FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 1:

Introduction:

Increased demands on transmission, absence of long-term planning and the need to

provide open access to generating companies and customers have created tendencies
toward less security and reduced quality of supply. The FACTS technology is essential to
alleviate some but not all of these difficulties. The FACTS technology opens up new
opportunities for controlling power and enhancing the usable capacity of present, as well
as new and upgraded, lines. The possibility that current and therefore power through a
line can be controlled enables a large potential of increasing the capacity of existing lines.
These opportunities arise through the ability of FACTS controllers to control the
interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission systems including series
impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle and the damping of
oscillations. This report is an overview of the existing FACTS devices. It is mainly a
summary of [1], [2], [3] where more extensive elaborations on FACTS devices can be
found. The IEEE definition to these devices is given in italic in the corresponding
sections.

The need for more efficient electricity management has given rise to innovative
technologies in power generation and transmission. The combined cycle power station is
good example of a new development in power generation and flexible A.C transmission
systems Facts; as they are generally known are new devices that improve transmission
systems. Worldwide transmission system are undergoing continues changes and
restricting. They are becoming more heavily loaded and are being operated in ways not
originally envisioned. Transmission system must be flexible to react more diverse
generation and load patterns. In addition to the economical utilization of transmission
systems is of vital importance to enable utilities in industrialized countries to remain
competitive and survive. In developing countries; the optimized use of transmission
system investments is also important to supply industries, create employment and utilize
efficiently scarce economic resources.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

FACTS is a technology that responds to these needs. It significantly alters the way
transmission systems are developed and controlled together with improvements in assets
utilization, system flexibility and system performance.

FACTS devices consists of thruster controlled series and shunt compensation and
make is possible to operate transmission lines stably at power levels well beyond those
normally used. FACTS is in the development stages from quite a few time and
considerable innovation have been reported recently in FACTS the latest in the series is
the unified power flow controller (UPFC).and the generalized unified power flow
controller (GUPFC).the evolution of UPFC not only allows the combined application of
phase angle control but also real time transition from one selected compensation mode
into another; to handle particular system contingencies more effectively
FACTS use controllable series and shunt compensation located at intermediate
substation with the following objectives.
Rapid control of reactive power and voltage profile flow using series and shunt connected
controllers.
Secure loading of lines close to their thermal limits.
Improve power transferability transient stability and dynamic stability of line during
fault switching etc..

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 2:

Use of FACTS

Shunt compensators, series compensators as well as combinations of these two types of

compensators have been discussed. The application of these devices depends on the
problem which has to be solved. In Table1 an overview of problems occurring in the grid
and which FACTS to be used to solve these problems are given.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 3:

Development and control of FACTS:

Along with the economic development and the social improvement, the electric utilities
must run more rapidly to meet the heavily increasing demands of electric power.
However, in the procedure of expanding and interconnecting of the power System,
accordingly various problems arise:

• On account of the irregular distribution of the energy sources, and the vast amount
of transfer electric power over long distance between the generation center and
the load center, huge power losses in the lines occur.

• In the interconnected power system the power flow from the generator to the
consumers is dependent on the location of the generation node, of the consumer
nodes and on the transmission paths available, i.e. on the power system topology
and the electrical characteristics of the lines involved, the result is transmission
bottlenecks and unwanted parallel path or loop flows.

• To meet the load and electric market demands, new lines should be added to the
system, but because or a variety of environmental land use and regulatory
pressures, the growth of electric power transmission lines in many parts of the
world is restricted.

• In the large-scale power system, the stability becomes more critical, several large-
area power failures due to damaging of the power system stability resulted in
enormous economic losses in the world.

On these backgrounds, there is a urgent demand to realize the rational transfer

power allocation, to reduce the power losses and generation costs, and to improve the
stability and the reliability of the power system greatly. In recent years the tremendous
growth of the modern power electronics, computer control and communication
technologies provides the opportunity for the development and control of FACTS.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 4:

The constraints to transmission:

The basic limits of transmission are well known. The thermal capacity in
terms of current in a line is far above its normal loading, because its reactance cause a
voltage drop which leads to poor supply to the load and ultimately collapse of voltage.

