LARDER & KITCHEN MANAGEMENT

VI SEM

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 LARDER & KITCHEN MANAGEMENT

BHMT : 3.201 Periods

UNIT – I
CHARCUTIERIE
Pg.No.
History of Guilds with its relation to French Revolution. History types and Hygiene of abattoirs- (4 )
Forcemeat –: ( 4-5 )
Types of Forcemeats – ( 5-7)
Preparation of forcemeats – (7-10 )
Uses of forcemeats. (7-10)
Galantines – (10)
Making of Galantines – (11 )
Types of Galantine – (12 )
Ballotine. (12 )
Pates –: (12 )
Types of pate – (12)
Pate de foie gras – (12)
Making of pate – (13)
Commercial pate and pate maison – (13)
Truffle – uses and types of truffle. (15)
Mousse & Mousseline – Types of mousse (savoury ) – Preparation of Mousse – (16 )
Preparation of Mousseline – (17)
Difference between mousse and mousseline (24)
Brines, Cures & Marinades –: (19-21)
Types of Brines – Preparation of Brines Methods of Curing Types of Marinade Uses of Marinades (24)
Ham, Bacon – (26-27)
Cuts of Ham, Bacon –
Differences between Ham, Bacon – (28)
Processing of Ham & Bacon – (28-30)
Uses of the different cuts. (31)
Sausage –: (32)
Types & Varieties – (33)
Casings – (34-35)
Fillings –
Types & Varieties –
Additives & Preservatives.
Chaud Froid – (37)
Meaning of Chaud Froid – (38)
Making of Chaud Froid & Precautions –
Types of Chaud Froid –
Uses of Chaud Froid.
Aspic & Jelly – (39-40)
Definition of Aspic and jelly – (41)
Difference between the two –
Making & Uses of Aspic and jellyTypes of Smoking-
traditional and modern practices

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 UNIT – II
INTRODUCTION TO LARDER WORK
Definition – (43-45)
Equipment found in the Larder Layout of a typical larder with equipment and various sections.
Common terms used in the Larder. (45-46)
History of Smørrebrød and smorgasbord – (46-47)
Their Preperation and Presentation both classical and contemporary. (47-49)
Salads and Salad Dressings, (51-54)
Garnishes. (55)
Appetizers & Garnishes – (55-58)
Classification of Appetizers –
Examples of Appetizers.
Explanation of different garnishes. (59-71)
Sandwiches – (71)
Parts of Sandwiches – (71)
Types of Bread – (72)
Types of filling –
Classification – (72)
Spreads and Garnishes – (73)
Types of Sandwiches – (73)
Making of Sandwiches –
Storing of Sandwiches.
Larder Control – (75)
Essentials of Larder Control – (75-76)
Importance of Larder Control –
Devising Larder Control Systems –
Yield Testing. (76)
UNIT – III
BUFFET PRESENTATION
Ice Carvings – (78)
Tallow sculpture – (80)
Fruit & Vegetable Displays – (83)
Salt Dough – (84)
Pastillage – (84)
Jelly Logo – (86)
Thermacol Work. (86)
Chocolate sculpture, Butter sculpture and sugar work. (86-88)
Mashed Potato, Garnishes and Garnitures
Making of chocolate mouldsm (89)
UNIT – IV
CONCISE CULINARY HISTORY, CHOCOLATE COOKERY& BREAD MAKING

Evaluation & Trends – (91)

Nouvelle Cuisine – (92)
Haute Cuisine – (93)
Fusion Cuisine – (94)
Future Trends.
Chocolate cookery- Types of Chocolate, Uses in Different Products. (97-102)
Bread making – (103)

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International Breads, (109-143)

Ancient grains –Quinoa, kamut, amaranth, spelt, chia, sorghum, freekeh, teff. (143-145)
Types of dough Icings: (146)
Royal Icing – forms, types and uses in various stages, role of glycerin in making royal. (146)
Gum paste role of gelatin and precautions. (146)
Methods of making gum paste. (147)
Sugar confectionery and use. (149-158)
Marzi pan -methods and uses.
Contemporay Desserts and cakes (158-161)
UNIT – V
KITCHEN MANAGEMENT – LAYOUT & DESIGN
Areas of the kitchen with recommended dimensions,
Factors that affect kitchen design,
Principles of kitchen layout & design, (163-168)
Placement of Equipment Flow of Work Space allocation –
Kitchen Equipment Selection –
Planning requirements of a kitchen –
Budgeting for Kitchen Equipment & anticipating requirements. (169-178)
Managing People in Kitchen operations.- (181-185)
Ergonomics –
history , etymology and Kitchen Ergonomic,
HVAC in Kitchen Designing. (187-197)
Contemporary Designer Kitchens

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 BHM&CT VI SEM

UNIT-1
CHARCUTIERIE

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 UNIT-1

CHARCUTIERIE

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY:-

1) A Related, however ,but a slightly different branch of Larder or cold meat preparation is CHARCUTIERIE.
2) It is derived from the “Char cuit”Charcuterie
3) This has been translated to cooked meats
4) It is an art of trasforming pork into a varitie of items
HISTORY:

1) The origin of the process goes back as far as1500BC

2) It is also believed that the chinese produced some type of charcueiere as far back as 400BC
3) During these ages a strict separation between fisheries , slaughter,butcher and prepared meat shop was enforced in
order to control disease
th
4) Not untill the 16 century did charcutiers as this cooks were called fegally obtained the right to butcher there own pigs
and sell both raw and cooked pork products
5) They were permited to sell herrings or any other salted fish during lent,when meat products were forbidden
6) As time went by fish and vegetables and showed up in there shops
7) During the height of the roman umpire sausage became very popular and they enjoyed preparations from pork
,chopped pine nuts and black pepper
8) Many forcement recipes and concepts brougth fame to cities and people example frankfurters,wieners,bologna after
frank furt ,vienna and bologna rest ectivly
9) Today we have philadelphia ,seropple,lebanon,coney islands etc.
10) In the begning sausages and pate were hard to prepare as there was no refrigeration and spices needed were hard to
come by,hence charcutiers were appointed,whose main responsibility was to slaughtr,prepare ,stor and cook the pork
properly
11) Much of the credit for the popularity and expansion of sausages goes to the explories and merchants whp saild many
different parts of the world saking spices and herbs neede to produce the proper flavour in sausages
Cost Control
1) making your own CHARCUTIERIE allows you to control the cost.assure high quality and serve dishes out of the ordinary
2) you could turn and extra bit of smoked trout into delicious timbales at short notice.
3) An extravagant and costly terrine consists of veal,sweet breads and morels an equally excusie it terrine can be
prepareed for a fraction of the cost
4) Subsitute dices of meats instead of sweet bread and mushrooms for morels
5) There are no fixed cookig methods for CHARCUTIERIE the only imparative is fresh ingrediantes of high quality
FORCEMEAT:-
Charcuterie is processing and transforming pork into different products. Hence in order to convert the meat into a terrine ,pate
,or a galantine or sausage . it has to be minced , ground , chopped or diced into what is called as forcemeat
It is basic element in the combination of meat or fish and fat which is grounded and seasoned there there elements of
forcement
There are 1) fat 2) meat 3) seasoning
Forcemeat proportion:-
The percentage of meat to fat is regulated while preparing forcemeat. The proportions are as follows;
40% dominant meat
30% pork fat
30% pork meat(lean)
FORCEMEATS AND MOUSSE
TWO of the most common which come to the mind are bologna and frankfurter. These Favorite of the picnic and football
crowd are applications of the principles of forcemeat and mousse preparation.

FORCEMEAT

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Forcemeat is ground or pureed flesh (meat, poultry or fish) which is combined with fat and seasonings and then
bound by the process of emulsification or addition of other binders. The French term for forcemeat – FARCE
indicates a stuffing of meat or non- meat types. A farce may be made of vegetables and bread too.

Most forcemeats are raw when being shaped, piped or formed.

Some are fully cooked and then pureed prior to being used.

Forcemeats can be either fresh or cured. Fresh forcemeats mean that no nitrates are added. Cured indicates that the
curing salts rich in nitrates have been added.

Forcemeats of all types are used in the hot and the cold kitchens.

USES INCLUDE –

1. Stuffing of various food such as paupiettes of sole

2. Preparation of terrines
Seemingly endless variety of sausages.

TYPES OF FORCEMEAT

There are five primary types of forcemeat each having distinctive ingredients and preparations.

 CAMPAGNE- COUNTRY STYLE FORCEMEAT

It is the earliest type and is traditionally made of pork The fat used is pork
fatback or jowl fat
The forcemeat has a dense, coarse ground texture. The earliest forcemeat
were chopped with two knives because of the lack of grinding equipment.
It is highly seasoned as there were no refrigeration or preserving techniques.
The seasoning included – onion, garlic, black pepper corns, juniper berries
bay leaf and nutmeg.
It uses extra binding agents in the form of extra eggs or panada (paste prepared from starch product)

STRAIGHT METHOD

This forcemeat is more refined, having less dense texture.

This came in with the improvement in the equipment wherein a more refined style of forcemeat was possible.
Any type of meat can be used as a dominant meat, in combination with pork. White poultry or fish is rarely
used.
Pork fatback or jowl fat is used.
More delicate seasonings were incorporated as shallots, wine, brandy, allspice and ground white pepper.
It does not use extra binding agents such as panada.

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GRATIN - STYLE

The name of this forcemeat is derived from the pre-cooking some of the major components, such as meat and
fat prior to the grinding or the pureeing process.
This may entail only lightly browning the dominant meat or pork hence the use of the word gratin.
Most types of meats (with the exception of poultry and fish) are used in the preparation of gratin style.
Often liver of pork, veal or other meats are used. Pork fatback or jowl fat is used.
Fat from the dominant meat can be substituted.The texture of this meat should be very fine and ground till smooth. The
density of the meat is also lighter.
Panada is not used as the binding agent.Seasonings are the same as above except that it has a nutty
flavor because of the browning of the meats.
MOUSSELINE-STYLE

The most distinctive feature of this forcemeat is the type of fat used in its preparation
The use of cream as the source of fat allows the production of extremely light and smooth product.
It is made using lean white or light meats and fish such as chicken, veal, rabbit sole, shrimps, and well trimmed lean
pork.
Panada may be added for a smoother texture.
The seasoning is very delicate such as shallots, white pepper and wine.
NOTE: Mousseline forcemeat should not be confused with a mousse.
A mousse is a mixture of fully cooked and pureed basic ingredients bound with gelatin or fat and lightened with an aerator.

EMULSION FORCEMEAT
This type of forcemeat is used extensively in sausage making- bologna, frankfurters , knockwurst .
Its name is derived from the ratio of the components of the forcemeat. The normal ratio is 5 parts meat,
4 parts fat and 3 parts ice. 5/4/3 emulsion forcemeat is made from any meat except fish The mixture
should be a perfect smooth paste.By processing the components of forcemeat with ice, results in a very
strong emulsion of meat and fat when it is cooked.
A variety of binders are used for binding and water retention – such as non-fat dry milk, sodium
caseinate and phosphates.
VAROIUS COMPONENTS OF FORCEMEAT

1.MEAT-The character of the forcemeat will largely depend on the type of meat chosen.
2.PORK – Is often combined with a dominant meat in the forcemeat. It has a neutral flavor and combines very well with other
meats.Has a high capacity for water retention which aids in the production of moist forcemeat.It has a traditional lower cost as
compared to the other meats.
3.LAMB- it has a strong distinct flavor.The high cost of the lamb is a deterrent to its usage in the forcemeat.
4.BEEF- is considered to be moderately expensive. The meat of the bull is preferred. It is deep red in color and good binding
ability. It is economical also.
5.VEAL- is both very delicate in flavor and very expensive. It is used in the production of extremely
6.POULTRY – Is relatively inexpensive and mildly flavored. It has a softer, lighter texture
7.GAME- Wild gamey gives strong gamey flavor and farm raised will have milder flavor. Both are expensive meats. They are
more often used to make sausages or occasionally a pate.
8.FISH- has a wide range of flavors and is compared expensive as compared to the other meats.
The functions of the meat as the major component in the forcemeat are important to the production as it gives the main body
to the forcemeat as well as the texture and the flavor.

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2. FAT

Fat contributes flavor, binding power and texture to the forcemeat.

PORK FAT – is considered the best as it has an ideal melting point, melts in the mouth resulting in the good mouth feel. Yet it
is hard enough to stand up the cooking temperatures.
LAMB FAT – is used those forcemeat which contains lamb. The strong flavor and hardness of this fat makes it less
desirable in forcemeats.
BEEF FAT- is very hard, having a high melting point which results in a coating affect in the mouth in the cold forcemeats.
POULTRY FAT – is very soft and has a strong flavor. The low melting temperature of the fat makes it very difficult
to emulsify.
3. PANADA
It is the paste prepared from flour, bread, rice or other starch productIt aids in binding the fat. It also lightens the density of the
product. It contributes to the seasoning of the product.

Bread panada Flour panada Frangipane panada

Rice panada Potato panada

They should not comprise more than 20 % of the total weight of the forcemeat.

4. EGGS-The major contribution is the binding power and a firmer texture. Eggs are not in used in the sausage making.

5. SEASONINGS- Seasonings serve a far greater function than simply addition and enhancement of flavor. SALT is the primary
ingredient which facilitates the exposure of myosin, the protein
responsible for binding forcemeat. It also enhances water retention and adds to and enhances flavor.
CURING SALT (also called TMT- tinted cure mix). It is composed of 94% salt and 6%
sodium nitrate. Curing salt is tinted pink to distinguish it from common salt.
It is used to fix the colors in the processed meats and to inhibit the growth of clostridium botulinum.

SPICES are responsible for the distinctive flavor of the various forcemeats. The classical pate spice is composed of white
pepper, black pepper, bay leaves, paprika, marjoram, thyme, basil, nutmeg, mace and ginger.

A few other flavorings used are wines, brandy, garlic, onions and shallots.

6. GARNISHES-

Garnishes may be added to the forcemeats after it is completed. There is a wide range of possibility for this purpose
including mushrooms, dried currants, nutmeats and the traditional garnishes for classical pate of pistachios, smoked
tongue and truffles. The garnishes are best partially cooked and cooled before being added to the forcemeats.

METHODS OF PREPARATION –

Carefully select the ingredients which are to be used and assemble them before beginning.

It is important to choose the right type of equipment. The most important are the grinder and the food processor.The
preparation of the forcemeat can be broken down in the three main steps-

1. FABRICATION AND GRINDING-

Fabrication will include-The meats should be trimmed off fat gristle and silver skin. The rind should be removed.
The meats should be cut into cubes or strips
The cubed meats and the fats should be well chilled. Do not freeze.
Salt, curing salt (if being used) and any other seasonings are distributed evenly over the meat and the fat mixture.
The mix is then allowed to marinate overnight. Grinding procedure will vary with the size
of the batch A small batch up to 15 pounds will depend greatly upon the meat protein being kept
intact until the cooking stage for the success of the emulsion.
Maintaining the temperature of the meats between 35-50 degrees F during the grinding process prevents the denaturing
of the proteins. The marinated meat and the fat mixture is ground through a large ¼ inch die on medium speed.
If finer textured forcemeat is required, the mixture is ground a second time through a smaller die. This is called progressive
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grinding.
In a large scale emulsion production such as commercial sausage making, the marinated mixture is combined in a large
vertical chopper. Ice or ice water is added to maintain the temperature during the processing.

2. MOLDING, FORMING AND STUFFING

The forcemeat mixture should be tested by poaching a small quenelle in lightly salted water to ascertain the
correctness of the flavors, seasoning and binding.
Forcemeats should be packed in terrine and pate molds in several layers to minimize the possibilities of air
pockets in the finished products.
When layering, garnishes may be added, distributing them evenly.
COOKING
Forcemeats are cooked at low temperatures, 150 to180 degrees F to internal temperature of 140-170 degrees F
The high temperatures will denature the proteins and excessive coagulation, forcing out the fat and producing
dry crumbly forcemeat, which is difficult to slice.
A forcemeat which is undercooked will be mushy and unstructured when sliced

HANDLING AND STORAGE

The preparation of the wholesome product calls for strict sanitary practices. There is a constant danger of cross
contamination of the various components of
the forcemeats.
The meats should not be exposed the danger zone temperatures ( 45 -140 degrees F )
Once processed they should be quick cooled and held at safe temperatures. Traces offorcemeatsare easily
overlooked in the cleaning of the processingequipment.
Always fully dismantle the processing equipment and clean to remove all traces of meats
Chill everything involved in the processing.
Once production is complete, store forcemeats covered and under refrigeration.

MOUSSE:
Mousse is a fully cooked basic ingredient which is pureed, bound with a form of gelatin
or fat and lightened with an aerator such as whipped cream or egg whites. The preparations can be
hot or cold.The term is also used to describe dessert preparations which are of the same basic
structure as the cold mousse.Mousses have 3 basic components
1. BASE – can be a meat, fish, cheese or vegetables. The base provide flavor, color, body and character to the
product.
2.BINDER – provides structure to the finished product. This can be done by the inclusion of gelatin or aspic jelly
which will set as the mousse is chilled. A flavorful fat will also contribute to the structure of the cold mousse.
3. AERATION – the lightening of the mousse by adding a component which introduces air into the mixture.
Whipped cream works well giving it a richer texture. Whipped egg whites add lightness without adding extra fat
to the mousse. This results in a leaner mousse.

METHODS OF PREPARATION
1. MOLDS- molds should be prepared first to ensure that the mold can molded
before it sets. Individual molds such as ramekins or small timbales should be lined either with aspic jelly. Decorations may be
inlaid. When the mold is unmolded it
is the finished product both coated and decorated. The contemporary method callsfor molds to be oiled. When the mousse is
set it is then turned out and can be decorated or coated individually.
2. BASE- base preparation is the next step. Fully cook the base product. Do not overcook it will result in a dry product. The
base product should be pureed. The consistency can be corrected by veloute, mayonnaise, béchamel, sour cream or cream.
The resulting puree should have a smooth velvety texture. The pureed mixture should be put through a fine sieve to make it
refined.
3. BINDER – the gelatin has to be weighed according to the proportion
4. AERATION – will require the whipping of either cream or egg whites to a soft peak.
5. WHISKING- whisk the binder into the base and the binder should be at room temperature for this step.
6. FOLD- fold the aeration agent into the binder mixture. If the base is too thick or cold, the aeration will be
deflated before it is worked into the mousse.
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Mold the mousse before it starts to set. The molded mousse should be allowed to chill overnight.The
characteristics of a well made mousse are – Velvety smooth texture
Light and airy with no air pockets
A delicate but distinctive flavor

Galantines

DEFINITION

Galantines, by classical definition, is a boned poultry or game animal (such as rabbit), stuffed with forcemeat. The
name galantine, rooted in the French term gallant refers to the elegant nature of the presentation. Modern
galantines are more often rolled into an even, elongated shape, resembling a thick sausage.

            The meat of the poultry and/ or game may also be skinned first and the prime pieces such as the breast,
used for inlays. Once assembled, the galantine is poached and left to cool in a rich stock. The stock is usually made
from the bones of the animal used.

When cooked, galantine may be braised easily. The equipment needed for preparation of galantine includes a
boning knife, cheese cloth, kitchen twine and brazier.

MAKING OF GALANTINES
 
The preparation of galantine is divided into three stages: - pre-preparation, assembly and cooking. In the first stage,
it is necessary to remove the bone from the poultry or game animal used. This must be done with precision to
maintain the quality and appearance of the skin and meat. 

PRE-PREPARATION

1. Trim the pheasant/ other meat

2. Skin the pheasant
3. Remove the meat from the bones.
4. Marinate the breast meat and skin for three hours in the solution (brandy, white wine, curing salt, salt and
pepper)
5. Prepare a stock from the bones.
6. Prepare a straight method forcemeat using the meat of the legs and thighs (1 part of each pheasant meat
(dominant), pork, pork fat)

Note: - a random garnish or items such as peeled pistachio nuts, diced truffles, smiked tongue, ham, currants or
other similar items will enhance the flavour and appearance of the finished product. The size and amount of garnish
is largely a matter of personal taste.
 
ASSEMBLING THE GALANTINE
Assembling the galantine is simply a matter of placing and rolling. However, this too must be done with care and
precision. If not, the result will be a poorly formed galantine with an uneven texture.
  I.            Layout: -
1. Dampen a piece of cheesecloth about 1 square yard in area. Fold cloth in half and spread on the work table,
creating a double thickness square of cheese cloth.
2. Position the reserved pheasant skin of the length of the rectangle runs parallel to the long side of the cheese
cloth. The skin should be placed outer side down.
3. Dust the skin lightly with a pinch of dry gelatin, salt and pepper.
4. Spread the forcemeat on the skin about 1-inch thick, leaving a 1-inch margin of skin all around.
5.  Place the marinated breasts lengthwise on the forcemeat with the thinner ends of the breasts overlapping
in the middle.
II.            Roll: -
1. Using the cheese cloth to assist, roll the galantine away from you so that the breast sections are wrapped
into the center of the galantine.
2.  If necessary, you may lift the skin and smooth the seam in the forcemeat with a palette knife so that no
separation will be visible when the galantine is sliced.
3.  If necessary, use your hands to help form the tubular shape.
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 4. Place the near edge of the cheese cloth over the galantine.
5. Make a snug roll, free of any large wrinkles in the cheese cloth.
III.            Tie: -
1. Gather the cheese cloth at one end of the roll and the using a slip knot or twine.
2. Gather the cheese cloth at the open end of the galantine and repeat the procedure. Compress this end more
tightly to produce a snug, compacted roll.

