each other, the latter
higher degree of the quality than the positive, and is term of comparison must exclude the former by using 'any
used, when two things are compared. other'.
• The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of Examples:
the quality. Gold is more precious than any other metal. (correct)
Gold is more precious than any metal. (wrong)
Note
1: The usages "as ...... as" and "so ...... as" appear in Rule 5:
positive degree.
There are some words which are used in the positive and
Comparative degree has "adjective + er ... than".
Superlative degree has "the + adjective in the cannot be used in the comparitive, or in the superlative.
superlative form". Examples:
Note the use of 'the', before the adjective in the interior, exterior, ulterior, major, minor.
Superlative (superlative form). • This is more interior than that. (wrong)
2: There is no superlative degree if the comparison • This is inferior to that. (right)
involves only two objects, persons, or places etc.
Examples: Rule 6:
Of the two sisters she is the best. (wrong)
The following are used as comparative adjectives and are
Of the two sisters she is the better. (correct)
followed by to and not than:
When selection of one of the two persons or things Examples:
(sets of things) of the same kind is meant, the superior, senior, junior, inferior, prior, anterior, posterior,
comparative degree is preceded by 'the' and is prefer, etc.
followed by 'of'.
Example: Rule 7:
She is the better of the two sisters. The adjectives - empty, excellent, circular, extreme, chief,
entire, complete, perfect, final, last, unique, universal,
Let us look at some important rules in the use of round, square, triangular, eternal etc. are not used in the
adjectives: comparative or superlative degree.
Rule 8: Examples:
Some adjectives can be used only in the positive and in the (1) A great many people died in the cyclone.
superlative. They are: (2) My sister has a good many friends.
Positive Superlative
C. Use of many + a + noun (singular) + verb (singular)
top topmost
structure :
northern northernmost
Examples:
southern southernmost Many a delegate is attending this seminar.
eastern easternmost (meaning : Many delegates are attending this seminar)
western westernmost
D. MODIFIERS : FEW, LITTLE. MUCH, and MANY
Rule 9: Few is used with plural nouns. Little is used with
The adjective "preferable" is used as a comparative. It is singular non-count nouns.
followed by to. It is not used with more.
Examples: Without articles, few, and little usually have rather
This is more preferable than that. (wrong) negative meanings. They often suggest 'not as
much/many as one would like', or 'not as much/many
This is preferable to that. (correct)
as expected' or a similar idea.
Rule 10: With articles 'few' and 'little' i.e a few, and a little are
The comparative adjectives ending in “or” are followed by more positive in meaning. Their meaning is closer to
the preposition to. 'some'. They often suggest ideas like 'better than
Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, junior nothing' or 'more than expected'.
Example:
He is superior to me. (correct) Examples:
He is superior than me. (incorrect) 1. There are few books on "Thermodynamics' in the
library, so you have to purchase them.
Rule 11:
2. You don't need to go shopping. There are a few
Sometimes the words much, less, far, etc. are used before
eggs in the fridge.
the comparatives to denote emphasis or excess.
Example: 3. I've got a little bread and cheese. It'll be enough
Ramakrishna is by far the ablest lecturer in the college. for supper.
Rule 12: Difference between fewer and less

Two adjectives which refer to the same noun or pronoun In theory, fewer (the comparative of few) is used
joined by a conjunction must be in the same degree of before countable nouns, and less (the comparative of
comparison. little) before uncountable words.
Examples :
(i) There are fewer exploited workers than there
Example:
used to be.
Gandhiji is the noblest and wisest of all national leaders. (ii) My friend earns lesser than a postman does.
Rule 13: Note the following:

Certain adjectives, when preceded by 'the' become nouns P.D. C.D. S.D.
in plural and require a plural verb if they are used as few - fewer - fewest
subjects. little - less/lesser - least
These are : rich, poor, needy, aged, blind, dead, meek, * fewer and less (lesser) are followed by than as they
wicked, etc. are the comparative forms.
Examples:
Note: 'Many' like 'few' is used before a count noun.
The rich (rich people) usually hate the poor (poor people).
Example:
Rule 14: Many/few students.
Some adjectives often confused : C.N.
'Much', like 'less' is used before a non-count or a
A. FARTHER - FURTHER material noun.
Farther denotes more distant in space, Example:
Example: Much/less water.
Sheela lives at the farther end of this street. NCN
Further means additional; more
Examples: E. MODIFIERS - TOO, VERY, ENOUGH
There is nothing further to say about him. Compare the meanings and patterns of too, very, and
For further details please contact the director. enough.
B. Many, a great many, a good many 1. Very means to a high degree, but does not
All these take a plural noun and a plural verb after suggest impossibility.
them. Mary is very intelligent.
2. Too suggests impossibility or undesirable (* These are also called predicate adjectives)
degree. He feels bad (correct)
too + adj + to + v He feels badly (wrong)
She is too sick to come to class today The soup smells delicious (correct)
Note: It is better not to use “Too” with a positive
The soup smells deliciously (wrong)
adjective.
Instead of “too” it is better to use “very”.
Rule 16:
3. Enough suggests possibility or sufficient degree. MODIFIERS - HYPHENATED OR COMPOUND
He is tall enough to play basketball. ADJECTIVES
Nouns are sometimes found as part of hyphenated or
NOTES: compound adjectives (adjectives of more than one word
joined by hyphens). These nouns are never plural.
a. Be careful to put enough after the adjective. I bought a four hundred year-old painting in Germany.
b. Be careful to put to+v (infinitive) after enough. HYPHENATED ADJ. N
c. In patterns 2 and 3 above, do not use any other
structure word after the adjective or adverb
Some more examples:
except to.
d. In the above patterns adverbs can be used in the (i) B.Com is a three-year degree course.
same position as adjectives. (ii) This is a ten-kilometre-long distance.
Example: (iii) The professor has delivered a two-hour lecture today.
Mary sings very well.
e. Enough can come before or after a noun to Rule 17:
express sufficiency. MODIFIERS - CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS
Examples: There are two kinds of numbers, cardinal and ordinal.
He had money enough to buy a new car. Examples:
N CARDINAL ORDINAL
OR
one first
He had enough money to buy a new car.
two second
N
three third
F. MODIFIERS - NEGATION four fourth
There are some words that have negative meanings twenty-one twenty-first
even though they do not appear to be negative, for
example : hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, without, The following patterns are used to designate items in a
and only. Do not use another negative word with these series:
words.
(1) Ordinal numbers are used in this pattern:
Examples: THE + ORDINAL + NOUN
(i) He had scarcely enough money to purchase The first book of the series is about verbs.
books.
(ii) They went to bed without dinner.
(2) Cardinal numbers are used in this pattern:
Note: Scarcely and hardly are followed by when and NOUN + CARDINAL
not than. No sooner is followed by than. Book one of the series is about verbs.
These expressions mean “as soon as”.
NOTES:
Examples:
1. As soon as I reached the station the train left. i. Use the with ordinal numbers.
2. No sooner had I reached the station than the train ii. Do not use the with cardinal numbers.
left. iii. Be careful to use the correct word order for each
No sooner + had + Subject + Past participle + … pattern.
3. No sooner did I reach the station the train left.
No sooner + did + Subject + Present tense verb + Rule 18:
………. MODIFIERS : NOUN ADJECTIVES
Similarly: Hardly/Scarcely + had + Sub + Past The first noun (N) in the following pattern is used as an
participle …….. when ….. adjective.
OR All these are language students.
Scarcely/Hardly + did + Sub + Present tense verb
N N
…….. when …..
NOTES:
Rule 15:
MODIFIERS : ADJECTIVES AFTER VERBS OF a. When nouns are used as adjectives, they do not have
SENSATION plural or possessive forms.
These verbs of sensation are generally followed by b. Exceptions : The following nouns always end in -s but
adjectives* not by adverbs: feel, look, seem, appear, smell, are singular in number when they are used as names
taste and sound. of courses or sciences : Physics, Mathematics etc.
He is an Economics teacher. 4. Many a student is attending the meeting today.
N N 5. He wants little sugar for tea.
6. Pooja is my older sister.
BUT The current economic situation is extremely 7. It is much fine today.
uncertain. 8. My friend is senior than me by 4 years.
9. Death is preferable than disgrace.
Note: 10. Kolkata is a worth-seeing city.
'Economic' is an adjective here. 11. My friends both sisters are doctors.
‘Economical’ means frugal, thrifty. 12. The two first chapters of this book are very important.
13. Suvarna is greater than any student in the class.
Exercise – 9 14. Shakuntala is better than any drama in Sanskrit.
15. His house is further from the station than yours.
Correct the mistakes relating to the use of adjectives in the 16. The later suggestion is better than the former.
following sentences where necessary. 17. These flowers smell sweetly.
18. Little learning is a dangerous thing.
1. I am more wiser than that student. 19. Her birthday is the most happiest even this year.
2. My house is larger than you. 20. Usually the rich people hate poor.
3. The climate of Hyderabad is better than Madras.
UNIT – IV
CORRECT USE OF ADVERBS
An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or Note: The adverb ‘enough’ is always placed after the word
another adverb in a given sentence. it modifies.
• Why don’t you speak loud enough to be heard.
Examples:
She is reading very fast. Rule 5:
verb adv. The word ‘only’ should be placed before the word it is
She is a very intelligent girl. intended to modify.
adv. adj.
The horse runs very quickly Examples:
adv. adv. • Only she gave me this book. (i.e., she and nobody
(Note: usually the adverbs end with -ly.) else)
• She only told me the truth. (and nothing else)
Rules pertaining to use of adverbs : • I solved only two problems. (correct)
• I only solved two problems. (incorrect)
Rule 1:
In order to make our meaning clear, an adverb must be Rule 6:
placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. POSITION OF ADVERBS
The position of adverbs is often determined by shades of
Examples: meaning, for which rules cannot be given, but some
She has only three dollars with her. generalisations can be made.
adv. adj.
He says he often visits my place. Adverbs of frequency:
He often says he visits my place. always, often, rarely, never, ever, generally, usually,
sometimes, occasionally, etc.
Note: Other adverbs like only are: just, nearly, hardly,
almost and scarcely. • If the verb is in the simple tense form, the adverb is
usually placed between the subject and the verb,
Read the following examples: preferably before the verb it modifies.
Wrong : We only have four hours to finish this paper. He always goes to college on foot.
Right : We have only four hours to finish this paper. He often visits the U.S.
His brother never takes alcohol.
Wrong : She just wants to take one class. [not anything
else]
• When the verb is some form of 'to be' (is, am, was,
Right : She wants to take just one class. [not even
are) the adverb follows the verb:
second]
They are always late.
He is never punctual.
Wrong : That building nearly costs sixty thousand rupees.
If you are ever in trouble, please meet me.
Right : That building costs nearly sixty thousand
rupees.
If the verb is a compound one, the adverb is usually placed
after the auxiliary:
Rule 2:
I shall never forget his help.
When an adverb modifies an intransitive verb, it usually
He will always behave properly.
follows it.
Examples:
In negative sentences the adverb of frequency follows not.
• She sang melodiously. They are not often late.
• She writes neatly.
In interrogative sentences the adverb of frequency follows
Rule 3: the subject immediately:
When a verb consists of an auxiliary and a main verb, the Does he often go fishing?
adverb which qualifies is placed between the auxiliary and Has he ever travelled by air?
the main verb.
Wrong :I have told him often not to come late. At times 'often' may be placed at the end to emphasise it.
Right : I have often told him not to come late This is mainly confined to negative statements and
questions.
Rule 4:
When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, He does not see his friend often, as he lives in a remote
the adverb usually comes before it. village,
Examples: 'Never' is sometimes placed at the beginning to emphasise
The Cuckoo sings quite sweetly. it. Then the verb and subject are inverted as in a question.
Adv. I never saw such an accident.
Do not speak so fast. Never did I see such an accident.
Adv. (S - V becomes V - S here)
Rule 7: Exercise – 10
USE OF HARD, HARDLY, SCARCE, SCARCELY
(a) Hard as an adverb means 'diligently' . It usually follows Correct the following sentences.
the verb.
He works hard to make both ends meet. 1. She was so quiet that he hardly noticed her.
2. My friend only wants to borrow rupees ten thousand.
(b) Hardly when used as an adverb means scarcely, 3. He worked hardly for the examination and got first
barely division.
It conveys a negative meaning. 4. The judge hardly entered the court room than the
Hardly (scarcely) had he reached the station, when advocates stood up and greeted him.
the train left. 5. No sooner did I go to the railway station when the train
Note: Hardly and scarcely are followed by when not left.
than . No sooner is followed by than not when or 6. Do not try to completely finish your homework before
then. (This is very important) lunch.
7. He always is at home on Sundays.
(c) Scarce as an adjective means 'not plentiful', hard to 8. The teacher wanted to know positively whether or not
find, not often found. the students could come to the picnic.
Coal has become scarce in England. 9. She meticulous does her work.
Scarcely as an adverb is almost synonymous with 10. His friends have often advised him to refrain from
'hardly'. I can scarcely hear you. smoking.
They have scarcely enough money to look after their 11. I only have twenty rupees in my wallet.
children. 12. He is seldom late to school.
13. She wept inconsolably.
Rule 8: 14. Have you visited a foreign country ever?
SPLIT INFINITIVE 15. Carefully read the terms and conditions before signing
The infinitive is to + the simple form of the verb (V). the document.
Do not put an adverb between to and verb. 16. The room is not enough big to accommodate so many
i. He refused to do the work quickly. people.
to+v Adv. 17. Vizag is rather a laidback city.
ii. They have decided to repeat the experiments carefully. 18. I could not help not sympathizing with the poor wretch.
to+v adv. 19. The suitcase is not enough big to accommodate all the
Wrong : He wanted to carefully read the directions. luggage.
Right : He wanted to read the directions carefully. 20. I have to often handle all the work myself.
Rule 9:
DANGLING MODIFIER
The subject of the main clause must be the same as the
understood subject of the introductory phrase. In other
words, the introductory phrase modifies the subject of the
main clause.
Example:
(i) Looking at his watch, Mr.Vijaykumar got up and left.
Introductory Ph. Subject
Who looked at his watch? Mr. Vijaykumar

