Chapter 2

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
 Outline
• Protocols and protocol layering (TCP/ IP)
• Frame, IP Packet, TCP and UDP segment
• Network devices
• IP addressing (Subnetting and Suppernetting)
• Address resolution protocol (ARP)
• ICMP
• VLAN
• Routing
• Routing protocols
What is Computer Network?
 Network Fundamentals

The term network

describes two or
more connected
computers that can
share resources such
as data, a printer, an
Internet connection,
applications, or a
combination of
these.
 Network Protocols
• In order for data packets to travel from a source
to a destination on a network, it is important that
all the devices on the network speak the same
language. This language is called protocol.
• A data communications protocol is a set of rules
or an agreement that determines the data format
and how transmission of data occurs.
• A protocol is a set of rules that make
communication on a network more efficient.
 Layered Models
• A reference model (Layered Model) is a
conceptual blueprint of how communications
should take place.
• It addresses all the processes required for
effective communication and divides these
processes into logical groupings called layers.
• When a communication system is designed
in this manner, it is known as layered
architecture.
 Advantage of Layered Models
• It divides the network communication process into
smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and
troubleshooting.
• It allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.
• It encourages industry standardization by defining
what functions occur at each layer of the model.
• It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
 Types of Layered Models

• OSI Layered Model

• TCP/IP Layered Model

 The TCP/IP Model
• The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the
TCP/IP reference model, because it wanted to
design a network that could survive any conditions,
including a nuclear war.

• In a world connected by different types of

communication media such as copper wires,
microwaves, optical fibers and satellite links, the
DoD wanted transmission of packets every time and
under any conditions.
• This very difficult design problem brought about
the creation of the TCP/IP model.
 The TCP/IP Model

• The DoD model is basically a condensed version

of the OSI model
• It’s composed of four, instead of seven, layers:
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Internet layer
• Network Access layer
Two Models
Two Models: Side-By-Side
7 Application
Application
6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport Transport

3 Network Internet

2 Data Link Network

Access
1 Physical
 TCP/IP vs OSI
Similarities include:
• Both have layers.
• Both have application layers, though they
include very different services.
• Both have comparable transport and
network layers.
• Both models need to be known by
networking professionals.
• Both assume packets are switched.
 TCP/IP vs OSI
Differences include:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session
layer issues into its application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and
physical layers into the network access layer.
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer
layers.
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around
which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP
model gains credibility just because of its
protocols.
 TCP/IP vs OSI
Although TCP/IP protocols are the standards with which the
Internet has grown, the OSI model is useful for the following
reasons:
• It is a generic standard.
• It has more details, which make it more helpful for
teaching and learning.
• It has more details, which can be helpful when
troubleshooting.
• Networking professionals differ in their opinions on
which model to use. Due to the nature of the industry it
is necessary to become familiar with both.
TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport
Internet

Network
Access
 The Application Layer

The application
layer of the
TCP/IP model
handles high-
level protocols,
issues of
representation,
encoding, and
dialog control.
The Transport Layer
The transport layer
provides transport services
from the source host to the
destination host. It
constitutes a logical
connection between these
endpoints of the network.
Transport protocols
segment and reassemble
upper-layer applications
into the same data stream
between endpoints.
The transport layer data
stream provides end-to-
end transport services.
 The Internet Layer
The purpose of the
Internet layer is to
select the best
path through the
network for packets
to travel. The main
protocol that
functions at this
layer is the Internet
Protocol (IP). Best
path determination
and packet
switching occur at
this layer.
 The Network Access Layer
The network access layer is
also called the host-to-
network layer. It is the layer
that is concerned with all of
the issues that an IP packet
requires to actually make a
physical link to the network
media. It includes LAN and
WAN details, and all the
details contained in the OSI
physical and data-link layers.
NOTE: ARP & RARP work at
both the Internet and
Network Access Layers.
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The DoD and OSI models are alike in design and concept and have
similar functions in similar layers.

