Engine Mechanical Textbook

Engine mechanical
Parts
Engine mechanical parts
Index
Subject Page
General working principle 4
4-stroke working cycle 5
Engine classification 7
General engine requirements 9
Bore x stroke, displacement, compression ratio 10
Engine power and torque 11
Engine components, overview 13
Cylinder block 14
Piston and connecting rod 17
Piston ring 19
Crankshaft 21
Flywheel and balance shaft 22
Gasket and oil seals 24
Cylinder head 26
Intake and exhaust valves 29
Valve train 31
Valve tappet, lash adjuster and rocker 33
Timing belt, chain and drive gears 34
Continuously Variable Valve Timing 35
Engine lubrication, overview 37
Oil pump and oil cooler 40
Oil filter 42
Engine crankcase ventilation 43
Intake and exhaust system 46
Waste Gate Turbocharger 49
Variable Geometry Turbocharger 51
Engine cooling, overview 52
Thermostat and water pump 54
Radiator 56
Drive belt 59
Engine mounting 61
Engine oil 63
Checking engine oil 65
Draining engine oil 66
Replacing an oil filter 68
Refilling engine oil 69
Cooling system-draining, flushing, refilling 70
2
General working principle
The purpose of a gasoline car engine is to convert gasoline into motion so that your car can move.
Currently the easiest way to create motion from gasoline is to burn the gasoline inside an engine.
Therefore, a car engine is an internal combustion engine, combustion takes place internally.
There are different kinds of internal combustion engines. Diesel engines are one form and
Gasoline engines are another. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
A steam engine in old-fashioned trains and steam boats is the best example of an external
combustion engine. The fuel (coal, wood, oil, whatever) in a steam engine burns outside the
engine to create steam, and the steam creates motion inside the engine.
Internal combustion is a lot more efficient (takes less fuel per mile) than external combustion, plus
an internal combustion engine is a lot smaller than an equivalent external combustion engine.
One good example for internal combustion is an old Revolutionary War cannon. You have probably
seen where the soldiers load the cannon with gun powder and a cannon ball and light it. The
generated heat and gases force the cannon ball to be pushed out the barrel at very high speed.
The cannon uses the basic principle behind any reciprocating internal combustion engine: If you
put a tiny amount of high-energy fuel (like gasoline) in a small, enclosed space and ignite it, energy
is released in the form of expanding gas.
3
4-stroke working cycle
Reciprocating engines are classified into two types, the 2-cycle and the 4-cycle type. The principle
of the reciprocal engine is that the mixture of the air and the gasoline are injected into the cylinder,
the mixture is combusted, the combustion force drives the piston in reciprocal movement, and the
reciprocal movement is changed to the rotational movement by the crankshaft. Almost all cars
currently use what is called a four-stroke combustion cycle to convert fuel into motion. The four-
stroke working cycle is also known as the Otto cycle, in honor of Nikolaus Otto, who invented it in
1867. The horizontal axis of the graph represents the pressure inside the combustion chamber and
the vertical axis represents the volume of the combustion chamber.
The four strokes are:

1. Intake stroke (A-B):
The piston starts at the top, the intake valve opens, and the piston moves down. On gasoline
engines the engine take in a cylinder-full of air and gasoline. On Diesel engines only air is drawn
into the combustion chamber.
2. Compression stroke (B-C):

The piston moves back up to compress the fuel/air mixture, so that the pressure and temperature
is increased. The fuel is vaporized by the compressive heat of the air. The compression ratio on a
gasoline engine is around 10:1, on a Diesel engine it is around 25:1
4
3. Ignition/ Combustion stroke (C-D):

The piston reaches the top of its stroke, also referred to as Top Dead Center (TDC). On gasoline
engines the ignition will be performed by the electric spark generated from the spark plug. On
diesel engines fuel is injected into the combustion chamber just before the piston reaches TDC and
the air fuel mixture is ignited by the heat of compression. The mixture is not fully combusted at the
ignition time. As a result there is some time lag from the ignition to the maximum pressure that
arises inside the combustion chamber. The air/fuel mixture in the cylinder explodes, driving the
piston down.
4. Exhaust stroke (D-E):

Once the piston hits the bottom of its stroke, also referred to a Bottom Dead Center (BDC), the
exhaust valve opens and the exhaust leaves the cylinder to go out the tail pipe.
Now the engine is ready for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas.
5
Engine classification
Engines can be classified as follows:

 Working Principle: Gasoline (spark ignition engine) or Diesel (compression ignition engine)
 Cooling: Water or Air cooled
 Stroke cycle operation: Two or four stroke
 Valve mechanism: Overhead Camshaft (OHC) or Overhead Valve (OHV) design
 Number of cylinders: Engines can have 4,6, or 8 cylinders.
 Array style of cylinders: In a multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders usually are arranged in
one of three ways, known as inline, V or opposed.
The in-line type engine has the cylinder in sequentially arrayed. In the in-line type, the structure of
the cylinder block is very simple and the cylinder head is one unit, so the engine is light and
compact. 3, 4, 5 or 6 cylinder can usually be found on the in line engine. The V-type engine is
usually available with 6,8,10 or 12 cylinders. They are usually installed at large vehicles or sports
cars. The opposed engine is available with s 6, 8, 10 or 12 cylinders. Due to the low center of
gravity it is mainly applied to sports vehicles.
6
Arrangement on vehicle
The final application of the engine can be lengthwise or transverse, either in the front, middle or
rear of the vehicle. For example, the Front engine Rear drive type car having the engine at front
(lengthwise) and driving the rear wheels via a prop shaft attached to the transmission. Front engine
(transverse) Front drive is mainly applied on small cars, because the rotation axis of the engine
and the driving axis are arranged parallel, thus reducing the room required for installation.
Engines installed at the middle of a car main focus on the performance rather than the
convenience of the passenger so that it is mainly applied to the sports cars.
7
General engine requirements
Various requirements have to be fulfilled by the engine. Each performance is linked to each other
in a complex manner, and may influence the performance of an engine. Requirements are:
 Low emission: Efficient engine combustion is the main key for reducing exhaust emission.
This can be achieved with different combustion chamber designs.
 Compact and light: Considering that the engine weight is around 10-15% of the total vehicle
weight, another method for acquiring better output and fuel efficiency is to make the engine
be compact and light. With the same output, the power of the vehicle having the lighter
engine will be higher and fuel consumption will be reduced.
 Good response: Engines should respond to the driver input that driving safety is maintained.
 Quiet: As the engine generated driving force by the combustion of fuel, noise and vibration
cannot be avoided. It is important to prevent these noises and vibrations from being
transmitted to the passenger compartment.
 Serviceability: As the engine is one mechanical part of the vehicle, it is important to
maintain access to service relevant components.
8
Bore x stroke, displacement, compression ratio
The engine size is represented by the displacement volume. The cylinder displacement is the
volume of a certain cylinder with the piston moving from Bottom Dead center (BDC) to Top Dead
Center (TDC). The total displacement volume is the sum of volume of all cylinders. The cylinder
displacement volume is calculated by multiplying the cross sectional area with the stroke of the
cylinder. The cross sectional are is calculated by the diameter of the cylinder. The bore and
stroke may differ from each engine even they may have the same amount of cylinders and engine
displacement. This is due to the different bore and stroke. Engine displacement is represented by
the unit cm³ or is expressed in l. The compression ratio is calculated by dividing cylinder volume
with combustion chamber volume. The combustion chamber volume I the space between piston
and cylinder head when the piston is in Top Dead Center (TDC) position.
 Short stroke: Short stroke is used for high power and high load engines. The stroke/bore
ratio is less than 1 this means that the stroke is smaller than the bore.
 Long stroke: Long stroke is used to achieve a high engine torque. The stroke/bore ratio is
higher than 1 this means that the stroke is larger than the bore.
 Square stroke: The stroke/bore is 1, this means that the stroke is equal to the bore.
9
Engine power and torque
The basic engine performance is represented by two major factors such as the engine power and
torque. Generally, the most important element of the engine performance is the output (power),
also referred to as horsepower (hp) . Horse power is the work efficiency indicating the amount of
work done over a specified amount of time. This concept was suggested by James Watt who
invented the steam engine in England. One horsepower (hp) is the power required for pulling a
75kg weight up by 1m in one second. A more frequently used abbreviation for Horsepower (HP) is
PS, derived from the German word “Pferdestärke”. The engine power nowadays is indicated in kW.
In the SI unit system representing W (watt), 1 PS is about 735.4W. So, 100PS is 73.5kW or 100kW
is 136PS. In the technical specifications you sometimes see additional words such as (Net) or
(Gross), written before the unit of kW/rpm. The Gross value is the pure engine power with the
engine removed from the vehicle and the Net value is the engine power with the engine installed in
the vehicle. For the gasoline engine, the Net value is 15% less than the Gross value. This is due
to frictional forces such as from transmission, tires etc. If there is no notice, the larger value is the
Gross one. Engine power is a function of time. The engine power will increase proportional to the
rpm because the work amount per time is increased when the rpm is higher. However, due to the
dynamic parts that can not rotate over a certain value, there are limitations in rpm and power
output. This is why the maximum power output is indicated with the rpm, for example 100kW at
6000rpm.
10
The torque is the twisting force applied to a rotating component such as a bolt, tire, crankshaft etc.
It depends not only on the applied force but also on the length of the lever arm upon which the
force acts. By definition, torque is equal to force multiplied by the leverage, the length from the
center of the rotor to the point from which a force is applied. In engine, the torque is equal to the
force of which the piston is going, multiplied by the distance from the center of crank pin to the
center of crankshaft. So, the magnitude of the torque is decided by the force of which the piston
presses the Connecting rod, that is, the combustion force. The performance graph of torque
represents the force the pistons apply to the crankshaft at a certain rpm. As this force will be
transmitted to the wheel finally, the final force of the vehicle will be low if the engine torque is low.
Conversely the final force will be high, when the engine torque is high. Torque output is determined
by many factors, especially by the amount of the inhaled air into the cylinder. Considering the
relationship between the inhaled air amount and the rpm of engine, when the engine has low
speed of rotation, the movement of piston is also slow and inhaled air amount is low. When the
engine has high speed of rotation, the movement of the piston is fast and the inhaled air amount is
high. However, if the engine is turning too fast, the intake valve may close before the right
amount of air is fully inhaled into the cylinder. In this case, the inhaled air amount per stroke
(volumetric efficiency) is decreased, thus resulting in lower torque output of the engine.
11
Engine components, overview
The engine consists of the following main components:

 Engine Block with crankshaft, crankcase, piston and connecting rod
 Cylinder Head with camshaft's, valves and timing mechanism
 Intake System
 Exhaust System
 Lubrication System
 Cooling System
 Auxiliary systems such as turbocharger
12
Cylinder block
Types and Construction

The cylinder block is the basic part of the engine. It is made of cast iron (Diesel engine) or
aluminum. It comprises the cylinder in which the piston is moving reciprocally, the water jacket for
cooling maintaining the temperature of the cylinder at acceptable level, the crankshaft case and the
crankshaft installed underneath. The role of the cylinder is guiding the reciprocal movement of the
piston, accepting the force and high temperature from the combustion, cooling the cylinder properly
and supporting the crankshaft. For the purposes of strength, the cylinder block on Diesel engines
is generally made of cast iron because it has a high resistance against wear, corrosion and is
capable of resisting the high torques generated.
Recently, for gasoline engines, aluminum alloy is used more frequently. Aluminum is lighter and
transmits the heat easier than steel so that it is deemed as the ideal material for gasoline engines.
For increasing the strength of the block a skeleton structure of the cylinder block is used.
Engine number:
The engine identification number is stamped at the right rear plate side on the edge of the cylinder
block.
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Cylinder liner:
The cylinder wall (referred to as cylinder liner) is in constant contact with the reciprocating piston. It
is therefore lubricated with engine oil. The cylinder liner has to satisfies the strict requirements of
endurance, high temperature resistance and low wear. In general, when the engine block is made
of cast iron, the cylinder liner is made by polishing the cast iron cylinder. When the engine block is
made of aluminum alloy, the inside wall of the cylinder has a cylinder liner made of cast iron for
preventing wear of the side wall. Also, there are liner-less cylinders available on aluminum alloy
cylinder blocks. Even though the liner-less cylinder is more expensive, the engine can be lighter
and compacted so that it is mainly accepted to the high performance engines. Wet type cylinder
liners are not used on Kia engines.
Water jacket:
A path for cooling water is formed around of the cylinder liner, referred to as water jacket. It is
required for maintaining the temperature of the engine to certain value by absorbing the heat
energy coming from the remaining energy of the combustion. It can be either a Siamese or full
jacket type. In later models a water jacket is also used in the intake manifold in addition to the
engine block.
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Crankcase:
Auxiliary devices such as the alternator, the compressor of the air conditioner, the engine mounting
brackets and the oil pump for power steering are attached to the crankcase. The crankcase is part
the cylinder block either available as one unit or attached to the engine block by bolts. The material
of the crankshaft has to satisfy the requirement of resisting torque and vibration. Because of the
short length of the half skirt type, it is possible to make engine block light. However, the joint
strength is weaker compared to the deep skirt type, because the joining area is small. Additionally,
the area for attaching auxiliary devices is smaller.
At the lower part of the cylinder block, an oil pan is attached also. This is for gathering the oil
completing the lubricating and cooling role. It is made of a pressed steel sheet and attached by
rubber packing like the head cover. The vibration steel plate is manufactured by inserting a resin
plate between the two steel plates to prevent from vibrating.
15
Piston and connecting rod
The piston has the following function:

 Transfer the combustion pressure to the crankshaft via the piston pin and connecting rod
 Seal up the combustion chamber to the crankcase
 Transfer heat to the cylinder wall
The piston consists of the piston head, piston top land, Ring zone, piston boss and piston skirt. The
piston head has to withstand high pressures and temperatures, for example on a Diesel engine up
to 200kg per cm² and 2000C°. The layout of the piston is dependent upon the combustion chamber
design and has an influence on to the quality of combustion. The area between the piston head
and first piston ring is referred to as piston top land. It's function is to protect the first piston ring
from being overheated. The ring zone in addition with the piston rings seals up the combustion
chamber against the crankcase and vice versa. The piston boss takes up the piston pin.
The piston skirt has the following functions:
 Guiding the piston
 Transfer lateral force
 Distributing the oil film at the cylinder wall
 Dissipate the heat on to the cylinder wall and engine oil
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The piston has to fulfill the following requirements:

 Light weight, in order to reduce the inertia force of the reciprocating moving piston.
 Ability to withstand the high combustion pressures and temperatures
The requirements are fulfilled by using light alloy pistons made of alloy and silizium. There are
forged or cast type pistons either available as heat treated aluminum alloy. Due to the extremely
high temperatures of combustion, the piston head expands and its diameter becomes larger. Steel
inlays either in the form of a steel ring or cast prevent an excessive expansion of the piston. The
piston wall in the piston pin direction is thicker than in the thrust direction. For this reason, the heat
expansion of the piston is larger in the piston pin direction. To compensate for this, the piston is
formed to an oval shape with smaller diameter in the piston pin direction.
Connecting Rod and Piston Pin

The connecting rods are most usually made of steel. They are not rigidly fixed at either end, so that
the angle between the connecting rod and the piston can change as the rod moves up and down
and rotates around the crankshaft. The small end attaches to the piston pin, which is most often
press fit into the con rod but can swivel in the piston. The big end connects to the bearing journal
on the crank arm, running on replaceable bearing shells accessible via the connecting rod bolts
which hold the bearing "cap" onto the big end. Typically there is a pinhole bored through the
bearing and the big end of the connection rod so that pressurized engine oil squirts out onto the
thrust side of the cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of the pistons and piston rings.
17
Piston ring
The piston ring is an open-ended ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter of the piston.
The three main functions of piston rings in internal combustion engines are:
 Sealing the combustion chamber
 Supporting heat transfer from the piston to the cylinder wall.
 Regulating engine oil consumption.
Most automotive pistons have three rings: two for compression sealing (compression rings); one
for oil sealing (oil skirt rings). Typical compression ring designs are rectangular, taper faced or
keystone types. Typical spring less oil skirt ring designs are napier or taper faced napier types.
Typical spring loaded oil control rings are coil spring loaded 2-piece designs or expander spring
backed 3-piece designs. Piston rings are subject to wear as they rub up and down the cylinder
bore. To minimize this, they are made of a very hard material - generally cast iron - and the lower
oil control ring is designed to leave a film of lubricating oil a few micrometers thick on the bore, as
the piston descends. When fitting new piston rings, the end gap is the crucial measurement. In
order that a ring may be fitted to the piston, it is not continuous but is broken at one point on its
circumference. After fitting the rings, then inserting the piston into the cylinder with the aid of a ring
compressor, the width of the end gap is measured with a feeler gauge and must be within the
required tolerances. Too small a gap may be completely taken up under hot running conditions,
leading to seizure of the piston. Too large a gap indicates excessive bore wear and will give
unacceptable "blow by" of combustion gases.
18
Crankshaft