Who got up and left? Mr. Vijaykumar
(ii) Travelling to Bombay, Nalini injured her leg.

Introductory Ph. Subject
Note: Both these sentences are right. In both these

sentences, the subject of the introductory phrase and the
subject of the main clause are same.
Wrong : When only a baby, my mother took me to the

circus.
Right : When only a child, I was taken to the circus
by my mother.
UNIT – V
CORRECT USE OF THE VERB
STRUCTURE OF THE VERB PHRASE VERBS - TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE
A verb indicates the action done by the subject or the state The verbs which do not require or do not have objects in
of being of the subject. the sentence in which they are used are called intransitive
Examples: verbs (i.v.).
1. He has completed the work (action). In the following sentences complements are used, not
2. Radha is an intelligent student (state). objects.
In every sentence you find a verb phrase (VP). Examples:

A verb phrase may have a single word or more words. This book costs ten rupees
Examples: i.v comp.
1. The Sun rises in the east. The play lasted an hour
1 i.v comp.
2. He has ordered tea for us. The birds fly in the sky
1 2 i.v adv. ph.
3. She has been teaching English since 1965.
1 2 3 The verbs which require or have objects are called
4. She will have been typing when I meet her at 10 a.m. transitive verbs
1 2 3 4
Example:
Main Verb The professor gave them some assignments
Verbs v object
Auxiliary Verb Note: There are a number of verbs which can be used with
or without objects, that is, 'transitively' or 'intransitively.'
Simple Present Tense - Sing
Simple Past Tense - Sang Here are some examples of verbs used both intransitively
Main Verb – and transitively.
Basic forms Present Participle - Singing
Past Participle - Sung Intransitive use Transitive use
My father is reading. He is reading the
AUXILIARY VERBS AND THEIR FORMS newspaper.
The play ended at five. Rain ended the play.
Primary Auxiliaries Modal Auxiliaries
BE be, is, are, am, was, can, might, may, VERB - VOICE
were, being, been must, will, needn't
HAVE have, has, had, having shall, daren't, should, There are two voices –
ought 1. ACTIVE VOICE
DO do, does, did, doing, would, used to, could 2. PASSIVE VOICE
done Notice the change in the following sentences.
1. She has done the work. (A.V)
Note: The Verb Phrase in any sentence is constituted by The work has been done by her. (P.V)
using only the Main Verb form or one of the basic forms of 2. These engineers can draw good designs. (A.V)
the Main Verb and the primary auxiliaries or modal Good designs can be drawn by these engineers. (P.V)
auxiliaries or both the primary auxiliaries and the modal 3. The Principal read the report. (A.V)
auxiliaries. The report was read by the Principal. (P.V)
Examples:
Note:
1. I teach English. (i) Depending on the emphasis we want to lay, we use a
M.V particular voice in a particular context.
Examples:
2. I am teaching English now. Some people dug a well to provide water to the village
P.A M.V (A.V)
A well was dug to provide water to the village (P.V)
3. I will have been teaching English. Here we would prefer to use the second rather than
M.A P.A P.A M.V the first sentence, because what we want to refer to is
not the action of the Panchayat but the result of the
Special Note: Every verb phrase has a particular structure action, namely, a well, being provided in order to
acceptable according to standard written English. supply water to the village. Who dug the well is not
the main idea in our minds.
The verb phrases in the following sentences are wrong.
(ii) Intransitive verbs do not have passive voice. i.e., we
1. I will the work 2. I will did the work cannot transform a sentence from Active to Passive if
3. I going there 4. I can done the work the verb is intransitive.
For example the sentence "Birds fly in the sky" cannot be b. verbs used to express feelings or states of mind:
transformed into passive voice. want, desire, wish, refuse, forgive, care, hate, like,
A more detailed note on Voice is included in a later admire, love
chapter. c. verbs involving the process of thinking:
feel, know, mean, remember, forget, recall, etc.
VERB - FORM AND USE OF THE TENSES
d. verbs denoting possession:
There are 12 tense-structures in English. have, own, belong, possess
e. verbs such as:
PRESENT contain, consist, keep, seem, cost
Simple Present : I teach English.
Present Continuous : I am teaching English. When some of the verbs listed above are used in the
Present Perfect : I have taught English present continuous tense, their meanings change.
Present Perfect I have been teaching
: English. 1. I see several mistakes in this book.
Continuous
I am seeing the principal at 3 P.M.
(will be meeting)
PAST
2. We hear several rumours about the Minister
Simple Past : I taught English.
The judge is hearing the case tomorrow. (conducting
Past Continuous : I was teaching
the trial).
English
3. I have a house at Malakpet
Past Perfect : I had taught English. I am having my break fast. (act of eating)
Past Perfect Continuous : I had been teaching
English The following sentences are wrong
FUTURE 1. I am loving that girl. (love)

Simple Future : I will teach English. 2. They are understanding the lesson. (understand )
Future Continuous : I will be teaching English. 3. I am slowly understanding you. (wrong)
Future Perfect : I will have taught English. I have begun to understand you. (right)
Future Perfect : I will have been teaching
4. I am having a telephone at my residence. (have )
Continuous English.
USES OF TENSES - SOME IMPORTANT RULES: Present Perfect Tense – definition + examples
Simple Present Tense is used to express habitual actions, The Present Perfect Tense is used to indicate an action
permanent or verifiable truths or facts (scientific or that has just been completed.
universal)
a. He goes to church every Sunday. Example:
b. Water boils at 100°c. I have finished my work. (just now)
c. Calcutta stands on the banks of the Hoogli.
d. The sun rises in the east.
The present perfect tense is also used to represent a past
action continuing to the present.
The Simple Present tense is used to express a planned
future action, or a series of such planned actions.
a. We leave Hyderabad at 8:30 p.m. next Tuesday and Example:
arrive in New Delhi at 11 a.m. on Thursday. We have lived in Hyderabad for ten years. (i.e., we are still
1. The Present Continuous tense is used to living in Hyderabad.
describe an action that is in progress at the
time of speaking. Do not use present perfect tense (has or have) when
The children are playing in the garden now. time is specified (eg. last year, 1994, etc) in the sentence.
The Present Continuous tense is also used to describe an Examples:

action that is in progress and will be continued, but not
I have seen this film last year (incorrect)
necessarily going on at the moment of speaking.
a. The college authorities are building a new hostel. I saw this film last year (correct)
The Present Continuous tense can also express an action Also note that for and since are commonly used with the
that has been arranged to take place in the near future and present perfect tense. 'For' shows length of time and
one's immediate plans. 'since' shows some point of time in the past as being the
a. I am meeting the C.M tomorrow morning. starting point of the action or event.
b. We are going to a movie this evening.
Examples:
There are a number of verbs which are not normally used 1. My friend has lived in Hyderabad for twenty years. (He
in the present continuous tense. These are: still lives here)
a. verbs of perception : 2. These monuments have been here since 1650 A.D.
see, hear, smell, notice (still they are here)
The following are some time expressions which go with the In the above sentences the present simple tense is used to
simple past and some that go with the present perfect. express a series of intended or planned actions in future.
Simple Past Tense Present Perfect Tense
yesterday so far 1. The P.M is visiting the city tomorrow
a week ago since 2. The college team is playing a match with the city team
recently lately next Sunday.
Note the difference in meaning between the following two The Present Continuous tense is used in these sentences
sentences: to express a future event. Usually the time is mentioned
(tomorrow, next sunday, etc) and it is in the near future.
Dr. Mohan lived in Delhi for fifteen years. (in the past) Note that the verbs go and come are not usually used with
Dr. Mohan has lived in Delhi for fifteen years. going to . We don't say, for instance, He is going to go to
(still Dr. Mohan lives in Delhi) Bombay tomorrow; we say, He is going to Bombay
tomorrow.
Simple Past Tense indicates an action completed
sometime in the past. Special expressions to indicate future
Example:
I lived in Hyderabad for ten years (in the past) 1. The train is about to leave.
2. The President is about to speak.
Past Progressive Tense:
This construction be about to + verb expresses events
1. The past progressive (continuous) tense expresses an which are likely to happen in a very short while.
action that was in progress at a point of time in the
past, having begun before that point and probably 1. I am to be at a meeting at 5 o'clock.
continuing after it. 2. There is to be an enquiry into the railway accident.
Examples:
a. I was reading the newspaper at 7 a.m. this In these sentences the form be + to + the base form of the
morning. verb is used to express a duty or necessity or planned
b. I was having my breakfast at 9 a.m. course of action, in the future.
2. The past progressive tense expresses an action RULES REGARDING THE USE OF VERBS
continuing over a period of time in the past. SUBJECT AND VERB CONCORD (AGREEMENT)
Example:
The students in the hostel were listening to the cricket General rule: The verb must agree with its subject in
commentary the whole of yesterday. number and person. In other words, the verb must be of
the same number and person as the subject.
3. The past continuous tense describes two or more
actions going on at the same time; often the Note: In the correction of sentences section of many
conjunction `while' is used to connect the clauses. competitive examinations the S - V concord is usually
Example: tested.
While some boys were reading in the library the others
were playing. Rule 1:
When two subjects are joined by 'and', the verb is plural.
Past Perfect Tense : My friend and his father are in India.
This tense is used when we wish to emphasise the
sequence of the two actions in the past, and when the Rule 2:
earlier action has some relation to the later action or When two singular nouns joined by and refer to the same
situation. person or thing, the verb is singular.
Examples: The secretary and treasurer has been arrested.
1. On reaching the school I found that I had forgotten to The District Magistrate and Collector is on leave today.
bring my English textbook.
2. When we reached the theatre, the play had begun Notes:
already.
3. I borrowed some money from a friend of mine, i. Article 'The' is used only once when the two nouns
since I had lost my purse. refer to the same person or thing.
ii. If the two nouns refer to different persons or things,
The Future Tense: article 'The' is used before each noun. In such cases,
There are several ways of expressing future time in the verb will be in the plural form.
English. Example:
The secretary and the president have been given
One of the most common ways to express this is to use warm welcome.
shall or will with the bare forms of the verb : shall come, will
go, etc. But there are other ways of expressing the future : Rule 3:
If two different singular nouns express one idea, the verb
Example: should be in the singular form.
Our cricket team leaves for Bombay this evening. Bread and milk is good for breakfast.
They play two matches in Bombay. They play one at Rice and curry is my favourite dish.
Poona. They return next Monday. This is the long and the short of the matter.
Rule 4: None of the students have finished the exam yet.
When two singular subjects are practically synonymous the
verb should be in the singular form. No can take either a singular or plural verb depending on
The law and order situation in the state is under the noun which follows it.
control.
His power and influence is on the decline. Structure: No + singular noun + singular verb non-count
Power and position has no charm for my friend. noun
Peace and prosperity is the need of the day.
Rule 5: Example: No example is relevant to this case.

If two singular subjects (combined by and) are preceded by
each or every , the verb should be in the singular. Structure: no + plural noun + plural verb
Example: No examples are relevant to this case.
1. Every boy and girl was present in the class yesterday.
2. Every man and every woman has the right to express Rule 10:
his or her view. Many words indicating a number of people or animals are
singular. The following nouns are usually singular . In some
Rule 6: cases they are plural if the sentence indicates that the
When the subjects joined by 'either - or' or' neither - nor' individual members are acting separately.
are of different persons, the verb will agree in person and
number with the noun nearest to it. Also, the plural subject congress family group
must be placed nearest to the verb. (This is very important) committee class organisation
Either Radha or Rajani has done this mischief. team army club
Neither Mohini nor Ragini is beautiful. crowd government jury
* Either the chief minister or the cabinet ministers are minority public
responsible for this problem.
Neither you nor he is to take up this task. Examples of collective nouns:
Either you or I am responsible for this mistake. The committee has met, and it has accepted the proposal.
The family was happy at the news.
Rule 7: The crowd was wild with excitement.
If connectives like with, together with, as well as, The Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation.
accompanied by etc. are used to combine two subjects the Our team is certain to win the match.
verb agrees with the subject mentioned first. The family living next door often quarrel among
themselves.
The President of India together with his personal
secretaries is invited to this function. Some collective nouns are used in plural:
The actress, along with her manager and some friends, is
attending the function. Examples:
Mr. Michael, accompanied by his wife and children is 1. The committee have arrived by different trains.
arriving tonight by train. 2. The family were fighting over inheritance.
Note: If the conjunction and is used instead, the verb would
then be plural. Rule 11:
Compare (i) Saritha and Rajitha are our professor's
daughters. Majority can be singular or plural. If it is alone it is usually
singular, if it is followed by a plural noun, it is usually plural.
Rule 8: The majority believes that the country can progress.
When 'not only ...... but also' is used to combine two V
subjects, the verb agrees with the subject close to it. The majority of the lecturers believe that the student
V
Not only Harish, but also his brothers were arrested. has not copied in the examination.
Rule 9: Rule 12:

None / No
A number of / the number or
None can take either a singular or a plural verb depending Observe the two structures:
(i) A number of + plural noun + plural verb.
on the noun which follows it;
(ii) The number of + plural noun + singular verb.
Examples:
Structure: none + of the + non-count noun + singular
(i) A number of students are going to the class picnic.
verb (ii) The number of days in a week is seven.
None of the counterfeit money has been found. (iii) The number of residents who have been living in this
colony is quite small.
Structure: none+ of the + plural count noun + plural (iv) A number of the applicants have already been
verb interviewed.
Rule 13: The enemy were forced to retreat.
Collective nouns indicating time, money, and
measurements used as a whole are singular and take a Exercise – 11
singular verb.
Twenty-five rupees is not such a big amount for him.
Two miles is too much for this man to run. Correct the mistakes relating to the use of verbs in the
sentences given below.
Rule 14:
When a lot of, a great deal of, plenty of, most of, and some 1. Measles have broken out in the town.
of refer to number, a plural verb is used. 2. The 'Arabian Nights' are an interesting book.
Example: 3. Five miles are not a long distance for me to walk.
A lot of people were present in the gallery. 4. The cost of all essential commodities have gone up.
Some of the students were absent.
5. The construction of these buildings have taken four
Note: If these expressions refer to an amount, the verb is in
the singular number. years.
Examples: 6. There are a bunch of keys on the table.
A lot of work has to be completed before we go. 7. A pious man and good neighbour have died.
A great deal of work has been finished. 8. Bread and milk are my only food for today.
9. Sanjay as well as his brothers have gone home.
Rule 15: 10. The notorious dacoit with his followers have escaped.
When the percentage or a part of something is mentioned 11. Eight people have been recruited and among those
with plural meaning the plural verb is used. four resigned.
Example: 12. As soon as the mother saw what the child did, she
30% of Indian women are literate. admonished her.
Three-quarters of the food has been eaten. 13. The very thought that I will move into my own house
(Here the reference is to the food as a whole.) by this time next month makes me feel happy.
14. The manager wanted to know whether the problem
Rule 16: was rectified.
'Barracks', headquarters, 'whereabouts' 'alms' etc. take a 15. When I had entered the house I found that the house
singular verb, as well as the plural verb. was a shambles.
The headquarters of the UNO is/are New York. 16. The minister told that he was busy and could not meet
anyone that day.
17. You had better to hurry if you don’t want to be late to
Rule 17:
school.
In sports, while referring to the players, the name of the
18. I would have been working in this organisation for
country is followed by plural verb. eleven years next year.
England have won the World Cup. 19. The inmates had been out of town when thieves broke
V into the house.
20. Had I a vehicle, I would not have had to depend on
Rule 18: public transport for commuting from place to place.
When the word 'enemy' is used in the sense "armed
forces" of a nation with which one's country is at war, we
have to use the plural verb:
UNIT – VI
CORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun (a) When the relative pronoun is 'that':
or a noun equivalent and shows some relationship Example:
between that and some other word in the sentence. Here is the pen that you are looking for.
i. Mohan gave a lecture on patriotism. (b) If a preposition governs a relative pronoun:
prep N Example:
ii. The prize is given to her This is the student whom I spoke about.
prep. pr. noun (c) When the relative pronoun is understood:
iii. His objection is to what all you say . Example:
prep. noun eq. (clause) This is the person you spoke to.
(d) If a preposition governs an interrogative pronoun or an
The words underlined are called Prepositions because they interrogative adverb:
normally take position before (pre) a noun. The preposition Example:
is said to 'govern' the noun that follows it. The noun is said What are you looking at?
to be the 'object' of the preposition. (e) When the preposition is used with the infinitive placed
at the end of the sentence:
Besides single-word prepositions, there are also phrases Example:
which do the work of prepositions and are called 'Phrase Do you have a chair to sit on?
Prepositions.' (f) When the object governed by the preposition is placed
first:
Types of Prepositions: Examples:
This I insist on.
a) Single-word Prepositions He is known all the world over.
in, on, after, at, with, under, above, etc. (These are
Simple Prepositions) Rule 2:
b) Phrase Prepositions (Complex Prepositions) A preposition can also be used at the beginning of an
interrogative sentence.
Some types of Complex Preposition structures with Examples:
examples are given below. In which city do you live?
To whom are you referring?
(i) Adverb + Preposition
along with, apart from, as for, as to, away from, onto, Rule 3:
out of, together with, upto, such as. There are many words which can be used as prepositions
(ii) Verb/adjective/conjunction, etc. + Preposition or as adverbs. The most important of these are about,
except for, owing to, due to, but for, because of. above, across, along, before, below, behind, besides, by,
(iii) Preposition + noun + preposition down, in, near, off, over, past, round, through, under, up,
by means of, on account of, in comparison with, in etc.
accordance with, in view of, in spite of, instead of. Examples:
Preposition Adverb
Note: On certain occasions it is both necessary and correct He was here before ten. He has done this before.
to end a sentence with a preposition. English is a flexible He was behind us. She is long way behind.
language and defies pedantic rules of grammar. The shop is just round Come round and see me
Now, look at the following sentences: the corner. this afternoon.
This is the boy I gave the book to. Rule 4:
This is the house that I was born in. There are some words with prepositions which require
In these sentences the preposition is used at the end of a gerunds after them.
sentence. Examples:
OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION refrain from hurting abstain from drinking
The noun or noun-equivalent (pronoun, adverb, gerund, prevent from working aid at doing
infinitive, adverbial clause, or any clause that can be used persist in disobeying addicted to gambling
as the object of the preposition) before which the succeed in doing bent upon doing
preposition is placed is called its object. disqualified from doing averse to playing
Examples: knack of getting expert in inventing
The glass is on the table (noun) prohibit from entering desist from talking
I depend on him. (pronoun) tired of writing capable of teaching
Go away from here. (adverb) pretext for delaying desirous of going
He is fond of playing. (gerund) fond of playing insist on going
She was well till a few days ago. (adverbial phrase)
I shall see it for what it is worth. (adverbial clause) Rule 5:
RULES PERTAINING TO THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS The verbs, which are placed immediately after prepositions
are usually in the gerund form.
Rule 1: Examples:
A preposition is placed at the end of a sentence in the Manohar insisted on buying a television.
following ways: She left the hotel without paying the bill.
Rule 6: Rule 12:
Some words with prepositions can take the gerund as well BETWEEN and AMONG
as the infinitive. Between is used for two persons or things
Examples: Distribute these sweets between the two children.
He is afraid of going out alone at night.
There is a good understanding between him and her.
He is afraid to go out alone at night.
Among is used for more than two persons or things.
Rule 7: The boys were fighting among themselves in the absence
Some intransitive verbs become transitive by placing of their teacher.
prepositions after them.
Examples: Rule 13:
laugh at, listen to, depend on / upon, prevail on / upon etc. BY is used to mean:
(a) according to; from the evidence of
Rule 8: By my watch, it is 10.30.
In and Within (b) to denote the doer of an action in the passive voice.
(a) In refers to the end of a period of time usually in the The thief was beaten by the policeman.
future, e.g. He will return in a month. (at the end of one
month)
(b) Within means before the end of a period of time Rule 14:
(at any time before the specified period) Prepositions from, since, for with reference to time.
He will return within a month. (he may come after two From, Since indicate a point of time.
weeks also) (a) I have not seen her since Monday.
I have not seen her from August.
Rule 9: For indicates a length or period of time.
In and Into (b) I have not seen her for six months.
(a) ‘In’ indicates rest or motion inside anything.
Examples: Exercise – 12
She is in the garden. (rest, inside)
She is walking in the garden (motion inside)
Correct the error relating to the use of prepositions in each
(b) ‘Into’ means motion towards the inside of anything.
Examples: of the following sentences:
I walked into the garden. 1. Sugar sells in ten rupees per kilogram.
Thieves broke into my friend’s house yesterday. 2. I congratulate upon her success in the examination.
3. What is the time with your watch?
Rule 10: 4. You must travel with a bus to reach in time.
(a) On is used: 5. Among you and me, he is definitely in the wrong.
(i) in speaking of things at rest. 6. John divided his property among his two sons.
He sat on a big stone. 7. He is suffering with malaria.
(ii) before the names of days and dates. 8. He has been working since five years.
On Friday, on the 2nd of August, etc.
9. It has been raining from morning.
(iii) to denote support and concern.
He lives on his maternal uncle’s wealth. 10. He has been here above eight hours.
I wrote books on politics. 11. In order to remain competitive, companies must
register a considerable increase of productivity.
(b) Upon is used:
12. Most of Leo Tolstoy’s works have been translated to
in speaking of things in motion. Hindi and other Indian languages.
The tiger sprang upon the goat. 13. You must not disregard to your health.
14. He has been working in this office since a long time.
Rule 11: 15. The economy was hit hard with the recession of the
BESIDE and BESIDES late 90s.
Beside means 'by the side of' 16. You must refrain telling lies.
Example: 17. Sheetal was very embarrassed when she was laughed
My house is beside the Kali temple. by her friends.
18. My children have great affection on their grand
Besides means in addition to or moreover parents.
19. The girl dressed with the pink dress is my daughter.
Examples:
20. The three siblings quarrelled between themselves.
• There are four professors in the department besides
the head of the department.
• Besides English we are taught French.
UNIT – VII
CORRECT USE OF CONJUNCTIONS
A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, The Chief Subordinating Conjunctions are after, because,
clauses or sentences. It also brings about relationship if, another, though, till etc.
between the elements which are thus joined. There are two
types of conjunctions: The following are some sentences in which important
subordinate conjunctions are used.
(i) Co-ordinate conjunctions (i) The patient had died before the doctor arrived.
(ii) Subordinate conjunctions (ii) We eat so that we may live.
(iii) He behaved in such a manner that all disliked him.
A Co-ordinate Conjunction joins two clauses or sentences
of equal rank. Also, it joins two words of equal grammatical The following compound expressions also can be
rank. used as conjunctions.
Examples:
And, but, for, nor, or, but, otherwise, else, also, either - or, In order that, on condition that, even if, so that,
neither - nor etc. are the chief co-ordinate conjunctions. provided that, as though, as well as, as if etc.
Examples:
He went to the hospital and met the doctor. Note: There are some words which are used both as
Dr. Rao and Dr. Reddy are best friends. conjunctions and as prepositions.
The Co-ordinate Conjunctions are of four kinds:
Conjunctions Prepositions
We went home after he We went home after
1. Cumulative Conjunction A conjunction which adds one
came to the office sunset.
statement or fact to another is a cumulative conjunction.
I went to bed early, for I I shall do it for him.
Example:
was tired.
The professor as well as the lecturer has accepted to
The following conjunctions are used in pairs and hence
conduct the examination next week.
are called correlative conjunctions.
The following are the cumulative conjunctions:
Not only ----- but also, Either …….. or
Both ----- and, Neither ……… nor
as well as Both ……… and
too, also, moreover etc. Though ……. Yet
Whether …….. or
2. Alternative Conjunctions: A conjunction of this kind Not only …….. but also.
expresses a choice between two alternatives.
Either ---- or, neither --- nor, otherwise, else, etc. are Note: When conjunctions are used as correlatives, each of
alternative conjunctions. the correlated words should be placed immediately before
Examples: the words to be connected.
She is good neither at games nor at studies.
Work hard, otherwise you will fail. For example
• He not only visited Bombay but also Pune. (wrong)
3. Adversative Conjunctions: An adversative conjunction • He visited not only Bombay but also Pune. (correct)
expresses a contrast between two facts or statements. • He is neither good at Mathematics nor at Science.
Only, however, but, still, yet, whereas, nevertheless, etc, (incorrect)
are adversative conjunctions. • He is good at neither Mathematics nor Sceince. (correct)
Examples:
She was angry, but she kept quiet. Exercise – 13
She hates me, yet I love her.
Correct the errors relating to the use of conjunctions in
4. Illative Conjunctions: Such a conjunction shows that a each of the following sentences.
statement or fact is proved or inferred from another.
1. It had been raining as he left the house.
Therefore, hence, so, consequently, for etc., are
2. Your action was either just or fair.
illative conjunctions.
3. As I was ill, so I did not go to college.
Example: 4. Both of you as well as your brother are at fault.
He is honest and amiable, hence he is revered. 5. I shall not come unless I am not invited.
6. Unless you have no objection, I shall see you tomorrow.
5. The Subordinate Conjunctions are the conjunctions 7. Walk carefully lest you should not fall down.
that connect a clause to another on which it depends
8. He works hard because he may get first division.
for its full meaning.
9. I am glad when you have come to discuss the problem
The adverbial clauses are usually connected to the frankly.
main clauses by means of the subordinate conjunctions: 10. God made the world so man made the town.
11. Educational institutions need to recognise the 17. No sooner had the train stopped, the passengers
importance of nurturing creativity, both in its own right rushed towards it.
as well as a path to formal, structured learning.
12. Nether his siblings or his friends helped him during his 18. Scarcely had we arrived at the theatre, than the movie
difficult times. began.
13. He is intelligent but is lacking diligence. 19. Contrary to what the Chief Justice of the Supreme
14. The captain did not want him in the team because Court said notwithstanding, the Right to Information
neither he is agile nor experienced. Act does cover the constitutional authorities.
15. The new Chief Minister must realise that although 20. Don’t exert yourself lest you will fall sick again.
most of his ideas are progressive, they are not
practicable in the given circumstances.
16. Because she was unwell, she had to cancel the trip.
UNIT – VIII
CORRECT USE OF ARTICLES
There are two types of articles: Rule 2:
(i) The Indefinite Articles A or An is used in the following ways:
(ii) The Definite Article Before the word 'most' when it is used in the sense of very
The Indefinite Articles: A and An (Please note that or much or exceedingly.
'An' is a variant of 'A'.) Examples:
The Definite Article: The Sreedhar is a most intelligent student.
This is a most unfortunate event.
Notes:
1. A or An is used before a singular countable noun. Note: It must be borne in mind that 'man' or 'woman', when
2. The choice between A and An wholly depends on the used in a general sense to represent 'mankind' as a whole,
pronunciation of the word. never takes an article.
3. In English the 'spelling of a word' is different from its Examples:
'pronunciation'.
Man is mortal.
4. ‘An’ is used before the word, the pronunciation of
which starts with a vowel sound.
5. There are 44 sounds (each is given a symbol from the Rule 3:
International Phonetic Alphabet). With a noun complement. This includes names of
6. Out of the 44 sounds, there are 20 vowels and 24 professions.
consonants. Examples:
7. Please note that, strictly speaking, A, E, I, O, U are not He is an actor.
vowels but just letters of the English Alphabet
She is a good dancer.
consisting of 26 letters.
8. The indefinite article 'a' is used before It was an accident.
(a) a word beginning with a letter which has a * The words underlined are noun complements. They are
consonant sound. e.g. a book, a man, a pen. also called subject complements.
(b) a word that begins with a letter (like O) with the
sound like 'wa' e.g. a one-rupee note, a one-eyed Rule 4:
man etc. In certain phrases: a cold, a pain, on an average, make a
(c) a word beginning with 'u' or 'eu' giving the
noise, make an effort, make a mistake, a fever etc.
consonant sound 'yu'.
Examples: a university, a European.
9. The indefinite article 'an' is used before: Rule 5:
(a) a word beginning with a letter which has a vowel With certain numbers : a hundred, a thousand, a million
sound. etc.
Examples: an apple, an egg, an umbrella, etc.
(b) a word beginning with 'h' but the pronunciation of Rule 6:
which starts with a vowel sound.
'A' can be used before Mr./ Miss/ Mrs. + name
Examples: an heir, an hour, an honest man, etc.
(c) an abbreviation, the first letter of which has a Examples:
vowel sound a Mr. Bose, a Mrs. Bose, etc.
Examples: an M.L.A., an M.P., an M.Com an
S.D.O, an F.R.C.S., an X-mas gift etc. Note:
A Mr. Bose denotes a person who is called Bose, and
SOME IMPORTANT RULES REGARDING THE USE
OFARTICLES implies that he is a stranger to the speaker.
Mr. Bose, without 'a', implies that the speaker knows
Rule 1: Mr. Bose, or knows of his existence.
A or An is not used before:
Rule 7:
(a) plural nouns: a books, a universities, a dinners etc. Before a proper noun to make it a common noun.
(wrong) Examples:
Mohan is a Newton (Mohan is a great scientist)
(b) uncountable nouns: an advice, an information etc. Amaresh is a Shakespeare (Amaresh is a great dramatist).
(wrong)
(c) names of meals: Rule 8:
Example: Before certain uncountable nouns preceded by nouns + of
Let us have dinner (correct) Examples:
Let us have a dinner (incorrect) a piece of advice, a bit of news, a drop of water etc.
Note: An indefinite article can be used before names of
meals when these are preceded by an adjective. Rule 9:
Example: After the words many, rather, such, quite etc. in certain
She gave me a good breakfast at 8 a.m. structures.
Examples: Rule 18:
Many a friend of mine is attending the party. Before 'only' and ordinal numbers, such as first, second,
Such a show cannot be arranged now. millionth etc.
He is rather a fool to take such decisions. Examples:
All the students of the first year are invited.
Rule 10: The second ranker is my son.
In certain expressions of quantity.
Examples: Rule 19:
a lot of, a couple, a great many, a good deal of, a good Before a noun when special emphasis is needed.
many, a great deal of, a few, a little etc. Example:
This is the novel I am talking about.
THE is used in the following ways:
Rule 20:
Rule 11:
Before a common noun to give it the meaning of an
Before a noun denoting a hospital, temple, school, college,
abstract noun.
prison etc. If its purpose or use is not referred to or say if
Example:
used not in its primary purpose.
At last the father in him prevailed and excused him.
Example:
He has gone to the hospital to visit a friend.
Rule 21:
Before an adjective in the comparative degree, when the
Rule 12:
selection of one out of only two persons, places or things is
Before an adjective in the superlative degree.
meant.
Example:
Michael is the tallest boy in the class.
Nalini is the more beautiful of the two girls in the class.
Rule 13:
Rule 22:
With nouns which refer to things which are unique. Before the adjective in the superlative degree of
Examples: comparison.
the sun, the moon, the sky, the earth, the equator etc. Example:
She is the most intelligent of all the candidates in the
Rule 14: exam.
Before an abstract noun or a material if it is used with an
adjunct (a qualifying clause) Rule 23:
(or when there is a particular reference to the material In special comparatives.
noun) Examples:
Example: The more you earn, the more you spend.
The gold you have brought from the U.S.A is of good The more, the better.
quality. The higher you go, the cooler you feel.
Rule 15: Rule 24:

Before a singular countable noun which picks out one Before musical instruments.
individual, object, etc. as representative of a class.
Example:
Example:
Rajani can play the piano very well.
The tiger is a ferocious animal.
Rule 25:
Note:
Before the proper names of certain well-known or sacred
All the following sentences mean the same thing.
books.
The tiger is a fierce animal.
Examples:
A tiger is a fierce animal.
the Mahabharat, the Ramayana, the Gita, the Bible, the
Tigers are fierce animals.
Quran.
Rule 16:
The is used before certain adjectives to give a plural Rule 26:
meaning. Before the names of certain countries each of which is a
Examples: union of smaller units.
rich, poor, dead, sick, healthy, deaf, blind etc. Examples:
the rich = rich people the U.S.A., the U.A.R., the U.K., etc.
the poor = poor people
Rule 27:
Rule 17: Before the words like north, south, etc. when these are
With certain adjectives indicating nationality. used as nouns.
Examples: Examples:
the Dutch, the Spanish, the Chinese, the Burmese etc. the north of India, the Middle East, the West Asia
Rule 28: Rule 39:
Before some proper nouns consisting of adjectives and Before groups of islands.
noun or noun + of + noun. Examples:
the Andamans, the West Indies, etc.
Examples:
the State Bank Of India, the National Museum Rule 40:
Before the names of certain countries.
Rule 29: Examples:
The + singular noun + clause or phrase can be used to the Yemen, the Sudan, the Hagues, etc.
distinguish one person from another of the same name.
Examples: Rule 41:
We have two Reddys, which Reddy do you want? Before the dates of months.
I want the Reddy who signed the letter. Examples:
the 23 October, 1949, the 15th August, 1947, etc.
Rule 30:
Before the names of political parties. THE is omitted in the following cases:
Example:
The Congress, The BJP, etc. Rule 42:
Before a common noun used in the widest sense.
Rule 31: Examples:
When it is clear from the context that a particular person, In general woman is kind-hearted.
place or thing is meant. Man is mortal.
Examples:
I talked to the principal yesterday. Rule 43:
The students are playing in the garden. Before material nouns.
Examples:
Gold is a precious metal.
Rule 32:
Before the names of the historical or public buildings Note: The may be used with a material noun if it is used
Examples: with an adjunct which makes it definite.
the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Rashtrapati Bhavan, etc. Example:
The gold we use in India is all imported.
Rule 33:
Before the names of rivers. Rule 44:
Examples: Usually before proper nouns.
the Krishna, the Ganga, the Yamuna etc. Example:
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
Rule 34:
Before the names of seas. Rule 45:
Examples: Before abstract nouns used in a general sense.
the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea etc. Examples:
Honesty is the best policy.
Sincerity pays dividends.
Rule 35:
Note: If an abstract noun is qualified by an adjective or an
Before the name of Oceans. adjectival phrase or clause it may have the article 'the'
Examples: before it.
the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, etc.
Example:
Rule 36: The wisdom of Moses is biblically significant.
Before the names of certain chains of Mountains.
Examples: Rule 46:
the Himalayas, the Alps, etc. Before the words - father, mother, aunt, uncle etc. in
general sense.
Rule 37: Example:
Before the names of deserts Father is very angry today.
Examples: the Sahara, the Thar, etc.
Rule 47:
Before predicative nouns denoting a position that is
Rule 38:
normally held at one time by one person only.
Before the names of newspapers, magazines, etc.
Examples:
Examples:
Mr. Kiran was elected chairman of the committee.
the Hindustan Times, the Statesman, the Deccan
He became principal of our college in 1996.
Chronicle, etc.
Rule 48: Example:
Before plural nouns which are used to denote a class. He has a black and white coat.
Examples:
Historians study old monuments for research purposes. Rule 55:
When two or more connected nouns refer to the same
Camels are useful animals in deserts.
person or thing, the article is placed before the first noun
only.
Rule 49: Example:
Before plural nouns used in general sense. The chief accounts officer and financial adviser is
Example: supposed to certify your documents.
Members are requested to pay their subscriptions in time.
Rule 56:
Rule 50: In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the same
Before the names of meals. person or thing, article 'a' is used before the first noun only.
Example:
Examples:
He is a better teacher than administrator.
I had lunch at 2.30 p.m.
Let's have dinner at 9.00 p.m. Articles are omitted in the following cases:
Note: 'The' can be used when meals are preceded by an Rule 57:
adjective or a clause or phrase particularising them. English ⇒ the English language
Examples: the English ⇒ the English people
The dinner given by our colony association yesterday was Examples:
not properly arranged. We speak English at home.
What about the wedding dinner tonight? The English and the French have fought various wars.
Rule 58:
Rule 51:
He has gone to ⇒ He has gone to make
Before common nouns used in pairs. market purchases.
Examples: He has gone to the ⇒ He has gone to the place
He worked day and night to prepare for the Civil Service market where there is a market,
exam. not necessarily to make
Both husband and wife are supposed to take part in this purchases.
competition.
Rule 59:
Rule 52: To see light ⇒ to look at light
No article is used before the nouns in the following To see the light ⇒ to be born
expressions: Example:
I see light at the end of the tunnel. (metaphoric use which
means there is hope)
to catch fire to send word to give ear His proposals for a new international airport never saw the
to lose heart to leave home to take offence light of the day.
at home in hand in debt
by day at sunrise at noon Rule 60:
on demand by land by air The article 'the' is omitted before the nouns in the phrases
at night on foot at ease below:
He invited me to lunch/tea/dinner.
Rule 53: Note: lunch/tea/dinner are used in general sense.
'The' is not used before the words - bed, hospital, sea,
Exercise – 14
temple, prison, court, school, university, college etc. when
these places are visited or used for their primary purpose.
1. West Indies islands, in Central America, are home to a
We go to bed to sleep.
wide variety of flora and fauna.
We go to hospital as doctors.
We go to university for higher studies. 2. Raju’s statement betrays his lack of understanding of
economics of the situation.
Note: When these places are visited or used for the other
reasons or purposes 'the' should be used. 3. My brother Sam, who is a research scholar at
Example: University of California, in the United States is
Sometimes I go to the prison to give lectures on morality, expected to submit his thesis very soon.
social behaviour etc. 4. John goes to the church every Sunday and the church
he goes to is near the British Council Library.
The articles a, an or the can be used as follows in some
cases: 5. John Sullivan did not discover Nilgiris, but he was the
first to see its potential as a sanatorium.
Rule 54:
When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the 6. Eric Green is an European national who has been
article is used before the first adjective only. living in India for the last three years.
7. Platinum is a most precious of all metals. 15. It is the moral responsibility of rich to help the poor and
downtrodden communities.
8. The sun is the main source of light and heat for all
living beings. 16. We set out on our journey at the daybreak.
9. Being a devout christian John goes to the church 17. The nation paid tributes to the heroes who laid down
every sunday. their lives for great cause.
18. The convention is scheduled to be held in Manila, the
10. Smita, the girl with a beautiful voice, is called Lata capital city of Philippines.
Mangeshkar of the school.
19. We resumed work after ten minute break.
11. Rose is the most beautiful of all flowers.
20. A Eskimo lives in an igloo which is a house made of
12. We can’t forget hospitality with which they treated us. snow and ice.
13. The accused was made to swear by the Gita.
14. Junko Tabei of Japan was first woman to reach the

summit of Mount Everest.
SECTION III – BASIC PATTERNS
UNIT – I
INDIRECT OBJECTS
Some verbs may be followed by two objects 3. Some verbs like EXPLAIN, ANNOUNCE, DESCRIBE,
(an indirect object and a direct object). DELIVER, MENTION, SAY, REPORT, RETURN use
The following sentences show the patterns used when only the following pattern:
verbs take two objects. Examples:
He explained his idea to us.
1. Verbs like BRING, SEND, OFFER, PASS, TAKE, D.O + to + Obj (of "to")
TELL, READ, WRITE, TEACH, SELL take two
objects: 4. Some verbs like ASK, COST, CHARGE, use only the
Examples: following pattern:
My mother often gives me a gift. Examples:
I.O. D.O. I asked Mahesh a question.
OR I.O. D.O.
My mother often gives a gift to me.
D.O. + to + Obj. (of "to") LOOK AT THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES:
2. Some verbs like BUY, FIX, MAKE, GET use the A. Wrong: The professor explained me the difficult
following patterns. points of grammar.
Examples: Right: The professor explained the difficult points of
John usually buys his brother a gift. grammar to me.
I.O. D.O.
OR B. Wrong: The new suit cost over two thousand
John usually buys a gift for Mary rupees to me.
D.O + for + Obj (of "for") Right: The new suit cost me over two thousand
rupees.
UNIT – II
EMBEDDED QUESTIONS
An embedded question is a question within a statement or 3. Do not use do, does, or did as auxiliaries in these
a question. patterns.
1. The pattern for an embedded question in a statement ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

is question word + subject + verb or question
word/subject (same word) + verb. Wrong: I did not understand what did they mean?
Right: I did not understand what they meant.
I cannot see what the sign says.
QW + S + V Wrong: I was surprised when he told me how much does
he study every day.
They do not know who bought the car. Right: I was surprised when he told me how much he
QW/S + V studies every day.
2. The pattern for an embedded question in a question is Wrong: He asked me when was I free to do the work for
the same as for an embedded question in a statement him.
(see rule 1) Right: He asked me when I was free to do the work for
him.
Do you know who he is?
QW + S + V
UNIT – III
PARALLELISM
1. Items in a series must be parallel : that is, they must d) OR
have the same grammatical form. He wanted to borrow a car or to rent one while
INFIN. INFIN.
a) NOUNS He likes music, art, and history. his car was being repaired.
N N N
e) THAN
b) GERUNDS He likes swimming, dancing, and riding. Eating in a restaurant is more fun than cooking
V+ING V+ING V+ING V+ING V+ING
at home.
c) ADJECTIVES He is tall, dark, and handsome.
ADJ ADJ ADJ f) ALTHOUGH
Although he liked to eat good food, he did not
d) ADJECTIVES They wanted to paint the living INFIN. INFIN.
INFIN. like to pay a high price for it.
room, to lay a new carpet, and to buy a new sofa. INFIN.
INFIN. INFIN.
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
e) PAST TENSE The Romans conquered,
PAST 1. Wrong: Her husband had bought a car, found a
colonized, and governed much of the world. job, and chose a school for the children
PAST PAST before she arrived.
Right: Her husband had bought a car, found a job,
f) PAST PERFECT TENSE and chosen a school for the children before
He had finished the game, had taken a shower, and she arrived.
had eaten lunch by the time I went to his house.
Note: The auxiliary 'had' may be omitted in the second 2. Wrong: That soup should not be served hot, but
and the third verb phrases. at a cold temperature.
Right: That soup should not be served hot but cold.
2. The structure joined by and, but, as, or then, or
although must have the same grammatical form. 3. Wrong: Renting an apartment can be as expensive
as to buy a house.
a) AND Right: Renting an apartment can be as expensive
He enjoyed the music of Spain and as buying a house.
N PHRASE
the sculpture of France. 4. Wrong: He is young, intelligent, and has charm.
N PHRASE Right: He is young, intelligent, and charming.
b) BUT 5. Wrong: She likes to read, to travel, and painting.