22
 The TCP/IP Protocol
• Internet Protocols are most popular open
system protocol suite
• Internet Protocols are used for LAN and
WAN communications.
• The two best known Internet Protocols are
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Internet Protocol (IP)
 The TCP/IP Protocol
• Protocols are rules for communication on a
network or between two hosts
• The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol is a protocol stack, or grouping of
many related protocols, each working
together within a prescribed standard.
• TCP/IP is the most popular model for
connection to the Internet and within most
networks
 Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
Features
• Connection establishment
• Transport layer protocol
• Error checking of data
• Guaranteed packet delivery
• Breaks data into pieces at transmitter and
reassembles at receiver
• Only handled by the sender and receiver
 Internet Protocol (IP)
Features
• Network layer protocol
• Provides addressing of sender and receiver on the
internet
• Protocol defines how to route messages through a
network
• Packetized
• Not continuous
• Delivery not guaranteed
• Dealt with at every router on the way from sender to
receiver
 TCP/IP Protocols Suite
• FTP - File Transport Protocol at the application layer.
• Telnet - Remote session at the application layer.
• SMTP - Simple Mail Transport Protocol at the application layer.
• DHCP - Dynamic host configuration protocol is used to assign IP addresses dynamically to network
cards. It works at the application layer.
• TCP - Transport Control protocol is a connection oriented reliable protocol working at the transport
layer.
• UDP - User Datagram Protocol is a connection less unreliable protocol working at the transport layer.
• ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol is used to perform network error reporting and status. It
works at the transport layer.
• IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol is used to manage multicast groups and it works at the
transport layer.
• IP - Internet Protocol is used for software addressing of computers and works at the network layer.
• ARP - Address Resolution Protocol is used to resolve the hardware address of a card to package the
Ethernet data. It works at the network layer.
• RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol used for disk less computers to determine their IP
address using the network. It works at the network layer.
Bits, Frame, IP Packet, TCP Segment, UDP Segment
Reading Assignment
 Networking Devices
• NIC
• Repeater
• Hub
• Bridge
• Switch
• Router
• Brouter
• Others?-Explore!
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
At source:
• Receives the data packet from the Network
Layer
• Attaches its MAC address to the data packet
• Attaches the MAC address of the destination
device to the data packet
• Converts data in to packets suitable for the
particular network (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI)
• Converts packets in to electrical, light or radio
signals
• Provides the physical connection to the media
 NIC…
As a destination device
Provides the physical connection to the
media
Translates the signal in to data
Reads the MAC address to see if it matches
its own address
If it does match, passes the data to the
Network Layer
 Repeater
• Allows the connection of segments
• Extends the network beyond the maximum length of a single
segment
• Functions at the Physical Layer of the OSI model
• A multi-port repeater is known as a Hub
• Connects segments of the same network, even if they use different
media
• Has three basic functions
• Receives a signal which it cleans up
• Re-times the signal to avoid collisions
• Transmits the signal on to the next segment
 Advantages and disadvantages

Repeater
• Advantages – Can connect different types of
media, can extend a network in terms of
distance, does not increase network traffic
• Disadvantages – Extends the collision domain,
can not connect different network architectures,
limited number only can be used in network
 Hub
• A central point of a star topology
• Allows the multiple connection of devices
• Can be more than a basic Hub – providing additional
services (Managed Hubs, Switched Hubs, Intelligent
Hubs)
• In reality a Hub is a Repeater with multiple ports
• Functions in a similar manner to a Repeater
• Works at the Physical Layer of the OSI model
• Passes data no matter which device it’s addressed to; and
this feature adds to congestion
 Advantages and…
Hub
• Advantages – Cheap, can connect different media
types
• Disadvantages – Extends the collision domain, can
not filter information, passes packets to all
connected segments
 Bridge
• Like a Repeater or Hub it connects
segments
• Works at Data Layer – not Physical
• Uses Mac address to make decisions
• Acts as a ’filter’, by determining whether
or not to forward a packet on to another
segment
 Bridge…
• Builds a Bridging Table, keeps track of
devices on each segment
• Filters packets, does not forward them, by
examining their MAC address
• It forwards packets whose destination
address is on a different segment from its
own
• It divides a network in to multiple collision
domains – so reducing the number of
collisions
Bridge..
 Uses the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) – to decide whether to pass a packet
on to a different network segment