The first concept of FACTS is that the voltage anywhere in an AC system can
be controlled, be electronic means, which are rapidly adaptable to changed
circumstances. The control can be rapid to forestall instability or voltage collapse or
under operator control.

A second concept is to correct the unequal sharing of parallel transmission

lines if they have unequal reactance values. Usually this is because one line is shorter
than the other and takes a larger share. Either a change of reactance or the insertion of a
phase angle shift in series with one line produces a solution. Whether mechanical or
"FACTS" means are used depending on the speed and frequency of operation that is
required.

Old and new concepts

There are two key aims.

1. To increase power transfers by voltage support

2. To provide control of flow on parallel paths.

The former is generally more important in regions with long distances to

loads, while the latter is more important in relatively tight networks. Mechanical switched
equipment (breakers, tap-changers) are normally considered first since they provide that
the slow response can be tolerated, and they are not so frequently used as to cause
excessive wear.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

The shunt capacitor raises system voltage, and improves power factor. At light
load, however, it may need to be switched off. It's the first solution to be considered,
perhaps with shunt reactor switching also for light load.

If there are transmission items, the loss of any one must be possible without
difficulty. The SVC has a fast response to provide the voltage support for the (n-1)
situation.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 5:

Facts controllers:
The challenge facing the power system engineer today is to use his existing transmission
facilities to greater effect. The basic limit of transmission is well known. The thermal
capacity in terms of current in a line is for above its normal loading, because its reactance
causes a voltage drop which leads to supply to the load and ultimately collapse of
voltage.

The first concept of Facts is that the voltage any where in an AC system can
be controlled, by electronics means, which are rapidly adaptable to changed
circumstances. The control can be rapid for stall instability or voltage collapse or under
operator control.

A second concept is to correct unequal sharing of panel transmission lines if

they have unequal reactance values, usually this is because one line is shorter than the
others and takes a larger share. Either a change of reactance or the insertion of the phase
angel shift in series with one line producer a solution whether mechanical or "FACTS"
means are used depend in the speed and frequency of operation that is required.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 6:

FACTS devices
In recent years, lots of advanced FACTS devices emerged because of the
rapid development of the modern power electronics technology. According to the
definition of FACTS introduced above, we can divided the FACTS devices and non-
transmission system FACTS devices.

In recent years, lots of advanced FACTS devices emerged because of the

rapid development of the modern power electronics technology.

FACTS devices can be divided into two groups :

6.1 : Transmission system FACTS devices

6.1(a) Static VAR compensator (SVC)

6.1(b) Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

6.1(c) Static synchronous serves compensator (SSSC)

6.1(d) Thyristor controlled phase shifting transformer (TCPST)

6.1(e) Super conducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)

6.1(f) Thyristor controlled series reactor (TCSR)

6.1(g) Thyristor switched series reactor(TSSR)

6.1(h) Thyristor switched series capacitor(TSSC)

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

6.2: Non-transmission system facts devices

6.2(a) Thyristor controlled breaking resistor (TCBR)

6.2(b) Low voltage SVC and (STATCOM)

6.2(c) Active power filter (APF)

This paper gives a general overview of its development, briefly describes its
effects. Furthermore, because of the tremendous influences on the power system by the
introduction of FACTS, there is a great demand to improve the power system analysis.
Also, this paper presents some aspects and directions needed to be studies.

6.1: Transmission system FACTS devices

6.1(a): Static Var Compensator (SVC):

A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to

exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters
of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage).

A schematic diagram of SVC is as shown in figure

Figure 6.1(a): Two machine system with SVC in the middle

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

The first generation of FACTS, which was brought to market nearly twenty years ago.
The SVC consists of a fast thyristor switch controlling a shunt capacitor bank, which help
provide voltage support for heavy loads near the end of a line. It also contributes to
system stability but do not control power flow directly. There has already been nearly
210 SVCs in the world now.

6.1(b): Thyristor controlled series capacitor(TCSC):

TCSC:

A capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank

shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable
series capacitive reactance.