The crankshaft is that part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into
rotation. Components of this process are:
 Piston with piston rings and piston pin
 Connecting rod
 Crankshaft
 Flywheel
The pistons are moving reciprocally between Bottom Dead Center (BDC) and Top Dead Center
(TDC). Each piston is connected to the crankshaft via a piston pin and connecting rod. The
connecting rods therefore move linearly and rotationally. The turning motion of the crankshaft is
further transferred to auxiliary devices such as the flywheel, oil pump, water pump etc.
Additionally balance shafts can be installed in order to reduce or eliminate engine vibrations.
The design of the crankshaft depends on:
 Number of cylinders
 Arrangement of cylinders (in liner, V or opposed)
 Ignition timing
 Number of crankshaft bearings
 Combustion force
19
Crankshafts are dynamically balanced. This is achieved by compensating bores on the crankshaft
journal. Additional counter weights compensate the mass of the crankshaft journals.
Crankshaft Bearing:
The bearing is for supporting smooth rotation of the crankshaft. Generally, for the crankshaft of the
engine, the plain bearing is used. Plain bearings offer a larger contact area, therefore they can
support larger forces compared to roller bearings. Modern 4 cylinder in-line engines have 5 (older
engines 3) crankshaft bearings. V-engines have less crankshaft bearings, due to the shorter
crankshaft. Oil is supplied to ensure that the materials of the plain bearing and the crankshaft don't
come into direct contact and are separated under any engine load condition. This is realized by oil
bores inside the crankshaft and the plain bearings. The thickness of the oil film changes depending
on engine load or heat. When it is too small, it may be adhered by friction heat and locks up the
engine. When it is so big, the engine may vibrate or noise occurs.
20
Flywheel and balance shaft
Flywheel
A flywheel is attached to the crankshaft in order to maintain smooth rotation and reducing
irregularities of the rotational force. Since combustion occurs only once during two crankshaft
revolutions, the inertia of the flywheel is required for the intake-, compression- and exhaust- stroke.
If there would be no flywheel, the rotational force of the crankshaft would be reduced at these
strokes and the engine would stall at low engine rpm such as idling. On manual transmission the
clutch disk is attach to the flat side of the flywheel in order to transmit the driving force to the
transmission.
Dual Mass Flywheel

The dual-mass flywheel is designed to absorb engine vibrations before they are transmitted to the
driveline where they can create gear rattle. This is achieved by splitting the conventional flywheel
into two sections: a primary section (1.), which bolts to the crankshaft, a secondary section (2.)
onto which the clutch is bolted and a ring gear (5.) for the starter motor. The primary section of the
flywheel contains springs (3.) to isolate engine vibrations and a torque-limiting device (4.) to
prevent engine torque spikes from exceeding engine and transmission component strength. When
torque spikes occur, the torque-limiting package allows the primary section of the flywheel to turn
independently from the secondary section, saving the driveline and transmission from damage.
21
Balance shaft
The pistons, the connecting rods and the crankshaft generate an inertia force caused by the
reciprocal and rotational movement. One or two balance shaft(s) located parallel to the crankshaft
help to reduce or eliminate these forces from occurring. The graph represents the relationship of
the inertia force (at the vertical axis) occurring at different rotation angles of the crankshaft (at the
horizontal axis). When the upper inertia force of the first and fourth pistons is at its maximum value,
the inertia force of the second and third pistons is low. From this relationship we know that the
inertia forces (low and high) are generated 2 times per one crankshaft revolution. A balance shaft
having a half circle shape is used to reduce the engine vibrations. The balance shaft rotates in
opposite direction and two times faster than the crankshaft. This additional inertia force generated
from the balance shaft will reduce or eliminate the vibration.
22
Gasket and oil seals
Gaskets form a seal by being compressed between stationary parts where liquid or gas could pass.
Most gaskets are made to be used only once. They can be made of soft materials such as cork,
rubber, nitrile, paper, heat resistant materials or graphite; or they can also be made of soft alloys
and metals such as brass, copper, aluminum or soft steel sheet metal. Such materials may be used
individually or in some cases as blends to produce the required functional material. Choosing
which material and design to use depends on the substance to be sealed, the pressures and
temperatures involved, and the materials and mating surfaces to be sealed. Head gaskets seal and
contain the pressures of combustion within the engine, between the cylinder head and block.
Modern head gaskets have to be constructed to resist high temperatures and engine detonation.
Some modern high temperature head gaskets are called 'anisotropic' in nature. This means that
the gasket is designed to conduct heat laterally to transfer heat from the engine to the coolant
faster. They are normally constructed with a steel core. Special facing materials are added to both
sides of the gasket core to provide a comprehensive seal under varying torque conditions. Some
head gaskets also incorporate stainless steel fire rings to help to contain heat and pressure within
the cylinder. In addition, many head gaskets also have an added silicone based outer coating on
both sides of the side material layers to provide additional cold sealing ability during start-up and
warm-up. Head gaskets also seal oil passages, and control the flow of coolant between the
cylinder block and head and are fitted with beads or rings to prevent leakage and corrosion.
23
Some materials are designed to 'swell' in application and increase sealing ability. For instance
when oil inside a valve cover penetrates the edge of the gasket material, it is designed to swell by
approximately 30%. This swelling effect increases the sealing pressure between the head and
valve cover sealing surfaces and helps to seal potential leaks. Gaskets around a rotating part
would quickly wear out and leak. To seal these parts, oil seals are needed. The most widely used is
the lip type dynamic oil seal. It has a shaped dynamic rubber lip that’s held in contact with the shaft
to be sealed by a circular coil spring called a garter spring. A similar sealing principle is used to
seal the valve stem to prevent oil entering the engine combustion chamber. Rotating or sliding
shafts can also be sealed by using “O” rings, but generally they are not as durable in most
applications as the lip-type seal. Various materials are used in modern oil seals, some being
impregnated with special coating materials that are designed to increase their sealing ability on
worn shafts. As a general rule, oil seals must be replaced when a component is overhauled.
24
Cylinder head

The cylinder head bolts onto the top of the cylinder block where it forms the top of the combustion
chamber. In-line engines have just one cylinder head for all the cylinders. V-type and horizontally-
opposed engines have a separate cylinder head for each bank of cylinders. Just as with engine
blocks, cylinder heads can be made of cast iron, or aluminum alloy. A head made of aluminum
alloy is lighter than if it were made of cast iron. Aluminum also conducts heat away more quickly
than iron. The cylinder head contains most parts of the combustion chamber such as the valves,
spark plugs or injectors. Internally the cylinder head has passages for the fuel/air mixture to travel
to the inlet valves from the intake manifold and for exhaust gases to travel from the exhaust valves
to the exhaust manifold, and for coolant to cool the head and engine. Cylinder heads are designed
to help improve the swirl or turbulence of the air-fuel mixture, and prevent fuel droplets settling on
the surfaces of the combustion chamber or cylinder walls. When air-fuel mixture is compressed
between the piston and the flat part of the cylinder head, it produces what’s called “squish”. That
means squeezing of the gases to increase their velocity and turbulence.
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In gasoline engines, the three most popular combustion chamber designs are called:
 Hemispherical pent roof
 Bath-tub
 Wedge.
A hemispherical, or pent-roof combustion chamber has the intake valve on one side of the
chamber and the exhaust valve on the other. This provides cross flow. Air-fuel mixture enters on
one side, and exhaust gases exit on the other. Positioning the valves in this way leaves room for
relatively large valves and ports. With the plug in the middle of the hemisphere, the flame front has
less distance to travel than in some other designs, which gives rapid and effective combustion.
This design is common in a lot of passenger vehicles.
The bathtub combustion chamber is oval-shaped, like an inverted bathtub. Valves are mounted
vertically and side by side, making them simple to operate. The plug is to one side, and that
creates a short flame path.
The wedge-shaped combustion chamber tapers away from the plug which is at the thick end of the
wedge. The valves are in line and inclined from the vertical. This design usually has a smaller
surface area than the others, with less area where fuel droplets can condense. Less fuel is left
unburned after combustion, which reduces hydrocarbon exhaust emissions.
26
Diesel combustion chambers come in 2 main types. Direct and indirect injection. Both are designed
to promote turbulence, to help the compressed air and injected fuel mix well. Engines using direct
injection have cylinder heads with a flat face. The combustion chamber is formed in the top of the
piston.
In indirect injection, the piston is fairly flat, or has a shallow cavity. The main combustion chamber
is between the cylinder head and the top of the piston, but a smaller, separate chamber is in the
head. Fuel is injected into this smaller chamber which can have various designs. A swirl chamber is
spherical, and connected to the main chamber by an angled passage. During compression, the
spherical shape makes the air swirl in the chamber. This helps make a better mixture of the air and
fuel, which improves combustion.
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Intake and exhaust valves
4-stroke gasoline and diesel engines use valves, which are located in the cylinder head. Intake
valves pass only air or air-fuel mixture so they run at much lower temperatures than exhaust valves.
They are usually larger than exhaust valves because the pressure forcing the charge into the
cylinder is much lower than the pressure forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder. Different
engines use different valve combinations. Having more than 1 inlet valve provides better breathing.
An additional inlet valve allows larger inlet passages and a freer flow into the cylinder, so the
engine receives a better charge. Similarly, two exhaust valves mean the cylinder can be designed
with larger exhaust ports, which provides a free flow of exhaust gases out of the cylinder. Valves
experience enormous stress even in normal conditions. Various surface treatments are used to
help the valve resist wear, burning and corrosion. Inlet valves are made of steels mixed with
chromium or silicon to make them more resistant to corrosion, and manganese and nickel to
improve their strength. Exhaust valves are made of nickel-based alloys. A poppet or mushroom
valve has 2 main parts, a stem and a head. It fits into a port in the head. Its face makes a gas-tight
seal against the seat. During operation, the head near the face of the valve transfers heat to the
seat. Some is conducted up into the valve stem. The stem transfers heat on to the guide, so the
stem is the valve’s coolest part. The valve seat and guide are also cooled by coolant in passages
around the valve ports. As the valve opens and closes, it has a natural tendency to rotate, very
gradually, so that it keeps seating in a new place.
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This produces a slight wiping action which helps keep the face and seat free of carbon. It also
helps prevent sticking in the valve guide and distributes heat around the valve seat. The valve
operates in a valve guide and it is exactly concentric with the valve seat. The valve guide is the
hollow cylindrical part in which the valve stem moves. The valve guide area can be machined from
the metal of the cylinder head, or holes can be drilled for pressed-in guides. Cast-iron guides are
necessary in aluminum-alloy heads to provide a suitable bearing surface for the valve stem.
Many heads use replaceable valve guides that are a form of metal bush pressed into holes in the
cylinder head. Other cylinder heads have guides cast as part of the cylinder head, then bored to
the size of the valve stem during manufacture. The upper part of the valve guide is sealed of by
means o a valve stem seal. The valve spring exerts pressure in the valve closing direction. It is
used to maintain air tightness for preventing leakage of gas. Different types being used referred to
as variable pitch spring or double spring.
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Valve train