COOKING THE GALANTINE The correct cooking method used for galantines is poaching. Faster cooking will coarsen the
texture and possibly harm the appearance. It is important to monitor the temperature of both the stock and the galantine
closely.

1. Place the galantine in a brazier or fish poacher large enough to hold it without bending it.
2. Cover with the prepared stock and place on the range. Using moderate heat setting, bring the temperature of the stock
0
up to 190 F.
0
3. Poach the galantine until it reaches an internal temperature of 170 F.
4. When the galantine reaches 1700F, it is a good idea, through not vital, to unroll it from the cheese cloth and then re-roll
it in the same cheese cloth, making it more snug, this ensures a perfectly round shape and good adhesion of the skin
to the forcemeat.
5. Return the galantine to the stock refrigerate overnight.
6. Galantine is sliced and served with small cubes of delicate aspic. This aspic can be made by clarifying the
cooking stock.

BALLOTINES
This is a smaller relative of the galantine. It is an excellent method for using the leg portions of poultry when the breasts have
been used in other preparations.
The leg bones are removed leaving the skin and meat intact. Forcemeat is stuffed in the pocket formed by the removal of the
bones. This preparation should be the shape of a small ball or ham.
The ballotine is normally roasted or braised. However, it can be glazed with aspic or coated with chaud-froid sauce and serve
cold. In either case they are a product of the grade manager department.
ROULLADES

The term roullades means to be rolled, can be applied to contemporary products prepared in a manner which is similar to a
galantine yet do not fully satisfy the classical definition of a galantine. An example of a roullade might be a flank steak, butter
flied, pounded, spread with a chorizo or similar forcemeat and rolled in the style of a galantine.

PARFAITS

This is the French word for perfect. It refers to two distinctly different items. One is a frozen mousse-like dessert of lightened,
still frozen ice cream, which in America is served in a tall glass. The other parfait is a Parfait can be cooked in a terrine mold,
large timbale or loaf pan.

PATES AND TERRINES

The term pate means forcemeat baked in a crust, usually in a rectangular or oval loaf mold. In French it is termed as PATE EN
CROUTE. In other words it can also be a spread of finely chopped or pureed seasoned meat, often chicken liver.

In general sense the term pate applies to mixtures other than forcemeats baked in crust.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR MAKING PATE –
• Pate molds

1. The mold selected will determine the appearance of the final product. There are three basic types of pate molds –
2. Hinged oval pate molds are classical styled having ornate decorations on the sides, is a distinctive feature of these molds.
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They come in a three piece or a four piece hinged mold. The mold is sized by its mold capacity

3. Hinged rectangular mold have contemporary styling. This allows a higher product yield and easier portioning. Molds of
this type have smooth or textured sides but seldom decorative designs. Normally they are three piece hinged molds. Those
made from black steel are preferred as they allow better browning
4.Tapered loaf pans give pate a home-like appearance. The sides of the mold taper for easy removal
5. Pastry wheels
6.Scissors
7.Palette knives
8. Round cutters
9.Aluminum foil

PREPARATION;-
The preparation of pate is done in 5 stages
PRE-PREPARATION
 Prepare the dough
 Prepare the forcemeat
 Roll the dough about 1/8th inch thick and about the size of the sheet pan
 Using the assembled hinged mold, mark the dough for the main and thecap pieces.
 The bottom and the four walls of the mold to be covered with the dough.
COMPILED BY: PROF. ANEETA MYINT, IHM PUSA
 Allow for a ½ inch overhang on all the sides.
 The capping piece should be the size of the bottom
 Cut 2 chimney rings from an extra piece of dough using 1 inch and ½ inch
 round cutter.

ASSEMBLING THE PATE

Lightly oil the assembled mold.
 Fold the main piece of dough length wise. It should drop easily into the mold.
 It should cover all the four walls and the bottom of the mold.
 Using a small ball of scrap dough carefully press the dough into the corners of the
 mold.
 Cover and refrigerate the lined mold for one hour.
 Fill the mold with well chilled forcemeat ½ inch short of the top edge.
 The forcemeat should be placed in several layers using a palette knife to press the
 forcemeat to reduce the formation of the air pockets.
 Fold the overhanging dough over the top of the forcemeat.
 Lightly egg wash the dough covering the top.
 Lightly eggs wash the face of the capping dough.
 Lay the capping face, egg wash side down, on top of the pate.

INSERTING THE CHIMNEYS

 Chimneys are placed in the pate to allow steam to escape. If chimneys are not
 present the steam can crack the crust.
 COMPILED BY: PROF. ANEETA MYINT, IHM PUSA

COOKING THE PATE

 Cooking the pate is divided into two stages-
 Browning Stage – without egg washing the top of the pate, cover the pate with a
 foil. Place in a pre heated oven at 475 degrees F, for 10 minutes. Remove from
 the oven and allow rest for 15 minutes.
 Cooking Stage – uncover and lightly egg wash the top of the pate. Place in a
 preheated oven at 350 degrees F until an internal temperature is reached to 150
 degrees F

NOTE: The temperature can be taken through the chimney

FINISHING THE PATE –
 The pate is not complete when it is removed from the oven. It must be first filledwith aspic.
 Allow the pate to rest at room temperature for 15 minutes. This will allow the
juices and fat those have come out of the pate to be absorbed back.
 Carefully fill the chimneys with a good quality aspic jelly.
 Allow the pate to chill overnight before removal and slicing.
 COMPILED BY: PROF. ANEETA MYINT, IHM PUSA
TERRINES

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TERRINES are the closest cousin of pates.
The terrine vessel is an oblong, earthenware mold. It can also be enameled cast iron .Terrines are the pate cooked in terrine
mold and not a crust.
Terrines can also be made using pre-cooked paste of meat, fish or vegetable purees boundcold with gelatin or hot with eggs.
Terrines can be served directly from the mold or removed.They are most often served cold however they can also be served hot.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
 Terrine molds
 Plastic food film
 Palette knife
 Water bath with a rack
 COMPILED BY: PROF. ANEETA MYINT, IHM PUSA
PREPARATION
The preparation can be divided into 4 stages.
PRE-PREPARATION- The first step is to select a suitable mold.

 Lightly oil the mold

 Line the mold with single piece of plastic film, large enough to cover the bottom and the four sides.
 Prepare the forcemeat.

ASSEMBLING THE TERRINE

 Fill the terrine half with forcemeat, being careful not to form the air pockets.
 Place the garnishes if any.
 Fill the terrine with the remaining forcemeat to the shoulder of the mold.
 Fold the overhanging plastic sheet over the forcemeat.
 Place the lid on the terrine.
o COOKING THE TERRINE-
 Assemble the water bath
 Place terrine in the water bath
 Place in the pre heated oven at 325 degrees F
 Cook to an internal temperature of 140 degrees F
 Remove from the water bath
 Cool at room temperature for 30 minutes.
o PRESSING TERRINES-
 A cooked terrine is pressed by removing the lid and placing a
 metal plate, cut to fit the opening of the terrine, on top of the plate
 and the terrine is refrigerated overnight
Truffles:-
1)there are the tuber of varieties of edible fungi native to many parts of the world
2)they grow near the roots of oak and beach tress.
3)the truffle is not visible from above the ground.
4)when they are gathered in autumn specaiel dogs and pigs are used to find them
5)they sniff them out following their scent.
6)they are then dug out of the ground by hand
7)the two most prized types of truffles are perigord which is black and from france and the piedmontese which is white and
from alba or italy.
8)black truffles are half to 3 inches wide dark brown to black in colour.
9)they are irregularly shaped with apebbly texture on the outside
10)truffle are vary expensive and can be purchased fresh or canned.
11)when canned you can buy either whole truffle or peelings.
12)truffles are used in soups,sauces,salads,and meat dishes.
13)they are a favourite for garnishment of cold and dishes.
PARFAITS

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This is the French word for PERFECT
It refers to two distinctly different items.
1. One is a frozen mousse like dessert of lightened still frozen ice cream, which isserved in a tall glass.
2. Other parfait is a savory terrine which uses vegetables, fish, shell fish, poultry orother light meats. It is distinguished by its
very fine texture and preparationmethods.
*It is based on raw mousseline forcemeat. Whipped cream is incorporatedinto this mixture for lightness. This mixture is set
with gelatin, not by heat.
*The second method is based on a puree of cooked meat or vegetablefortified with egg whites and is lightened with cream.
The mixture is thenmolded and poached.
A parfait can be cooked in a terrine mold, large timbale or loaf pan.
COMPILED BY: PROF. ANEETA MYINT, IHM PUSA

MOUSSE AND MOUSSELIN

MOUSSE – The mixture is a cooked puree, bound with gelatin and lightened with cream,is set by chilling

MOUSSELINEFORCEMEAT – Is composed of raw pureed meat or fish combined witheggs and cream set by cooking

MOUSSE AND MOUSSELINE – These terms also refer to the size of the finished dish.A mousse, hot or cold, is a dish made
of mousse mixture or mousseline forcemeat. It is
molded in a terrine, suitable to serve more than two people.

A mousseline is a small quenelle or molded individual portion of mousse mixture. Servecold

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 Ham Cuts Description
Whole Ham

   
Includes both the butt and shank cuts of the leg. The whole ham can weigh 10 to 20 pounds.
Butt End The upper cut of the hog's hind leg. The butt end is meatier but contains
more fat than the shank end of the whole ham and is harder to carve
because it contains the hip and pelvic bone. If the cut is found labeled
" butt half", it has not had the center ham slice removed. If the center slice
has been cut from it, the cut will be labeled " butt portion".

Shank End Lower cut of the hog's hind leg. The shank end contains less fat, is not as
meaty as the butt end, but it contains only one leg bone, making it easier
to carve. It has a slightly sweeter flavor. If the cut is found labeled " shank
half", it has not had the center ham slice removed. If the center slice has
been cut from it, the cut will be labeled " shank portion".

Center Ham Slice Also referred to as center cut ham steak, this cut is approximately ½ to 1
inch thick and is sliced from the center of the ham where the butt end and
shank end are separated. It is available cured and smoked. The center
ham slice is the best cut from the ham.

Cuts of bacon
The main cuts of bacon are:
Side bacon comes from pork belly. It is very fatty with long layers of fat running parallel to the rind. This is the most common
form of bacon in the United States. Pancetta is Italian side bacon, smoked or "aqua" (unsmoked), with a strong flavor.

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Middle bacon, from the side of the animal, is intermediate in cost, fat content, and flavor between streaky bacon and back
bacon.

Back bacon (called Irish bacon/Rashers or Canadian bacon in the United States) comes from the loin in the middle of the back
of the pig. It is a very lean, meaty cut of bacon, with less fat compared to other cuts. It has a ham-like texture. Most bacon
consumed in the United Kingdom is back bacon.

Cottage bacon is thinly sliced lean pork meat from a shoulder cut that is typically oval shaped and meaty. It is cured and then
sliced into round pieces for baking or frying.

Jowl bacon is cured and smoked cheeks of pork.

Slab bacon typically has a medium to very high fraction of fat. It is made from the belly and side cuts, and from fatback.
Cuts of Bacon
Shoulder/Collar
This is the traditional cut for ‘bacon and cabbage’, but it is also ideal for a wide range of other dishes. Cut into
chunks, it makes delicious casseroles – cooked with soaked dried beans, lots of garlic, ginger and root
vegetables or cut into finger pieces for great pasta dishes.

Loin
This is most often used for back rashers, but it is also a very good joint with no waste. Chops are another
option and are delicious coated with mustard, brown sugar and served with warm pineapple.

Streaky
This is the most flavoursome cut, from crispy rashers to warm salads, or for a perfect
sandwich try crispy streaky rashers, sliced avocado and tomato in a baguette drizzled with olive oil –
delicious.

Gammon/ham
Sold as a whole ham or cut into individual joints. Simmer gently for 15 minutes per half kilo, then remove the
rind, score the fat, coat with honey and mustard and glaze in a hot oven. Retain the cooking liquid for excellent
soups and stocks. Individual gammon steaks can be stuffed with dried fruit and baked in cider in the oven.

Differences between ham & bacon

Ways of Can be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, grilled or Cured or cooked fresh.
eating baked.
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 Types Types of bacon depend on the thickness and All ham is taken either from thigh or rump and
where the cut of meat is taken from in the varies only in the curing process according to
pig. different countries.
Preparation Cured in brine or in a dry packing containing Can be cooked and served fresh; wet or dry
large amounts of salt, smoked, boiled or cured usually with honey or sugar
dried in cold air.
Description Cured meat prepared from a pig. Meat from the thigh or rump of a pig, cut from
the haunch of a pig or boar.

Bacon and Ham Processing

Bacon processing
Fresh pork bellies are shipped to processing companies in large containers called “combo bins.”

Individual bellies undergo the following before being converted into sliced bacon for the consumer:
o Skinned (using a Townsend skinner)
o Trimmed of ragged edges (using Whizard knives)
o Pumped (usually Townsend injector)
o Placed on bacon combs and put on trees or trucks for thermal processing
o Thermal processing
o Chilling
o Pressing
o Slicing (Anco slicer)
o Premium slices
o Secondary slices
o Ends and pieces
o Packaging
Ham processing
There are three general ham processing systems depending on the ultimate product:
o Traditional bone-in cured/smoked ham
o Boneless, premium ham
o Boneless, sectioned or chopped and formed ham
Traditional bone-in cured/smoked ham
Made in the following sequence:
o Arrive at processing plant in “combo bins” in weight range categories
o Trimmed of some of the collar fat and skin (Townsend skinner)
o Pumped
o Netted
o Placed on tree or truck for thermal processing
o Thermal processed
o Chilled
o Wrapped with paper
o Boxed
Boneless, premium ham
Hams are received as usual, but are completely defatted and deseamed.
Premium muscles — semimembranosus-adductor and biceps femoris- semitendinosus — are used. Usually only
thesemimembranosus-adductor muscles are used to make hams such as Hormel’s Cure 81®.
o Muscles are injected
o Cured muscles undergo massaging or tumbling

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 o Massaging and Tumbling
o Muscles are netted together or placed in casings (usually 2 or 1-1/2)
o Ham molds are placed on the product before thermal processing to give shape
o Thermal processing
o Chilling
o Cutting in half (for some of the hams)
o Packaging
Boneless, sectioned or chopped and formed
These are made virtually the same way that the premium hams are except that the biceps femoris-
semitendinosus muscles are chopped or sectioned into smaller pieces along with muscles from the shank and the knuckle.
Tumbling and massaging are used to cause the pieces to “stick” together.

Curing
Bacon — 120 ppm in-going sodium nitrite or 148 ppm in-going potassium nitrite; 550 ppm of ascorbates or erythorbates. For
dry cured bacon, 200 ppm in-going sodium nitrite or 246 ppm in-going potassium nitrite.
Maximum final weight = 100 percent of green weight
Hams — 200 ppm in-going nitrite; 550 ppm of ascorbates or erythorbates
Maximum final weight = Depends on PFF regulations
Thermal processing

2 kg Boiling

2.Middle of gammon 3 kg Grilling and frying

Back side (Hind 3. corner of gammon 2 kg Grilling and frying
quarter) 4. back gammon 4 kg Grilling and frying

5. thick and of back 3 kg Grilling and frying

6. collar 4 kg Boiling
7. fore hock 4 kg Boiling shoulder ham
8. best streaky 4 kg Grilling and frying
9. thin streaky 2 kg Grilling and frying
10. flank 1kg Boiling and frying
 A side of bacon from modern pigs will weigh approximately 30 kg.
A gammon cut from the side will weigh between 5 and 7 kg.
 

Bacon — target temperature = 124 to 126°F

Hams — must reach at least 144°F (must reach 144°F to kill trichinella spiralis instantly)
Thermal processing is used to “set” the premium and section and formed hams (heat coagulable proteins). Cooked hams must
reach 150°F.
Smoking -Combustion of moist sawdust (hardwood) or the use of liquid smoke
o Flavor
o Color
o Bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties
Uses of different cuts of bacon

CUTS OF BACON
 Sign of quality
         There should be no sigh of stickiness.
         There should be a pleasant smell.
         The rind should be thin, smooth and free from wrinkles.
         The fat should be white, smooth and not excessive in proportion to the lean.
         The lean should be a deep pink colour and firm.
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Uses of ham
Ham is typically used in its sliced form, often as a filling for sandwiches and similar foods, such as in the ham sandwich and ham and cheese
sandwich. Other variations include toasted sandwiches such as the croque-monsieur.
Preserved ham can be cooked (although there is no requirement), and usually requires washing in water to remove salt. Whole fresh pork leg
is also served cooked as gammon, known as ham in the United States

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 Unit – II

Introduction to larder work

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 Unit – II
Introduction to larder work

The larder or Garde Manger is a department set aside for the storage of perishable food, both raw and cooked and
were food stuffs such as meat fish poultry and game are prepared and made ready for cooking.
In this department all cold food items found on the menu such as Hors d’oeuvre cold fish or meat dishes, cold
sauces, salad dressings are prepared and dressed. One particular special duty of this department is the preparation
and presentation of all types of cold buffet, which are nowadays a feature of so many functions.

For these functions to be carried out, it is essential that:

1. The larder be separated from the kitchen and located in a cool place. At the same time, it must be close to the
kitchen to avoid undue running about between two departments which are closely interrelated.
2. It should be light, airy and well established and sufficiently spacious to allow the staff to carry out their duties
in a clean and efficient manner.  It must also be able to store prepared foods and buffets in a cool and
hygienic manner.
3. It should be equipped with the necessary fitting, machinery and tools. In accordance with the volume and/or
quality of the trade of the catering establishment in which it is situated.

EQUIPMENTS FOUND IN THE LARDER

Heavy:
 Refrigeration equipment including refrigerators, walk-ins, reach-in, pull outs, traulsen, deep freezers, bottle
coolers, ice machines, coolers and chillers.
 Food Processors with attachments for grinding, pureeing, kneading, mixing, Buffalo choppers, bone saws
 Gas range, boilers, heaters (if required)
 Weighing scales - Electronic and manual
 Steel tables, cupboards, storage racks and sinks

Light:
Mixers, juicers, Butchers block, Storage bins and shelves, Slicers, Blow torch, Pots, pans, stockpots, larder tools
such as serving spoons and ladles, sieves , Colanders , Conical strainers and Chinois, heat Presses , Pie moulds,
whisks, egg slices, steel basins and graters

Miscellaneous:
Frying and flat spoons - Assorted knives (Butchers Boning knives ,butcher’s steak or cutting knives , Butchers
saw(Tenon), Butchers saw(Bow), Butcher’s choppers and cleavers, Butchers chopping Knives, Cook’s 30 cms(12
inches)Knives, Cook’s 20-24 cm (a/7 inches) knives, Cook’s 6-8 cm (4 inches) knives, Cook’s 14-20cm(7 inches)
filleting Knives Tranchelard Knives, Palette Knives) - Butchers saw (Tenon and bow) - Butchers chopper - Filleting
knives and palette knives - Piping bags and assorted nozzles – Peelers - fancy cutters - mandolin slicer - Wooden
spoons and mushrooms (wooden mushrooms are used for pressing food stuffs through sieves) - Cutlet bat and
steak hammers (for flattening cuts of meat) - Larding and trussing needles and pins(for larding and trussing joints
of meat and poultry) - Lemon zesters & decorators (for scraping and channeling lemon peel) - decorating knives and
vegetable scoops (for shaping vegetables & potatoes) – Skewers - butchers hooks (for hanging joints) - Brining
syringe (for pumping brine solution into joints) - brinometer(for measuring density of brine solution) - assorted
thermometers - Assorted trays for storage of food.

LARDER EQUIPMENT

1. MINCING MACHINE AND FOOD PROCESSORS-

• These two machines have an important function in the larder. The mincer is used for the mincing of raw meats for
sausages, hamburgers, meat loaves, mincing of fats prior to rendering for dripping.
• A food processor is a useful tool in the mixing of the raw and cooked farces, pates, mousses and puree mixtures
as well as some sauces. It is also handy for the making of breadcrumbs from the day old breads.
• These metal machines are quite expensive and should be robust for heavy duty for commercial use.
• The mincing and the processor attachments can be dismantled for cleaning which should be done with hot water
containing grease solvents, then rinsed and dried before re-assembling.
• The machine needs to be lubricated at regular intervals with the lubricating oil.
• The operator should study the instruction manual to become familiar with the oiling points.