A schematic diagram of TCSC is as shown in Figure

figure 6.1(b):Schematic diagram of TCSC

the first generation of FACTS, can control the line impedance through the introduction of
a controllable (Thyristor Controlled) capacitor in series with the transmission line. The
major benefits of TCSC are the abilities to schedule power flows along desired lines and
to rapidly modulate the effective impedance in response to power system dynamics. The
largest TCSC in the world has been installed at the Slatt substation of the BPA is USA
and has been operating since 1993.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

6.1(c):Static-Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC):

A static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source as a

series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrate with, and controllable
independently of, the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall
reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the transmitted electric
power. The SSSC may include transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing
devices to enhance the dynamic behavior of the power system by additional temporary
active power compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall active
(resistive) voltage drop across the line.

A schematic diagram of SSSC is as shown in Figure

figure 6.1(C):Schematic diagram of SSSC

SSSC is similar with STATOCM except its output transformer connected in series
with the line, is in the design stage and expected to be selected for utility
demonstration quiet soon. A SSSC is a voltage-source converter-based series
compensator.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

6.1(d):Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST):

which injects a voltage in angle with the original voltage to make phase shifting between
the origin and end terminals, can increase power transfer capacity, reduce losses and
enhance stability. A TCPST model construction has be made in USA.

6.1(e):Super conducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES):

Which consists of a large-capacity superconductiang magnetic energy coil controlled by

the converter based on GTO or SCR, can generate and/or absorb real and/or reactive
power rapidly, or control power flow dynamically.

6.1(f):Thyristor controlled Series Reactor (TCSR):

which is a type of inductance compensator, contains a series reactance and a thyristor

controlled reactance connected in shunt with the former reactance to change the series
inductance smoothly.

6.1(g):Thyristor Switched Series Reactor (TSSR):

6.1(h):Tyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

The basic element of a TSSC is a capacitor shunted by bypass valve shown in Fig. 11.
The capacitor is inserted into the line if the corresponding thyrist or valve is turned o_,
otherwise it is bypassed.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Figure 6.1(h).1: Course of capacitor voltage for a basic element in a TSSC.

A thyristor valve is turned o_ in an instance when the current crosses ero. Thus, the
capacitor can be inserted into the line by the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of
the line current. On the other hand, the thyristor valve should be turned on for bypass
only when the capacitor voltage is zero in order to minimize the initial

Figure 6.1(h).2: Thyristor switched series capacitor.

6.2: Non-transmission system FACTS devices:

• 6.2(a):Thyristor controlled Breaking Resistor (TCBR), a shunt

thristor controlled resistor, can enhance the stability of the power system and
reduce the accelerating power of the generation units in emergencies.

• 6.2(b):Low Voltage SVC and STATCOM

• 6.2(c):Active power Filter (APF).

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Series Capacitors
The series capacitor is effective at reducing the series reactance of a system
which is reaching a limit of voltage or stability. It introduces, however, a lower than
synchronous natural frequency and its use is therefore limited by the possibility of sub-
synchronous resonance (SSR) with one of the natural mechanical frequencies of a
rotating machine, especially a steam turbo-alternator set.

The phase shifter (sometimes known as a quad booster) is effective in

improving the sharing of load between lines which are in parallel but have unequal
impedance. Meshed networks become limited by the shortest most heavily loaded line,
particularly the risk of its loss, and the power flows need to the adjusted so that such a
loss can be withstood. The phase shifter allows this to be done quite precisely. It can also
respond to the consequences of a line outage because its slow speed (2 seconds per tap
position each of 10 or 20 of phase shift) is still faster than the thermal time constant of
transmission lines or transformers.

A thyristor valve with an inductor in series, placed in parallel with the series
capacitor. Forms the Thyristor Controlled Series, Capacitor (TCSC). Thus a vernier
control over the reactance range is possible. As well as dams that this ability assists
transient and dynamic stability, the TCSC can present an overall inductive impedance at
sub synchronous frequencies, which removes the risk of SSR. Transmission planners
have rightly been cautious of this problem since it appeared in the 1970s.