The valve train is responsible for controlling start and end of the intake- and exhaust gas change.
The main components of the valve train are the camshaft, lash adjuster, rocker and valves. There
are different types of valve trains, depending on how many camshafts there are, and where they
are located. They are referred to as:
OHV (Over Head Valve):

In an overhead valve or pushrod system the valves are in the cylinder head, but the camshaft is in
the block near the crankshaft. A valve lifter or tappet rides on the cam. As the cam lobe reaches the
lifter, it rises, transfers the motion to the pushrod. This then moves a rocker which in turn pushes
the valve open. There are different kinds of lifters. A solid lifter is usually a hollow, cast iron cylinder
mounted in a bore in the crankcase. It is free to rotate slowly, which distributes wear from the cam
over the face of the lifter.
Nowadays the following types are more common: OHC (Over Head Camshaft) , DOHC (Double
Over Head Camshaft), CIH (Camshaft In Head)
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Camshaft:
The camshaft drives the valves opening and closing the intake port for inhaling the mixture of fuel
into the combustion chamber and the exhaust port for taking out the combusted gas. Compared
to the crankshaft, the camshaft turns at a ratio of 2:1. Therefore the camshaft revolves with the
ratio of one turn about the two revolutions of the crankshaft. The extrusion portion of the cam is
called as the cam nose. The height is called cam lift. The “lift” means that the cams lift the valve
so that the opening status is determined by the cam profile. The opening and closing timing of the
valves are determined by the operation angle, the angle from the start point to the end point of the
nose. Valve overlap plays an important part in engine operating characteristics. Very little overlap
gives the engine a smooth idle and good slow speed torque, but it hinders high rpm engine
performance. A large amount of overlap allows excellent engine breathing at high rpm but causes a
rough idle and poor performance at low rpm. The camshaft can furthermore be used to turn the
distributor, oil pump, fuel pump or vacuum pump (on diesel engines).The camshaft runs in plain
bearings and is lubricated by engine oil. Two types of camshaft designs are being used, referred to
as solid- or hollow- type.
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Valve tappet, lash adjuster and rocker
The purpose of lash adjuster and rocker is to change the turning movement of the camshaft to a
reciprocating movement of the valve. The gap between the valve tip and the valve train is called
valve clearance or valve lash. This must be maintained when the cam is not applying pressure to
open the valve. It can be adjusted with a screw and locknut built into the rocker arm or by using
shims. These adjustments are needed regularly. Rocker arms transfer motion to the valves. The
rocker arm rocks up and down using a pivot mechanism. Some rocker arms are made of cast steel
or aluminum alloy. Others are a steel pressing. Many engines now use hydraulic valve lifters. Their
purpose is to make the engine quieter and eliminate the need for valve clearance adjustment.
When the engine is operating, oil under pressure from the engine’s lubrication system is supplied
to the lifter. The oil is assisted by spring tension to maintain zero valve clearance but through a
system of valves it is trapped in the lifter as the camshaft lifts it. Since oil is not compressible, the
lifter acts like a solid lifter. When the valve is closed, any oil lost during the previous lift is replaced,
and zero valve clearance is maintained. Hydraulic valve lifters usually use stamped, or pressed,
sheet metal or cast aluminum rocker arms.
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Timing belt, chain and drive gears
Timing belt, chain, or drive gears are used on overhead camshaft engines, because the camshaft
is further from the crankshaft. Also combination, for example timing belt and chain or timing belt
and drive gear is possible. A typical chain drive system uses a hydraulic tensioner. The chain also
uses chain guides to reduce noise and vibration. Please note that hydraulic tensioners can also be
found on a belt drive system. The toothed timing belt is made of fiberglass or wire- reinforced
synthetic rubber. Its teeth match those on the crankshaft and camshaft pulleys. Timing belts are
quieter than chains but usually require regular manual tensioning. They also have a shorter life
time than chains. They need regular replacing around 80,000 to 100,000 kilometers.
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Continuously Variable Valve Timing
On some engines a Continuously Variable Valve Timing (CVVT) System is installed on the Intake
or exhaust camshaft of the engine. The CVVT mechanism can change the opening and closing
time of the intake valves in relation to engine load and speed, thereby adjusting it to the optimum
value. The CVVT system is controlled by an Oil Control Valve (OCV), which in turn is controlled by
the Engine Control Module (ECM). The vane shape forms in total 8 chambers, whereby four
chambers are used to change the vanes position into an advanced position. The other four
chambers are used to retard the vanes position. The oil for advancing/retarding the valve timing is
provided via two bores inside the camshaft. The vane seals are made from Teflon and are required
for sealing the advance/retard chambers from each other, thus allowing to build up pressure inside
the chambers. The stopper pin keeps the vane in it’s fully retard position when the engine is
stopped; the oil pressure is to low or when a failure within the CVVT control circuit occurs. The
stopper pin is released as soon as a oil pressure of approximately 0.5 bar is reached. The Oil
Control Valve (OCV) is located inside the cylinder head. Pressurized oil is supplied to the OCV via
a filter element which is also located inside the cylinder head. One outlet port of the OCV allows
the pressurized oil to enter one side of the vane chamber, whereby the other port allows draining
oil out the opposite side of the vane chamber.
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Filter Element
The filter element is installed between the oil pump (pressure side) and the Oil Control Valve. It is
located inside the cylinder head.
Note:
The filter element is maintenance free. In case of an overheated engine this filter element should
be checked for deformation.
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Engine lubrication, overview
The lubrication system consists of the following components:

 Oil sump (oil pan), Oil pump, Oil filter, Oil galleries
A lubrication system distributes oil through the engine. Oil is drawn from the sump by an oil pump.
Oil galleries are small passages in the cylinder block that direct oil to the moving parts. The
galleries allow oil to be fed to the camshaft bearings, the valve mechanism, and the crankshaft
main bearings. Holes drilled in the crankshaft allow the main bearings to supply oil to the big-end
bearings. Oil that has been pumped to the crankshaft main bearings travels through oil-ways to the
connecting rods. Oil may also be splashed from the connecting rods onto the cylinder walls. After
circulating through the engine, the oil falls back to the sump to cool. This is called a wet-sump
lubrication system because the oil is kept in the sump ready for the next time it’s used. Some
special engines use a dry sump lubrication system. It uses all of the parts that make up a wet sump
system and it lubricates the engine in the same way. It differs from the wet sump system in the way
the oil circulates. In a dry sump system, the oil falls to the bottom of the engine into an oil collection
pan. A scavenge pump then pumps it to an oil tank where it is stored until the normal oil pump
collects it and pumps it through the filter and engine in the normal way. Because there is no oil
storage sump under the engine, the engine can be mounted much lower than in a wet sump
system. The oil tank can be positioned away from the engine where it can get best cooling. And the
amount of oil in the system can be much greater than in the wet sump system.
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Diesel engines are lubricated in much the same way as gasoline engines but there are differences.
Diesel engines typically operate at the top end of their power range so their operating temperatures
are usually higher than those in similar gasoline engines, so the parts in diesel engines are usually
more stressed. As a result, diesel oils need a different range of properties and are classified
differently.
Oil pressure relief valve:

An oil pressure relief valve stops excess pressure developing. It’s like a controlled leak, releasing
just enough oil back to the sump to regulate the pressure of the whole system. In cold conditions,
oil pressure required to push it through the small clearances in the bearings could be excessive
enough to damage the pump. Here the valve opens under excess pressure and leaks some of the
oil back to the sump.
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Oil sump:
The sump is bolted to the engine under the crankcase. It is a reservoir, or storage container, for the
engine lubricating oil, and a collector for oil returning from the engine lubricating system. The sump
can be formed as a thin sheet metal pressing, and shaped to ensure that oil will return to its
deepest section. The oil pickup tube and strainer are located in this deep section to ensure they
stay submerged in oil, and to prevent air being drawn into the oil pump. The strainer stops large
particles of dirt and carbon entering the pump and damaging it. The pickup tube leads to the inlet
of the oil pump, on the low pressure side of the pump. Baffles prevent oil from surging away from
the pickup during cornering, braking and accelerating. The sump’s large external surface area
helps heat transfer from the oil to the outside air. In some designs, the sump is an aluminum alloy
casting with fins and ribs to assist in this heat transfer.
Oil Pressure Warning Lamp

If the light comes on while the engine is running, it may indicate the oil pressure is low and the
lubrication system is not working properly; stop, check oil level and add oil if necessary.
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Oil pump and oil cooler
A oil pump is capable of delivering more oil than an engine needs. It’s a safety measure to ensure
the engine is never starved for oil. As the pump rotates, and engine speed increases, the volume of
oil delivered also increases. The fixed clearances between the moving parts of the engine prevent
oil escaping back to the sump, and pressure builds up in the system. There are different oil pump
designs and the pump may be driven from the camshaft or the crankshaft.
Rotor Pump (Trochoid):

In a rotor-type oil pump, an inner rotor drives an outer one. As they turn, the volume between them
increases. This larger volume lowers the pressure at the pump inlet. Outside atmospheric pressure
is then higher. This forces oil into the pump and it fills the spaces between the rotor lobes. As the
lobes of the inner rotor move into the spaces in the outer rotor, oil is squeezed out through the
outlet.
Gear pump:
In a geared oil pump, the driving gear meshes with a second gear. As both gears turn, their teeth
separate, creating a low pressure area. Higher atmospheric pressure outside forces oil up into the
inlet. The spaces between the teeth fill with oil. The gears rotate, and carry oil around the chamber.
The teeth mesh again, and oil is forced from the outlet toward the oil filter.
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Crescent pump:
A crescent pump consists of two rotating gears; an Internal Gear with the teeth on the outside, and
an External gear with the teeth on the inside. The External Gear is larger and has more teeth, but
the teeth are the same size. As the teeth separate (lower left side in this drawing) they pass over
the intake hole (shown behind the gears in black on the left). They "suck" in fluid, then the gears
are separated by a Crescent Seal (shown in brown.) When the teeth start to come together again
(upper right here) they squeeze the fluid through the outlet hole (shown in black at the top center of
this drawing.) Normally the inner gear is attached to a drive shaft and the outer gear is turned by
the inner gear at the point of contact (upper left area of this drawing.) Advantages of the crescent
pump include its simple design and low maintenance requirements. The crescent pump is common
in many applications including automatic transmissions.
Oil Cooler
It’s common for some engines to use an oil cooler to cool the oil in the engine. On some engines
the cooler and oil filter are on the same mounting at the cylinder block.
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Oil filter
On most engines oil enters the pump through a strainer made of a gauze screen which excludes
large particles of dirt. It is then further filtered by an oil filter. The common type of filter element is
made of resin-impregnated paper. It cannot be cleaned but should be periodically renewed. Oil
enters the filter canister at the outside, passes through the perforated cover, then through the
actual element to the central outlet tube and on to the engine. A full flow pressure filter is fitted
outside the crankcase. This filter can be blocked with sludge, it is fitted with a by-pass valve which
opens when the pressure across the filter exceeds a set amount. The valve also opens when the
oil is cold and too thick to pass through the filter. This filter is made of various materials capable of
holding back fine particles, but a large surface area allows easy access for sufficient oil to flow
through. Most oil-filters on diesel engines are larger than those on similar gasoline engines. Diesel
engines produce more carbon particles than gasoline engines, so the oil filter can have a full-flow
element to trap larger impurities, and a bypass element to collect sludge and carbon soot.
Centrifugal filters are less common types of filters. These work on the principle that solid matter is
usually heavier than oil. A circular container revolves at high speed and the solid particles are flung
to the outside and retained in the bowl, while oil passes through a central escape route.
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Engine crankcase ventilation
During normal compression stroke, a small amount of gases in the combustion chamber escapes
past the piston. Approximately 70% of these "blow by" gases are unburned fuel (HC) that can dilute
and contaminate the engine oil, cause corrosion to critical parts, and contribute to sludge build up.
At higher engine speeds, blow by gases increase crankcase pressure that can cause oil leakage
from sealed engine surfaces. The purpose of the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system is to
remove these harmful gases from the crankcase before damage occurs and combine them with
the engine's normal incoming air/fuel charge. There are two types available, known as fixed orifice
type and variable flow type. Unlike fixed orifice type systems, PCV systems that use a variable-flow
PCV valve more accurately match ventilation flow with blow by production characteristics as shown
in the graph. The variable-flow type PCV systems are also very simple in design and consists of
the following components:
 PCV Valve
 PCV purge hose
 Breather hose
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Typically, blow by production is the greatest during high load operations and very light during idle
and light load operations. Since the characteristics of manifold vacuum do not match the flow
requirements needed for proper crankcase ventilation, a PCV valve is used to regulate blow by
flow back into the intake manifold. During idle and deceleration, blow by production is very low, but
intake manifold vacuum is very high. This causes the pintle inside the PCV valve to fully retract
against spring tension. The positioning of the pintle provides a small vacuum passage and allows
for low blow by flow to the combustion chamber. During idle and deceleration, blow by production
is very low, but intake manifold vacuum is very high. This causes the pintle inside the PCV valve to
fully retract against spring tension. The positioning of the pintle provides a small vacuum passage
and allows for low blow by flow to the combustion chamber. During low load cruising, the pintle
inside the PCV valve is positioned somewhat in the center of its travel. This positioning allows a
moderate volume of blow by flow into the combustion chamber During acceleration and high load
operations, blow by production is very high. The pintle extends out further from the restriction
allowing the maximum flow of blow by into the combustion chamber. During extremely high engine
loads, if blow by volume exceeds the ability of the PCV valve to draw in the vapors, the excess
blow by flows through the breather hose to the air cleaner housing where it can enter the
combustion chamber When the engine is off or it backfires, spring tension closes the valve
completely preventing the release of blow by into the intake manifold. The valve closes during a
backfire to prevent the flame from traveling into the crankcase where it could ignite the enclosed
fuel vapors. PCV System Effects on Emissions and Drive ability
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Because PCV operation is factored into the proper operation of the feedback control system,
problems with the PCV system may disrupt the normal air/ fuel ratio balance. A plugged PCV valve
will prevent the normal flow of crankcase vapors into the engine and can result in a richer than
normal air/fuel mixture. A plugged crankcase breather hose may cause the engine to consume oil
because of the increased level of crankcase vacuum.
In addition, depending on the location of the fresh air breather hose, a nonfunctional valve or
restricted vacuum hose can cause oil contamination in the air cleaner housing or throttle bore
coking. Always suspect and check the PCV system if you find traces of oil in the air intake system.
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Intake and exhaust system
The Air Intake System of a Engine usually comprises the following components:
1. Air Intake
2. Air cleaner casing
3. Filter element
4. Mass Air Flow Sensor (depending on Engine Management System)
5. Connecting pipes
6. Connection to Turbocharger (depending on Engine)
7. Connection from Turbocharger (depending on Engine)
8. Connection to charge air cooler (depending on Engine)
9. Connection from charge air cooler (depending on Engine)
10. Connection to intake manifold
Air Filter Element