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THE SLICING MACHINE
• Is used for cutting slices of cooked meats such as ham or tongue, or any other boneless joints of meat.
• It is also used for cutting bacon or gammon rashers.
• A calibrated scale is fitted to determine the thickness of the slices.
• They may be hand-operated, semi-automated or fully automatic.
• The cleaning of the machine should be done carefully following the instructions on the manual. No food should be left
clinging to the parts which cannot be removed for cleaning as the bacterial growth will occur.
• The blades should be kept sharp always using the grindstone attachment provided along.
• The machine should be kept lubricated with the oil provided.

SCALES AND WEIGHING MACHINES

There are various types of weighing scales- large platform scales for weighing large meat joints. There are graduated scales
fitted with a price chart showing the prices at a glance.
• No maintenance is necessary other than keeping them clean and hygienic. Sponging them with a cloth soaked in hot water
and then drying thoroughly will do the needful. The pans of the smaller scales should be removed and washed well in hot water.
• Foodstuff should not be placed directly onto the platform or the pans of the scales but should be kept in some container or
trays or a sheet of greaseproof paper when being weighed.

ELECTRIC GRINDING MACHINE

• This machine is used for grinding an edge on knives and choppers or cleavers. It should be used if only the carborundum
stone fails to set an edge. Frequent use will wear the knives and the choppers down very fast.
• Make sure that there is sufficient water in the well and the grindstone is wet while the sharpening takes place.
• Keep the machine clean.
• Lubricate the machine as per the instructions in the manual.

BOILING PLATE OR GAS RINGS

• These are used to heat or cook as required such as cooking the vegetable hors d’oeuvres, for rendering fats, making aspic
jelly , sauces, pickles and other larder preparations.
• Spilling or boil overs should be wiped and cleaned with warm water and soap solution. The burners need to be cleaned on the
periodical basis.
• The enamelled parts of the surrounding should be sponged down with water. Abrasives should not be used as they damage
and scratch the enamel.

SALAMANDER / GRILL / TOASTER

• These are used for grilling or toasting many foodstuffs for making savouries and canapés and for grilling sausages etc.
• For cleaning the burners should be lightly brushed to prevent the holes from clogging. The metal reflectors should be wiped
on a regular basis.
• The fat drip tray must be emptied and cleaned daily. A little water in the tray will help the grease from baking on. Do not allow
the crumbs to burn in the tray .
• The enamel parts must be wiped with a damp sponge on a daily basis.

BUTCHERS’ BLOCKS
• These are used in the butchery for jointing and cutting meats.
• They have the advantage of being reversible. They can also be re-serviced when badly worn out by sawing at the timber yard.
• A good general rule is to keep the surface as clean and dry as possible and should be washed well and drained and dried after
each use.

SAUCEPANS AND LIDS

• They are mostly stainless steel or aluminium or latest can also be hard anodized. They require utmost care for maintaining
them clean.
• They should be washed in warm soapy water and dried well after use.
TABLES, COUNTERS AND FLOORS
• Steel tables are used as work tables. Always keep them clean and never use their surface for chopping or cutting as the
damage can be two ways.
• Chopping boards which are color coded are used for this purpose.
• The tables should be cleaned by sponging with hot soapy water and rinsed with warm water and then dried after use.
• At the end of each session, the sinks, the counters and the floors must be well cleaned .

OTHER LARDER TOOLS

Other small equipment required in the larder section are-
 Serving spoons and ladles
 •Sieves • Colanders
 • Conical strainers
 • Meat presses
 • Pie moulds
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  • Whisks
 • Egg slicers
 • Steel basins
 • Graters
 • Cutlet bat
 • Trussing needles
 • Larding needles
 • Larding pin
 • Lemon zesters
 • Vegetable scoops
 • Butchers hooks
• Skewers
• Brinometer
PLANNING THE GARDE MANGER
Layout : Planning the layout for a garde manger department can be a complex task. Unlike other departments that can depend
on a basic menu and basic work load, the Garde Manger department is unique in its operation. On a daily basis the Garde
Manger department may handle its own butchery, its own bakery, its own sauce making ,its own frying , smoking of fish and
cold meats , all the decorating including tallow and ice sculpture , Plus a complete line on charcuterie products such as
galantines and pates.

The Garde Manger department can relate to a food service facility in three ways:
      on a pick up Basis.
      on a distribution basis.
 on a combination of the two bases.
When a Garde Manger department Executes food order on an ala Carte basis, this is known as Pick up .This system operates in
an unpredictable fashion ,Since the number and timing of orders is not known in advance. Work load is set depending upon the
dishes listed on the menu.

When the Garde Manger department Executes food orders in advance for a known quantity, to be delivered at a certain time
(Parties, banquets) this is known as the distribution basis. The main problem here is workloads will be different each day
depending upon booking, functions etc., For this reason it is difficult to establish an appropriate mise-en-place on a daily basis
as it is bound to vary.

COMMON TERMS USED IN THE LARDER & LARDER CONTROL

Aging: Holding meats in coolers under controlled conditions to allow natural tenderizing to take place.
AP required: As-purchased amount necessary to yield the desired EP weight. AP required is computed as EP required divided
by yield percentage.
Antipasto: Italian Hors d’oeuvre
Beginning inventory: The dollar value of all products on hand at the beginning of the accounting period. This amount is
determined by completing a physical inventory.
Bin card: An index card with both additions to and deletions from inventory of a given product. To facilitate its use, the card is
usually affixed to the shelf that holds the given item. Used in a perpetual inventory system.
Canapé: An hors d’oeuvre consisting of a small piece of bread or toast, often cut in decorative shape, garnished with savoury
spread or topping.
Carpaccio: Very thin slices of meat or fish, served raw.
Carryover: A menu item prepared for sale during a meal period but carried over for use in a different meal period.
Casing: A synthetic or natural membrane used to enclose sausage forcemeat.
Caul: A fatty membrane that covers the stomach of a pig; used for wrapping meats for cooking and for lining terrines.
Chitterlings: Pork intestines.
Coulis: A vegetable or fruit puree, used as a sauce.
Crepinette: A sausage patty wrapped in caul.
Crudités: A raw vegetable served as a relish.
Daily inventory sheet: A form that lists the items in storage, the unit of purchase, and the par value. It also contains the
following columns: on hand, special order, and order amount.
Edible portion (EP): This term refers to the weight or count of a product after it has been trimmed, cooked, and portioned.
Ending inventory: The dollar value of all products on hand at the end of the accounting period. This amount is determined by
completing a physical inventory.
First-in, first-out (FIFO): Term used to describe a method of storage in which the operator intends to sell his or her oldest
product before selling the most recently delivered product.
Forcemeat: A mixture of chopped or ground meat and other ingredients used for pates, sausages and other preparations.
Garniture: Garnish; the act or process of garnishing.
Inventory turnover: The number of times the total value of inventory has been purchased and replaced in an accounting period.
Lard: The rendered fat of hogs; to insert strips of fat into meats low in marbling.
Last-in, first-out (LIFO): Term used to describe a method of storage in which the operator intends to sell his or her most

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recently delivered product before selling the older product.
Par level: A system of determining the purchase point by using management-established minimum and maximum allowable
inventory levels for a given inventory item.
Requisition: When a food or beverage product is requested from storage by an employee for use in an operation.
Shelf life: The period of time an ingredient or menu item maintains its freshness, flavor, and quality.
Tripe: The muscular stomach lining of beef or other meat animals.
Waste percentage: This formula is defined as product loss divided by AP weight and refers to product lost in the preparation
process.
Working stock: The quantity of goods from inventory reasonably expected to be used between deliveries.
Yield percentage: This formula is defined as 1 minus waste percentage and refers to the amount of product available for use
by the operator after all preparation-related losses have been taken into account.
Yield test: A procedure used to determine actual EP ingredient costs. It is used to help establish actual costs on a product that
will experience weight or volume loss in preparation.

History of Smørrebrød
Brief History of Smørrebrød

According to several sources, smørrebrød was first developed by farmers. They would pack numerous leftovers from dinner
the night beforehand and place them on a ‘plate’: a slice of bread. These ‘plates’ would allow them to eat the equivalent of
several meals in one sitting, important for a laboring farmer trying to keep their energy high.The ‘plate’ would then be discarded
afterwards. Over time, due to the discovery of the flavorful juices soaking into the bread, the plate began to be eaten as well
(yum!)
What is Smørrebrød?
Smørrebrød is now sold everywhere—from some of the best restaurants in Denmark to its street vendors. The basic idea
behind the open-faced sandwich? A mixture of delicious ingredients piled high atop a single thick slice of bread (typically rye,
chosen for its density), which is buttered to keep the juices of the toppings from sinking through the bread.

Danish"Smørrebrød" 
Almost every Danish restaurant in Copenhagen serve the traditional "open faced sandwich" called"smørrebrød" - with many
different potions of food items as cold cuts - pieces of meat or fish - various paste - salad dressings and cheese on
buttered rye bread and decorated with all types of toppings that gives the creation a great visual appeal - and is surely a piece
of genuine art - when presented on a well laid table with cold Danish beer and snaps. “Smørrebrød” is normally served together
with the famous Danishbeer and snaps.

Danish "smørrebrød" also called "open faced sandwich" - here presented in the everyday version. Rye bread with flat toppings
and spread: Liver paste with salted meat - gravy jelly - cucumber and onions. Shrimps with mayonnaise and parsley. Eggs with
shrimps - mayonnaise and chives. Salami with gravy jelly and red onions. Chicken salad with tomato and parsley. Rolled stuffed
pork with gravy jelly - red onions and chives. 
Egg with Scrimp - Veterinarians night snack sandwich
- Egg with Scrimps - on rye bread or white bread
- Veterinarians night snack sandwich - with liver paste - salted meat etc. - on rye bread
"Smørrebrød" has many types of topping creations
Smørrebrød" is Rye Bread - Butter and Toppings

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"Smørrebrød" is Rye Bread - Butter and Toppings. The secret making Danish “Smørrebrød” (open faced sandwiches) is - that
the rye bread with butter has to be totally covered with the basic entrées of either vegetables - seafood or meat choices - and
then the many types of tasty topping creations - which altogether is in great harmony with the rest of all the delicious food
items on the sandwich. Here are 3 versions of popular everyday "Smørrebrød" on rye bread - Tomato - Ham and Egg and Potato
- all pieces garnished and flavoured with various vegetables - seasonings and dressings

Delicious Marinated Herring

Delicious Marinated Herring. Preservation of fish has been known and used since the Viking era for more than thousand years -
and salt and vinegar was the based ingredients to preserve fish. Here is the popular and national old timer - the marinated
herring - as an open faced sandwich.

Tatar - Beef Tatar

Beef Tatar on Rye Bread. (Beef Tatare) A classic example of a high topped Danish "Smørrebrød" - open faced sandwich - and a
genuine piece of art with high-quality raw minced meat from the fillet of beef on thick rye bread and butter - lettuce - raw egg
yoke - raw onions and capers - jelly gravy and horseradish - sour beetroot and cucumber. Some like the dish added with pickles.
Beef Tatar is a real rustic open faced sandwich and treat.

Roastbeef and Salted Meat - Smørrebrød

Roast Beef and Salted Meet on Rye Bread. Here are two classic pieces of "Smørrebrød" - Open Faced Sandwiches. Roast Beef
with curry dressing on lettuce and cucumber - sprinkled with spring onions. And Salted Meat on liver paste - which is spread
over a base of lettuce and cucumber - and sprinkled with spring onions - plus topped with a thick slice of jelly gravy. The Salted
Meat and Liver Paste "smørrebrød" is better known by the Danes as the “Veterinarians Night Snack Sandwich”. (Dyrelægens
Natmad)

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 Tasty Cod Roe - on Rye Bread
Cod Roe on Rye Bread - Cod Roe was a delicacy in the beginning of the 1900s - and was a very stylish eating - which was served
at the fashionable restaurants in Copenhagen. But up through the 1950s - when the cod roe was canned - it became very
popular as a new type of topping for the everyday “Smørrebrød” in Denmark. The cod roe on rye bread is garnished either with
the yellow “remoulade” or mayonnaise - and decorated with different vegetables and seasonings.

"Stjerneskud" - Shooting Star - The Danes Favourite “Smørrebrød”

”Stjerneskud” - Shooting Star is the Danes favourite “Smørrebrød - Open Faced Sandwich. The “Stjerneskud" is a Danish Classic
on the “Smørrebrød” menu - and the most selected and eaten open faced sandwich in Denmark. This popular “Smørrebrød”
consist of a base of buttered rustic rye bread - two pieces of battered plaice fillets (rødspætte) - a piece of steamed white fish
rolled. On top is piled a mound of fine fresh shrimps - which is then decorated with a dollop of mayonnaise - black or red caviar
- and nicely cut lemon slices. Then a piece of salmon rolled around green asparagus - cucumber - tomato slices and lettuce.
Finally - a boiled egg divide into half’s´- and fresh dill. These are the main ingredients to prepare a “Stjerneskud” the Danish way.
As fish was a very common eating in the 1850s - the “Stjerneskud” became one of the very first popular luncheon specialities in
the restaurants around 1880 - and the delicious toppings were stacked on top of each other - as the “Stjerneskud” recipes was
created up trough the 20th century - and is today the Danes favourite piece of “Smørrebrød

Smörgåsbord
History of Smörgåsbord
The members of the Swedish merchant and upper class in fourteenth-century Sweden and Finland served schnapps table
(brännvinsbord), a small buffet presented on a side table offering a variety of hors d'oeuvres served prior to a meal before
sitting at the dinner table.[4] The most simple brännvinsbord was bread, butter, cheese, herring and several types of liqueurs, but
smoked salmon, sausages and cold cuts were also served. The brännvinsbord was served as an appetizer for a gathering of
people and eaten while standing before a dinner or supper, often two to five hours before dinner, sometimes with the men and
women in separate rooms.[5] The smörgåsbord became popular in the mid-seventeenth century, when the food moved from the
side table to the main table[5] and service began containing both warm and cold dishes. Smörgåsbordwas also served as an
appetizer in hotels and later at railway stations, before the dining cars time for the guests. Restaurants in Stockholm at
the 1912 Olympic Games stopped serving smörgåsbord as an appetizer and started serving them instead as a main course.

A traditional Swedish smörgåsbord consists of both hot and cold dishes. Bread, butter, and cheese are always part of
thesmörgåsbord. It is customary to begin with the cold fish dishes which are generally various forms of herring, salmon,
and eel. After eating the first portion, people usually continue with the second course (other cold dishes), and round off with hot
dishes. Dessert may or may not be included in a smörgåsbord.

In Norway and Denmark, the generous buffet table commonly known as a “smorgasbord” (a Swedish term) is called a koldtbord,
a “cold table.” While traditional smorgasbords, typically reserved for Christmas and other holidays, contain a course of hot
dishes such as meatballs or casseroles, in summer it makes sense (and is far less work!) to offer a wide selection of easily
prepared cold dishes. Variety, complementary flavors and textures, and a colorful presentation are key to the pleasure of a well-
laden koldtbord. Here are both traditional and a few original recipe ideas for your next summer smorgasbord:

The Danish koldt bord or cold buffet corresponds to its Swedish counterpart, thesmörgåsbord. It is usually served at lunch time.
The cold buffet is traditionally a buffet arrangement but the many and varied items may be brought to the dining table and

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passed around family-style.[24]

Cold herring dish served in a restaurant in Copenhagen

The meal begins with fish, usually pickled herring (marinerede sild), or anotherherring dish. The herring is normally marinated
[25]
either in a clear sweet, pepperyvinegar sauce (white herring), or in a red seasoned vinegar (red herring).  It may also come in a
variety of sour cream-based sauces, including a curry sauce which is very popular. The white herring is typically served on
buttered, black rye bread, topped with white onion rings and curry salad (a sour-cream based sauce, flavored with curry and
chopped pickles), and served with hard boiled eggs and tomatoslices. Herring can also be found which is first fried, and then
marinated this is called "stegte sild i eddike" (lit.: Fried herring in vinegar). On extra festive occasions a
prepared silderet (herring dish) might be served in which the herring pieces are placed in a serving dish along with other
ingredients. Examples might be herring, sliced potato, onions and capers topped with a dill sour cream/mayonnaise sauce, or
herring, apple pieces, and horseradish topped with a curry sour-cream/mayonnaise sauce.[24] Other fish dishes may include:[26]

 Rejer (shrimps), usually served on white bread with mayonnaise and lemon

 Røget ål (smoked eel) with scrambled egg
 Gravad laks (salt-cured salmon) with a dill and mustard sauce
 Rødspættefilet (breaded filets of plaice), served hot with lemon and remoulade
 Røget laks (smoked salmon)
 Røget hellefisk (smoked halibut)
The cold table also consists of a wide variety of meat dishes and, despite its name, nearly always includes a few items which
are served hot. Some of the more common components are:[26]
 Frikadeller (meat balls), sometimes hot,

 Leverpostej (liver paste), sometimes hot, with pickled beetroot, mushrooms or fried bacon

 Mørbradbøf (pork tenderloin), sometimes hot, with fried onions

 Flæskesteg (roast pork) with crackling, usually with red cabbage

 Medisterpølse (coarsely ground pork and bacon sausage)

 Pariserbøf (ground beef steak), usually served hot on toast with pickles

There will also be cold cuts such as hams, roast beef, salami, brisket of beef and spiced roulade. Buffets usually include
accompaniments such as potato salad, scrambled egg and a variety of salads. Desserts such as fruit salad and fruit pies as
well as various cheeses may also be included.[26]
SALADS
Salads come from the Latin word- HERBA SALATA meaning salted greens.
Lot of innovations and ingredients were added to the salads in the 17th century
• Lettuce of various types, were used as a base.
• Meat, poultry, mixed vegetables were placed on top
• Oil and vinegar was used as the dressing
• Lot more ingredients found their way into the salads such as grapes, beans, fruit,
rice, flowers, grains and legumes.

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A salad is a dish consisting of small pieces of food, which may be mixed with a sauce or salad dressing.[1][2] Salads can
incorporate a variety of foods including vegetables, fruits, cheese, cooked meat, eggs and grains. Garden salads use a base of
leafy greens; they are common enough that the word salad alone often refers specifically to garden salads. Other types include
bean salad, tuna salad, fattoush, Greek salad, and somen salad.

The sauce used to a flavor a salad is commonly called a salad dressing; well-known types include ranch, Thousand Island, and
vinaigrette.

Most salads are served cold, although some, such as south German potato salad, are served warm. Some consider the warmth
of a dish a factor that excludes it from the salad category calling the warm mixture a casserole, a sandwich topping or more
specifically, name it for the ingredients which comprise it.

SALADS is an item of great importance and it should be

1. NUTRITIONALLY BALANCED
2. ATTRACTIVELY DISPLAYED
3. REFRESHING
4. STIMULATING TO THE APPETITE

PRE- REQUISITES of a good salad –

• FRESHEST INGREDIENTS TO BE USED
• ATTRACTIVE PLATING
• SHOULD HAVE CRISP TEXTURE
• SHOULD HAVE EYE APPEAL
• SHOULD HAVE WELL BALANCED FLAVORS
RULES OF THUMB TO BE FOLLOWED WHILE MAKING SALAD –
1. Use freshest of ingredients and those that are in season
2. The vegetables used should be light in digestion and leafy greens should be crisp
3. The ingredients should be blemish free
4. Most of the salads should be dressed or marinated just before service.
5. stronger flavored vegetables should be dressed one day in advance
6. Serve cold salads in cold dish
7. Never over crowd the plate and stay within the well of the plate.
SALADS IN A MENU CAN BE SERVED AS –
• Appetizers
• Entrée
• Accompaniments
• Garnish
• Dessert
COMPOSITION OF A SALAD
A salad has FOUR basic parts-
1. BASE- this acts as an underlining for the salad
2. BODY- This has the main ingredients of a salad
3. DRESSING- Dressing enhances the flavor and taste. The salad can be tossed inthe dressing or it can be served as an
accompaniment as a dip sauce.
4. GARNISH- Adds form, color, texture, eye appeal. The garnish should always
complement the salad.
TYPES OF SALADS
• SIMPLE SALAD – Is a variety of one or more green or ingredients with a mild
dressing – example , tossed iceberg lettuce and romaine lettuce in FrenchDressing

• MIXED SALADS- Cooked assorted cooked or raw vegetables, meats, seafood ora combination which is either marinated or
dressed.

• COMBINATION SALADS- The different ingredients dressed differently areserved in the same platter. Example Chef Salad –
tossed salad, turkey breastjulienne, ham slices, Swiss cheese julienne, hard boiled eggs all with different
appropriate dressings.
SELECTION AND PRESENTATION OF THE SALAD
• The SALAD INGREDIENTS should be according to the whole menu
• The ingredients selected should match to each other
• The ingredients should be balancing each other in flavor, color, texture, nutrition,
size. The tastes should be compliment each other and should not overpower.
Types of salads
Green salad
A green salad
The green salad or garden salad is most often composed of leafy vegetables such as lettuce varieties, spinach, or rocket
(arugula). Due to their low caloric density, green salads are considered a common diet food. The salad leaves may be cut or
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torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together (called a tossed salad), or may be placed in a predetermined arrangement (a
composed salad). They are often adorned with garnishes such as nuts or croutons.
A wedge salad is made from a head of lettuce cut in halves or quarters with other ingredients on top.