G Transmits to
B, bridge will
A Transmits to pass it to
C, bridge will Segment A
not pass it to
Segment B
 Advantages and…
Bridge

• Advantages – Limits the collision

domain, can extend network distances,
uses MAC address to filter traffic, eases
congestion, can connect different types of
media, some can connect differing
architectures
• Disadvantages – more expensive than a
repeater, slower than a repeater – due to
additional processing of packets
Switch
• A multiport Bridge, functioning at the Data Link
Layer
• Each port of the bridge decides whether to
forward data packets to the attached network
• Keeps track of the Mac addresses of all attached
devices (just like a bridge)
• Similarly priced to Hubs – making them popular
• Acts like a Hub, but filters like a Bridge
• Each port on a Switch is a collision domain
 Advantages and…

Switch
• Advantages - Limits the collision domain,
can provide bridging, can be configured to
limit broadcast domain
• Disadvantages – More expensive than a
hub or bridge, configuration of additional
functions can be very complex
 Router
• Works at Network Layer in an intelligent manner
• Can connect different network segments, if they are
in the same building or even on the opposite side of
the globe
• Works in LAN, MAN and WAN environments
• Allows access to resources by selecting the best
path
• Can interconnect different networks – Ethernet
with Token Ring
• Changes packet size and format to match the
requirements of the destination network
 Router…
• Two primary functions – to determine the ‘best path’ and
to share details of routes with other routers
• Routing Table – a database which keeps track of the routes
to networks and the associated costs
• Static Routing – routes are manually configured by a
network administrator
• Dynamic Routing – adjust automatically to changes in
network topology, and information it receives from other
routers
• Routing Protocol – uses a special algorithm to route data
across a network eg RIP
 Advantages and…
Router
• Advantages – Limits the collision domain,
can function in LAN or WAN, connects
differing media and architectures, can
determine best path/route, can filter
broadcasts
• Disadvantages – Expensive, must use
routable protocols, can be difficult to
configure (static routing), slower than a
bridge
 Brouter
• Functions both as Bridge and a Router – hence
name
• Can work on networks using different protocols
• Can be programmed only to pass data packets
using a specific protocol forward to a segment –
in this case it is functioning in a similar manner to
a Bridge
• If a Brouter is set to route data packets to the
appropriate network with a routed protocol such
as IP, it is functioning as a Router
 Gateways
• Allow different networks to communicate by offering
a translation service from one protocol stack to
another
• They work at all levels of the OSI model – due to the
type of translation service they are providing
• Address Gateway – connects networks using the same
protocol, but using different directory spaces such as
Message Handling Service
• Protocol Gateway – connects network using different
protocols. Translates source protocol so destination
can understand it
• Application Gateway – translates between
applications such as from an Internet email server to a
messaging server
IP ADDRESSING
 What is an IP Address?

• An IP address (IPV4) is a 32-bit address.

• The IP addresses are unique
• Each device on a network is assigned an IP
address.
• Each IP address has two fundamental parts:
• The network portion, which describes the
physical wire the device is attached to.
• The host portion, which identifies the host on
that wire.
 What is an IP Address?

• The address space in a protocol that uses N-bits

to define an Address is 2n
• The address space of IPv4 is
232 or 4,294,967,296.
Binary Notation

Dotted-decimal notation
Change the following IP address from binary notation
to dotted-decimal notation.