The typical air filter is a disposable, pleated-paper element with a sealing gasket made of synthetic
material. Filters come in two main types: the panel style as used on most fuel-injected cars and the
radial style, which is usually used on carbureted vehicles. The air filter traps dirt particles, which
can cause damage to engine cylinders, walls, pistons and piston rings. The air filter also plays a
role in keeping contaminants off the airflow sensor and sometimes in cleaning the air that enters
the crankcase for crankcase ventilation. The air filter also serves as a silencer for the car's intake
system.
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Turbocharger/Intercooler
Turbochargers serve to increase the power of an engine. As the temperature of the intake air
increases on engines with turbochargers, there is a rise in the combustion temperature and thus in
the emission output. In engines fitted with turbochargers, the cooling of the compressed air is an
effective way of reducing the emissions.
Turbocharger Cooling
The turbocharger is water-cooled, which lowers the temperature in the bearing housing
considerably. Temperature reduction reduces the risk of the oil boiling and the damages that can
arise from such. Coolant is taken via a pipe from the cylinder head. After passing the bearing
housing, coolant is led further via pipes to the thermostat housing.
Turbocharger Lubrication
The turbo shaft, which rotates at a very high speed, is precisely balanced and supported in fixed
slide bearing bushings. This bearing arrangement demands a high flow of oil, which makes the
shaft rotate on a cushion of oil. This oil comes from the engine lubricating system through a special
oil line leading from the oil filter adapter housing. The return oil passes to the engine oil pan. The
seal between the shaft and the bearing housing comprises rings (similar to piston rings) located in
grooves in the shaft. The turbo shaft, which rotates at very high speeds, is carefully balanced and
journal in so called floating plain bearing bushings. The seal between the shaft and the bearing
housing consists of rings (similar to piston rings) which are positioned in grooves on the shaft.
46
Exhaust System
The exhaust system is designed to discharge the engine exhaust gases with a low flow resistance,
low noise level and long life. The exhaust system consists of the exhaust manifold, a front section
with catalytic converter and a rear section with silencers. The silencer is usually a combination of
resonance and absorption silencers. The sections are usually connected to each other via joints
and is rubber mounted at various points. Heat shields are mounted above the hottest zones of the
exhaust system to protect exposed points where the heat radiation could cause a problem.
Semi active muffler

Some models feature a semi active muffler. Below 3000 rpm the internal bypass is closed to
reduce the noises. Above that the back pressure is opening the bypass to enhance the
performance.
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Waste Gate Turbocharger
The charge air pressure is mainly due to engine speed and load. At low engine loads, the exhaust
gas volume driving the turbine is relatively small and all the exhaust gas needs to pass the turbine
in order to drive the turbine wheel and compressor. When the engine load is somewhat higher, the
exhaust gas volume will also be larger. This means that the energy driving the turbo is greater and
the compressor therefore forces more air into the engine. If the engine load rises further, the
exhaust gas volume produced by the engine will be greater than that needed to drive the
compressor in order to provide the correct air mass per combustion. At high loads, the volume of
gases reaching the turbine must therefore be limited so that the turbocharger produces the correct
airflow. This is achieved with a valve, called waste gate, opening a bypass passage parallel with
the turbine. The excess gas not required to drive the turbine passes through this passage. The
waste gate valve is a clack valve that opens and closes a bypass passage beside the turbine
wheel. The valve is controlled by a diaphragm box on the compressor housing. The waste gate
valve is acted on by a rod from the diaphragm box located on the compressor housing. A coil
spring in the diaphragm box acts in a closing direction while the pressure of the diaphragm acts in
an opening direction. The diaphragm box is controlled through a hose from the turbocharger via a
solenoid valve, which in turn is controlled by the Engine Control Module (ECM).
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Turbo control at low loads:

At low loads, the waste gate valve is closed. All the exhaust gas then passes through the turbine.
Turbo control at high loads:

At high loads, the volume of exhaust gas is greater, which makes the turbine wheel rotate faster.
This delivers a greater air displacement to the engine. When the air displacement becomes so
large that the current air mass per combustion cannot be controlled with the throttle alone, the
turbo must be regulated. This is done by opening the waste gate valve so that some of the exhaust
gas passes through the waste gate. Consequently this gas does not contribute to driving the
turbine and the turbine speed will be regulated so that the turbo air displacement will be correct.
49
Variable Geometry Turbocharger
The Variable Geometry Turbocharger (VGT) offers the following advantages:

 The engine produces more torque at low engine speeds.
 Since the working temperature of the turbocharger can be kept low, compression is
improved increasing power output.
 The turbocharger responds more quickly to requests for torque, improving drivability.
 Fuel consumption is reduced and exhaust emissions are purer.
The VGT does not have a waste gate, but instead has a set of vanes on the exhaust side of the
turbocharger. These vanes control the turbocharger. At low exhaust flows, the vanes are positioned
to increase the turbo speed and consequently the boost pressure. This provides more engine
torque at low engine speeds. At high exhaust flows, the speed of the turbocharger is reduced to
prevent the turbocharger over revving while continuing to provide the requested boost pressure.
The vacuum box, which regulates the position of the vanes, is larger than on previous
turbochargers. The connection to the vacuum pump is larger than on previous models to ensure
that the vacuum box receives the necessary vacuum. The vacuum box is controlled by a solenoid
which, in turn, is controlled by the Engine Control Module (ECM).
50
Engine cooling, overview
Of the total heat energy generated by the combustion of fuel mixture in gasoline engine, about 24-
32% is converted into the kinetic energy and used as driving power. About 29-36% is wasted with
exhaust gas, 7% are lost by radiation and another 32-33% are dissipated by the cooling system. If
the heat transmitted to the combustion chamber wall is not eliminated as quickly as possible, the
piston or the cylinder will be deformed by this heat or the film of lubricant oil will be broken. If this
heat is cooled excessively, too much heat energy will be transmitted to the coolant so that the heat
efficiency will be degraded. Therefore, the cooling system should be controlled to maintain the
proper temperature according to the driving situation. A liquid-cooled system uses coolant - a fluid
that contains special chemicals mixed with water. Coolant flows through passages in the engine,
and through a radiator. The coolant is circulated by the water pump, and the thermostat controls
the temperature. The thermostat is closed when the engine is cold, allowing coolant to circulate
only in the engine block, bypassing the thermostat and radiator. This allows the engine to warm up
faster and uniformly so that "hot spots" are eliminated. When the warming coolant reaches the
thermostat, it will begin to open and allow coolant to pass to the radiator. The hotter the coolant
gets, the more the thermostat opens, allowing more volume of water to pass to the radiator. The
thermostat also controls the length of time that the coolant remains in the radiator so that the heat
is dissipated effectively.
51
The radiator receives hot coolant from the engine, and lowers its temperature. Air flowing around,
and through the radiator takes heat from the coolant. A radiator fan attached to the radiator
ensures that the water temperature is reduced when driving at low speeds or with the vehicle at
stand still.
Pressurized Cooling System

A system under pressure can handle higher temperatures, and offers a higher boiling point.
Pressurization of the system is achieved by a special radiator filler neck and radiator pressure cap.
On pressurized systems, coolant is added only as required, and then it is added to the reservoir,
not the radiator.
Coolant Fluid (Antifreeze)

Water absorbs more heat for its volume than any other liquid, which is another good reason for
using water. But by itself, water causes problems. Ordinary impurities in tap-water are harmful to
engines and react with metals to cause corrosion and rust. Water also allows electrolysis, an
electrical and chemical process that corrodes metals. In modern cooling systems, chemicals called
inhibitors are added to water to limit or inhibit corrosion. Other additives are used to make it harder
for the water in the coolant to boil. Another harmful property of water is that it expands as it freezes.
This is a problem for liquid-cooled engines when temperatures drop below freezing. In a cold
engine that is stopped, water in the cooling system can freeze - and expand - with enough force to
crack engine blocks and radiators. An additive called antifreeze lowers the freezing point of water
to try to keep it below the outside temperature. This can then prevent the coolant from freezing.
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Thermostat and water pump
Thermostat
The thermostat constantly monitors the temperature of the coolant and regulates the coolant flow
through the radiator. Thermostats are powered by a temperature-sensitive, positive pressure, heat
motor. This is devised by using a specially formulated wax and powdered metal pellet tightly
contained in a heat-conducting copper cup that is equipped with a piston inside a rubber boot. Heat
causes the wax pellet to expand, which forces the piston outward and then opens the valve. This
heat motor senses temperature changes and will move the valve position to control coolant flow,
thereby controlling coolant temperature. The thermostat is usually installed at the front of the
engine on top of the engine block. The thermostat fits into a recess in the engine where it will be
exposed to hot coolant. The top of the thermostat is covered by the water outlet housing that is
used to connect the radiator hose to the radiator. There are two basic types of thermostats
currently available. The balanced sleeve thermostat, and the reverse poppet thermostat. Both
types function in the same manner, but have distinct differences. The reverse poppet thermostat
opens against the flow of coolant from the water pump. The coolant, being under water pump
pressure, is used to help the reverse poppet thermostat stay closed when it is cool so as to prevent
leakage. The reverse poppet thermostat valve is self-aligning and self-cleaning. The balanced
sleeve thermostat allows pressurized coolant to circulate around all of it's moving parts.
53
Water pump
The water pump is usually mounted on the front of the cylinder block and it is usually driven by the
fan- or the timing-belt. In some cases it is driven off the camshaft or the gear train. Its function is to
deliver coolant from the bottom of the radiator pan into the engine's water jacket efficiently. This
water, after absorbing heat from the engine, circulates back to the top of the radiator. The impeller
of the pump is a rotating disc carrying vanes, which fling the water outwards against the pump's
casing by centrifugal force and impel it forward into the water jacket. The shaft is mounted on the
water pump casing and rotates on bearings. A seal prevents coolant from escaping along the
impeller shaft. At the drive end a pulley driven by the camshaft is mounted to accept the fan belt.
When the engine is cold the thermostat is closed and coolant does not reach the top of the radiator.
In order to circulate coolant through the engine during warm up, a bypass pipe is provided below
the thermostat that leads back to the water pump. The pipe also allows hot coolant to pass through
the valve, which will open the thermostat when it reaches the requisite temperature. A small hole at
the bottom of the water pump housing allows coolant to pass through if the seal leaks.
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Radiator
The function of the radiator is to lower the temperature of the coolant from the engine by
transferring the heat to the atmosphere. The radiator is made of small tubes in "rows", called the
"core" that are either positioned vertically, or horizontal design (called a cross flow). At the each
end of the core is a "tank", one is the inlet tank and one the outlet tank. Factors that influence
radiator efficiency include: the basic design of the radiator (core thickness, number of rows, tank
capacity), the area and thickness of the radiator core that is exposed to cooling airflow, the amount
of cooling air, and the difference between the temperature of the coolant and the temperature of
the cooling air.
Radiator Pressure Cap