Vegetable salad
Vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers,
tomatoes, onions, spring onions, red onions, carrots, celery, and radishes. Other ingredients, such as mushrooms, avocado,
olives, hard boiled egg, artichoke hearts, heart of palm, roasted red bell peppers, green beans, croutons, cheeses, meat (e.g.
bacon, chicken), or seafood (e.g. tuna, shrimp), are sometimes added to salads.
Bound salad
American-style potato salad with egg and mayonnaise
A "bound" salad can be composed (arranged) or tossed (put in a bowl and mixed with a thick dressing). They are assembled
with thick sauces such as mayonnaise. One portion of a true bound salad will hold its shape when placed on a plate with an ice-
cream scoop. Examples of bound salad include tuna salad, pasta salad, chicken salad, egg salad, and potato salad.
Bound salads are often used as sandwich fillings. They are popular at picnics and barbecues, because they can be made ahead
of time and refrigerated.
Main course salads
A traditional Slovak fish salad of cod in mayonnaise
Main course salads (also known as "dinner salads" and commonly known as "entrée salads" in North America) may contain
grilled or fried chicken pieces, seafood such as grilled or fried shrimp or a fish steak such as tuna, mahi-mahi, or salmon or
sliced steak, such as sirloin or skirt. Caesar salad, Chef salad, Cobb salad, Greek salad, Chinese chicken salad and Michigan
salad are dinner salads.

Fruit salads
Fruit salads are made of fruit, and include the fruit cocktail that can be made fresh or from canned fruit.
Dessert salads
Dessert salads rarely include leafy greens and are often sweet. Common variants are made with gelatin or whipped cream; e.g.
jello salad, pistachio salad, and ambrosia. Other forms of dessert salads include snickers salad, glorified rice, and cookie salad
popular in parts of the Midwestern United States.
Composed salad
A composed salad is a salad arranged on a plate rather than put into a bowl. It can be used as a meal in itself rather than as a
part of a meal.

LAYOUT OF THE SALAD

The SALAD SHOULD BE PRESENTED TO LOOK AS A WORK OF ART!
• The salad should have a FOCAL POINT (is what the eyes sees first) which shouldbe the main ingredient.
• The salad layout should have a flow pleasing to the eye
• The layout should not be over busy or confused
• It should be elegantly simple
• Use a proper sized plate or a platter or a bowl for the presentation
• The salad should not be placed on the rim of the plate.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND SERVICE

• The preparation of the vegetable salads begins with purchasing of gardenfresh vegetables, proper transportation, receiving, storage and
handling of thefresh vegetables, canned goods
• The ingredients should be closely checked for quality – they should be freshand crisp
• Before using all vegetables should be thoroughly washed under cold runningwater. This removes the dirt and also rejuvenates the
vegetables
• Drying the vegetables after washing is most important. The dressings willevenly coat greens only when they are dry.
• An optional method is to salt the greens to drain any extra moisture, but thisshould be done for the shortest time possible otherwise the
greens will wilt.
• Mushrooms require special attention in salad preparation. They are veryporous. They should be washed under cold running water, in a
colander anddried immediately. They should never be allowed to stand in water as theywill soak water like a sponge. When slicing
mushrooms, they should bequickly dipped in an acid to keep them from discoloration.
• Vegetables come in various shapes and sizes. They can be cut into any desiredshape. The rule for vegetable salad is to cut them into bite
size pieces. Theycan also be shredded or julienned.
• Most of the salad leaves should be torn by hand to give it a naturalappearance.
• Canned, pickled and even frozen vegetables can be put to good use in thevegetable salads.
• Soft vegetables and lettuce leaves are very thin and porous. Their faint anddelicate taste is easily ruined by an excess of dressing. Dressings
have highcontent of salt and acids. They can breakdown the cell structure and crispnessof the greens. Salt draws out of moisture and then
the vegetables absorb oil
• Too much dressing or dressing added too far before service will result in thesame soggy wilted effect.
• Majority of the salads should be served cold and must be handled properly toprotect the crisp fresh flavor of its components.

Dressings:

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A dish of American-style Italian dressing.

Thousand Island dressing on a salad

Sauces for salads are often called "dressings". The concept of salad dressing varies across cultures.
In Western culture, there are two basic types of salad dressing:
 Vinaigrette;
 Creamy dressings, usually based on mayonnaise or fermented milk products, such as yogurt, sour cream (crème
fraîche, smetana), buttermilk;
Vinaigrette /vɪnəˈɡrɛt/ is a mixture (emulsion) of salad oil and vinegar, often flavored with herbs, spices, salt, pepper, sugar, and
other ingredients. It is also used as a sauce or marinade.[11]
In North America, mayonnaise-based Ranch dressing is most popular, with vinaigrettes and Caesar-style dressing following
close behind.[12] Traditional dressings in France are vinaigrettes, typically mustard-based, while sour cream (smetana)
and mayonnaiseare predominant in eastern European countries and Russia. In Denmark, dressings are often based on crème
fraîche. In southern Europe, salad is generally dressed by the diner with olive oil and vinegar.
In Asia, it is common to add sesame oil, fish sauce, citrus juice, or soy sauce to salad dressings.[citation needed]

The following are examples of common salad dressings:

 Blue cheese dressing

 Caesar dressing

 Extra virgin olive oil

 French dressing

 Ginger dressing

 Honey Dijon

 Hummus

 Italian dressing

 Louis dressing

 Ranch dressing

 Russian dressing
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 Tahini

 Thousand Island dressing

 Vinaigrette

 Wafu dressing

Toppings and garnishes:

Popular salad garnishes are nuts, croutons, anchovies, bacon bits (real or imitation), garden beet, bell peppers, shreddedcarrots,
diced celery, watercress, sliced cucumber, parsley, sliced mushrooms, sliced red onion, radish, french fries,sunflower seeds
(shelled), real or artificial crab meat (surimi) and cherry tomatoes. Various cheeses, berries, seeds and other ingredients can
also be added to green salads. Cheeses, in the form of cubes, crumbles, or grated, are often used, including blue
cheese, Parmesan cheese, and feta cheese. Color considerations are sometimes addressed by using edible flowers, red
radishes, carrots, various colors of peppers, and other colorful ingredients

Appetizers & garnishes

a small portion of a tasty food or a drink to stimulate the appetite at the beginning of a meal
a bit of something that excites a desire for more
A food or drink served usually before a meal to stimulate the appetite.
(usually in the plural) A small, light, and usually savory first course in a meal
Appetizers are finger foods usually served prior to a meal, or in between mealtimes, and are also called hors d’oeuvres,
antipasti, or starters, and may range from the very simple to the very complex, depending on the occasion and the time devoted
to making them. They’re a common accompaniment to aperitifs, cocktails served prior to a meal.
At dinners, banquets and the like, appetizers may be served prior to a meal. This is especially common at weddings, when it
takes time for the wedding party and guests to get to a reception after the marriage has taken place. Appetizers may be served
at long parties that occur after a regular meal time. A mid-afternoon party where there is no intent to serve dinner, or an evening
party that occurs after dinner may feature appetizers so that guests can have the opportunity to snack. . Many restaurants
feature a range of appetizers that are ordered just prior to a meal as a first course
APPETIZERS & GARNISHES
Hors d’oeuvre is a French Expression and its true definition is a preparation served outside the menu proper, at the beginning of
a meal or before the main course .An hors d’oeuvre is essentially a small tit bit, it should be
light ,attractive very delicate and of course tasty.
There are four main types of hors d’oeuvre :
Cold hors d’oeuvre
Hot hors d’oeuvre
Zakuski
Canapes
COLD HORS D’OEUVRE
These can broadly be categorized into two , the ready to serve variety, available in the market today in Every conceivable form
and type (smoked Salmon , Pate, smoked Sausages). Then there are those that require culinary preparation and , when made
properly , have the advantage of being freshly prepared from fresh ingredients with maximum flavour and appeal .This is where
fine cuisine can make a very important contribution to eating Pleasure. Cold hors d’oeuvre can be broken down into further
Classification.
1. Hors d’oeuvre frequently served at luncheons and generally known as hors d’oeuvre a la francaise. This variety is served in
oblong , round or square dishes called raviers. These would include small salads made of meat, fish, vegetables, eggs as well
as ham, Sausages and a variety of marinated fish products.
2. The luncheon hors d’oeuvre is part of the meal and has its place in the proper sequence of dishes served at the meal. While
the dinner hors d’oeuvre is usually Served with cocktails , at a time prior to the meal and is not part of the menu.

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HOT HORS D’OEUVRE
Hot hors d’oeuvre are generally served at a Cocktail party or before dinner, they are served with a lunch Menu. Although there
are some hors d’oeuvre which may be prototype and serve as a base for many preparations. As a matter of fact, any dish when
reduced to a tit bit portion can be used in the preparation of hors d’oeuvre. Eg. Bouchees croustades, rissoles, ramekins and
the ever popular quiche,can all be served in smaller portions as hot hors d’oeuvre. The presentation of these hors d’oeuvre are
important as they set the tone and the Expectations of the dishes to follow in the meal.

ZAKUSKIS
In the late 19th century , Zakuskis or hors d’oeuvre a la russe as they were once called became very popular. Perfected for the
mighty czars and czarinas of the Russian Empire , they soon became classical works of art . Originally, the base that was used
was the
traditional russian blinis, but over the years , these have been substituted with normal brown bread .Over the base was placed a
topping which would vary from meats ,fish, vegetables and poultry . The top was then garnished and finished off with a layer of
aspic or gelee to enhance the presentation. One essential ingredient in a Zakuski is smoked fish which could be a part of the
topping or the garnish .When it came to the topping or the garnish, the chef’s imagination was the limit and these Zakuskis
soon became works of art as chefs competed to out do each other.
Although they can be classified as Canapes, the Zakuski is larger in size and is essentially
served only for dinner.

CANAPES
These are tiny open sandwiches which may be cut into a variety of shapes . These are made up of a base , a topping and a
garnish. The base could be brown or white bread, toasted or plain , savoury biscuits, pastry or other similar food stuff. The
topping could be a variety of meats, fish, poultry and Even veg and fruits , cheese. Egg or a combination of these. The chef can
use his creativity to include left overs as well. The garnish is used to enhance the appearance and this is what makes the tray
of Canapes attractive .A tray may consist of an assortment of Canapes or may be restricted to just one type . The key is to
create interesting combinations and make the tray visually appealing as well. Most Canapes are served cold but you could have
a few hot ones as well. Canapes are never served as a starter on the menu. Mostly they are offered along with
Cocktails before the meal is actually served .Canapes both hot and cold are now very popular on the cocktail circuit and other
gatherings especially when dinner is not included as part of the function .A variety of Indian dishes like Kebabs can be
converted into canapés.

CLASSICAL CANAPES
Anchory Canapes : Butter a piece of toast with anchory butter, lay strips of anchory and garnish with siesed egg yolk and
Parsley. Shrimp Canapes: Butter a piece of toast with shrimp butter arrange shrimp tails on top, garnish with fines herbes.
Caviar Cigarettes : Spread Caviar over a very thin slice of bread,rollinto a cigar shape and secure with a tooth pick and truffle.
Canapes a la danoise : Butter a piece of rye toast with horseraddish butter, arrange slices of smoked Salmon and garnish with
strips of
smoked herrings.
Canapes rigoletto: Butter a piece of toast with cayenne butter, place a mixture of chopped egg whites and yolks, ham and
tongue . Garnish with a bit of truffle.
Canapes Concalaise: Butter a piece of toast with tuna butter , top with a poached /smoked mussel and garnish with a twist of
lemon.
Canapes rejane : Butter a piece of toast with lobster butter ,top with a mound of egg white and mark with mayonnaise
.Surround with a ring of lobster Coral.
Canapes a la nicoise : Butter a round Canape with anchory butter and top with a slice ofham , decorate with a sprig of tarragon.
APPETISERS
Appetisers are small Portions of food items , served as the first Course to stimulate theappetite , they may be served in a liquid
or solid form . It should be Colourful , dainty , decorated and well Presented to look attractive.
COCKTAILS

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They are generally served chilled and could be a liquid form or solid .Juices of fruit or vegetables or sea food , cut into bite size ,
mixed with Worcester shire sauce and lemon juice . Jal Jeera (Indian) They must be fresh in appearance and arranged
attractively to have an Eye appeal. The various cocktails :
1). Juices of fruits such as orange , Pineapple ,grapefruit or tomato served with coldsalad dressings are served as cocktails.
2).Mixed fruit cocktail
3).Avocado & Melon Cocktail.
4).Florida Cocktail

SALADS
A salad is a food served with a dressing, the food can be a cold dish, or green vegetables or mixture of fruit, or hot mixture of
Piquant foods, or frozen mixture of fruit, or chopped foods in aspic, coleslaw. The difference between hors d’oeuvre and salad,
is that the hors d’oeuvre is an important course and it is always the first course .It is served in
small quantities and is a light ,appetizing , colourful and stimulating dish. Hors d’oeuvre is not served as any other course ,salad
can be served as the first course in small quantities . It can also be served as a salad course or as an accompaniment with
roast or entrée Course. Salads should be cold ,crisp, Piquant , colourful, well seasoned and attractive. They supply nutrients to
the dish ,especially when they are
made of fresh fruit and vegetables. Salads are of two types : Plain or simple salads and compound or composite salads.
Simple Salads : These can be subdivided into
green salad or salad in season , which is served raw or cooked , consisting of a single kind of vegetable as a case. One or two
ingredients are
used for decoration and as a garnish. Eg. Artichoke , Beetroot , Tomatoe Salad.
Compound Salads : They are more elaborate salads and consists of more than one
ingredient . On the basis of base is can be divided into fish based ,Veg based , Poultry or meat based and fruit based. The salad
has four basic parts : Underlines or base body dressing and garnish .we have to take care for every part ,and if any part is
omitted or poorly done the finished salad will not be up to the mark.
BASE: The Underlines is usually a leafy veg such as lettuce of different kinds as romaine,Cos,. water cress, cabbage etc. The
tossed salads do not have an underlines , they are piled in bowls.
BODY: This is the most important part of the salad .The salad gets its name from the
ingredients, that are used for the body. This part gets the most attention and its appearance is enhanced by decorations .The
body consists of broken salad green ,fruits in moulded aspic, sliced cooked potatoes raw cabbage ,tomato stuffed with fish,
chicken or meat.
DRESSING: A dressing is usually served with all types of salads . It adds flavour , Provides food value, helps digestion ,
improves Palatability and appearance.Dressing is in a liquid or semi liquid form and generally a mixture oil,vinegar , seasoning
or egg or cream etc.,
The basic dressings are : Mayonnaise , Vinaigrette or French dressing ,
lemon dressing, mustard cream and acidulated cream.(3 cream , 1 vinegar, or lemon , salt +Pepper) Compound or Composite
Salads
(Examples)
1).Cole slaw – sliced veg & vinaigrette dressing
2).Andalaouse- ¼ of tomatoes , Julienne ofPimentos ,boiled rice, garlic, onion .
3).Carmen – Rice ,red Pimentos ,cold chicken ,green Peas.
4).Chatelaine – Hand soiled egg, truffles ,artichoke , Potato, tarragon
5).Paristenne-Fish aspic, vegsalad ,lobster ,truffles, herbs, lettuce withmayonnaise & Aspic.
Classifications of Appetizers:
CLASSIFICATION OF APPETIZERS:
1.COCKTAILS-consist of several bite size pieces of fish, shellfish, drinks and fruits served with tangy flavored sauce.They must
be fresh in appearance and arranged attractively to have an eye appeal.Various cocktails are-Juices of orange ,pineapple
,grapefruit or tomatoe served with cold salad dressings .
 2. HORS D’ OEUVRES-are small portions of highly seasoned foods formerly used to preced a meal served either hot or
cold.Simplicity should be the main creitoria for making the horsdoeuvres.Although most horsdoeuvres are served cold,there are

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also hot ones.
 3.CANAPE- a bite sized or two bite sized finger food consisting of three parts: a base, a spread or topping and garnish or
garniture.They are savoury tit bits of food.They could be served hot or cold.The items should be dainty,petite,fresh,having an
eye appeal and colour contrasts.There are no set
recepies for the making canapes.Individual or a combination of several different coloured items are used on the small fancifully
cut pieces of bread ,toasted or fried ,and biscuits etc.The larger canapes are termed asZAKUSKIS after the Chef Zakuski .
 
4.RELISHES/CRUDITES- they are pickled item and raw, crisp vegetables such as julienne carrots or celery sticks. relishes are
generally placed before the guest in a slightly, deep, boat shape dish.

5.PETITE SALAD- they are small portions and they are usually display the characteristics found in most salad.

6. SOUPS AND CONSOMMES- are include in the appetizer category because they are served in this course more than ever
before.

7. CHIPS AND DIPS- savory dips are popular accompaniments to potato chips, crackers, and raw vegetables. proper
consistency is important for many dip you prepare. it must not be so thick that it cannot be scooped up without breaking the
chip or crackers, but it must be thick enough to stick to the items used as dippers. 
 
CLASSICAL GARNISHES
1. Americaine (Fish) : Slice of lobster and truffles.
2. Dieppoise(Fish): Shrimps, bearded mussels, mushrooms.
3. Financiere : Chicken quenelles , cockscombs, cock’s kidney ,truffles, stoned olives.
4. Marinnier (Fish) : Shrimps or Prawns , bearded mussels .
5. Milanaise : Julienne of Ham , mushrooms , tongue , truffles , tomatoes.
6. Mirabeau(Grills): Anchovy butter , Fillet of anchovy, stuffed Olives.
7. Normande(Fish) : Bearded Oyster and mussels , mushroom heads , Crayfish tails,Goujon of sole, slices of truffles , crutons .
a). Fish : Fish Quenelles , crayfish tails ,mushrooms, bearded oysters, soft roes,slices of truffles.
b). Chicken Sweet-bread : Chicken quenelles ,cockscomb, triangles of foie gras,mushroomheads.
c). Game : Game quenelles ,cockcombs, triangleof foie gras , mushroom heads,crutons.
9. Reforme : Julienne of ham , tongue ,beetroot ,whites of egg, gherkins
10. Strasbourgeoise : Lardons of boiled bacon ,slices of foie gras ,chipolatas.

Name Image Origin Description

Angels on England Oysters wrapped in bacon, served

horseback hot. In the United Kingdomthey can
also be a savoury, the final course of
a traditional British formal meal.
They are somewhat similar to Devils
on horseback and the Midwestern
version of pigs in a blanket, a
traditional dish of the
American Midwest.

Antipasto Italy The traditional first course of a

formal Italian meal. Traditional
antipasto includes cured
meats, olives, peperoncini, mushroo
ms,anchovies, artichoke hearts,
various cheeses (such
as provoloneor mozzarella), pickled
- 58 -
 meats and vegetables (both in oil or
in vinegar).

Any of a variety of salad dishes that

Middle East
Arab salad form part of Arab cuisine.

Baba ghanoush The Levant A Levantine dish

of eggplant (aubergine) mashed and
mixed with virgin olive oil and
various seasonings.
Batata vada India A popular Indian vegetarian fast
food in Maharashtra, India. It literally
means potato fritters.
The Marathi word batata means
potato in English. It consists of
a potato mash patty coated
withchick pea flour, then deep-
fried and served hot with
savorycondiments called chutney.
The vada is a disc, around 2 to 3
inches (5.1 to 7.6 cm) in diameter.
Barbajuan Monaco An appetizer mainly found in the
eastern part of French
Rivieraand Northern Italy.

Blooming onion United States Typically consists of one

large onion which is cut to resemble
a flower, battered and deep-fried. It
is served as an appetizer at
some restaurants.
Bruschetta Italy An Italian antipasto whose origin
dates to at least the 15th century. It
consists of grilled bread rubbed
with garlic and topped with olive oil,
salt and pepper. It is often topped
with tomato.
Buffalo wing United States A chicken wing section (wingette or
drumette) that is generally deep-
fried, unbreaded and coated in a
sauce of vinegar-basedcayenne
pepper hot sauce and butter in the
kitchen.[1]

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Canapé France A small, prepared and usually
decorative food, held in
the fingersand often eaten in one
bite.
Carpaccio Italy A dish of raw meat (such
as beef, veal, venison, salmon or tun
a), thinly sliced or pounded thin and
served mainly as an appetizer.
Pictured is carpaccio with cheese.
Caviar Iran, Russia Traditionally refers to roe from
wild sturgeon in
[2]
the Caspian andBlack Seas

Chaat India There are many types and variations

of chaat, which is a term describing
savory snacks, typically served at
road-side tracks from stalls or food
carts in Pakistan and India.[3][4]

Chicken fingers United States Chicken meat prepared from the

pectoralis minor muscles of the
animal. These strips of white meat
are located on either side of the
breastbone, under the breast meat
(pectoralis major).[5][6][7]Chicken
tenders, also called "tendies", are
prepared by dipping chicken meat in
a breading mixture and then deep
frying them.[8]
Chicken lollipop India An hors d' uvre made from the
middle (and sometimes inner)
segments of chicken wings. The
middle segment has one of the two
bones removed, and the flesh on the
segments is pushed to one end of
the bone.
Chili con queso United Melted cheese and chili
States(Texas) pepper typically served in Tex-
Mexrestaurants, similar to nachos.
Crab puff United States Balls of crab meat that have been
deep-fried in batter.[9][10] They are
often served in restaurants as an
appetizer or side dish.[11]

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Crab rangoon United States Deep-fried dumplings served
in American Chinese and, more
recently, Thai restaurants, stuffed
with a combination of cream cheese,
lightly flaked crab meat (more
commonly, canned crab meat
or imitation crab meat),
with scallions and/or garlic.
Crostini Italy Small slices of grilled or
toasted bread and toppings. The
toppings may include a variety of
different cheeses, meats,
andvegetables, or may be presented
more simply with a brush ofolive
oil and herbs or a sauce.
Crudités France Sliced or whole raw
vegetables[12] which are sometimes
dipped in a vinaigrette or
other dipping sauce.