10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

129.11.11.239
 Find the error in the following IP address
111.56.045.78
There are no leading zeroes in Dotted-decimal notation
(045)

75.45.301.14
• In decimal notation each number <= 255
• 301 is out of the range
Finding the class in Binary notation

Finding the class in decimal notation

• Show that Class A has

231 = 2,147,483,648 addresses

• Show that Class B has

• Show that Class C has

Hosts for Classes of IP Addresses

Class A (24 bits for hosts) 224 - 2* = 16,777,214 maximum hosts

Class B (16 bits for hosts) 216 - 2* = 65,534 maximum hosts
Class C (8 bits for hosts) 28 - 2* = 254 maximum hosts
Network id and Host id
IP Addresses as Decimal Numbers
 Blocks in class A

Millions of class A addresses

are wasted.
 Blocks in class B

Many class B addresses

are wasted
 Blocks in class C

The number of addresses in a class C block is

smaller than the needs of most organizations.
 Class D and C

• Class D addresses are used for multicasting

• There is only one block in this class

• Class E addresses are reserved for special purposes

such as research and most of the block is wasted.
 PRIVATE and SPECIAL IP Address Ranges

Class A: 10.0.0.0—10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0—172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0—192.168.255.255

• Private addresses created by RFC 1918 are to be used

for addressing internal networks.
• These IP addresses are not routable
 Network Addresses

• In classful addressing, the network address (the

first address in the block) is the one that is
assigned to the organization.
• The network address defines the network to the
rest of the Internet.
• Given the network address, we can find the class
of the address, the block, and the range of the
addresses in the block
• It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid
to zero.
Ex. Given the network address 132.21.0.0, find
the class
the block
the range of the addresses
• The 1st byte is between 128 and 191. Hence,
Class B
• The block has a netid of 132.21.
• The addresses range from 132.21.0.0 to
132.21.255.255.
 Default Mask
• The subnet masks for various IP address classes have
certain default values.
• The actual subnet mask can be derived from these
values.
• The default subnet masks for various address classes
are:
• Class A default mask is 255.0.0.0
• Class B default mask is 255.255.0.0
• Class C Default mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet Mask
• It determines which part of an IP address is the
network field and which part is the host field
• Follow these steps to determine the subnet mask:
1. Express the subnetwork IP address in binary form.
2. Replace the network and subnet portion of the
address with all 1s.
3. Replace the host portion of the address with all 0s.
4. Convert the binary expression back to dotted-decimal
notation.
Subnet Mask

Subnet mask in decimal = 255.255.240.0

 Subnet Mask

• A mask is a 32-bit binary number.

• The mask is ANDed with IP address to get the block
address (Network address)
Mask And IP address = Block Address
AND operation
Default mask and subnet mask
1. 192.168.3.55/24
• What is the subnet mask?
• What is the network address?
2. 192.168.3.55/28
• What is the subnet mask?
• What is the network address?
• What is the broadcast address?
 SUBNETTING
• The process of splitting a network into smaller
networks is called subnetting, and the smaller
networks thus formed are known as subnets
• Subnets are connected to the rest of the
network through address-resolving devices
called routers.
• Subnets can be freely assigned within the
organization
• Internally, subnets are treated as separate networks
• Subnet structure is not visible outside the organization
Subnetting . . .
• To create a subnet address, a network
administrator borrows bits from the original host
portion and designates them as the subnet field.
• A network with no subnets will have one of
these default subnet mask values depending
upon its class address.
• However, when subnetting is implemented, the
actual subnet mask value is calculated to
determine valid IP addresses for hosts on a
subnet.
 Basic Idea of Subnetting
• Split the host number portion of an IP address into a
subnet number and a (smaller) host number.
• Result is a 3-layer hierarchy
network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

extended network prefix

Advantages of Subnetting
• Improves efficiency of IP addresses by not
consuming an entire address space for each
physical network.
• Reduces router complexity. Since external routers
do not know about subnetting, the complexity of
routing tables at external routers is reduced.
• Reduced network traffic
• Optimized network performance
• Simplified management
• Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances.
Addresses in a network with and without
subnetting
 Finding the Subnet Address
• Given an IP address, we can find the subnet
address the same way we found the network
address.
• Apply the mask to the address
• Use binary notation for both the address and the
mask and then apply the AND operation to find
the subnet address.
• AND
Finding the Subnet Address
What is the subnetwork address if the destination
address is 200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is
255.255.240.0?