That verb form is not active, but passive Right: She likes to read, to travel, and to paint.
ADJ ADJ
c) AS
Taking the bus can be as costly as taking a plane
V+ING V+ING
UNIT – IV
QUESTION TAGS
Question Tags are a feature of most languages, but 4. Don’t change the tense.
English differs from many of them. Consequently the The tense of the verb in the tag should be the same as
following error is sometimes found. the one in the statement.
Examples:
Mahesh did not accept the job, did he ? (correct)
Examples: Mahesh did not accept the job, doesn't he? (incorrect).
You are going to the cinema this evening, isn't it? 5. Both the main sentence and the tag should have the
(Incorrect) same subject. The tag must contain the subject form
You are going to the cinema this evening, aren't you? of the pronoun.
(Correct) Example:
You are teaching them grammar, aren’t you?
The following rules pertaining to the use of question tags 6. If the main sentence consists of the forms like it is,
there are and there is; the question tag also take there
should be borne in mind to avoid making errors:
or it.
Example:
1. Use the same auxiliary verb as in the main clause. There are only twenty boys in this class, aren’t there?
2. If the sentence has no auxiliary verb use do, did or
does Observe the following: (All the following are correct)
Examples:
John sings very well, doesn't he? 1. Dr. Rao is a professor of English, isn't he?
John does not sing very well, does he? 2. My cousin cannot run fast, can he?
3. She mustn't see the film, must she?
3. If the given sentence is positive, the tag is negative. If
4. We used to live in Nigeria, didn’t we?
the given sentence is negative, the tag is positive. 5. You couldn't swim a mile, could you?
Examples: 6. Mr. Brown will be our new principal, won't he?
Positive Statement Negative Tag 7. I am not a good player, am I?
Rajini is a music teacher, isn't she? 8. I am a good player, aren't I?
Negative Statement Positive Tag

Rajini is not a music teacher, is she?
SECTION IV – STYLE
UNIT – I
VOICE
In English, the active voice is more common than the *Example: The hunter shot the tiger.
passive voice, although the passive voice is acceptable s v o
and even preferred at times. It is the context that is to be
taken into consideration while deciding upon the type of 2. When the subject of the sentence is the receiver of
construction - active or passive. While both types of the action denoted by the verb, then it is said to be
construction may be grammatically correct, one of them in the passive voice.
could be more elegant. The following are some of the
points of observation. The tiger was shot by the hunter.
s v o
1. When the subject of the sentence is the doer of the
action, denoted by the verb, then the sentence is
said to be in Active Voice.*
Note: The subject of the verb in the Active Voice is made the Object of the verb in the Passive Voice and is introduced with
the preposition ‘by’. Sometimes the word ‘by’ is omitted when the agent is not required to be mentioned.
Example: He was elected the leader of the group.
This can be shown graphically:
Verb
Subject object
(Active form)
Helps
Active voice: He Her
Is helped verb By him

Passive voice: She (passive form) By + object
[In agreement with the number and

person of the subject]
3. The passive voice is preferred when the doer of the 5. The active voice is used when the subject is more
action is unknown or unimportant. important than the object.
We watched the news.
Archimedes discovered the laws of floating bodies.
The cure for cancer will probably be discovered by
some unknown scientist in a laboratory. 6. Avoid using active and passive in the same sentence.
("the cure for cancer" is the main idea in the sentence
The food was cooked and served.
and not "the unknown scientist")
passive passive
That church was built in the 16th century.
(who built the church is unimportant and hence not Susan cooked the dinner and washed the dishes.
mentioned) active active
4. When discussing history, the passive voice is often 7. Use one verb instead of two whenever possible.
used.
Saritha enjoys good food and music.
Example: (Saritha enjoys good food and music is also enjoyed
The war was fought over gold. by her.)
The following table will help you to note the changes from the Active Voice the Passive Voice :
Tense Active Passive

1. Simple Present Tense He writes a letter A letter is written by him
2. Present continuous He is writing a letter A letter is being written by him.
3. Present perfect tense He has written a letter A letter has been written by him.
Present prefect
4. He has been writing a letter No Passive form.
continuous tense
5. Simple Past Tense He wrote a letter A letter was written by him.
6. Past continuous tense He was writing a letter A letter had been written by him.
7. Past perfect tense He had written a letter. A letter had been written by him.
Past perfect continuous
8. He had been writing a letter. No Passive form.
tense
9. Simple future He will write a letter. A letter will be written by him.
10. Future continuous tense He will be writing a letter. No Passive form.
11. Future Perfect tense He will have written a letter. A letter will have written by him.
Future Perfect He will have been writing a
12. No Passive form.
Continuous tense letter.
Note: Sentences with intransitive verbs cannot be changed second sentence BETTER.
to passive voice because such verbs do not take objects 1. AWKWARD: Ice cream was eaten at the party
after them. by the children.
BETTER: The children ate ice cream at the
Example: The sky is blue. party.
He goes to school. (intransitive verb)
2. AWKWARD: Some people painted pictures
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES of animals on ancient cave walls.
BETTER: Pictures of animals were painted on
In the following examples we cannot say that the first ancient cave walls.
sentence is absolutely wrong. In certain contexts it may
even be preferred. However, generally speaking, the 3. AWKWARD: Henry likes swimming and golfing
corrected sentence (the second sentence) is preferrable. is also liked by him
We are calling the first sentence AWKWARD and the BETTER: Henry likes swimming and golfing.
UNIT – II
REPORTED SPEECH
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH (ii) If the reported speech expresses a universal truth or a
habitual fact its tense remains unchanged.
Speech can be reported in two ways Example:
1. The actual words of the speaker can be repeated. This The teacher said, “Honesty is the best policy.”
is called DIRECT SPEECH The teacher said that honesty is the best policy.
Example: Mother said, “Mahesh drinks milk before going to bed
Meena said, “I don’t want to play now.” every night.”
Mother said that Mahesh drinks milk before going to
2. We can report what the speaker said without quoting bed every night.
his exact words. This is called INDIRECT SPEECH. (iii) When the reported speech contains a time clause, and
Example: both the main verb and the verb in the time clause are
Meena said that she didn’t want to play then. in the simple past, the verbs remain unchanged.
Example:
The verb that introduces the Reported Speech is He said, “The bus did not move till all the passengers
called Reporting Verb and the words which are put were seated.”
within inverted commas are called the Reported He said that the bus did not more till all the
Speech. passengers were seated.
Direct Speech is always enclosed within inverted commas Note: If the main verb is in the Simple Past Tense and the
and it always begins with a capital letter. verb in the time clause is in the Past Continuous Tense it is
It is separated from the Reporting Verb (said) by a comma. usual to change the main verb to Past Perfect and leave
the verb in the time clause unchanged.
Rules for changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech. Example:
She said, “Dhiren fell while he was crossing the road.”
1. No inverted commas are used in Indirect Speech and She said that Dhiren had fallen while he was crossing the
no comma is used after the Reporting Verb. road.
2. The tense of the Reporting Verb is never changed. (iv) If the Reported Speech describes a state of affairs that
still exists when the speech is reported, its tense
3. The conjunction ‘that’ is used after the reporting verb remains unchanged.
in the case of statements. Example:
Ram said, ‘My wife keeps complaining of aches and
4. When the Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense the pains.”
Present Tenses of the Direct Speech are changed into Ram said that his wife keeps complaining of aches
the corresponding Past Tenses. and pains.
(a) Simple Present becomes Simple Past (v) When the verb in the spoken sentence is in the Past
Example: Perfect Tense, there is no change in the tense of the
Raju said, “I am happy.” verb in the Reported Speech.
Raju said that he was happy Example:
(b) Present Continuous becomes Past Continuous He said, “I had waited there for half an hour before the
Example: bus arrived.”
Madhav said, “My father is sleeping.” Madhav He said that he had waited there for half an hour
said that his father was sleeping. before the bus arrived.
(c) Present Perfect becomes Past Perfect. 4. (e) The Simple Past in Direct Speech becomes
Example: Past Perfect in Indirect.
Umesh said, “I have failed in my duty.” Umesh Example:
said that he had failed in his duty. The student said,“ I wrote a letter yesterday.”
(d) “Shall” of the Future Tense changes to “should”, The student said that he had written a letter the
“will” changes to “would” or “should”. previous day.
Example: (f) Past Continuous Tense of Direct Speech is
He said to me, “I will meet you tomorrow.” changed to Past Perfect Continuous.
He told me that he would meet me the next day. Example:
Seema said, “We were watching TV the whole
Exceptions evening.”
Seema said that they had been watching TV all
(i) If the Reporting Verb is in the Present or in the Future evening.
Tense, the tense of the verb in the Reported Speech
does not change. 5. The pronouns of the Direct speech are changed where
Example: necessary so that it is clear who said what to whom,
He says, “I will never come back.” about whom.
He says that he will never come back. Example:
My father will say, “I cannot buy you a car.” He said, “I don’t understand you.”
My father will say that he cannot buy me a car. He said he didn’t understand me.
I said to him, “I don’t trust you.” If the question in Direct Speech begins with a question
I told him that I didn’t trust him word (eg: who, what, which, when) this word serves as
a link between the reporting verb and the reported
Note: ‘Said’ followed by ‘to’ changes to ‘told’. question.
They said, “We will come again tomorrow.” They said “Why did she come?” Sekhar said.
that they would come again the next day. Sekhar asked why she had come.
I said, “I have done my duty.”
I said that I had done my duty. If the question has no question word and can be
The teacher said, “You have done well.” answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, the conjunction ‘whether’
The teacher said that I had done well or ‘if’ is placed after the reported verb.
He said, “You should be regular to class.” Example:
He said that I should be regular to class. “Do you know French?” she said.
She asked me if I knew French.
6. Words expressing nearness in terms of time and place
become words of distance. (C) Commands and Requests
In reporting commands and requests the Indirect
Direct Indirect speech in introduced by some verb expressing
command or request and the Imperative mood is
this/these that/those changed into the infinitive.
here there In indirect commands and requests, a verb such as
now then ‘tell’, ‘ask’, ‘order‘ ‘command’ and ‘request’, is followed
ago before by the person addressed and the ‘to infinitive’
thus so Example:
today that day He said to his servant, “Bring me a glass of milk.”
tomorrow the next day He ordered his servant to bring him a glass of milk.
yesterday the day before “Can you post this letter for me?” she said.
the previous day She requested me to post that letter for her.
last night the night before/ the
previous night Exclamations
next week the following week
In reporting exclamations and wishes, the Indirect Speech
Example: is introduced by some verb which expresses an
He said, “These are the books I am looking for.” exclamation or a wish such as exclaimed, praised, blamed,
He said that those were the books he was looking for. applauded, called to witness, wished desired etc.
Example:
7. Reporting different kinds of sentences “What a beautiful house you have!” my friend said.
My friend exclaimed that I had a very beautiful house.
(a) Statements Alice said, “How clever you are!.”
In Indirect statements the conjunction ‘that’ is Alice exclaimed that I was very clever.
placed after the reporting verb. However, it is “Bravo! You have done well,” the Principal said.
often omitted. Indirect statements are introduced The Principal applauded the boy for doing well.
by such verbs as ‘say’, ‘tell’, ‘reply’ and ‘inform’
Example: Here are some more reporting verbs for statements.
He said, “I am feeling very weak.”
He said that he was feeling very weak. declare
She said to me, “You must obey your parents.” state
She told me that I must obey my parents. inform
Sheela said, “No, I will not be able to come.” propose
Sheela replied that she would not be able to maintain
come. announce
Madhav said, “The last train leaves at
10 o’clock.” When the spoken sentence is by way of a reply to a
Madhav informed me that the last train leaves at question we can use ‘answer’ ‘reply’ ‘respond’ etc.
10 o’ clock.
Some more verbs for reporting imperative sentences:-
(b) Questions
In reporting questions, the Indirect Speech is order
introduced by verbs such as ‘asked’, inquired etc. command
In Indirect questions, the question form changes tell
to the statement form. That is, the verb is placed advise
after the subject pray
Example: suggest
He said, “Where is the letter?”
He asked where the letter was.
UNIT – III
WORDINESS
A general rule in English is that ‘the shorter is the better'. ii. She did research on enzymes from 1950 to 1964.
That is when the same idea can be expressed directly in iii. He walked down the stairs quickly.
fewer words, choose the shorter version. There are several (Note: He walked down the stairs in a quick
ways to do this. In the following examples, the sentence manner.)
given within the brackets expresses the same idea in a
"verbose” (wordier) manner. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
1. Avoid unnecessary relative clauses where an In the following examples the second sentence is preferred
adjective, participal phrase, prepositional phrase, or to the first sentence.
appositive is enough.
WEAK: The examination was finished by all
i. The young girl waiting by the door would like to the students within the allocated time.
see you. PREFERRED: All the students finished the
(Note: The young girl who is waiting by the door examination in time.
would like to see you.)
ii. Hawaii, the fiftieth state of the U.S.A., is a WEAK: The committee discussed the problem
favourite vacation spot. for a long time without being able to
(Note: Hawaii, which is the fiftieth state, is a come to the point where a decision could
favourite vacation spot.) be reached.
PREFERRED: The committee discussed the problem
2. Be as direct as possible. for a long time without reaching a
decision.
i. It was an important discovery.
(Note: It was a discovery of great importance)
UNIT – IV
DICTION
(Words often confused)
Diction is the choice of words. In English there are many words which are usually confused. Some words have similar
meanings, but cannot be used interchangeably; that is, a choice must be made according to the grammatical situation. The
following are some pairs of words which are often confused in their usage.
1. Between/Among
Between is used with two persons or things.
Among is used for three or more persons or things.
I cannot decide between these two courses of study.