Dahi puri India and Pakistan An Indian snack which is especially

popular in the state ofMaharashtra.
The dish is a form of chaat and
originates from the city
of Mumbai.[13] It is served with mini-
puri shells (golgappa), which are
more popularly recognized from the
dish Golgappay. Dahi puri and pani
puri chaats are often sold from the
same vendor.
Dahi vada India An Indian chaat, prepared by
soaking vadas in thick dahi(yogurt).
To add more flavor, they may be
topped
with corianderor mint leaves, chili
powder, crushed black pepper, chaat
masala, cumin, shredded coconut,
green chilis or boondi.
Deviled eggs Italy Eggs, shelled, cut in half and filled
with the hard-boiled egg's yolkmixed
with other ingredients such
as mayonnaise andmustard,[14] but
many other variants exist
internationally.

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Devils on horseback England A hot hors d'oeuvre. Recipes vary,
but in general they are a variation
on angels on horseback, made by
replacing oysters with dried fruit.
The majority of recipes contain a
pitted date(though prunes are
[15]
sometimes used ) stuffed
with mangochutney and wrapped
in bacon.
Eggplant salads and Many cuisines feature eggplant
Middle East,Arab
appetizers salads and appetizers.
culture

Fattoush The Levant A Levantine bread salad made from

toasted or fried pieces ofpita bread
(khubz 'arabi) combined with mixed
greens and
othervegetables.[16] Fattoush
belongs to the family of dishes
known asfattat (plural) or fatta,
which use stale flatbread as a
base.[16]
Fried mushrooms Deep fried mushrooms that have
been dipped in batter. In the
United States and some other
countries, they are often served
as an appetizer or snack.
Garlic knot A type of garlic
bread appetizer found in
many pizzerias around the world.
They are usually made
with pizza dough, and garlic (orgarlic
powder). They can also be topped
with Parmesan cheese,oregano,
and/or parsley.
Gravlax Nordic countries Raw salmon, cured in salt, sugar,
and dill. Gravlax is usually served as
an appetizer, sliced thinly and
accompanied
byhovmästarsås (literally steward
sauce, also known asgravlaxsås), a
dill and mustard sauce, either on
bread of some kind, or with boiled
potatoes.

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Haggis pakora Scotland An Indo-Gael fusion food. Haggis
(sheep's heart, liver and lungs, onion,
oatmeal) flavored with Indian spices,
formed into balls, coated in a batter
of gram flour, yogurt and spices, and
deep fried in the same was as
Indian pakora.
Hummus Middle East,Arab An Arabic word (‫ّﻤﺺ‬
‫ﺣ‬ ḥummuṣ)
culture meaning "chickpeas." Many cuisine-
related sources describe hummus
as an ancient food,[17][18][19] or
connect it to famous historical
figures such asSaladin.[20] Its basic
ingredients— chickpeas, sesame, le
mon, and garlic— have been eaten in
the region for millennia.[21][22]
Jalapeño popper United States Jalapeño peppers that have been
hollowed out, stuffed with a mixture
of cheese, spices, and sometimes
ground meat. They are
either breaded and deep fried or
wrapped in bacon,
andbaked or grilled.
Matbucha Middle East,Arab Tomatoes and roasted bell
culture peppers seasoned
with garlic andchili pepper.[23] The
name of the dish originates from
Arabic and means "cooked [salad]".
It is served as an appetizer, often as
part of a meze.
Meze Middle In Levantine cuisines and in the
East,Balkans,Caucas Caucasus region, meze is served at
us the beginning of all large-scale
meals,[24]
Mozzarella sticks United States Elongated pieces
of battered or breaded mozzarella.

Nachos Piedras Negras, In their simplest form, nachos

Coahuila,Mexico are tortilla chips (totopos) covered in
nacho cheese or shredded cheese
and/or salsa.

Obložené chlebíčky Czechoslovakia A Czech and Slovak appetizer or

snack

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Onion ring United States Generally consist of a cross-
sectional "ring" of onion (the circular
structure of which lends itself well to
this method of preparation) dipped
in batter or bread crumbs and
then deep fried; a variant is made
with onion paste.
Pakora India Created by taking one or two
ingredients such
as onion,eggplant, potato, spinach, p
lantain, paneer, cauliflower, tomato,c
hili pepper, or
occasionally bread[25] or chicken and
dipping them in a batter of gram
flour and then deep-frying them. The
most popular varieties are palak
pakora, made from spinach,paneer
pakora, made from paneer (soft
cheese), pyaz pakora, made from
onion, and aloo pakora, made from
potato.
Paneer tikka India Made from chunks
of paneer marinated in spices and
grilled in atandoor.[26][27] It is
a vegetarian alternative to chicken
tikka and other meat
dishes.[28][29][30] It is a popular dish
that is widely available in India and
other countries with an Indian
diaspora.[31][32]
Panipuri India A popular street snack
in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri
Lankaand Nepal. It consists of a
round, hollow puri, fried crisp and
filled with a mixture of flavored
water
("pani"), tamarind chutney, chili,chaat
masala, potato, onion and
chickpeas. It is generally small
enough to fit completely into one's
mouth. It is a popular street food
dish
in Mumbai, Delhi, Karachi, Lahore, Dh
aka, Kolkata andKathmandu.

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Papadum India A thin, crisp Indian preparation
sometimes described as acracker. It
is typically served as an
accompaniment to a meal in India. It
is also eaten as an appetizer or a
snack and can be eaten with various
toppings such as chopped
onions, chutney or other dips
and condiments.
Papri chaat India A Pakistani and North Indian fast
food. Chaat, an Indo-Aryanword
which literally means lick, is used to
describe a range ofsnacks and fast
food dishes; papri refers to crisp
fried dough wafers made from
refined white flour and oil. In Papri
Chaat, the papris are served
with boiled potatoes, boiled chick
peas, chilis,yogurt and tamarind chut
ney and topped with chaat masala
and 'sev'.
Poke (Hawaii) United A raw salad served as an hors
States(Hawaii) d' uvre in Hawaiian cuisine. Modern
poke typically consists of
cubed ʻahi (yellowfin
tuna)sashimi marinated with sea
salt, a small amount of soy
sauce,inamona (roasted
crushed candlenut), sesame
oil, limu seaweed, and chopped chili
pepper.
Potato skins United States Slices of half-circular pieces
of potatoes with the skin left on one
side and a quarter-inch or so of the
inside of the potato on the other.
The potato side is covered with
toppings such as bacon,cheddar
cheese, green onions, and anything
else that might be found on a baked
potato.
Potato wedges Wedges of potatoes, often large and
unpeeled, that are
eitherbaked or fried.

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Prawn cocktail A seafood dish consisting of
"shelled prawns in mayonnaise
and tomato dressing, served in a
glass". Also referred to as a
Shrimp Cocktail.[33]
Pu pu platter United States An assortment of small meat and
seafood appetizers. A typical
pupu platter, as found in
American Chinese cuisine, might
include an egg roll, spare
ribs, chicken wings, chicken
fingers, beef teriyaki, skewered
beef, fried wontons, crab
rangoon, friedshrimp, among
other items, accompanied by a
small hibachi grill.
Queso flameado Mexico, Typical main ingredients are
United melted cheese and a
States(Southwest) characteristic meat sauce of
loose
fresh chorizo, tomato, onion, chil
e andspices.
Rocky Mountain oysters North America Bull calf testicles used for human
consumption. Sometimes pig or
sheep testicles are used. It is a
well-known novelty dish in parts
of the American
West and Western
Canada where cattleranching is
prevalent and castration of young
animals is common ("prairie
oysters" is the preferred name in
Canada, where they may be
served in a demi-glace, not deep-
fried).[34] In Oklahoma and the
Texas Panhandle, they are
sometimes called calf friesbut
only if taken from very young
animals.[35]
Rumaki mock-Polynesian Water
chestnuts and liver wrapped
in bacon (or, as a substitute,
either pastrami or cured salted
beef [called "beef fry"])
andmarinated in a flavored soy
- 66 -
 [36]
sauce.
Saganaki Greece Various Greek dishes prepared in
a small frying pan, itself called
a saganaki, the best-known being
an appetizer of fried cheese.
Sakinalu/Chakli India A special type of snack prepared
in Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Telangana, parts of Guntur
District and very popular in all
districts
of Telangana Region.[37][38] It is
essentially made up ofrice
flour and with small amount of
spices, sesame seeds, carom
Seeds (ajwain), and salt. It is
prepared during Makar
Sankrantifestival by all people
irrespective of Caste and
Creed.[39]Sakinalu are also given
to the groom's by the bride's
parents for distributing among
their relatives and friends.[40]
Samosa – also known India Pakistan A fried or baked pastry with a savory
as tikona filling, such as
spicedpotatoes, onions, peas, lentils,
ground lamb, ground beef or ground
chicken. The size, shape and
consistency may vary, but typically, they
are distinctly triangular. Samosas are
often accompanied by chutney.[41] They
are a popular appetizer orsnack in South
Asia, Southeast Asia, Central
Asia and Southwest Asia, the Arabian
Peninsula, the Mediterranean, the Horn
of Africa, North Africa, and South Africa.
Salmon tartare Prepared with fresh
raw salmon and seasonings. It
commonly spread on a cracker or artisan
style bread and enjoyed as an appetizer.
Seven layer dip United States Based on common ingredients in Tex-
Mex cuisine, the dish is typically layered
with ingredients such as refried
beans,guacamole, sour cream,
picante salsa, pico de gallo or chopped
tomatoes, grated Cheddar
- 67 -
 cheese, Monterey Jack cheese (or a
blend of both), and black olives.
Smoked egg Hard boiled eggs that are shelled,
marinated and then smoked.
[42][43][44][45]
Sushi Japan Cooked vinegared rice combined
with other ingredients. TheOxford
English Dictionary notes the earliest
written mention of sushi in English in
an 1893 book, A Japanese Interior,
where it mentions sushi as "a roll of
cold rice with fish, sea-weed, or
some other flavoring".[46][47] However,
there is also mention of sushi in a
Japanese-English dictionary from
1873,[48] and an 1879 article on
Japanese cookery in the
[49]
journal Notes and Queries.
Tapas Spain A wide variety of appetizers,
or snacks, in Spanish cuisine. Tapas
have evolved through Spanish
history by incorporating ingredients
and influences from many different
cultures and countries.
Tokwa’t baboy Philippines A typical Philippine appetizer. It
usually includes pork ears, pork
belly and deep-fried tofu, and is
dipped in a mixture of soy sauce,
pork broth, vinegar, chopped white
onions, scallions andred chili
peppers.
Tzatziki or Cacik Greece andTurkey Strained
yogurt, cucumbers, garlic, olive
oil, salt and sometimeslemon
juice, dill or mint or parsley.
Zakuski Russia A Russian term for hors
d'oeuvres, snacks, appetizers, served
before the main course. Usually
presented buffet style, it often consists
of cold cuts, cured fishes,
mixed salads, kholodets,pirozhki, various
pickled vegetables such as tomatoes,
beets,cucumbers, sauerkraut, pickled
mushrooms, deviled eggs, hard
cheeses, caviar, canapés, open
sandwiches, and breads.
- 68 -
GARNISHES
Garnishes can be defined as “ food items placed around or on top of a principal dish for adornment or
relish”. Classical dishes are garnished by their creator for the naming of public personalities, whether political,
professional or merely a name of the establishment. The popularity of an establishment. Has often been made by
the chef.
A careful selection of garnishes that have flavour, colour and eye appeal is appreciated and it is accepted as a
finished dish. The purpose of garnishing food is to supply some appropriate and suitable to the dish e.g. maitre
d’hotel beurre and straw potatoes with mixed grill, lemon wedges and parsley with fried fish. It helps to improve the
colour of the principal dishes. And it seen that the colourful ingredients blend well with the dish. The suitable touch
of colour well used will increase the attractiveness of a dish whereas if uncontrolled, the result can be disastrous.
There are two types of garnishes
1. Simple garnish
2. Composite garnish
Simple garnish consist of a single element, most commonly a vegetable, braised sauted or fried croutons,
flutes, e.g. tomato soup with croutons.
Composite garnishes are made from a number of ingredients varying according to the basic dish. E.g.
chicken Maryland with corn galettes (thick corn pancakes), bacon rasher, banana fritters, potato croquette, and
grilled tomatoes.
The garnishes for cold buffet for decorating cold dishes must be glazed with aspic jelly. Before they are arranged
on the dish. After the garnish has been arranged on the dish, a final coating of aspic jelly will ensure that they
become set on the dish and do not move when being carried for service. A few specific garnishes for cold buffets
are eggs, stuffed tomatoes, cuts of vegetables used wherever appropriate. the important role is that the garnishes
are neat, tastefully decorated and in keeping with the item of food, which they accompany.There are hundreds of
garnishes, but only some of the common garnishes are given below:

SUGGESTED GARNISHES:

Tomato soup Lemon wedges

Shellfish cocktail Parsley, lemon, boiled egg
Fruit cocktail Cherry
For soups Juliennes of vegetables, brunoise of vegetables, egg royal,
cooked tongue, ham, spaghetti, vermicelli, croutons rice etc.
For fish Parsley, lemon, truffles, prawns, shrimps, tomatoes, grapes and
bananas, etc.
For meats
Grills Maitre d’ hotel butter and straw potatoes.
Stews Dices or turned vegetables, grilled tomatoes, mushrooms, peas,
French beans.
Roast A salad, orange, greens, etc.
Sandwiches Lettuce or watercress.
Tandoori murgh Sliced onions, green chillies, lemon slices.
Seekh Kababs Sliced onions, lemon wedges and chutney.
Pulaos Sliver foil, fried cashew nuts and fried onions
Curries Sliver foil chopped coriander leaves.
Masala fish Lemon wedges and coriander
Dals Whole red chillies or fried onions, coriander leaves.
Explanations of different garnishes

 Brunoise - one to three mm diced vegetables

 Chiffonade - finely shredded lettuce or sorrel stewed in butter

 Croutes - small pieces of halved French bread buttered and oven dried
- 69 -
 Coulis - (a thicker soup) drizzled decoratively

 Croutons - small pieces of bread (typically cubes) fried in butter or other oil

 Julienne - thinly sliced vegetables

 Pasta (tapioa, sago, salep) etc.

 Pluches -a whole leaf spray of herbs, without the central stalk (traditionally chervil)

 Profiterolles - puff pastry stuffed with purée

 Royale - a small decoratively shaped piece of egg custard (in German this is called an Eierstich)

 Threaded eggsand for relevés and entrées:

 Croquettes

 Potatoes (pommes dauphine, Duchess potatoes or Marquis)

 Duxelles - fried onion, mushrooms and herbs

 Matignon - minced carrots, onions, and celeries with ham stewed in butter and Madeira

 Mirepoix - similar to Matignon but diced (cf. minced) with or without ham (or with bacon substituted for the
ham)

 Salpicon - a variety of other diced meats or vegetables

 Fritters

SANDWICHES
It’s no good telling you about John Montague, the Fourth earl of sandwich. The Earl’s
gambling affliction was such that he would enter in 24 – hour betting marathons, duringwhich he would not remove
himself from the table for any reason. Any eating had to bequick and not distracting to the task. The earl asked the
butler to serve butter and cheese.His chef placed the cheese in between the bread slices and the rest…..IS
SANDWICH!!A sandwich may be many things- it can be a delicious bit of nonsense that makes you askfor more. It
can be prim and proper and just the slightest bit stodgy- or staunch andhearty-or it can be an empty promise.
A sandwich is a perfect balance of –
• Temperature – HOT OR COLD
• Texture- CRUNCHY, CHEWY, SMOOTH, WET , DRY
• Flavor- INTEGRITY OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS
• Appearance- SIMPLE AND CORRECT
Parts of Sandwich:
1. Bread:
Various types of bread are used for sandwich.
a) Pullman or sandwich loaf of white bread is the most popular because of itsneutral flavor.
b) Rills –including hard and soft rolls, hamburger and hot dog rolls and long rollsfor ‘submarine’ sandwich.
c) French bread-slit horizontally.
d) Whole wheat bread
e) Rye bread or pumpernickel
f) Pita (or unleavened) bread
g) Raisin, fruit and nut, cinnamon bread.The breads used for making sandwiches must be chosen carefully.

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• Always select fresh bread that has a close smooth crumb and good flavor andmoistness.
• The bread should be capable of being picked up without bending or loosingfilling.
• Bread should be around 12 hours old when making sandwiches otherwise it willbe too soft.
• 3/8 “to 5/8” is the thickness range most commonly used for sandwiches.

STORAGE AND HANDLING OF BREAD

A. Purchase only the amount of bread that can be used in one day
B. If excess bread is purchased, old and new supplies should be separatedeach day. Old bread should be set aside
for toasting and grilling
C. Store soft crusted bread in it original wrapper to protect against odorabsorption, moisture loss oexcessive
dampness.
D. Hard-crusted breads may be stored without wraps in the area which hasfree air circulation. These breads have a
shorter storage life.
E. Refrigerating bread makes it stale. If it is to be kept for more than one dayit should be frozen.
F. Bread is best stored at room temperature at 68-80 degrees F. Away fromheat
2. Spread:
Plain butter, compound butters such as anchovy, tomato, mustard onion, garlicand mayonnaise, cheese spread.
The spread is the simplest of the ingredients for the sandwiches. Spreads servesthree purpose for the breadA.
The spread acts as a sealant for the bread forming a moisture barrierbetween it and the filling.
B. Flavor is another purpose of the bread
C. The spread also adds moisture to the sandwich improving it mouth feel.The attributes of a good spread are –
• The spread should be soft enough to spread thinly and evenlywith a butter knife.
• The spread should be rich and moist to give a rich mouth feel

Types of bread used:-5

Loaf bread
Brioche
French bread
Brown bread
Burger buns
Danish rye bread, etc.
In case of sweet sandwiches:-
Genoese
Fruit bread
Meringue
Croissants, and
Puff/short crust pastry.

STORAGE AND HANDLINGA.

All spreads should be stored under refrigeration to inhibit the microbial growth
B. Mayonnaise if commercially procured should be refrigerated on opening thebottle.
3. Filling:
Such as smoked salmon, prawns, lobster, ham, tongue, brisket corned beef, roastbeef lamb, pork, salami,
mortadella, roast chicken, duck, turkey, and eggs, dry &creamed cheeses. The purpose of the fillings is to provide –
• The predominant flavor
• Moisture
• The main body and the nutrients
• Substance and bulk
• Complexity in the combination of flavors.
The basic guidelines for the fillings are –
A. 1/3 to ½ of the total weight of the sandwich should be the filling.
B. Filling should be pleasantly flavored.
C. Filling must be tender in nature.
D. Filling should always be of deboned meats and not bone-in
E. Fillings must be easy to eat
F. Fillings should not hang over the sides of the sandwich

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SANDWICHES
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Types of Spread
Most spreads are savoury butters, mixed with salt, pepper, Worcestershire sauce, tobacco sauce, etc. These butters
should not be frozen but at room temperature and slightly creamed for easy spreading. Some of these butters are:
Lemon butter
Onion butter
Olive butter
Paprika butter
Mayonnaise
English mustard
French mustard
Chutney butter
Lobster butter, etc.

STORAGE AND HANDLING OF THE FILLINGS-

• Avoid slicing meat fillings too far in advance as they tend to dry out and loose theflavor and moisture.
4. Garnish:
Like lettuce, tomato, watercress, spring onions, radishes, gherkins, cucumber andparsley.
The sandwich is without a doubt a favorite lunchtime food. For the typicalcustomer, one who is hungry and in a
hurry, the sandwich is the ideal food;quickly made and served, convenient and adaptable to many variations, that
itsatisfies nearly every palate and nutrition requirement. Sandwiches have longbeen the domain of the pantry
department, along with salads and other colddishes. Preparing sandwiches to order is one of the fundamental skills
required ina modern food service.