• 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000

• 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
• 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000

The subnetwork address is 200.45.32.0.

• AND
 Finding the Subnet Address

• If the byte in the mask is 255, copy the byte

in the address.
• If the byte in the mask is 0, replace the byte
in the address with 0.
• If the byte in the mask is neither 255 nor 0,
we write the mask and the address in binary
and apply the AND operation.
Finding the Subnet Address
• What is the subnetwork address if the destination
address is 19.30.80.5 and the mask is 255.255.192.0?
Comparison of a default mask and a subnet mask
A company is granted the site address
201.70.64.0 (class C). The company
needs six subnets. Design the subnets.

• The number of 1s in the default mask is 24 (class C).

• The company needs six subnets. This number 6 is not a
power of 2. The next number that is a power of 2 is 8 (23).
We need 3 more 1s in the subnet mask. The total number
of 1s in the subnet mask is 27 (24 + 3).
• The total number of 0s is 5 (32 − 27).
The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or
255.255.255.224

The number of subnets is 8.

The number of addresses in each subnet is 25 (5 is
the number of 0s) or 32.
The number of host is 32-2=30
Exercise:
You have a network that needs 29 subnets while
maximizing the number of host addresses available
on each subnet.
How many bits must you borrow from the host field
to provide the correct subnet mask?
 Class C subnetting

192.168.1.153/27
1. What is the subnet mask?
2. how many subnets?
3. how many hosts?
4. what are the valid hosts?
5. what are the valid subnet?
6. what are the broadcast address for each subnet?
 Class B subnetting

172.16.0.0
255.255.255.224
1. how many subnets?
2. how many hosts?
3. what are the network address of each subnet?
4. what are the broadcast address for each subnet?
5. what are the valid hosts?
Class B subnetting

255.255.240.0/20
1. how many subnets?
2. how many hosts?
3. what are the valid subnet?
4. what are the broadcast address for each
subnet?
5. what are the valid hosts?
 subnetting
255.255.0.0 (/20)
1. how many subnets?
2. how many hosts?
3. what are the valid subnet?
4. what are the valid hosts?
5. what are the broadcast address for
each subnet?
 Subnetting
A company would like to break its Class B private IP
address 172.16.0.0 into as many subnets as possible
provided that they can get at least 300 clients per
subnet. Find ranges of IP addresses for each subnet
and new mask.
• If an Ethernet port on a router were assigned an IP
address of 172.16.112.1/25, what would be the
valid subnet address of this host?

• A.172.16.112.0
• B.172.16.0.0
• C.172.16.96.0
• D.172.16.255.0
A company is granted the site address 181.56.0.0 (class B).
The company needs 1000 subnets. Design the subnets.

The number of 1s in the default mask is 16 (class B).

The company needs 1000 subnets. This number is not a
power of 2. The next number that is a power of 2 is 1024
(210). We need 10 more 1s in the subnet mask.
The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is 26 (16 + 10).
The total number of 0s is 6 (32 − 26).
The mask is

11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000

or
255.255.255.192.
The number of subnets is 1024.
The number of addresses in each subnet is 26 (6 is the
number of 0s) or 64.