He was standing among several students.
2. In/Into
In is used with non-motion verbs.

Into is used with verbs of motion.
He is waiting in the kitchen.

He ran into the kitchen.
3. Lie/Lay
Lie cannot taken an object. Lie tells what a person or thing does for himself or by itself. The principal forms of lie are:
lie (simple present tense form) John lies on his bed for a few minutes after lunch every day.
lay (simple past tense form) Sunita lay on the sofa all yesterday afternoon.
lain (past participle form) The watch had lain unnoticed for several days before I found it yesterday.
lying (present participle form) A man was lying injured on the street after the accident.
Lay must have an object. ‘Lay’ tells what a person or thing does for someone or something else. The principal forms of
lay are:
lay (simple present tense form) You should lay the tiles in the hall very evenly.
obj.
laid (simple past tense form) This hen laid two eggs yesterday.
obj.
laid (past participle form) That hen has laid six eggs this week.
obj.
laying (present participle) The workers are laying the carpet now in the hall.
obj.
4. Rise/Raise
Rise cannot take an object. It is an intransitive verb. (like lie). ‘Rise’ tells what someone or something does for himself or
by itself. The principal forms of rise are:
rise (simple present tense form) The temperature rises sharply in the afternoon.
rose (simple past tense form) The Sun rose at seven yesterday.
risen (past participle form) Prices of essential commodities have risen a great deal lately.
rising (present participle form) The baby's temperature is rising hour by hour.
Raise must have an object because it is a transitive verb. ‘Raise’ tells what someone or something does for someone or
something else. The principal forms of raise are:
raise (simple present tense form) Please raise the beam a little higher.
obj.
raised (simple past tense form) The workers raised the beam to the required level.
raised (past participle form) The researcher has raised the temperature of the liquid in the jar.
raising (present participle form) The new theory is raising many interesting questions.
5. Hanged/Hung
Hanged and hung are both correct past participle forms of the verb hang. But :
Hanged refers to executions (killings) of persons.

The murderer was hanged to death.
person
Hung refers to things.
The picture was hung over the fireplace.
Thing
6. Advice : (Noun) The teacher gave much advice to the students.

Advise : (Verb) The doctor advised me to take nutritious food.
7. Adapt : (make suitable) Novels are adapted for the stage.

Adopt : (take a child as one's own) He adopted a son.
8. Allusion : (reference) The allusion that I am stingy is a mistake.

Illusion : (false notion) I do not have illusions about his ability.
9. Amiable : (pleasant and good-tempered) Radha is quite an amiable person.

Amicable : (friendly) The dispute is quite serious and therefore cannot be settled amicably.
10. Apposite: (Relevant) His speech was apposite to the occasion.

Opposite : (contrary) Heavy is the opposite of light.
11. Beside : (by the side of, close) His mother sat beside him.
Besides : (in addition to) Is anyone else coming besides you?
12. Childish : (silly) I don't like his childish behaviour.

Childlike : (innocent) Gandhiji always put on a childlike smile on his lips.
13. Confidant : (person with whom one Nehruji was a confidant of Gandhiji in political matters.
trusts with secrets)
Confident : (to be sure) I am confident of success in the examination.
14. Continual : (very frequent) He had continual arguments with his wife.
Continuous : (going on without a break) There was continuous rain yesterday.
15. Deny : (ascertain that something The minister denied the allegation that he had taken bribe.
is wrong)
Refuse : (decline to take something He refused the money given as bribe.
that is offered or to do
something that one is
asked to do)
16. Historic : (famous or important in history) Our struggle for freedom is historic as many a leader
sacrificed his life.
Historical : (pertaining to history) Our professor is engaged in historical research about pyramids.
17. Ingenious : (clever at organising) As he is very ingenious he can invent many more scientific
marvels.
Ingenuous : (artless, frank) Cordelia's love for her father was ingenuous.
18. Luxurious : (having luxuries) Rich people live luxurious lines.

Luxuriant : (rich in growth) There is a luxuriant growth of vegetation on the farm.
19. Verbal : (relating to words) Man alone is capable of verbal communication.

Verbose : (wordy) During the Victorian era, writers used a verbose style
in their works.
20. Disinterested : (free from bias or prejudice, freedom from personal or selfish motives)
Uninterested : (lacking in interest) A judge must be disinterested in a case, but he should not
be uninterested.
21. Prophecy : (Prediction) Noun : The man’s prophecy about a terrible earthquake turned out to
be false.
Prophesy : (to predict) Verb : He prophesied the end of the earth.
UNIT – V
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation: (d) to show a pause by separating sentences.
Punctuation refers to the appropriate use of putting Points His room was dirty, books were scattered and dirty
or Stops in writing. clothes littered the floor.
(e) before 'but':
For any writing to be understood, it must be punctuated The new boy was small, but strong.
correctly. (f) before 'as', 'since', 'because'.
The following are the principal stops. Note: This is true if ‘as’, ‘since’ convey the meaning
'because'.
(1) Full stop or period (.)
(2) Comma (,) Examples:
(3) Semi colon (;) Mother was worried, as I was not well.
(4) Colon (:) He failed the test, since he did not study well.
(5) Question Mark (?) (g) after participle phrases that begin sentences.
(6) Exclamatory Mark (!) Examples:
(7) Hyphen (-) Feeling tired, I went to bed.
(8) Apostrophe (’) Running to the gate, he opened it quickly.
(h) before and after words that give more information
The following are the main rules or guidelines: about the subject.
My friend, who is a writer, is a tennis player.
(1) Full Stop:
(i) after 'however:
A full stop is used
we know however, that he was going to die.
(a) at the end of a sentence. (unless a question mark
(j) to separate two principal clauses (complete thoughts)
or an exclamation mark is used)
joined by 'but', 'so', 'for' 'or', 'nor'.
(b) after initials in names, countries, medals,
Finish your work, or you will be punished.
degrees.
(k) after 'yes' and 'no' when these begIn an answer. Yes,
Example:
I am going to town.
J.R.Doyens
No, it is not late.
U.S.A.
V.C (Vice Chancellor)
Commas are not used in a clause that specifically identifies
B.Sc.
the noun.
(c) after shortened forms of words that do not end in
the last letter of the word. Example:
Example: This is the book which I was given for Christmas
Jan. (which book?)
Fri. The teacher spoke to the boy who had misbehaved.
(which boy?)
A full stop is not used
(1) after shortened forms of words that end with the last Semi colon:
letter of the word. (a) A semi colon is used to join sentences with principal
Dept (Department) clauses not connected by a conjunction.
Lieut (Lieutenant) Example:
(2) after symbols of measurement km; kmph etc. • The rocket rose; it suddenly burst into a ball of
(3) after headings and titles. flame.
(4) after dates : 25th July, 1971. • We were confident; the game was about to start;
(5) after a signature in a letter. I felt nervous.
Comma: (b) It is used to separate clauses which already contain

