16 Charter 1 Types oF STRUCTURES AND Loaps move over a bridge, and therefore they impart an impact to the deck. The percentage increase of the live loads due to impact is called the impact factor, I. This factor is generally obtained from formulas developed from experimental evidence. For example, for highway bridges the AASHTO specifications require that =m Impact Loads. Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they 50 Ls 125 but not larger than 0.3 where L load. In some cases provisions for impact loading on the structure of a building must also be taken into account. For example, the ASCE 7-10 Standard requires the weight of elevator machinery to be increased by 100%, and the loads on any hangers used to support floors and balconies to be increased by 33%. s the length of the span in feet that is subjected to the live Wind Loads. When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes a wind loading. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density and velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure, and the roughness of its surface. For design purposes, wind loadings can be treated using either a static or a dynamic approach. For the static approach, the fluctuating pressure caused by a constantly blowing wind is approximated by a mean velocity pressure that acts on the structure. This pressure q is defined by its kinetic energy, q = }pV*, where p is the density of the air and V is its velocity. According to the ASCE. 7-10 Standard, this equation is modified to account for the importance of the structure, its height, and the terrain in which it is located. It is represented as qz = 0.00256K -K KV? (Ib/ft?) 1-2) 4, = 0613K,K KV? (N/m?) oo where V = the velocity in mi/h (m/s) of a 3-second gust of wind measured 33 ft (10 m) above the ground. Specific values depend upon the “category” of the structure obtained from a wind map. ForHurricane winds caused this damage to a condominium in Miami, Florida. example, the interior portion of the continental United States reports a wind speed of 105 mifh (47 m/s) if the structure is an agricultural or storage building, since it is of low risk to human life in the event of a failure. The wind speed is 120 mi/h (54 m/s) for cases where the structure is a hospital, since its failure would cause substantial loss of human life. K, = the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, which is a function of height and depends upon the ground terrain. Table 1-5 lists values for a structure which is located in open terrain with scattered low-lying obstructions. ‘a factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills and escarpments. For flat ground Kz, ~ 1.0. K, = a factor that accounts for the direction of the wind. It is used only when the structure is subjected to combinations of loads (see Sec. -4). For wind acting alone, Ky = 1.0. Cee ne ees eee ee aac Peeks ft 0-415 0-46 085 20 61 0.90 25 16 094 30 on 0.98 40 122 1.04 30 15.2 1.09 1.3. Loans 718 CuapTER 1 Types OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS: Wind blowing on a wall will tend to tip @ building or cause it to sidesway. To prevent this engineers often use cross bracing to provide stability. Also, see p. 46. Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed Buildings. Once the value for qz is obtained, the design pressure can be determined from a list of relevant equations listed in the ASCE 7-10 Standard. The choice depends upon the flexibility and height of the structure, and whether the design is for the main wind-force resisting system, or for the building’s components and cladding. For example, using a “directional procedure” the wind-pressure on an enclosed building of any height is determined using a two-termed equation resulting from both external and internal pressures, namely, P= GGCy - 4x(GCpi) (3) 4g, for the windward wall at height z above the ground (Eq. 1-2), and q = q» for the leeward walls, side walls, and roof, where z = h, the mean height of the root. a wind-gust effect factor, which depends upon the exposure. For example, for a rigid structure, G = 0.85. a wall or roof pressure coefficient determined from a table, These tabular values for the walls and a roof pitch of @ = 10° are given in Fig. 1-12. Note in the elevation view that the pressure will vary with height on the