Types of Sandwich
COLD SANDWICHES- are of two types.
A. .CLOSED COLD SANDWICH- Can be defined as those having two slices ofbread or two halves of the roll ( which
can be toasted also) , which have a spreadapplied and are filled with a cold filling. These can be sub-grouped into 3
typesSimple-have only one filling and the freshest ingredients should be used. The quality ofthe filling and the
nature of the bread and spread are what can make this sandwich cometo life. Remember, only the freshest bread
should be used. Along with the main fillingyou may also add a secondary filling such as a leaf of lettuce or a slice of
tomatoCombination- Are those which have more than one primary filling. A BLT ( bacon,lettuce and tomato
sandwich ) is a typical example. Submarines alsofall in this categorywhich is a combo of cold cuts, vegetables and
cheese on a special bun. It is usuallysprinkled with Italian type dressing. Multi-Decker - these have more than two
slices of bread or a roll split more than once.The club sandwich is a classical example which has three pieces of
toasted bread , bacon,lettuce, tomato and turkey filling. The toast is layered with mayonnaise. The sandwich iscut
into quarters and served.

B. COLD OPEN SANDWICHES: Are the single slice of bread with attractively arrangedfillings on top with the
garnishes. These are the larger versions of canapés. The Danishsmorrebrods are the excellent examples of these.
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FEW EXAMPLES OF THE CLOSED DANDWICHES ARE AS UNDER_
1. Conventional, closed or lunch box sandwich which consists of 2sliced of bread with any filling meat poultry, egg,
vegetables orcheese and cut into triangle, served in bars, cafes, snacks bars andrestaurants.
2. Tea sandwich- This has much lighter fillings. White or brown breadcan be used. These sandwiches are cut into
much small squares,fingers and triangles. The crust is always removed.
3. The buffet Sandwich are similar to the conventional sandwich butare cut into fancy shapes. This obviously
results in wastage and canbe used only when costs permit.
4. Continental or French Sandwich- consists of a crusty. French
stick, cut into half and well buttered, with either a single savory filling or a mixture of savory fillings. Garnish with
lettuce, tomato, cucumber. It is then cut into small strips so that it is easily picked up.
5. Double Decker, Three Decker or Club Sandwich- If you top and ordinary closed sandwich with an extra layer of
filling and cover this with another slice of bread, you have a club sandwich, also known as Three Decker(counting
the sliced of 3) or Double Decker (counting the layer of filling) club sandwich a distantly related to ribbon sandwich
and are good for a heart appetite. Their fillings should be substantial and there must be balance between the fillings.
eg. Ham and egg, chutney and cheese. The best club sandwich are made with toast. They are cut diagonally and
secured with cocktail stick on which is spread an olive or a slice of gherkin.
6. Open Sandwiches- Technically speaking, there is no such thing, A sandwich must consist of 2 slices of bread. If
the top slice is missing, it become –well, what does it become? –a ‘garnished’ piece of bread?, half a sandwich?
Occurs. This is referred to as a continental sandwich. Until a better name is invented, we will have to go on calling
them open sandwiches. They can be divided into 2 groupsslices of buttered bread topped with a spread and then
trimmed, or the second more elaborate kind, which is really a series of small, individual hors d’ oeuvre arranged for
convenience sake on slices of buttered bread. Please remember that primarily the open sandwich is not made for
display or exhibition. It should be good to look at- yes
–but it should please the eye as well as the palate.
7. Fancy Sandwich Ribbon Rolled sandwich Chequer board Mosaic sandwich Pinwheel Sandwich gateau
7. Canapes – is not really a sandwich but a small pieces of toast (brown or white) or biscuits or puff pastry sheets
buttered and topped with meat, fish, poultry, vegetables.

7. Hot Sandwich- again not really a sandwich but a snack or meal but since bread is used, it is classified as a
sandwich. They vary from the English ‘Bookmarker’ to the French Croute (croque) monsieur. It will also
include internationally famous sandwich like the
8. GermanStrammer Max and the Swedish Lindstrom.

There are 3 primary characteristics of hot sandwiches-

• Hot sandwiches should be served hot
• They must remain hot throughout
• Hot sandwich can have a hot sauce as an accompaniment.A hot sandwich can be closed or open

SIMPLE CLOSED HOT SANDWICH VARIATIONS

1. STEAK SANDWICH – This is the 6-10 oz steak cooked to the guest order or doneness and served on a large roll
with a lettuce , tomato and onion garnish. Itmaybe accompanied by Horseradish sauce or mustard sauce.
2. HOT DOG- 6-12 per pound sausage served on a special roll. It can be topped with a hot topping such as chilli or
cheese sauce, or with cold topping cheese, coleslaw, and accompanied with chopped onions, and other condiments
– catsup and mustard.
3. HAMBURGER- 2-6 oz patty of ground beef , broiled, fried or grilled to order , served on a round bun with a lettuce,
tomato and onion slices and the appropriate condiments . over the time many variations have been developed .

4. GRILLED CLOSED SANDWICHES- is two slices of bread encasing the filling. The casing is buttered on the outside
top and bottom and then placed on the griddle or in a pan to brown on both the sides. A grilled cheese sandwich is
a perfect example.

5. FRIED CLOSED SANDWICH – are two pieces of bread encasing some type of filling which has been dipped into
an egg mixture and then deep fried or pan fried till golden brown. They are often finished in an oven to ensure that
the interior is hot. The frying should be done at 375 degrees F

OPEN HOT SANDWICHES-

Are prepared with the bread or toast laid side by side with the fillingexposed on the surface of both sides. The
sandwich is then heated throughout.
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General Hints of Sandwich making :
1. Soften the butter before spreading it.
2. Smooth fillings such as cream cheese spread easiest at room temperature. Ifcertain fillings need to be made in
advance and refrigerated, leave them for sometime at room temperature before spreading.
3. Use a palette knife for easy spreading.
4. Ideally, bread should be between 12-24 hours old.
5. Butter both sliced of the bread which forms the sandwich.
6. Buy sliced bread wherever possible – it’s neater and quicker.
7. If you are slicing the bread yourself, pile up the slices in the order they have beencut.
8. Use sufficient filling for each sandwich –the label should not be the only means ofidentification.
9. Meat should be free of all gristle and excessive fat.
10. Beware of dry meat. Moisten with lemon juice (fish), mayonnaise (vegetables) oraspic jelly (meats). When
making roast beef sandwiches, its best to leave the meat underdone.
11. Once cut, wrap sandwiches in a wax paper, foil, or cling wrap to keep them fresh.Keep together, lots of identical
fillings and label each batch. Keep wrapped but donot store in the refrigerator. A damp napkin wrapped around each
batch is a goodsafeguard against dryness, but not necessary when using foil.

METHODS OF PREPARATION-
• The preparation of quality sandwich is more than placing a piece of fillingbetween two slices of bread.
• Misc- en- place is the key to the success in this endeavor.
• Normally the sandwich has to be served as soon as prepared.
• Speed is the main reason for the popularity of the sandwich.
• Portion controlling the bulk production is most important. Thus pre-portioningof the ingredients is very important
• A great deal of handwork is involved in sandwich making. Therefore workflow must be smooth and easy.
• Arrange the bread slices in a row on a long table
• Put the chosen spread on all the slices
• Place the fillings on the alternate slices evenly and neatly.
• Put the garnishes if required
• Top the filled side of the bread with the alternate side.
• Stack two or more sandwiches and remove the crust or to cut them into thedesired shapes.
• Wrap the sandwiches with a wrap to prevent the bread from drying out
• Refrigerate them till service

PRESENTATION AND LAY-OUT

The basics of good presentation are the key to good sandwich making.
• The sandwiches should be evenly cut
• The plates or platters used for sandwiches should be of a suitable size
• Normally the cold sandwiches can be served on a bed of shredded cabbage orlettuce
• The platters can be lined with a few slices of cucumber and tomatoes
• The dips or sauces can accompany the sandwiches
• The best combination with sandwiches is to give wafer potatoes as anaccompaniment.

Larder control

ESSENTIALS OF LARDER CONTROL

To operate the department efficiently and economically, it is essential that the chef gardemanger should exercise
strict control over the foodstuffs received and stored in thedepartment. This involves-
1. Checking the quality and quantity delivered to the larder.
2. Ensuring that all foodstuffs are stored at the right temperatures and that they can beeasily checked.
3. Ensuring that the food is protected from contamination and vermin.
4. Ensuring that portion control is rigidly carried out. A given weight of fish, poultry,meat
5. should always produce the standardized portions.
6. Ensuring that the food is never overstocked and stocks of food are regularly turnedover.
7. Taking all precautions to ensure there is no pilferage.
8. Taking the daily stock of the food material stored in the larder section.
9. Making every effort to maintain the highest possible standards of hygiene.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHEF GARDE MANGER

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Chef garde manger reports to the sous chef. He is responsible for-
• Efficient working of the larder section.
• Co-ordination for the efficient running of the garde manger.
• Training of the larder staff
• Maintaining discipline of the section.
• He is responsible for all the foodstuffs which are dealt in the section especially all thecold food and their proper
storage.
• He is responsible for keeping the record of the entire foodstuff coming into the sectionand the orders served to
the main kitchen and the other outlet kitchens.
• The chef needs to put in the requisition for the meats, fish and poultry and other foodingredients required for all
the food service.
• He is responsible for maintaining his section in the best of hygienic and sanitaryconditions to avoid any danger of
contamination and possible food poisoning.

Devising larder control systems

The stock and order sheet should be as simple and easy to keep up to data as possible. A complicated stock sheet
requiring too much writing will defect the whole purpose as it will be neglected during busy rush periods, the very
time it is  needed most. For some sub departments, devising an easy and simple system is reasonably easy. In
some cases it is not so easy for example; also keeping of the stock of food sent in and returned by the cold buffet
can be complicated and time wasting if one is to measure every ounce or inch. Therefore it is necessary to accept
some rule of thumb providing it is well supervised. An experienced chef Garde Manger should be able to tell at a
glance the weight, or number of Portion of a given joint or cold dish. The butchery department also presents some
Problems and the stock sheet for this department needs careful consideration. Each establishment will devise its
own system taking into account its own problems.

Department Day and date

Item Unit Stock Unit Price Cost Order
Tomatoes kg(lb) 2 12
Sardines tins 4 8
Eggs doz 11/2 4
Oil 1.(gal) ½ 1
Vinegar 1.(qt) 1 2

YIELD TESTING

Most foodservice products are delivered in the AP or As Purchased state. This refers to the weight or count of a
product, as delivered to the foodservice operator. EP or Edible Portion refers to the weight of a product after it has
been cleaned, trimmed, cooked, and portioned. Thus, AP refers to food products as the operator receives them; EP
refers to food products as the guest receives them.

Yield % is important in the area of recipe costing. This is true because a recipe cost must take into account the
difference in price of products in their AP or EP state. In order to determine actual recipe costs, it may sometimes
be necessary to conduct a yield test to determine actual EP ingredient costs. A yield test is a procedure used for
computing your actual costs on a product that will experience weight or volume loss in preparation.

Total Yield % =    Remaining Weight     x    100

                            Original Weight

Waste % is the percentage of product lost due to cooking, trimming, portioning, or cleaning.

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 UNIT – III

BUFFET PRESENTATION

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 UNIT – III

BUFFET PRESENTATION

Larder & Kitchen Management

Although food holds the spotlight in all buffet presentation and the objective of buffet planning must be to achieve
visual beauty both in the artistic presentation of each item of edible food and in the arrangement of the many
dishes on the buffet table. Nothing heightens the beauty of the buffet more than an outstanding centerpiece (Piece
Monte) made of ice, tallow or other such materials. The term Non Edible is used to indicate that the centerpiece is
not meant for consumption along with test of the food on the buffet.

The guest should be able to identify the theme of the buffet at a glance, just by observing the non-edible
decorations that provide eye-catching background for the presentation. A non0-edible decorative display piece
should be a work of art, always in good taste. Whether the figure is made of ice, sugar, tallow or any other material.
The list of possibilities could be divided into:

Artistic Displays

 Ice Carvings

 Tallow Displays

 Butter / Margerine Sculptures

 Salt Carvings or sculptures

 Sugar Craft (Pastillage) Wedding Cake

 Chocolate Mouldings

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  Fruit vegetable Carvings

Food Displays

These could include

 Bread Displays

 Cheese and Wine Displays (for a French Buffet)

 Seafood Displays (for a Seafood display)

 Pasta Displays (for an Italian theme)

 Spice Displays (for an Indian displays)

 Fruit and Vegetable arrangements

 Suckling pig/ Roast Turkeys/Hams (sometimes with Chaud Froid)

 Aspic Cut outs

ICE CARVING

The Ice sculpture is the highlight of any buffet, and its focal point. Ice can be carved into any shapes, size or figure
that fits the theme or occasion. For e.g. Christmas- Santa Clause, Anniversary- a heart.
The essentials of Ice-carvings.
Use 100-300 pound block of ice 40 inches high by 20 inches wide by 10 inches thick.
A pair of ice tongs for moving ends and handling the ice.
An ice shaver with 3 to 4 prongs used to carve out the details and do the small cuttings on the block of ice.
An ice pick is used to split block of ice.

A hand saw is used to remove large cuts of ice or to make rough outlines

Chisels ranging in size from ½ to 2 inches.

A good pair of gloves which have metal finger tips to prevent accidents.

A variety of templates

An electric chain saw-(optional)

Salt is used for mending broken pieces of ice.

Points to be kept in mind

The optimum temperature for ice carving is 28°F or less. An ice block will melt at the rate of half to an inch per hour
at room temperature.
Such ice carvings must have a base that is at least 6 inches high, for stability.
If a piece of ice breaks off dip each broken edge into salt and press back together for a few minutes till it holds.
The table used for the carving must be sturdy to support the weight of the ice.
The carved ice block should be placed in specially constructed pans wider that the base of the wooden block, on
which, the ice carving will rest securely on top of the
wooden block.
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Coloured rotating lights could produce dramatic effects.
The ice sculpture could be placed on a rotating turn table.
The pan under the ice sculpture on display should be decorated with a linen cloth, flowers, ferns or other decorative
material.

How to Display the Ice Carving on a buffet

The table used for the carving must be sturdy and strong enough to support the weight of the ice.

The carved ice block should be placed in a specially metal pan, wider that the base of the caring wooden blocks
should first be placed in the bottom of the pan and the carving should rest securely on top of the block.

 Coloured rotating lights and newly designed display units can be produce a dramatic effect; this is especially
effective when the lights themselves cannot be seen.

 Coloured ice can also produce a dramatic effect.

 The ice sculpture could be placed on a rotating turntable.

 The pan under the ice sculpture can be decorated with a linen cloth, flowers, ferns, or other decorative
material.
TALLOW SCULTURE

TALLOW WORK When deciding on the selection of a pattern for a tallow display piece, it is essential that the display
piece chosen match the theme of the food design buffet.

It is even more desirable, to select a pattern that may also fit into 34. the décor theme of other buffets at a later
date.
Creating on eye-catching tallow piece is always time-consuming and should be planned well in advance.
A French restaurant serving a French buffet would add effectiveness to the presentation by displaying a bust of
Napoleon or Escoffier or the Eiffel Tower. Such displays can be used over and over, but they should be covered with
transparent wrap when not in use as dust tends to stick to them.
To be successful in the execution of a tallow display, it is essential that certain rules be followed.
The person making the tallow display should have a photograph or model of the piece o be made.
In general, a formula made up in the following proportions work well in tallow displays: 1/3 beeswax 1/3 paraffin
1/3 beef fat
The quantity of fat can be increased if a more pliable and workable mixture is needed, especially if the working area
is cool, that is, below 65° F.
A solid structure and base for the tallow piece must be created, especially if the finished piece has to be
transported.
A wooden base with dowels and a rough structure made of Styrofoam, metal armature, and aluminum foils have
been used.

How To Make Tallow Sculptures

A Little Tallow History
Did you know chefs have been sculpting tallow for over 300 years? Back in the early days of the
17th century, chefs would sculpt butter into provocative shapes for the visual enjoyment of their patrons. Imagine
the difficulty of this task without the convenience of refrigeration! In an effort to make life easier, the chefs of
Europe began to combine butter with animal fats and, later, with wax to create a stabilized, creamy sculpting
medium that was easier to work with and had a much greater shelf life. Because patrons reacted just as
enthusiastically to these “faux” butter sculptures, chefs all over the world embraced this new medium and called it
“tallow”, referring to the animal fat used in its production.
Culinart, Inc. has taken this time-honored art form and, while adhering to traditional, old world formulas, improved
upon it by incorporating non-yellowing, food grade waxes and only purified beef fat to create tallow that has a
perfect consistency and an indefinite shelf life at room temperature.

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The traditional formula for making tallow is as follows:
1/3 Animal Fat
1/3 Beeswax
1/3 Parafin
Method: Render beef, lamb or pork fat and strain through multiple layers of cheese cloth. Set aside.
Melt beeswax and paraffin over medium heat. Combine all ingredients and stir until thoroughly incorporated. Pour
into hotel pan or other non-porous, heat-resistant container and allow to cool completely at room temperature. Do
not cool in refrigerator.
Problems With Traditional Tallow
In the 1950’s and 1960’s, tallow sculpting was very popular and practiced by chefs around the world.
As sanitation principles and practices improved, tallow was frowned upon because the sculptures could grow
rancid if not properly stored. The sculptures would also yellow very badly and eventually had to be discarded. These
problems can be attributed to the use of unpurified animal fat and the use of beeswax.
Rendered Fat - The fat tissue in all animals and humans is where most of their chemicals, toxins and impurities are
stored. There are also sweat glands interspersed throughout this tissue. Even though the fat is melted, the
impurities are carried into the tallow mixture. Over time, unpurified animal fat will turn rancid and give off an
unpleasant odor.
Beeswax – This is very sensitive to light. When exposed to natural or indoor lighting, a photochemical reaction
occurs which turns this wax yellow. It can happen quite rapidly and was often confused with rancidity, when in fact
only the wax was discoloring. Beeswax is not uniform from batch to batch because of the many regions and bee
types that produce it.

Modern Tallow
Modern Tallow is made with the same proportions of fat and wax as traditional tallow. Purified and deodorized beef
fat is blended with modern day waxes that resist yellowing and combine to produce a uniform product with
tremendous sculpting and carving characteristics. Modern tallow never needs to be refrigerated and has an
indefinite shelf life. It is not susceptible to photo-chemical reactions and resists discoloration over extended
periods of time.
Types of Modern Tallow
Modeling/Carving Tallow – Modeling tallow, when shaved into curls and worked by hand immediately softens to
the consistency of soft artist’s clay. It can be manipulated
into any shape and applied to armatures and other support structures. As it cools slightly to room temperature it
firms up, and can be trimmed and detailed with tools and knives.
This same tallow appears to have a firm texture out of the box. It is suitable for any tallow project that involves
carving with knives and other sharp tools to produce the finished sculpture. Its creamy, smooth texture is ideal for
intricate detail work, while its firmness produces a sculpture of improved durability.

Casting Tallow - An extremely firm tallow that cannot be softened by

hand and requires great effort to carve on any large scale. It is intended
to be melted and poured into molds to produce the final sculpture. Its
resulting hardness makes casting tallow ideal for the sometimes rigorous
unmolding process, especially with one-piece rubber molds. carving method modeling method casting method

TALLOW SCULPTING BASICS

1. Always temper tallow to 75 degrees F before working with it. Remember, tallow is made with purified animal fat
(Butter) which is quite firm at cool temperatures.
2. Wash hands thoroughly before working with tallow. Condition hands by rubbing on a little oil or shortening to
make hands smooth.
3. Work area must be absolutely clean.
4. MODELING METHOD OF TALLOW SCULPTING - Tallow will soften in your hands and your body heat will make it
supple and very flexible just like soft artists clay. In order to maximize heat transfer, tallow should be shaved with a
scraping tool or other utensil that can be scraped across the surface to produce thin curls or shavings that can be
kneaded by hand. To soften tallow, take the shavings and press them together and firmly roll, squeeze and knead
with both hands. If tallow does not soften in a couple of seconds, it is too cold and should be tempered to 75 to 85
degrees F.
5. To smooth tallow and create a natural shine, apply heat from a torch, hair dryer or heat gun over the surface of
your sculpture. Apply heat with quick passes just until a shine appears on the surface. Be careful, too much heat
can melt details.
6. When coloring tallow, soften tallow first and then work coloring gel into tallow until desired color is achieved.
Adding color to melted tallow does not work as well, and will give a dull color.
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7. When working with cheddar, chocolate or colored tallow, applying heat to the surface
will restore the true color and eliminate any unwanted sculpting marks, etc.
8. Maintain and clean a finished tallow sculpture by rinsing with warm water and applying heat to the surface (step
#5). Cover with a large plastic garbage bag and store until needed.
9. Modern tallow can also be carved with knives and carving tools to create a finished sculpture.
The best room temperature for carving tallow is 60 to 75 degrees F.