The comma represents the shortest pause, and is used commas.
(a) to separate words in a list. Example:
Example: Last year, my brother won every match; there was no
I gave her a book, a pencil, a rubber and a ruler. one who could defeat him.
(b) to separate adjectives in a sentence.
Example: Colon:
She wore a beautiful, long, new coat. A colon is used
He wrote her lesson neatly, quickly and correctly. (a) before enumeration of examples, etc.; as,
(c) to show a pause by separating a phrase. The cat, This year I am studying these subjects: geography,
yawning lazily, closed its eyes. history, English, maths, and biology.
(b) to introduce a quotation. Hyphen:
Francis Bacon says: "Reading makes a full man, (a) Hyphens are used to connect parts of some
writing an exact man, speaking a ready man." compound words.
Example:
(c) to introduce a statement which tells more about the
Well-written; mother-in-law.
one that comes before it. (b) Hyphens are used in numbers and fractions.
My mother taught me two golden rules: I was to do my best Example:
and never tell lies. Thirty-five
three-quarters.
Question marks:
Question marks are used at the end of a sentence that Apostrophes are used:
asks a direct question. (1) with nouns to show ownership or possession
Example:
Example:
dog's paw; men's room etc.
Did your brother do his home work? (2) to write plurals of numbers and letters of the alphabet
Question marks are not used. Example:
(a) when using indirect or reported speech. • There are two S's in this word.
Example: • There are two 8's in this number.
He was asked if he wanted to sleep. (3) in expressions using time.
(b) when the sentence is a request. Example:
Example: • a minute's rest
Would you please pass the salt. • two years’ time.
(4) in names of churches.
Exclamation marks: • St.Joseph's in Colombo.
(5) in names of churches ending in 'S'.
Exclamation Marks are used after words or a group of
• St.Nicholas' on main street.
words which express sudden feeling: (6) in place of numbers in dates
Alas!; Hurrah! etc. • '85 (instead of 1985)
Exclamation marks are not used along with a full stop. (7) to show ownership in a phrase ____ only the last word
takes the apostrophe. The king of Bhutan’s Palace.
Note: (8) to show joint possession Tom and Mary's cat (when
If the exclamation mark comes after one or two words, start not a joint possession Tom's and Mary's cats)
the next word with a capital letter.
Example:
Help! Fetch me a glass of water!
Notes on Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs: Certain verbs when followed by certain 18. Lay about: to attack some one violently.
prepositions or Adverbs, acquire a new significance. A group of ruffians laid about him with sticks while he
They are said to be phrasal verbs. was returning home.
Given below are a few phrasal verbs with meanings and 19. Lay out: to plan how something should look and
usage. Study them carefully. arrange it in this way.
1. Back up: to support; to sustain. The ancient Chinese laid out beautiful gardens with
You need to back up your statement with correct data. lawns, and flower beds.
2. Bear down: to overthrow; to overcome. 20. Make away with: to squander
When people could not endure the atrocities of the After his father’s demise, he made away with the
government in power, they bore it down. entire property.
3. Bear with: to tolerate. 21. Play with: to trifle with
I cannot bear with his peevish nature any further. When he tried to play with her emotions, she turned
4. Break out: to escape from a place or a situation. out very violent.
I think Archana needs to break out of her daily routine 22. Take after: to resemble
and do something exciting. My brother takes after my father.
5. Break in: to enter a building by force. 23. Stand up for: defend
Burglars broke into my neighbour’s house while they He always stands up for the rights of the poor and the
were not at home. oppressed.
6. Call for: to demand. 24. Stand out against: refuse to yield
The Reading Comprehension section calls for good He stood out against all odds and achieved success.
reading skills from the students. 25. Make away with: Steal
7. Call up: to recall. When everyone around was busy, the stranger made
The beautiful scenery around called up memories of away with two thousand rupees from the cash counter.
my childhood. 26. Look down upon: despise
8. Come by: to obtain. Don’t look down upon the poor and the needy.
How did you come by that beautifully embroidered 27. Look up to: respect.
skirt?
We all look up to him as our leader.
9. Come upon: to find by accident.
28. Set down: record
I came upon some very interesting facts about our
planet in this Encyclopaedia. The villagers were very happy when the police set
down in writing their complaints.
10. Go about: to start working on something, to tackle
29. Set about: took steps towards
Can you just explain to me how to go about solving
this problem? As soon as he took over as the new manager, he set
about organizing the office.
11. Go by: to be guided by.
30. Fall upon: attack
This is a good example to go by while solving the
problems. When the Indian soldiers fell upon the enemies they
had no choice but to retreat.
12. Hang back: to hesitate to proceed.
31. Give forth: announce
Don’t hang back, you can do it as well as anyone else
can do. In the press meet the cricketer gave it forth that he
was going to contest for the elections.
13. Hang on: to depend on.
32. Gone through: experience, live through
Your success hangs on how much effort you are going
to put in. Though she has gone through many hardships she did
not give up.
14. Fall back: to recede, or to retreat
33. Get on with: live agreeable with
Having seen the armed guards, the civilians fell back.
She found it very difficult to get on with her husband
15. Fall off: to withdraw; to drop off. who was a spendthrift.
34. Come upon: meet by chance
A true friend does not fall off in adversity.
While digging, the farmer came upon a bronze idol.
16. Live for: to devote one’s life to.
35. Call up: recollect
All through his life he lived for the amelioration of the
poor and the destitute. After the accident she could not call up her past events.
17. Live on: to depend on. 36. Take to: get into a habit
Most people of this region live on rice and fish. His health deteriorated after he took to drinking.
37. Cry up: praise 11. The minister hit out at his critics and categorically
denied his involvement in the scam .
The young dancer is cried up by her friends.
(A) hit up (B) hit back
38. Cut out for : fitted for (C) hit upon (D) hit around
I don’t think she is cut out for this profession. 12. Being a gregarious person with an amiable
temperament, John can strike out a friendship even
39. Pull up: to insult with complete strangers.
He was very upset when he was pulled up by his (A) strike up (B) strike at
officer. (C) strike on (D) strike back
40. Fall in with: meet accidentally 13. I prefer listening to soft music to help me wind over
after a stressful day.
While going to Mumbai I fell in with two little children. (A) wind up (B) wind down
(C) wind off (D) wind of
Directions for questions 1 to 25: Read the following
sentences and from among the options choose the best 14. The scheme has fallen out due to paucity of funds.
replacement for the underlined part of the sentence. (A) fallen through (B) fallen over
(C) fallen apart (D) fallen back
1. The company has decided to cut across production
owing to low sales this year. 15. Over the years several extremists laid up their arms
(A) cut back (B) cut out and joined the mainstream.
(C) cut off (D) cut away (A) laid out (B) laid up
(C) laid by (D) laid down
2. The support that he received from his family and friends
gave him the courage to bear upon against the strain of 16. After several years of uncertainty, the economy is now
suffering huge financial losses in his business. looking on.
(A) bear out (B) bear up (A) looking after (B) looking up
(C) bear with (D) bear on (C) looking forward (D) looking on
17. Mala is my close friend and confidante, I will not keep
3. It is always prudent to lay out some money for
out anything from her.
unforeseen expenses.
(A) keep back (B) keep up
(A) lay back (B) lay off
(C) keep down (D) keep away
(C) lay over (D) lay aside
18. He is so obstinate that he will never come down to our views
4. More than 90,000 people packed out the stadium to (A) come around (B) come about
witness the grand finale on the closing day of the (C) come back (D) come over
mega sports event.
(A) packed in (B) packed up 19. I was on leave for three days because I was kept up
(C) packed into (D) packed off by a bout of flu.
(A) kept out (B) kept back
5. Although she was slightly skeptical in the beginning, (C) kept in (D) kept on
she eventually fell out with my idea.
(A) fell in (B) fell over 20. The leader exhorted all the members of the team to
(C) fell through (D) fell behind pull through in order to succeed in their venture.
(A) pull back (B) pull up
6. Seema decided to quit the job because she never got (C) pull over (D) pull together
in with any of her colleagues
(A) got by (B) got on 21. His condition has turned so critical that the doctors
(C) got together (D) got out have given off on him.
(A) given up (B) given out
7. The law finally caught on with the dreaded criminal (C) given away (D) given over
who managed to elude the police for a long time.
22. At first, he was quite rigid and refused to listen to me,
(A) caught out (B) caught in
but eventually he gave up.
(C) caught over (D) caught up
(A) gave way (B) gave forth
8. The firemen managed to put off the fire before it could (C) gave away (D) gave out
cause large scale damage to lives and property.
23. The storm blew up after two days, much to the relief of
(A) put out (B) put down
the people living along the coast.
(C) put away (D) put aside
(A) blew apart (B) blew in
9. Acting in an anonymous tip-off, police raided the den (C) blew out (D) blew over
and arrested several people who were involved in the 24. She has been working so hard for the past two
drug racket. months, that the strain is telling against her health.
(A) Acting for (B) Acting up (A) telling upon (B) telling against
(C) Acting on (D) Acting over (C) telling off (D) telling at
10. John who was the youngest in his class was repeatedly 25. She was so overwhelmed with emotion that she broke
bullied and picked at by the older boys in his class. off in the middle of her speech.
(A) picked off (B) picked over (A) broke down (B) broke up
(C) picked out (D) picked on (C) broke into (D) broke of

The Sentence and Its Parts: Part - Section I - Grammar Review

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The Sentence and Its Parts: Part - Section I - Grammar Review

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PART – Ι

SECTION I – GRAMMAR REVIEW

1. Birds fly. Now study the following sentences:

Examples: he, she, it, they, etc. PREPOSITION

ADJECTIVE A preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to

Examples: 1. Work in the college begins at 10 a.m.

A verb expresses what the subject of a sentence is or Note:

Type A: The past tense is used in the ‘if-clause’ and would,

Type – I EXAMPLES OF ERRORS IN THE USAGE OF

Type – II RIGHT: If I were there, I would make a speech.

I. SIMPLE SENTENCE Some more examples of compound sentences:

2. Chandigarh is a planned city. 5. There is no quorum, so the meeting was adjourned.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES Hasn't he got a car?

1. She wants to buy a new house. (Infinitive) Exercise – 6

to learn - to be learnt: a. As the subject of a verb:

The form of the Present Participle:

Note : What is wrong with this sentence?

The sentence, as it stands means that the ‘shampoo bottle’

3) The following verbs can be followed by the gerund (V Note:

Examples: These expressions have their plural forms: pieces of

Rule 5: Rule 12:

Examples: 3. The possessive is used with the names of personified

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS: Examples:

Examples: Note: Each other is usually used to refer to two persons or

(c) As an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb. Rule 7:

(e) In sentences indicating time. Rule 8:

Look at the following examples:

Rule 12: Difference between fewer and less

Rule 13: Note the following:

Who looked at his watch? Mr. Vijaykumar

(ii) Travelling to Bombay, Nalini injured her leg.

Note: Both these sentences are right. In both these

Wrong : When only a baby, my mother took me to the

In every sentence you find a verb phrase (VP). Examples:

FUTURE 1. I am loving that girl. (love)

The Present Continuous tense is also used to describe an Examples:

Rule 5: Example: No example is relevant to this case.

Rule 9: Rule 12:

Rule 15: Rule 24:

13. The accused was made to swear by the Gita.

14. Junko Tabei of Japan was first woman to reach the

1. The pattern for an embedded question in a statement ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

b) BUT 5. Wrong: She likes to read, to travel, and painting.

Negative Statement Positive Tag

Example: He was elected the leader of the group.

This can be shown graphically:

Is helped verb By him

[In agreement with the number and

Tense Active Passive

I cannot decide between these two courses of study.

In is used with non-motion verbs.

He is waiting in the kitchen.

Hanged refers to executions (killings) of persons.

6. Advice : (Noun) The teacher gave much advice to the students.

7. Adapt : (make suitable) Novels are adapted for the stage.

8. Allusion : (reference) The allusion that I am stingy is a mistake.

9. Amiable : (pleasant and good-tempered) Radha is quite an amiable person.

10. Apposite: (Relevant) His speech was apposite to the occasion.

12. Childish : (silly) I don't like his childish behaviour.