windward side of the building, whereas on the remaining sides and on the roof the pressure is assumed to be constant. Negative values indicate pressures acting away from the surface. the internal pressure coefficient, which depends upon the type of openings in the building. For fully enclosed buildings (GC,,) = 40.18. Here the signs indicate that either positive or negative (suction) pressure can occur within the building (GC py Application of Eq. 1-3 will involve calculations of wind pressures from each side of the building, with due considerations for the possibility of either positive or negative pressures acting on the building’s interior."GG, 4 aGG, r: plan surtsce | 2/8 | CG use with Windward ]Attvatues| 08 | 4. wall Leeward | o-1 | 05 wall 2 | 03] m e4 | -02 Side walls [Alvalues| —07 [a ‘Wall pressure coctficients, C, @ elevation Windward | Leeward angled angle Wind direction] A/L | 10" | @=10" Normatto | =025 | -07 | =03 Mase | 05 | 09 | -05 10 | -13 | -07 “Maximum negative roof pressure coeff ©) Fig. 1412 ent, Cp, for use with qy For high-rise buildings or those having a shape or location that makes ‘them wind sensitive, it is recommended that a dynamic approach be used to determine the wind loadings. The methodology for doing this is also outlined in the ASCE 7-10 Standard. It requires wind-tunnel tests to be performed on a scale model of the building and those surrounding it, in order to simulate the natural environment. The pressure effects of the wind on the building can be determined from pressure transducers attached to the model. Also, if the model has stiffness characteristics that are in proper scale to the building, then the dynamic deflections of the building can be determined. 1.3. Loans 1920 CuapTER 1 Types OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS: 4 Bawa ‘The enclosed building shown in the photo and in Fig, 1-132 is used for storage purposes and is located outside of Chicago, Illinois on open flat terrain. When the wind is directed as shown, determine the design = wind pressure acting on the roof and sides of the building using the ASCE 7-10 Specifications. SOLUTION First the wind pressure will be determined using Eq. 1-2. The basic wind speed is V = 105 mi/h, since the building is used for storage. Also, for flat terrain, Kz = 1.0. Since only wind loading is being considered, Ky = 1.0. Therefore, (0.00256 K,K KV? 0.00256 K.,(1.0)(1.0)(105)* = 28.22 K, a From Fig. 1-134, h' = 75 tan 10° = 13.22 ft so that the mean height of the roof is h = 25 + 13.22/2 = 31.6 ft. Using the values of K, in wind ‘Table 1-5, calculated values of the pressure profile are listed in the table @ in Fig. 1-13b. Note the value of K, was determined by linear interpola- tion for z = h, ie., (1.04 — 0.98)/(40 - 30) = (1.04 ~ K,)/(40 - 31.6), K, = 0.990, and 80 gy = 28.22(0,990) = 27.9 psf. In order to apply Eq. 1-3 the gust factor is G = 0.85, and (GC, +£0.18. Thus, P= QGC, — ax(GCp) = q(0.85)C, — 27.9(40.18) = 0.85qC, F 5.03 @ ‘The pressure loadings are obtained from this equation using the calculated values for q; listed in Fig. 1-13 in accordance with the wind-pressure profile in Fig. 1-12. z(t) kK lost) 015 0.85 24.0 20 0.90 25.4 25 0.94 265 = 316 0,990 279 o>1.3. Loans 24 Windward Wall. Here the pressure varies with height z since g,GC, must be used. For all values of L,/B,C, = 0.8, so that from Eq. (1), Po-is = 113 psf or 21.3 psf 12.2 pst or 223 pst Pos ~ 13.0 pst or 23.1 pst Px» Leeward Wall. Here L/B = 2(75)/150 = 1, so that C, = -0.5. Also, q = qj and so from Eq. (1), P= 16.9 psf or 6.84 psf Side Walls. For all values of L/B, C, we must use q = qx in Eq, (1), we have -0.7, and therefore since p= ~216pst or -11.6 psf Windward Roof. Here h/L = 31.6/2(75) = 0.211 < 0.25, so that CG —0.7 and q = qy. Thus, P= 21.6 psf or —11.6 psf Leeward Roof. In this case C, = -0.3; therefore with q = qy, we get P= 12.2 psf or 2.09 psf ‘These two sets of loadings are shown on the elevation of the building, representing either positive or negative (suction) internal building pressure, Fig. 1-13c. The main framing structure of the building must resist these loadings as well as for separate loadings calculated from wind blowing on the front or rear of the building. 216 pal 116 psf 122 pst 23.1 psf 23 pst 13.0 pst 122 pst ® 16.9 pst 113 pst 21.3 pst 2.09 pst 6.84 pat