See next slide

 SUPERNETTING
• Supernetting is combining a group of networks into
one large supernetwork.
• Supernetting is the opposite of subnetting
• Converting network bits to host bits
• In subnetting you borrow bits from the host part,
Supernetting is done by borrowing bits from the
network side.
• Supernetting is the process of summarizing a
bunch of contiguous Subnetted networks back in a
single large network.
• Supernetting is also known as route summarization
and route aggregation
 SUPERNETTING
• Supernetting is mainly done for optimizing the
routing tables.
• A routing table is the summary of all known
networks.
• Routers share routing tables to find the new
path and locate the best path for destination.
• Without Supernetting, router will share all
routes from routing tables as they are.
• With Supernetting, it will summarize them
before sharing.
• Route summarization reduces the size of
routing updates dramatically.
A supernetwork
A supernetwork
Comparison of subnet, default, and supernet masks
 Example 1
Supernet the following IP addresses to a single network

200.1.0.0/24
200.1.1.0/24
200.1.2.0/24
200.1.3.0/24

Answer: 200.1.0.0/22
 Example 2

Supernet the following IP Addresses

• 172.168.197.0/24
• 172.168.198.0/24
• 172.168.199.0/24
• 172.168.200.0/24
• 172.168.204.0/24
• 172.168.206.0/24
Example: 4 class C addresses appear to networks
outside as a single network

4 address-contiguous networks:
213.2.96.0 11010101.00000010.01100000.00000000
213.2.97.0 11010101.00000010.01100001.00000000
213.2.98.0 11010101.00000010.01100010.00000000
213.2.99.0 11010101.00000010.01100011.00000000
What is the Supernet mask?
255.255.252.0
What is the Supernet address?
213.2.96.0/22
11010101 . 00000010 . 011000 00 . 00000000
• In subnetting, we need the first address
of the subnet and the subnet mask to
define the range of addresses.
• In supernetting, we need the first
address of the supernet and the supernet
mask to define the range of addresses.
We need to make a supernetwork out of 16 class C blocks.
What is the supernet mask?

Solution

We need 16 blocks. For 16 blocks we need to change four 1s to 0s

in the default mask. So the mask is
11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
or

255.255.240.0
A supernet has a first address of 205.16.32.0 and
a supernet mask of 255.255.248.0. A router
receives three packets with the following
destination addresses:
205.16.37.44
205.16.42.56
205.17.33.76
Which packet belongs to the supernet?
We apply the supernet mask to see if we can find
the beginning address.
205.16.37.44 AND 255.255.248.0  205.16.32.0
205.16.42.56 AND 255.255.248.0  205.16.40.0
205.17.33.76 AND 255.255.248.0  205.17.32.0
Only the first address belongs to this supernet.
A supernet has a first address of 205.16.32.0
and a supernet mask of 255.255.248.0. How
many blocks are in this supernet and what is
the range of addresses?

Solution

The supernet has 21 1s. The default mask has 24 1s. Since the difference is 3,
there are 23 or 8 blocks in this supernet.
The blocks are 205.16.32.0 to 205.16.39.0.
The first address is 205.16.32.0.
The last address is 205.16.39.255.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• ARP is used for mapping a network address ( IPv4
Address) to a physical address/Ethernet address
(MAC address)
• The MAC address is always used for direct
communications (i.e, is, sending information on the
wire).
• ARP has to know the physical address of the
machine to which it is going to send datagrams
• IP is used to determine routes and move packets
from network to network.
 ARP
• ARP is responsible for finding a map to any local
physical address that IP may request.
• If ARP does not have a map in memory, it has to
find one on the network.
• ARP uses a local broadcast, asking all the systems
on the network if they have the IP that is being
resolved.
 How ARP works?
• ARP broadcasts a packet that contains the IP address and
MAC of the originating host; these can then be stored at
the target machine.
• The target stores the address and responds with a packet
that contains its MAC address. The originating machine
then stores this in the local ARP cache. The two systems
now have each other’s IP and MAC addresses and can
communicate.
• ARP can resolve only the address of a local machine.
When an IP address is determined to be on a remote
subnet, IP sends the packet to the default gateway; in this
case, ARP is used to find the MAC address of the gateway.
ICMP- INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGING PROTOCOL

• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), a

part of the Internet layer, is responsible for
reporting errors and messages regarding the
delivery of IP datagrams.
• ICMP always reports error message to the
original source
 ICMP
• It is a protocol for the exchange of error messages
and other vital information between (Physical)
Internet entities such as hosts and routers.
• ICMP warns you when a destination host is unreachable,
or informs you of how long it took to get to a destination
host.
• ICMP Error messages include the following:
• Destination unreachable
• Source Quench
• Time exceeded
• Redirection
• Parameter problem, etc…
 VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)
• A VLAN is a logical grouping of workstations, servers and
network devices that appear to be on the same LAN despite their
geographical distribution.
• VLAN can be grouped by function, department, or
application, regardless of their physical segment location.
• VLANs function by logically segmenting the network
into different broadcast domains so that packets are
only switched between ports that are designated for
the same VLAN
• The router interconnecting each shared hub typically
provides segmentation and can act as a broadcast
firewall.
VLAN
• Routers in VLAN topologies provide
• broadcast filtering
• security
• traffic flow management
• VLANs address
• scalability,
• security, and
• network management
• Switches may not bridge any traffic between VLANs
• Traffic should only be routed between VLANs.
 VLAN
• VLANs can be used to create broadcast domains
which eliminate the need for expensive routers.
• Periodically, sensitive data may be broadcast on
a network. In such cases, placing only those
users who can have access to that data on a
VLAN can reduce the chances of an outsider
gaining access to the data
• A VLAN allows several networks to work virtually
as one LAN.
 Routing
• Routing is used for taking a packet from one
device and sending it through the network
to another device on a different network
• Routers route traffic to all networks by
selecting the best route to each remote
network
• Routers communicate with one another to
maintain their routing tables through the
transmission of routing update messages
 Routing
• A router is a network layer device that uses one
or more routing metrics to determine the
optimal path along which network traffic
should be forwarded.
• Routers must maintain routing tables and make
sure other routers know of changes in the
network topology.
• When packets arrive at an interface, the router
must use the routing table to determine where
to send them.
 Routing Protocol
• Routing protocols are created for routers
• Routing protocols have been designed to allow the
exchange of routing tables between routers
• Routing protocols use various combinations of
metrics for determining the best path for data.
• Routing metrics are values used in determining the
advantage of one route over another
• Hop count, Bandwidth, Load, Delay and reliability are
some of the metrics used to determine route
 Routing Protocol
• Some routing protocols transmit update
messages periodically, while others send
them only when there are changes in the
network topology
• Some protocols transmit the entire routing
table in each update message, and some
transmit only routes that have changed
 Metrics
• Bandwidth – The data capacity of a link.
• Delay – The length of time required to move a packet
along each link from source to destination
• Load – The amount of activity on a network resource
such as a router or a link
• Reliability – Usually a reference to the error rate of each
network link
• Hop count – The number of routers that a packet must
travel through before reaching its destination.
• Cost – An value based on bandwidth, monetary expense,
or other measurement, that is assigned by a network
administrator
 Routing Table
• A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table
format, that is used to determine where data packets
traveling over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be
directed.
• All IP-enabled devices, including routers and switches, use routing
tables. A routing table contains the information necessary to
forward a packet along the best path toward its destination. Each
packet contains information about its origin and destination
• A routing table does not contain a list of all possible destinations.
Rather, it contains a list of destinations that are next in line to the
router. Each router contains this list and when it receive packets of
data it directs that packet to the next link or hop in the network
until it reaches its final destination.
 Routing Table
• Routers use routing protocols to build and maintain
routing tables that contain route information
• Routing protocols fill routing tables with a variety of
route information
• Routing tables contain the information necessary to
forward data packets across connected networks
• Routing Table contains information like:
• Protocol type
• Destination/next-hop associations
• Outbound interfaces
Routing Table
Routing protocol (Reading Assignment)

• Rip- Routing Information Protocol

• IGP- Interior gateway protocol
• IGRP- Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• EIGRP- Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• BGP- Border Gateway Protocol
• OSPF- Open Shortest Path First