DO NOT GOUGE CENTER OF TALLOW BLOCK

Shave or scrape tallow block evenly across entire top surface of block. Tallow block can be kept warm by
positioning a heat lamp over the block to create a gentle warmth that will keep surface of tallow warm.
DO NOT WARM TALLOW TO THE POINT OF MELTING IT
This creates an unusable consistency and must be cooled to reconstitute it. Collecting a large amount of tallow
shavings in a plastic bag and placing in a roll warmer drawer set at low (75 to 80’F) is another way of keeping tallow
warm. scraping tool
Support Structures Styrofoam
Real Styrofoam is a light, strong, clean and repairable material made by the DOW Chemical Corporation that can
greatly conserve the amount of tallow used in large sculpting projects, making it the preferred choice of chefs
worldwide. Its white rigid foam can be carved effortlessly with chainsaws, knives, hand saws, sandpaper, die
grinders, etc., just like a block of ice. Once the styrofoam is carved, it serves as an excellent support for the
application of modeling tallow. This is not the cheap
kind of styrofoam that is made of compressed beads.
Base Coat
Because Styrofoam is a porous material, the first step in making a tallow sculpture supported by Styrofoam is to
seal it with an initial layer of tallow called a base coat. Tallow is softened and applied by hand or sheeted between
two sheets of parchment paper and applied to the Styrofoam support at a minimum of a 1/4 inch thickness. The
base coat ensures that the Styrofoam is completely sealed and also helps in the addition of details to the sculpture.
Wire Armature and Wooden Base
Steel wire and rods are excellent support structures for tallow sculptures. They offer great stability, easy storage
and transport, and are perfectly suited for appendages like arms and legs. The wire can be bent into whatever
shape is required and can support quite a lot of weight. Wire of various thickness can be purchased from the
hardware store. As the size of the tallow sculpture increases, so should the wire thickness. Supports can be
attached to one another using floral tape, masking tape or fine aluminum wire. Aluminum or galvanized steel rods
and wire are the best to use since they are resistant to rust and oxidation. After the armature is completed, spray-
paint it white before applying tallow so that it doesn’t show through.

carvable block of Styrofoam

swan carved from block with chainsaw
finished swan using modern tallow
Add on Detailing – Base coat should be a minimum of 1/4 inch thick.
Softened modeling tallow can be rolled out between two sheets of parchment paper or food service film with a
rolling pin. A set of pastry and aspic cutters can be used to make fancy shapes for detailing.
Sheeted tallow can be cut into thin strips with paring knives and used for ribbons, bows, shoe laces, suspenders,
clothing, etc.
Tip – Cutters and knives work even better with tallow when they have been heated. Keep the cutters in a 1/4 hotel
pan filled with 1/2 inch of simmering water. Keep the paring knives in a 1 quart baine marie with simmering water.
The cutting edges will be 212F and cut through the tallow quickly and cleanly!
Pre-cut details can be applied right over the base coat and will adhere instantly. They can overlap each other to
create a feathered look on birds or scales on fish. Sheets of softened tallow can be draped over sculpture and
made into clothing like pants, dresses, etc.

Diagram of Wire Armature

From Margarine Modelling by Jean and George Hill. Published by Hospitality Press Pty Ltd., PO Box 426,
Elsterniwick, Victoria, 3185, Australia
Take Away Detailing – Base coat should be a minimum of 1/2 inch thick.
Using tools and knives, details can be cut and grooved right into the base coat. This type of detailing is used to
create facial features and in areas requiring fine detail.
Tip – It is best to let the base coat cool to room temperature. The tallow will reharden and cut very cleanly.
Tip – Always take a stylized approach to detailing. We are not working for the Smithsonian

Institute or the Audobon Society. Our work should be pleasing to the eye and create anticipation for a fine meal to
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come. A good reference to turn to for good, stylized illustrations of animals and people are children’s books.
Torching Once the tallow sculpture has been completed, a heat gun is used to finish off its surface. Heat guns
are available at hardware stores and look similar to hair dryers. The difference is that they can give off heat up to
1000F. Using this gun, a stream of heat is directed at the surface of the sculpted tallow from about 1 foot away.
When the heat gun is removed or redirected to another area, the tallow instantly resolidifies. Heat is applied to the
entire surface of the sculpture, moving the gun in circular motions. Torching strengthens the sculpture greatly
because air that was incorporated into the tallow during softening is released when the tallow is melted. The
resulting hard skin of tallow protects the sculpture from smudging and it attracts much less dust. Torching also
imparts a beautiful and long lasting luster to the finished sculpture.
Tip – Never torch an area longer than it takes to achieve a wet appearance. Prolonged heat will melt too much of
the tallow and distort fine details.

Cleaning Tallow Sculptures

Tallow sculptures can be taken to the dish table and washed down with the water sprayer. The water should be
adjusted so it is good and warm, but not smoking hot. Water at dish washing areas can exceed 180F, which will
definitely melt the tallow sculpture. When washing a tallow sculpture, the water temperature should not exceed
120F. Washing a tallow sculpture will remove collected dust, fingerprints from handling, and also restore a beautiful
luster to the surface of the sculpture. Once cleaned, the sculpture can be patted lightly with a clean cloth and
allowed to air dry. Never wash a tallow sculpture with soap or detergents. Wash only with clean, clear water.
Tip – Always make sure styrofoam support structures are completely covered and sealed with tallow.
Storing Tallow Sculptures
Modern tallow does not need refrigeration. Tallow sculptures should be kept in a clean, dry storage area at room
temperature.
Tip – Cover with a large garbage bag to protect tallow sculptures from dust and dirt during
storage.
Advantages of Tallow
- Unlike ice, pulled sugar, chocolate, marzipan or pastillage, tallow is a stable material that doesn’t harden, melt,
spoil or crack over time.
- A tallow sculpture can be worked on over a period of days, weeks or months, during slow times and when it is
convenient.
- Tallow can be added on and taken off, reshaped and smoothed innumerable times until perfection is achieved.
- Refrigerated or freezer storage is not necessary for tallow sculptures.
- Tallow sculptures can be used repetitively for many functions, unlike an ice sculpture, which has a single-function
longevity.
- Tallow sculptures are easy to repair and maintain. They are also cleanable.
- Tallow sculptures incorporating styrofoam are light and easy to transport from room to room or off- premise.
- The making of a tallow sculpture can be easily delegated to employees that have the time to make them. Since
the sculpting process is a series of simple steps (applying the base coat, for example), these employees can be
used to accomplish part or all of the sculpture.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CARVINGS

Very attractive center pieces can be made by carving various shapes out of fruits and vegetables. Large
pumpkins,melons and such vegetables can be used as containers or carved into objects such as boats and ships.
The variety in colour of vegetables and fruits adds a lot to the eye appeal and the presentation of the center piece.
Care should be taken not to use non food items such as pins , staples, tooth picks, drawings pins to hold the
arrangement in place. Water can be sprayed so that the arrangement looks as fresh as possible.

Fruit & Vegetable Carving, Pumpkins Aren't The Only Artful Fruit, Watermelons, turnips, pineapples and many
other fruits and vegetables can be carved and combined into either elegantly simple or very elaborate center pieces
or accents for your picnic table or indoor party decorations.

The art of carving foods is an Eastern custom that has been adopted by creative food prepares around the world.

In Thailand and Japan food carving is considered part of the presentation of the meal. The stunning designs
that can be created make the food the center of attention when you serve your guests. No need to worry about what
else is on the table! Some of the more elaborate carvings can take hours to get just right, but practice makes it go

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faster and soon you'll find yourself designing your own patterns for watermelons, radishes, and any fruit or
vegetable that can hold it's form when carved. If

you've never seen carved fruits or veggies and you're thinking typical Halloween pumpkin carving - check out
some of these resources and be amazed:

SALTILLAGE (SALT DOUGH)

The art of salt dough making is an ancient one, dating as far back as Egyptian times. Salt and wheat (flour)
were two of the most common foodstuffs available to the Egyptians. Bread was the staple diet of most Egyptians
and natron, a natural salt found in Egypt, was commonly used as a food preservative.
In many past cultures dough modelling was tied up with religious beliefs and ceremonies when sculptures would be
offered as gifts to the gods, or presents to people on important occasions. Examples of these would be weddings,
christenings, funerals etc. In Europe the craft was much favoured, especially in Germany where the art was used
widely in home decoration, especially at festive times.

The materials needed to start dough making are very inexpensive, the majority of which you will probably
have in your kitchen cupboard. A wide variety of moulds, cutters, knives are available from most stores. And you
can use many objects that you probably have lying around the house as templates or texture makers.

SALT DOUGH RECIPE:

2 cups of Plain Flour
1 cup of table salt
1 cup of water

OPTIONAL
1 tablespoon of vegetable oil (makes it a little easier to knead)
1 tablespoon of wallpaper paste (gives the mixture more elasticity)
1 tablespoon of lemon juice (makes the finished product harder)

METHOD
Put plain flour, salt and any, or all, of the optional ingredients into a mixing bowl and gradually add the water, mixing
to soft dough. This should be neither too sticky, in which case add more flour, nor too dry, in which case add more
water. When mixed remove from the bowl, place on a flat surface and knead for 10 minutes to help create a smooth
texture. If possible it is best to let the dough stand for approximately twenty minutes before beginning a project.
Unused dough can be stored in the fridge, in an airtight container or cling film, for up to a week. Children always love
making models, and as long as you don’t add wallpaper paste all of the ingredients are natural. So if they are
tempted to put it in their mouths, all it will do is taste incredibly salty.

DRYING
The drying of your work can either be done naturally in the open air, or it can be baked in an oven. However it is not
recommended that you have your oven hotter than 100C (200F/Gas Mark 1/4) as this can cause unsightly bubbles
and cracks in your pastry. The drying time needed for each piece varies according to size and thickness, but an
average time for natural drying is 30-48 hours, whilst oven times are generally reduced to 3-4 hours. These figures
are only offered as a rough guide and remember that both sides must be dried out. (See ‘A Few Tips’) When your
model is dry, turn off the oven and leave it inside to cool down.

A FEW TIPS

 If the dough starts to stick as you craft it, flour your worktop and hands lightly. It’s recommended that the
dough is worked directly onto a foil-lined baking tray when building up pieces, that way; you don’t have the
horrendous task of trying to carry your finished piece off the work top and onto the tray.

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  Before baking, certain areas of the model can be covered with egg white to brown them, whilst others can
be covered with foil to keep them white.

 Different flours and salts give different results. For example whole-wheat flour gives a much grainier and
browner texture. Experiment and don’t be afraid to mix different textures together to form more interesting
designs that don’t have to be coloured

How to Create Salt Dough

Salt dough is an excellent medium for making small figures and pieces of jewelry. You can create many things with
salt dough, or just play with it. Be careful around small children as they easily get tempted to eat it.

Ingredients
2 cups all-purpose flour
1 cup salt
3/4 cup water
food coloring (optional - see "Tips" for suggestions)
2 tablespoons vegetable oil
Method:

 Mix flour, salt, water, and oil in a deep bowl.

 Knead the salt dough mixture until it turns doughy.

 Add coloring or glitter if wished. See "Tips" for suggestions.

 Mold shapes by hand or with cookie cutters. It is easiest as a beginner to start with flat objects before
advancing to 3D figures with details. Layering details over the initial figure should only be attempted when
you feel confident about making the initial shape.

 Dry the objects.

Pastillage
Pastillage is rolled fondant without any of the softening ingredients (glycerine, corn syrup or shortening). It is used
mainly for three-dimensional shapes because it dries bone-hard and crusts more quickly than fondant (source:
Rose Levy Berenbaum, 1988.) It can also be colored or painted. You have to work very quickly with pastillage
because it dries very quickly 

Depending on the mix, pastillage can be formed and sanded to remove any rough spots after it has completely dried.

Used for: sculptures, showpieces, three-dimensional shapes, ribbons and bows

Buy or make: Pastillage is relatively easy to make. I haven’t experimented much with recipes other than Rose Levy
Berenbaum’s recipe (below) from her must-have book, The Cake Bible. Different recipes will obviously yield
different results.
Recipe:
1 tablespoon gelatin scant
1/3 cup water 
4 cups (lightly spooned into cup) powdered sugar 
1/2 cup (lightly spooned into cup) cornstarch 
optional: pinch cream of tarter 
Sprinkle gelatin over water in a 2-cup heatproof glass measure and let stand for 5 minutes. Set into a small pan of
simmering water and stir until gelatin is dissolved. (This can be done in a microwave on high for a few seconds).
Combine the sugar, cornstarch and optional cream of tartar in a large bowl and make a well in the center. Add the

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gelatin mixture and stir with a lightly greased wooden spoon until blended. Mix lightly with greased hand and knead
vigorously in the bowl until most of the sugar is incorporated. Turn onto a smooth, lightly greased surface (such as
Formica or marble) and knead until smooth and satiny. If the Pastillage seems dry, add several drops of water and
knead well. If it seems too sticky, knead in more powdered sugar. The Pastillage will resemble a smooth, well-
shaped stone. When dropped, it should not spread.
Rolled Pastillage may be used at once but seems to work more easily when allowed to rest for several hours. It is
important to keep Pastillage covered to prevent it from drying. Wrap tightly in plastic wrap and place in an airtight
container. It will firm slightly upon standing.
When ready to roll out, spray the work surface and rolling pin with nonstick vegetable spray

JELLY LOGO

An edible jelly having improved spreading characteristics and ability for withstanding heat is made by
incorporating into the recipe finely-divided, water-insoluble organic particles consisting of 85 to 95% by weight of
beta-1, 4 glucan intimately associated with 5 to 15% by weight of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose having a degree
of substitution of 0.75 ± 0.15.

An edible jelly that is convertible by means of a chopstick or other implement capable of kneading the jelly
into a taffy or slime-like candy. The jelly stock, formed by a flowable composition whose ingredients include gelatin,
is poured into an open cup where it proceeds to undergo setting in the course of which gelling takes place. But
before the composition is permitted to fully set and while it is still in a partially-gelled, sticky state, the cup is sealed
by a removable cover to arrest further setting. When a child wishes to convert the partially-set jelly into a taffy or
slime-like candy, the child removes the cover from the cup and then kneads the jelly therein with the implement to
disrupt its internal structure until the jelly assumes the desired constituency, at which point the child with his fingers
can pull the converted jelly out of the cup, stretch it into strands and eat the strands as candy.

THERMACOL WORK

For doing a thermacol work we want to follow the step wise procedure as follows :

 Trace the design onto the thermacol using tracing paper and carbon paper.

 Draw the outline of the design on the thermacol using a pen or pencil.

 With a thermacol cutter cut the thermacol through the outline carefully. 

 Once the cutting is over, remove all the chipped out portions.

 Now your design on thermacol is ready. Keep it aside.

 Take your hard board. Cover it with the black or any dark colour cloth. Cover it properly and stretch out or
bring the four sides to the backside of the hardboard and paste them to the board using glue (Fevicol). 

 Your hard board should be of appropriate size, so that your thermacol design can be properly stuck to the
board.

 Now paste the cut thermacol design on the hardboard. Then take the sola wood. Press it slightly without pressure
so as to make it smooth. Please do not press it hard, so that it becomes too flimsy. Now you have to do the
'weaving' design on the thermacol basket

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CHOCOLATE SCULPTURE

Techniques

Tempering: Tempering chocolate is a heat treatment method performed on chocolate involving heating and cooling
the chocolate to result in desired characteristics like shininess of the chocolate or 'snap', the way it breaks.[10] A
chocolatier must know how to temper chocolate properly for different applications or temper for chocolate for
desired characteristics. Chocolate contains cocoa butter which crystallizes during the heat treatment of melting
and tempering chocolate. The crystal formation in chocolate can affect many different attributes to the chocolate -
 mouthfeel, snap of the chocolate, the color, dull or shiny. Heating the chocolate at certain temperatures, around 86-
90 °F (30-32 °C), for specific periods of time and then cooling the chocolate and working with, in alternating
segments is referred to as tempering.[10] There are machines that can temper chocolate for you, but many
chocolatiers use marble slabs and hand-tools to cool the chocolate and work with it.

Molding: Molding is a design technique used in making chocolate pieces that are of a certain shape by taking liquid
chocolate and pouring it into a mold and letting it harden.[11] You can go to the wikiHow - Mold Chocolate
Candy[12] site to see instructions on how to mold chocolate.

Sculpting: Sculpting is a type of three-dimensional artwork, and in the case of a chocolatier, involves using only
chocolate to create the piece of artwork. Sculpting may involve using molds and pieces of chocolate, and
decorating the piece with designs in chocolate.

CHOCOLATE MOULDING / CHOCOLATE SCULPTURE

Tempered chocolate can be used to make figures that can be attractively arranged to be used as centerpieces
during festive times like Christmas and Easter. They are also used to adorn the dessert buffet.

TOOLS REQUIRED FOR CHOCOLATE MOULDING

The actual moulding equipment required is inexpensive and quite readily available:
Assorted plastic chocolate moulds for different types of chocolates
- A long-handled teaspoon for spooning your chocolate into the moulds
- A thick, soft-haired, good-quality paint brush for brushing the sides of moulds
- A couple of good-quality small paint brushes for painting colour designs
- A dipping spoon or fork for dipping nuts and candies into the chocolate
- A good pair of scissors for cutting out hollow moulds
- Bulldog clips for holding together both sides of hollow moulds
- Chocolate colouring, flavouring, wrapping foils, fillings and packaging
  Essentially the only ingredient you need for chocolate moulding is the chocolate itself. Buy the coating
chocolate you believe best suits your needs. For important functions, occasions and gifts, remember to buy the
best quality chocolate.
Unfortunately, where chocolate is concerned, best quality usually means the most expensive.
Although we do not really recommend it, many people tend to compromise on the quality of their chocolate when
making clusters and novelties for children's birthdays. These are perhaps the only times such compromises in
chocolate quality may be made. However, you will always feel confident if you only use the best.
The other ingredients that you will need will depend entirely upon the type of chocolates you intend making .
To make your chocolate more interesting and exciting, you will need assorted chocolate colorings,
flavourings and fillings .
The list of potential chocolate fillings is never ending - use your imagination to make your own exotic personal
favourites. Some ideas for chocolate fillings are different types of nuts, Turkish delight, marshmallows, toffees,
coconut, raisins, mint crisps, honeycomb, marzipan, flavoured fondants, as well as all the ready-made and delicious
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chocolate fillings available from the Chocolate Den.

BUTTER AND MARGERINE CARVINGS

Very often in place of tallow, butter and margarine is used to produce centerpieces. Margarine is the
preferred medium as it has a higher melting point and is easier to handle than butter. An outline of the sculpture is
made out of suitable stiff material such as a wire piece, aluminum foil, and strips of wood. This is called the
armature and the butter or margarine is molded around it to give the desired shape. Ideally, the work should be
carried out in a cool environment such as an air-conditioned room. The advantage here is that the sculpture can be
done if it does not have the desired effect and restarted. Also tallow, butter and margarine sculptures can have a re
usable value unlike ice carvings. However, care should be taken to in storing these pieces, as they tend to attract
dirt and dust, which will cling and be difficult to remove without damaging the structure. Very often a protective
cling film can be wrapped around the sculpture during storage.

SUGAR SCULPTURE

Sugar sculpture, the art of producing artistic centerpieces entirely composed of sugar and sugar derivatives, is an
art that is rapidly garnering support. There are many competitions that include sugar sculpture, and popular
television networks, such as Food Network, televise many of these events.

Sugar showpieces can be composed of several different types of sugar elements. All begin with cooking sugar, and
possibly an acidic agent and/or non-sucrose sugar product to avoid unwanted crystallization, to the hard crack
stage, around 300 degrees Fahrenheit.

When all components are completed, they are welded together using a gas torch. The sugar is melted, and then
joined together.

Pulled sugar

Once the sugar has been cooked, the now-liquid sugar is poured onto a silicone rubber mat (e.g., Silpat). Any
coloring is now added. The sugar is then folded repeatedly into itself, until the sugar is, while still flexible, cool
enough to handle. The sugar is then stretched out and then folded on itself repeatedly. This process incorporates
air into the sugar, and gives it a bright lustery sheen. The sugar can then be sculpted by hand into various shapes,
made into ribbons, or blown.

Blown sugar

In blown sugar, a portion of pulled sugar is placed on a rubber pump which is tipped with either wood or metal.
Pumps are most commonly hand pumps. The sugar is then blown, much like the technique used in glassblowing.
While being blown, the sugar can be shaped, often into animals or flowers. Unlike glass, blown sugar cannot be
dipped in water to quickly cool it down, and chefs must use fans to cool the sugar, all the while rotating it so that it
does not come out of shape.

Cast sugar

In this technique, sugar is poured into molds. This technique produces more sturdy pieces than pulled and blown
sugar, and is almost always used for the base and structural elements of showpieces.

Pastillage

A thick sugar paste, similar to frosting, is molded into shapes. When dried, it is hard and brittle. Made with gelatin,
water and confectioner's sugar, it hardens quickly and can be shaped for a short while by hand, and after hardening,
with electric grinders, cutters, sandpaper and assorted files.
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Pressed sugar

Granulated sugar is mixed with a minimum amount of water, and is put under pressure. It hardens into a solid piece.
Though this is used for showpiece bases, it is less often used because of the time required to produce it, and its
lesser aesthetic value.