The TCSC is ingenious at adding to or subtracting from the series capacitor

current, but a continuous control characteristic is not available. The industry seems to be
concluding that continuous adjustment by the phase shifter is sufficiently rapid for many
applications.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

6.2(b): STATCOM: A static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-connected

static var compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled
in- dependent of the AC system voltage.

A new all purpose fool is becoming available. For voltage control the GTO
SVC (or STATCOM) will fit within a smaller footprint, than a SVC and therefore give
further mobility.

The STATCOM is a voltage-sourced inverter, which means a DC capacitor

voltage source regularly switched by gate-turn-off thyristors to generate an alternating
voltage. By surrounding the capacitor with four GTOs, each with a reverse diode, its
voltage can be switched in a positive or negative direction. By connecting six or seven of
these in series, and switching them at different time within each 50Hz cycle, an accurate
sine wave is developed. If the developed voltage is higher than the system's the
STATCOM will supply reactive power like a rotating synchronous compensator and
improve voltage and conversely if lower it will remove reactive power.

STATCOM:
A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides voltage support by
generating or absorbing reactive power at the point of common coupling without the need
of large external reactors or capacitor banks. The basic voltage-source converter

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

6.2(b): Schematic diagram of STATCOM.

The STATCOM certainly has the potential to :

 Maintain its reactive current at low voltage since it has an essentially constant
current characteristic.

 While a thyristor SVC is constant impedance.

 Reduce land use to about 40% of a thyristor SVCs requirement.

 Give the potential for limited storage, if batteries replace capacitors.

 Be applied as an active filter because each step can be switched in response to a

harmonic.

Electronic tap-changing
Tap-changers area standard well used and reliable everyday product. They are
used for transformer turns-ratio adjustment and, less commonly, for phase-shifting. They

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

are slow and need maintenance but they are simple and reliable. Is there a need for a
rapid electronic equivalent.

It appears that for most conditions a mechanical tap-changer is fast enough. A

voltage adjusting tap will not save a voltage collapse since it only introduces a reactance.
The phase-shifting tap in usually used as a steady-state adjustment, rather than for a rapid
recovery from a disturbance. If the power system is regularly adjusted for line outages.
however, a mechanical device is fast enough to keep one element in reserve at all times.
Should continuous or rapid adjustment be required to forestall overload elsewhere after a
line or cable loss, the mechanical can be replaced by an electronic tap changer.

A more elegant solution is to apply the STATCOM in a series connection.

This, the Static Series Compensator (SSC), always presents an inductive impedance to
the transmission and is therefore never a sub synchronous threat.

The potential benefits of transient alteration of power flows by high-speed

phase shifter or Static Series Compensator include:

 To reduce transient or post-disturbance circuit overloads

 To reduce the risk of cascading relay actions or out-of-step conditions or high

reactive consumption.

6.3: Todays FACTS Controllers:

6.3(a):Unified Power Flow Controller:

It is possible to extend the above discussion and combine the series and shunt
controllers in one device, known as the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). Both
transmission angle and voltage at each terminal come under the influence of this
controller, which operates in all four quadrants on the power and reactive power diagram.
Two voltage sourced converters, one connected in shunt and one in series with the
transmission, achieve this to satisfy especially demanding circumstances.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): A combination of static

synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and a static series compensator (SSSC)
which are coupled via a common dc link, to allow bidirectional flow of active
power between the series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output
terminals of the STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent active and
reactive series line compensation without an external electric energy source. The
UPFC, by means of angularly unconstrained series voltage injection, is able to
control, con- currently or selectively, the transmission line voltage, impedance,
and angle or, alternatively, the active and reactive power flow in the line. The
UPFC may also provide independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.
The UPFC was developed for the real-time control and dynamic
compensation of AC transmission systems. It is able to control all the parameters
affecting power flow in the transmission line.
Alternatively, it can independently control both the active and reactive
power flow in the line. The UPFC is conceptually a synchronous voltage source
with controllable magnitude Up q and angle _ placed in series with the line. The
voltage source exchanges both active and reactive power with the transmission
system. But the volt- age source can only produce reactive power, the active
power has to be supplied to it by a power supply or a sink. This power supply is
one of the end buses. Presently, a UPFC consists of two voltage-source converters
which are placed back- to-back and operated from a common DC link (DC
storage capacitor). This implementation is shown in Fig.. The active power can
freely flow in either direction between the AC terminals of the converters and
each converter can generate or absorb reactive energy independently. Converter 2
injects the voltage Up q, which is controllable in magnitude and phase (_), in
series with the line and therefore acts as the