The pressure cap is comprised of a top shell with two ears for engagement with the filler neck
cams, a spring disc diaphragm (and upper sealing gasket) to seal against the top of the filler neck
and to provide friction to hold the cap on the neck, a stainless steel pressure valve spring and
pressure valve to seal against the bottom sealing seat of the filler neck, and, centered in the
pressure valve is a vacuum relief valve (some are normally closed, while others are in a weighted-
open position). The radiator filler neck's top sealing seat allows the cap's spring diaphragm to exert
enough pressure to hold the cap on the neck. Atmospheric pressure is sealed by the cap's upper
gasket at this point. The lower sealing seat is where the pressure valve rests, permitting pressure
to build as the coolant gets hotter.
55
The filler neck cams are for the purpose of holding the cap in place, but also pressing the pressure
valve onto the filler neck with exactly the right amount of preload. The filler neck cams also have a
safety stop to prevent vibration from loosening the cap or causing a loss of system pressure. It also
works as a limited safety from serious burns during cap removal on a hot or warm engine. This why
you must "push and turn" to release the cap from its fully installed (closed) position. There are two
types of vacuum relief valves made for radiator pressure caps. The Normally Closed (spring
pressed) type, and the Normally Open (weighted) type. The normally closed cap design is what is
called the constant pressure type cap. The vacuum is help in a closed position by a very light
bronze spring. When the engine is started and begins to heat up, the system pressure starts to
build up immediately because of the expansion of the coolant in the system. When the engine is
stopped and begins to cool off, a partial vacuum tends to form in the system, which opens the
vacuum valve to prevent the formation of excess vacuum in the system. The normally open type
cap is what is called a pressure vent type cap. This vacuum valve hangs freely on the pressure
valve and is equipped with a small calibrated weight. Under light operating conditions, the cooling
system operates under no pressure (atmospheric). Should fast heating or overheating cause a
quick expansion or boiling of the coolant, the escaping pressure or steam activates the vacuum
valve which will shut. The cap then operates the same as a constant pressure cap. When the
engine is turned off and cools down, the vacuum valve again returns to the open position.
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Radiator Fan
The mechanical radiator fan type is belt-driven. In most cases the mechanical fan is mounted to
the water pump and is driven off of the same pulley that rotates the water pump. A better
performance is achieved by using a mechanical fan with a fan clutch. The fan clutch is designed to
drive the engine fan when air movement is needed to cool the engine. A thermostatically controlled
fan clutch employs a bi-metal spring to adjust fan speed in response to operating temperature. As
engine temperature rises and the radiator heats up, the air passing the radiator into the fan heats
the spring coil and a silicone fluid in the clutch that enters the chamber increasing tension in the
clutch and drives the fan. As coolant temperatures reduce, the fan clutch is allowed to slip. On the
"non-thermal" fan clutch a silicone fluid with a very high shearing capability is used to drive the fan
and cool the engine at lower engine speeds. As RPM increases the drive fluid allows the fan clutch
to slip, increasing engine efficiency when less fan-assisted air movement is needed due to higher
vehicle speeds. Many new cars are taking advantage of electrical cooling fans because of their
smaller engine compartments and greater airflow demands. The Electrical Radiator Fan type is
controlled either by the Engine Control Module or by a temperature switch located on the radiator.
57
Drive belt
The role of a drive belt is to keep the auxiliary devices turning. Drive belts are specifically designed
for each individual model, ensuring perfect tension between the various components they must
drive. These include the cooling fan, water pump, power steering pump, alternator, and air
conditioning compressor Drive Belts are multi-layered for maximum longevity and performance.
There are several different types of Drive Belts available:

Raw Edge Belts; in plain, multi ply and cogged configurations for passenger cars, trucks and buses
including diesel engines.
V-Ribbed Belts; these are thinner and more efficient in transferring power and are used in small
and high performance engines.
Freewheel pulley
Because of the variations in rotation which occur between the engine cycles, a freewheel function
is introduced in the pulley of some alternators. This gives a more even rotation for the belt cycle
which in turn results in a longer service life of the drive belt.
58
Auto Tensioner
The role of the auto tensioner is to ensure the drive belt is always correctly tensioned. There are
two different types of belt tensioners being used. One is a spring loaded tensioner, the other is a
hydraulic operated tensioner. To disassemble auto tensioner, carefully reduce tension using the nut
in auto tensioner side. Do not apply over torque which may damage the auto tensioner. On
hydraulic operated tensioners, the rubber packing in oil chamber side should be secured. If this is
damaged, Oil will leak, resulting in incorrect operation of the tensioner.
59
Engine mountings
Engine Mountings are used to reduce engine vibrations and noise. The engine mounts used today
are precisely engineered with specific shapes, rubber hardness (durometer measurement) and air
gaps, called "voids" that tune the mount to the engine. Some engine mounts are hydraulic in that
they have chambers filled with silicone fluid. There are some engine mounts that are electronically
controlled. Purpose of the Electronic Controlled Engine Mounting is to dampen engine vibrations
and noise under certain idle, acceleration and driving conditions. Adding a Electronic Controlled
Engine Mounting reduces the vibration and noise under idle conditions by 5-10dB, acceleration by
3dB and driving and shift shock by 8-13dB. The main components of the Electronic Controlled
Engine Mounting are the Control Module and the engine mounting with solenoid valve. The
solenoid valve is connected to vacuum by means of a vacuum hose at the intake manifold. The
Control Module processes the engine speed signal from the Engine Control Module (ECM) and
controls the solenoid valve accordingly. The engine mounting consists of the engine mounting bolt
connected to the engine. The opposite side of the mounting bolt is connected to a rubber element
and a damper plate. The damper plate moves freely in the oil filled upper chamber. The oil bore
allows oil flow between upper and lower chamber when the valve is in closed position. The idling
orifice has a bigger diameter then the oil bore and is opened by a valve, connected to the
diaphragm of the vacuum chamber. The valve opens as soon as vacuum is applied to the vacuum
chamber.
60
Except idle condition

Under these conditions the solenoid valve is de-energized. Upper and lower chamber are
connected to each other via the oil bore. Since the oil bore has a small diameter, oil flow between
the upper and lower chamber is restricted. Due to that, the movement of the damper plate is limited,
Engine mounting „hard“.
Idle Condition
Under idle condition, the solenoid valve is grounded by the Control Module. Vacuum now acts on
the diaphragm inside the vacuum chamber. The valve, connected to the diaphragm, moves
downward opening the idling orifice. Since the upper and lower chamber are now connected via
the idling orifice having a bigger diameter, oil flow is just slightly restricted. Due to that, the damper
plate can move further towards the vacuum chamber, engine mounting “soft”.
61
Engine oil
One function of a lubrication system is to reduce friction. Friction occurs between all surfaces in
contact. When moving surfaces come together, friction tends to slow them down. It can make metal
parts so hot they melt and fuse together. When that happens, an engine is said to have seized.
Lubrication reduces unwanted friction, thus reducing wear on moving parts. Clearances fill with oil
so that engine parts move or float on layers of oil instead directly on each other. Lubrication helps
to cool an engine. It collects heat from the engine, then returns to the sump, where it cools. It helps
absorb shock loads. A power stroke can suddenly put as much as 2000kg force on main bearings.
Layers of oil cushion this loading. Oil is also a cleaning agent. It collects particles of metal and
carbon and carries them back to the sump. Larger pieces fall to the bottom. For oil to do all of the
work that’s expected of it, it must have special properties. Its viscosity is crucial. Viscosity is a
measure of how easily a liquid flows. Low-viscosity liquid is thin and flows easily. High-viscosity
liquid is thick and flows slowly. Lubricating oil must be thin enough to circulate easily between
moving parts, but not so thin that it will be forced out between them. If it is forced out, parts will be
left in direct contact and they’ll be damaged. If it’s too viscous, it moves too slowly to protect parts,
especially in a cold engine. Modern oils however are blends of oils which combine these properties.
The oils are blended with additives. Oils are graded or classified by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), American Petroleum Institute (API) or Association des Constructeurs Européens
d'Automobiles (ACEA).
62
SAE:
An engine oil with an SAE number of 50 has a higher viscosity, or is thicker, than an SAE 20 oil.
API:
The API classifications are different for petrol and diesel engines. For petrol, listings start with 'S'
(meaning Spark-plug ignition), followed by another code to denote standard, for example 'SM‘.'SH'.
For diesel oils, the first letter is 'C' (meaning Compression ignition) followed by another letter to
donate standard, for example CH.
ACEA:
The ACEA standards are prefixed with a 'G' for petrol engines and a 'D' or 'PD' for diesel. Coupled
with this are numerous approvals by car manufacturers. ACEA standards can be summarized as A
for petrol, B for passenger car diesel and E for heavy duty diesel.
63
Checking engine oil
1. Locate dipstick: The dipstick is located on the side of the engine block and is usually very easy
to find, with a distinctively shaped or brightly colored handle.
2. Remove dipstick, wipe and clean: Remove the dipstick, catching any drops of oil on a rag, and
wipe it clean. There are markings on the lower end of the stick to indicate whether the oil level
needs to be topped up.
3. Take the oil level reading: Replace the dipstick and push it back down into the sump as far as
it will go. Remove it again, and the level of oil will be clearly visible on the stick. If the level is
below the „full“ or topmost mark, then you should top up the engine to that level with fresh oil.
4. Check condition of oil: If the oil appears very black and dirty, it may have lost some of its
protective and lubricating qualities and may need to be changed completely. Check the service
record or ask the customer when the oil was last changed.
5. Adjust level if necessary: If additional oil is needed, estimate the amount by checking the
service manual guide to the dipstick markings. Unscrew the filler cap at the top of the engine
and using a funnel to avoid spillage, gently pour the engine oil into the engine.
64
Draining engine oil
1. Prepare the work area: Before you begin, you need to mop up any oil spills, you must have
ready a container large enough to hold all the oil from the engine you are about to drain and
have enough new oil of the correct type to refill the engine later. In some vehicles, the
engine will drain more easily if the filler cap at the top of the engine has been removed, so
do this before the car is lifted.
2. Identify the drain plug and removal tool: Always use the service manual to help you to
locate and identify components if you are not completely sure of their location. The oil drain
plug is found underneath the oil pan, which holds all the oil in the engine. Some engines
have two drain plugs, draining separate sump areas. To minimize the possibility of damage
to the head of the bolt, you will need a box wrench or socket wrench to remove and replace
the drain bolt. Be very careful not to remove the transmission drain plug by mistake.
3. Remove drain bolt and inspect: When you have removed the drain bolt, separate the sump
plug gasket from the bolt and clean the threads. If the threads are damaged the bolt may
needs to be replaced. Look for solid metal particles stuck to the bolt and report these to
your supervisor. They may indicate an undiagnosed problem with the engine.
4. Drain the oil: The oil will drain more efficiently from the engine if it is hot, so run the engine
for a few minutes before draining. But if the oil is hot it can burn you, so be very carefully
when you remove the plug so that the oil does not spill onto your hand. If the engine oil is
cold you will need to allow much longer for it to drain, or the new oil will become
contaminated by residual oil still clinging to the inside surfaces of the engine.
65
5. Safely dispose of the drained oil

If the oil is hot, take extra care not to spill it, especially not onto yourself. When tipping the
oil from the draining container into the recycle container, again look for signals of metal
particles left at the bottom of the container.
66
Replacing an oil filter
1. Check new filter availability: Before removing an oil filter, first refer to the shop manual for
the vehicle and identify the type of filter required. Make sure that a suitable filter will be
available as a replacement.
2. Locate filter and correct tool: The filter will usually be located on the side, underneath or
on top of the engine block (diesel engine). Some filters have a retaining nut which will
require a box wrench to remove it, but most vehicle have filters which are threaded
cartridges. These are removed with an adjustable filter wrench.
3. Remove filter and inspect: Remove the filter and clean the seating area on the engine so
that it's surface and the surface of the new filter can seal properly. Make sure that the seal
from the removed filter is not still stuck to the engine.
4. Obtain replacement filter: Confirm the correct part number and obtain the replacement filter
from your spare parts supply. It is good practice to fit a new filter every time you drain the
sump.
5. Correctly fit replacement filter: Smear a little oil on the surface of the new sealing ring. This
will help to make a tight seal and will prevent the gasket from binding and distorting while it
is being tightened. Screw in the filter until the two surfaces are touching. To help judge the
correct degree of the turn, make a mark on the outside of the filter with a pencil, or even a
dab of oil, but remember to wipe of the oil again when you have finished. Do not over
tighten the oil filter. Typically three quarters of a full turn is adequate torque for a seal that
will not leak.
67
Refilling engine oil
1. Replace drain bolt: Before replacing the drain bolt, install a new sump plug gasket. Screw in
the bolt and then tighten it to the specified torque level given in the shop manual.
2. Select correct type of oil: The service and/or owners manual will also tell you the correct
grade of oil for the vehicle, and the quantity you will need to fill the engine.
3. Add correct amount of oil: Pour the oil in carefully so that no oil is spilt onto the outside of
the engine, and slowly enough to avoid the risk of blowback or overflow. Fill the engine only
to the level indicated on the engine dipstick, not until the oil is coming out the top of the filler
nozzle. Replace the filler cap.
4. Run the engine, check pressure: Start the engine and check the oil pressure indicator on
the dashboard. If the oil pressure is inadequate, stop. Do not continue to run the engine.
5. Inspect under car for oil leaks: Check underneath the vehicle to make sure that no oil is
leaking from the drain plug.
6. Stop engine and inspect level: Turn the engine off and wait for at least 30 seconds, then
check the level with the dipstick again. It may be necessary to off the engine by adding a
small additional quantity of oil to compensate for the amount absorbed by the new oil filter.
7. Install reminder sticker: Refer to the owners or shop manual, and install a static sticker or
door sticker to remind the owner when the next oil change is due.
68
Cooling system – draining, flushing, refilling
Periodically, the cooling system should be drained, flushed and refilled. This will restore the
effectiveness of the antifreeze mixture and prevent the formation of rust and corrosion, which can
impair the performance of the cooling system and cause engine damage. When the cooling system
is serviced, all hoses and the radiator cap should be checked and renewed if necessary.
69

Engine Mechanical Textbook

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Engine mechanical

General working principle

4-stroke working cycle

The four strokes are:

2. Compression stroke (B-C):

3. Ignition/ Combustion stroke (C-D):

4. Exhaust stroke (D-E):

Engines can be classified as follows:

General engine requirements

Bore x stroke, displacement, compression ratio

Engine power and torque

Engine components, overview

The engine consists of the following main components:

Types and Construction

Piston and connecting rod

The piston has the following function:

The piston has to fulfill the following requirements:

Connecting Rod and Piston Pin

Types and Construction

Flywheel and balance shaft

Dual Mass Flywheel

Gasket and oil seals

Types and Construction

Intake and exhaust valves

Types and Construction

OHV (Over Head Valve):

Valve tappet, lash adjuster and rocker

Timing belt, chain and drive gears

Continuously Variable Valve Timing

Engine lubrication, overview

The lubrication system consists of the following components:

Oil pressure relief valve:

Oil Pressure Warning Lamp

Oil pump and oil cooler

Rotor Pump (Trochoid):

Engine crankcase ventilation

Intake and exhaust system

Air Filter Element

Semi active muffler

Waste Gate Turbocharger

Turbo control at low loads:

Turbo control at high loads:

Variable Geometry Turbocharger

The Variable Geometry Turbocharger (VGT) offers the following advantages:

Engine cooling, overview

Pressurized Cooling System

Coolant Fluid (Antifreeze)

Thermostat and water pump

Radiator Pressure Cap

There are several different types of Drive Belts available:

Except idle condition

Checking engine oil

Draining engine oil

5. Safely dispose of the drained oil

Replacing an oil filter

Refilling engine oil

Cooling system – draining, flushing, refilling

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