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Figure 6.3(a): Concept of the UPFC in a two machine power system.

voltage source shown in Fig.. The reactive power exchanged at the AC

terminal is generated by the converter internally. Opposed to this, the active
power is converted into DC power which appears at the DC link as a positive or
negative active power demand. This DC power demand is converted back to AC
power by converter 1 and coupled to the transmission line bus via the supply
transformer. Additionally, converter 1 can also exchange reactive power with the
line, if necessary and provide independent shunt reactive compensation for the
line.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

CHAPTER 7:

General Assessment
The power system engineer needs to assess these devices, old and new,
against the needs of his system. The table following should be read from the top down,
since the higher on the table the simpler the solution, and by implication the lower on the
table the more expensive is the solution.

TRANSMISSION ENHANCEMENT

PROBLEM CONVENTINAL SOLUTION POWER

ELECTRONIC
SOLUTION
1. Low voltage at heavy Power Factor Correction Capacitor -
load
2. High voltage at low load Breaker switched capacitor/ reactor -
3. Low voltage on line Breaker switched capacitor SVC
outage
4. Large voltage variability Rap-changer SVC
5. Voltage variability but - Relocatable SVC or
location unpredictable STATCOM
6. Very long line Shunt reactor Series Capacitor SVC TCSC or SSC
7. Stability limit reached Series Capacitor TCSC or SSC
8. Sub synchronous Detune, Reduce series Capacitor TCSC
resonance
9. Long distance instability Higher voltage, new lines HVDC long distance
10. Inter are swings Stabilizing signal in generator -
excitation
11. Unstable interconnection Series capacitor, excitation damping HVDC back-to- back
link
12. Connect unsynchronized - HDVC long distance
systems
13. Poor parallel line sharing Series capacitor/reactor or Quad -
booster
14. Poor post-fault sharing Breaker switched series capacitor or -
Quad booster
15. Continuous need to - TCSC or SSC
adjust sharing Thyristor phase shifter
16. Voltage variable and - Unified Power Flow

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

continuous poor sharing Controller

17. Fault level limits Series reactors HVDC back-to- back
link
18. More poor needed, but Cable, gas-duct Convert AC line to DC
new line impossible

FACTS, aimed to adopt modern power electronics application at the important location
of the transmission system in order to control and adjust one or more of the main
parameters of the transmission system (voltage, phase angle, and impedance). This paper
regards FACTS as all modern power electronics applications which can make impacts on
the AC transmission in the large-scale power system. And the scope of its application is
thought to be the whole power system, to contain generation, transmission and
distribution parts, in which the transmission system is the key section. By the flexible and
rapid control over the AC transmission parameters and network topology, FACTS can
facilitate the power control, enhance the power transfer capacity, decrease line losses and
generation costs, and improve the stability and security of the power system.

CHAPTER 8:

Function analysis
Alongside the rapid growth of modern power electronics technology, navel
FACTS devices are constantly emerging. However, among these FACTS devices
introduced above, the major devices, which make a great impact on transmission system
and has been or will be brought into utilization, are SVC, STATCOM, TCSC, TCPST,

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

UPFC and so on, Thus this paper will analyze and illustrate the functions of these FACTS
devices as follows.

8.1:Power flow control :

It is assumed that there is a line i-j, and a FACTS device installed at its i-
terminal, which is considered as UPFC because it synthesizes all the functions of SVC,
STATCOM, TCSC and TCPST

If UPFC adopts different control mode, it can reflect the function of reactive
shunt compensation, series compensation, phase shifting and multi-function control.
Using phasor representation, these control functions are illustrated in figure.

In fig.(a) shunt compensation increases the magnitude of the outgoing voltage

v (b) series compensation is equivalent to affect the impedance to change the voltage
drop on the line, (c) phase shifting achieves the desired phase shift (advance or retard)
without any change in magnitude of V and line impedance, (d) multi-function control can
vary the phase angle, magnitude of V and line impedance simultaneously.

It is common knowledge that the transfer real power of any line in a power
Vi Vi δ
Sinij
system can be represented as P= Xij . Consequently, the Consequently, the voltage
magnitude, line impedance and phase angle can be adjusted to change the power flow
distribution of the power system. From Fig. 4 series compensation, phase shifting and
multi-function control can control the real power flow effectively by changing the line
impedance and phase angle, so these FACTS devices such as TCSC, TCPST, UPFC and
so son, can be used to control power flow. But the modulating scope of shunt
compensation is limited by the restriction of the rated voltage, thus SVC and STATCOM
affect the real power distribution weakly. On the other hand, SVC and STATCOM can
alter the reactive power distribution and maintain the voltage profile through injecting or

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

absorbing the reactive power. Certainly the combination of functions gives the UPFC a
unique capability to control simultaneously both real and reactive power flows.

8.2:Transient stability enhancement :

A lot of studies show that the reason for the loss of transient stability in a
power system is that some overloads occurred in some line while some other lines were
tripped off after faults. After having adopted FACTS devices, the operating point of the
power system in steady state can be altered to improve the transient stability to a certain
extent. Series compensation, which reduces the line. Impedance in order to increase the
steady stability limit, can be enhance the stability greatly. The transient stability can be
improved by installation of SVC. On the other hand, using the control ability of the
FACTS to adjust the network power flow distribution rapidly in the procedure of
transient state can improve the stability more effectively.

8.3:Small-disturbance stability improvement :

The small-disturbance stability stands for the stability of a power system on
the condition of tiny disturbance. There are a variety of small disturbances in the power
system all the time, so keeping the small disturbance stability is very important for safe
operation. TCSC could damp oscillation and sub synchronous resonance effectively after
analyzing an oscillation id problem in a power system with a long-distance transmission
line.

CHAPTER 9:

CONCLUSION
Although FACTS technology appeared just a short time ago, it presents a wonderful
perspective before our eyes. This paper has presented an overview and the state of the art
of the technology development of FACTS and categorized the FACTS devices into two

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

groups: transmission system FACTS devices and non-transmission system FACTS

devices.

The goals of FACTS technology in summary are: power flow control. transient stability
enhancement. small-disturbance stability improvement and oscillation damping. This
paper also introduces some popular researches in the world, and proposes some
noticeable study aspects and directions. It is thus possible to see that modern power
system will develop greatly by means of serious study about FACTS technology and
wide utilization of FACTS devices.

The goals of FACTS technology in summary are:

• Power flow control.

• transient stability enhancement

• Small-disturbance stability improvement and oscillation damping.

This paper also introduces some popular researches in the world, and proposes
some noticeable study aspects and directions. It is thus possible to see that modern power
system will develop greatly by means of serious study about FACTS technology and
wide utilization of FACTS devices.

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 FACTS AND THEIR CONTROL

REFERENCES:

[1] Padiyar K.R., and Kulkarni A.M., Flexible AC Transmission

System: AStatus Rreview,Sadhana,Vol 22, Part 6,Dec. 1997,pp781-796.

[2] EHV-AC and HVDC Transmission and Practice, by S.Rao.

[3] Higorani NG 1993, Flexible AC Transmission System, IEEE

Spectrum. 32:41-48.

[4] N.G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi. Understanding FACTS concepts and

technology of flexible AC transmission systems. IEEE Press, New York, 2000.

[5] R.M. Mathur and R.K. Varma. Thyristor-based facts controllers for electrical
trans-mission systems. IEEE Press, Piscataway, 2002.

[6] Y.-H. Song. Flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS). The Institution of

Electrical Engineers, London, 1999.

[7] P. Kundur. Power system stability and control. McGraw-Hill, New York etc.,
1994.

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