Rock Sugar

The liquid sugar is blended with a small amount of royal icing. The heat from the sugar causes the air incorporated
in the icing to rapidly expand, causing the mixture to grow to several times its original volume. The mixture is
quickly poured into a lined dish, and placed into a blast chiller to set. This process produces a sugar mass with the
texture of volcanic pumice, the color of which is determined by the color of the sugar syrup.

Mashed potato  Mashed potato is a dish prepared by mashing boiled potatoes. Recipes started appearing no later
than 1747 with an entry in The Art of Cookery by Hannah Glasse.[1] Dehydrated and frozen mashed potatoes are
available in many places.

The use of "floury" types of potato is recommended, although "waxy" potatoes are sometimes used for a different
texture.[2] Butter, vegetable oil, milk and/or cream are usually added to improve flavor and texture, and the potatoes
are seasoned with salt, pepper, and any other desired herbs and spices. Popular ingredients and seasonings
include: garlic, cheese, bacon bits, sour cream, crisp onion or spring onion, caramelised onion, mustard, spices such
as nutmeg, and chopped herbs such as parsley.[citation needed]

One French variation adds egg yolk for pommes duchesse or Duchess potatoes; piped through a pastry tube into
wavy ribbons and rosettes, brushed with butter and lightly browned. Pomme purée (potato puree) uses
considerably more butter than normal mashed potato - up to two parts potato for one part butter.[2][3] In low-calorie
or non-dairy variations, milk, cream and butter may be replaced by soup stock or broth. Aloo Bharta, an Indian sub-
continent variation, uses chopped onions, mustard (oil, paste or seeds), chili pepper, coriander leaves and
other spices

Culinary use

Mashed potato served withFrankfurter Rippchen, sauerkraut and mustard

Mashed potatoes can be served together with other dishes, or can be an ingredient of various other dishes,
including shepherd's and cottage pie, pierogi, colcannon,dumplings, potato croquettes, gnocchi, etc.. It is often
served with sausages asbangers and mash.

A potato masher is a utensil which can be used to prepare the potatoes.

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 UNIT – 4
CONCISE CULINART HISTORY, CHOCOLATE COOKERY
&BREAD MAKING

UNIT – 4

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 CONCISE CULINART HISTORY, CHOCOLATE COOKERY &BREAD MAKING
Evaluationand trends:

The evaluation of food:

The great chefs and their cuisine
How food has evolved through haute cuisine ,classic cuisine , nouvelle cuisine, and fusion cuisine ; with
description of the chefs who created each movement.

1) Like any other subject ,the profession of cooking cannot be understood without first understanding the history of
it.
2) many people don’t realize that we have passed through ,and continue through different “eras” of eating.
3) the way that we eat is often in response to what is happening around us. When the population, as a whole , is
optimistic and when it seems unlikely that our nations wealth will ever calter , the number of courses to the average
meal multiplies.
4)when we are on the vergi of war, and the future seems undecided and unpredictable, we reach for “comfort food”
5) when we are in the middle of a depression, we learn to make flourless cake. If we want to guess where the
culinary world is headed next, we have to first look back, and then we must look around us. What is it that we are so
hungry for now?

Guilds had monopoly on specialty food items

1) In 18th century france, different foods were prepared by individual guilds in charge of manufacturing goods for
purchase.
2) guilds were able to consistently manufacture and price food items for sale. Unfortunately, consistency often
comes at a price.
3)each guild, in essence, had a monopoly on their specialty food items. The first restaurant opened in France in
1765 claimed sheep feet in white sauce as it specialty.
4) this restaurant was closed when a guild claimed that the restaurant owner had infringed upon their rights of
exclusivity.
5) the restaurant’s owner, monsieur Boulanger, won the suit and reopened his restaurant.
6) this restaurant was the first establishment to prepare and serve foods on the same premises, and to cater to
customers who came to an establishment simply to eat.
7) in the 1800s haute cuisine began to be served to the masses.
8) Antonin careme (known as the “chef of kings and the king of chefs”) introduced meals consisting of dozens of
elaborate courses to the French upper class.
9) these meals were extensively planned, with detailed attention given to presentation and garnishment.
10)careme created desserts based on elaborate architectural design, made garnishment and plate presentation an
art form, standardized the use of roux as a thickener, devised an elaborate system for classifying sauces, and
designed numerous kitchen tools and equipment.
11)careme wrote and illustrated many important books, and was the first person to establish recip.

The epicurean

1) Charles Ranhofer, the chef of the first American restaurant, Delmonico’s in new york city, published the epicurean
in 1893.
2) this book contained more than 3500 recipes, and much of the advice is still followed today – that sauces and
meats shouldn’t be repeated in the same menu, that courses should follow an organized schedule, and that high
quality seasonal foods should be the focus of the meal.
3)ranhofer invented baked Alaska and lobster Newburg, and introduced the avocado to the new york population.
4)in 1898,the dining room of the savoy hotel in London was opened under the direction of cesar ritz and auguste
Escoffier.
5) Escoffier was the father of classic cuisine, a simpler and more streamlined take on haute cuisine.
6)for example, haute cuisine classified various sauces in an elaborate system, and Escoffier reduced this system to
the five basic “mother sauces”.
7)Escoffier authored le guide culinaire in 1903, a collection of more than 5000 recipes and garnishes.
8)Escoffier also organized the “kitchen brigade” system, which was, basically, a line and staff diagram for the
kitchen.
9)by the mid 1900s gone were the rich and complicated dishes of haute cuisine. In their place was a new food
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movement based around lighter and simpler foods. Fernand point was the master of this movement.
10)owner of the restaurant de la Pyramide, point was a man who turned away from elaborate garnishes and
believed that each dish should be built around one dominant ingredient or flavor.
11)point believed that a true chef modified existing knowledge of cookery to form his own methods and
philosophies.
12) Fernand point was the instructor of the chefs who brought nouvelle cuisine to great popularity in the 1970s.
13) these chefs brought healthful eating to the forefront.

Nouvelle cuisine

Nouvelle cuisine (French for "new cuisine") is an approach to cooking and food presentation used in French cuisine.
Contrasted with cuisine classique, nouvelle cuisine is characterized by lighter, more delicate dishes and an
increased emphasis on presentation. "Nouvelle cuisine," like the earlier "cuisine classique" are both forms of haute
cuisine.

History

The term nouvelle cuisine has been used many times in the history of French cuisine. In the 1740s for example, the
work of Vincent La Chapelle, François Marin and Menon was described as nouvelle cuisine, and in the 1880s and
1890s even the cooking of Georges Auguste Escoffier was described with the term. The modern usage can be
attributed to authors Henri Gault and Christian Millau, who in the 1960s used nouvelle cuisine to describe the
cooking of Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, Michel Guérard, Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver, many of
whom were once students of Fernand Point. The style Gault and Millau wrote about was a reaction to the French
haute cuisine placed into "orthodoxy" by Escoffier. Calling for greater simplicity and elegance in creating dishes,
nouvelle cuisine is also called cuisine minceur, ("thin cooking"), because it is in general less fattening than haute
cuisine. It has been speculated that the outbreak of World War II was a significant contributor to nouvelle cuisine's
creation – the short supply of animal protein during the German occupation made it a natural development.

The "formula"

Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking. The ten
characteristics identified were:

1. A rejection of excessive complication in cooking.

2. Cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés was greatly reduced in
an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic.

3. The cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients.

4. Large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus.

5. Strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used.

6. They stopped using heavy sauces such as espagnole and béchamel thickened with flour based roux, in favor
of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar.

7. They used regional dishes for inspiration instead of haute cuisine dishes.

8. New techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used; Because even used microwave
ovens.

9. The chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes.

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 10. The chefs were extremely inventive and created new combinations and pairings.

Abandonment

There is a standing debate as to whether nouvelle cuisine has been abandoned. Much of what it stood for –
particularly its preference for fresh flavors lightly presented – has been assimilated into mainstream restaurant
cooking. By the mid-1980s some food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many
chefs began returning to the haute cuisine style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new
techniques remained.

Haute cuisine

Haute cuisine (literally "high cooking" in French) or grande cuisine refers to the cooking of the grand restaurants
and hotels of the Western world. It is characterized by elaborate preparations and presentations; large meals of
small, often quite rich courses; extensive wine cellars; and large, hierarchical and efficiently run service staffs. The
cuisine was defined by the French phrase cuisine classique until the 1970s, when cuisine classique was supplanted
by nouvelle cuisine. Nowadays, haute cuisine is not defined by any particular style – there are haute cuisine
restaurants serving fusion cuisine, regional cuisine and postmodern cuisine – but rather by careful preparations,
elaborate service, critical acclaim, and, most importantly, obsessive attention to detail. Culinary guides such as the
Michelin Guide and Gault Millau have helped to define modern haute cuisine, although some have suggested that
their influence is on the wane.

France Situated in Western Europe, France borders with Luxembourg and Belgium in the north, Germany and
Switzerland in the East and Spain and Italy in the south. It has a wide range of geographical contrasts from fertile
plain to mountain ranges and two coastlines - to the west on the English Channel and Bay of Biscay and to the
south on the Mediterranean - 5,500 km in total, all of which contribute enormously to the nature of its cuisine.

 Ancient Times and Influences

Prior to the 1500s, three important factors to affect the cuisine of this region are the invasions of Celtic Gauls,
c1500 to 500bc who partitioned the land and introduced farming; the take over of the Romans in 56 BC who,
together with the Greeks, introduced cheese-making to the south of France; and the Moors' invasion of France in
718 AD, who are responsible for introducing goats to the region (via Spain). The Moors' influence extended to the
types of ingredients and cooking methods, and the first French cookbooks c1400 are said to have mimicked the
Moorish palate.

 The foundation of modern day French cooking was laid in the 1500s when the benchmark  "haute cuisine" was
introduced into the French courts by the Italian Catherine de Medici. Of course it has been perfected by chefs
through the ages; however it was during this period that Italian influences changed the culinary course of France
not only in cooking methods but also in the ingredients used and the way food was served.

  The Florentine chefs who came over with Catherine were more skilled than the French chefs and introduced the
use of ingredients such as butter, truffles and artichokes as well as techniques and chic dishes such as aspics.
They also introduced the contrast between savory and sweet.

  By 1652 the subtly of French cooking had taken root. No longer were spices were used to disguise the taste of
food but rather to compliment it and the use of truffles and mushrooms had gained favour as flavour enhancers in
dishes. Heavy sauces traditionally made with bread as the thickening agent, were superceded by stocks or lighter
sauces which were made using the roux method and meats were often served with their own natural juices.

  It was also at this time that the French chef La Varenne wrote the first French cookbook to present recipes in
alphabetical order and to include instructions for cooking vegetables.

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  By the late 19th century France adopted the method of serving food called Service à la russe, where dishes are
prepared and plated into individual portions before being served to the diner and a series of dishes are served in
succession. Prior to this, service à la française was used, where each course was made up of a large number of
dishes from which the diners served themselves, much like our modern day buffet.

  Unfortunately, the eating of this fine food or Haute Cuisine was a luxury enjoyed by a minority until the 20th
century. When the Bastille was stormed in 1789, about 75% of the French population was farmers who relied on
bread and cereals as the staples of their diet and even by the mid 19th Century; only the bourgeoisie (the new ruling
class) ate this wonderful food while 2/3rds of the populace in Paris were mal-nourished or starving

Current Day Cuisine

There are quite marked differences in the various regions of France partly due to the fact that until the 17th
Century, France was divided into small kingdoms, each with its own distinct culture. However, as certain regional
similarities remain true….in general; we have divided the country into three.

  The cooler climate and bordering countries such as Belgium and Germany have had a direct influence on the
cuisine in the north, where dishes tend to be quite substantial. The geographical landscape also has a strong
influence. Forest and woodland proffers game and game birds, Mountain Rivers are rich in salmon, trout and pike
and fertile plains produce superb fruit which are often used in tarts as well as in savoury meat dishes. Calvados and
Camembert cheese are two of Northern France's well-known products.

Many of the best known French dishes and ingredients (outside of France) hail from central France: escargot
stuffed with garlic butter - Escargot a la Bourgignonne, beef cooked in red wine - Boeuf Bourguinon and Bresse
chicken in red wine - Coq au Vin plus the world famous Dijon Mustard. The wonderful Burgundy wines from the
region have always inspired chefs and home cooks alike to utilise them in cooking. Lyon acclaims itself to be the
gastronomic capital of France and not only boasts of a large number of 3 star Michelin chefs but is also repudiated
to be the birth-place of Nouvelle Cuisine. However, despite the latter accolade, homely cooking is still at the heart of
central France cuisine.

 The cuisine of the south is a wonder unto itself. With truffles from the Périgord region, foie gras from the Dordogne,
Cassoulet from Toulouse, Castlnaudray and Carcassonne and one of the oldest and most exquisite cheeses,
Roquefort, many non-French people would say it is French cuisine personified. Add to this a Mediterranean touch
with olive oil, tomatoes, aubergines, wild mushrooms and garlic featuring widely in dishes from the Languedoc,
Provence and Pay Basque regions, plus the abundance of seafood to be found ultra-fresh on the coastal areas, and
it’s easy to see why this French cuisine is held in such high esteem throughout the world.

FUSION CUISINE

Fusion cuisine combines elements of various culinary traditions while not fitting specifically into any. The term
generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the 1970s.

Categories and types

While fusion cuisine is a general term for the combination of various forms of cookery, the concept can take several
forms. One approach is regional fusion that combines the cuisine of a region or sub-region into a single eating
experience. Of these sort, Asian fusion restaurants have become popular in many parts of the United States, often
featuring Indian, East Asian, and South-East Asian dishes alongside one another and offering dishes that are
inspired combinations of such cuisines.

Another incarnation of fusion cuisine the more eclectic approach, featuring original dishes using varieties of
ingredients from various cuisines and regions and combining them. Such restaurants are often trendy and have no
singular thematic cohesion other than innovative eclecticism in their menus. Such a restaurant might feature a wide
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variety of dishes inspired by combinations of various regional cuisines with new ideas.

A third approach uses foods with a form based on one cuisine, but prepared using ingredients and flavours inherent
to another cuisine or cuisines. For instance, pizza made with cheddar and pepper jack cheese, salsa, refried beans
and other common taco ingredients is often marketed as "Taco Pizza" or a similar concept, and is a fusion of Italian
(pizza) and Mexican cuisines. Similar approaches have been used for fusion-sushi, such as rolling maki with
different types of rice and ingredients, e.g. curry and basmati rice, cheese and salsa sauce with Spanish rice, or
spiced ground lamb and capers rolled with Greek-style rice and grape leaves (resembling inside-out dolmades).

Since fusion cuisine is a general term, it is legitimately applied to either sort of restaurant. While many diners
feature dishes from Greek, Italian, and sometimes Asian cuisines side-by-side, these restaurants are generally not
considered fusion as they fail to combine any elements of the cooking styles and also have no over-arching fusion
or eclectic theme

This type of restaurant's success depends on a number of factors. Among these are:

Clientele's (or prospective clientele's) cultural diversity

Clientele's travel patterns and experiences.

Clientele's culinary sophistication and openness to new eating experiences.

These factors have made this type of cuisine accepted and popular in places like California and in large
metropolitan areas. California Chef Wolfgang Puck is known as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine. However, his
restaurant "Chinois" was named after the term attributed to Richard Wing, who in the 1960s combined French and
Chinese cooking at the former Imperial Dynasty restaurant in Hanford, California.

A menu sampling from menu of an American-European-Japanese restaurant in California might include the
following items:

Sake cocktails

Salad with crisp nori topping, and a miso-cilantro vinaigrette dressing

Rock shrimp dumplings

Eel, lettuce and tomato sushi handroll

Poached tofu

In all walks of life people occasionally cross boundaries. Sometimes this is a good thing but most of the
time it’s not. Boundaries are there for a reason. It is the intuitive and prudent individual who knows when it is
fortuitous to breach certain boundaries and when it isn’t.

Boundaries certainly exist in the culinary arena. There are the interpersonal boundaries between the customer and
restaurant staff or the staff and the head chef. But on a larger scale, there are boundaries between different
cuisines and/or techniques. It is here that a brave few have ventured into the murky waters of culinary synthesis,
otherwise known as “fusion” cuisine. Even fewer have done so successfully.

Fusion cuisine began in the 1970’s, spearheaded by such culinary icons as Wolfgang Puck. Puck laid the
groundwork for one of the most commonly fused pairings: European and Asian cuisine. Traditionally trained in
Europe but equally well versed in Asian cooking, Puck’s launching ground was the apropos California, situated
midway between Europe and Asia. Over the ensuing decades “east meets west” eateries began emerging
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throughout the country, most notably in urban areas where the cultural melting pot was more amenable to culinary
integration. 

Eurasian cuisine blends ingredients and/or techniques from the two cultures. For example, a spinach salad
(Mediterranean) may be paired with tempura battered scallops, (Japanese). Chinese pot stickers could be filled
with traditional European ingredients. Risotto may be infused with wasabi. Poached tofu is an example of the
intermingling of technique and ingredient. Here the French method of poaching is combined with an Asian victual. A
less discrepant form of fusion cuisine is when two types of Asian cooking are combined such as Thai and
Vietnamese or Thai and Malaysian. Here the orchestration of ingredients and techniques is less
challenging. Proponents of fusion cooking espouse the bounty of creative opportunities and new taste sensations
that it affords.

Dissidents of fusion cuisine call it “confusion” cuisine. The point being, that all too often chefs combine
ingredients that have no business being together. The result is a gustatory nightmare. Consider this excerpt from a
recently published review of a new restaurant in New York City: “Sometimes the dishes get a little out of hand. Black
sea bass is overwhelmed by Asian spices and chop-suey style mussels.” 

Other than a lack of culinary dexterity, “confusion” cuisine occurs when chefs try too hard to develop
something innovative. Let’s face it; all the classics have been done to death. Nowadays a crucial means for a chef
to make his mark on the culinary world is to go where no chef has gone before. Unfortunately, sometimes that’s
into a black hole. 

Determining which ingredients can commingle propitiously is a daunting task. There’s a tremendous degree
of subjectivity, namely the great variability of human taste. While I would find ginger crusted lamb in miso broth to
be abhorrent, another person may proclaim it to be extraordinary. The trick of course, is uncovering those elusive
and unheard of combinations that naturally resonate with most palates despite the few inevitable
dissenters. Talented chefs can sometimes find the best of both worlds. 

Merging ingredients/techniques from two dissimilar cuisines into a single dish is not the only road toward
culinary enmeshment. There’s a French/Thai restaurant near where I live that serves both classic French and Thai
dishes that are culturally intact. The “fusion” is the mix of both types of cooking on the menu. Thus you could order
steak au poivre with haricot vert (black peppercorn encrusted steak with French green beans), or pad Thai, the
classic noodle dish of Thailand. 

The antithesis to fusion cuisine is to create dishes, indeed entire meals, from ingredients indigenous to a
specific culinary region. The theorem is that foods, (and wines for that matter), grown together in the same
microclimate, share a natural affinity for one another. Undoubtedly there is merit to this position from a biochemical
standpoint alone. Proponents of this “terroir” driven school of thought recoil at the idea of crossing culinary
boundaries. Chefs who are true to their cultural roots believe that fusion cooking diminishes the integrity of both
cuisines. More scathing criticisms attack it as an attempt to obfuscate a lack of culinary talent and/or an attempt to
jump on the latest food craze at the expense of culinary propriety. 

If you’ve never tried fusion cooking I strongly recommend you do your homework before you do. Seek out a
place with a good reputation. Whether you condone fusion cuisine or not, the fact of the matter is that it can be a
culinary minefield. You may not mind your worlds colliding but you don’t want them blowing up in your face.

CHOCOLATES

Historical background

Cocoa was well known to the classic Mayan civilization which flourished and died in the Yucatan and Guatemala in
the 1st Millennium. Alongside deceased Maya dignitaries were buried implements like jars and bowls which were
used for making chocolate. They called it Ka-ka-w. Linguistics believes that the Maya‘s probably learnt to use the
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product from the earlier Olmec civilization which flourished between 1500BC to 400BC.

The beans became a commodity for trade, an object of warfare and also a currency. The Mayans spread the
chocolate far and wide to the west of Yucatan where the Aztec established their power. In due course Cocoa
became a major source of wealth of the Aztec. To the Aztec chocolate was the drink for the warriors and the elite.
Chocolate lent itself to flavour mixtures like maize flour and herbs. It was offered to the Gods and was used to
anoint new born children on the forehead, face, fingers and toes.It was, only, under the invader Cortez, when the
Europeans, first learnt the full value ofcocoa. Its new name ―chocolate‖ appears to be a Spanish inspired blend of
Maya and Spanish.

The word was soon applied to all products of cacao. As a commodity of trade cocoa beans beganto reach Spain in
1558. As an expensive exotic spice Chocolate was gradually introduced to the rest of Europe. By the 17th century
the Italians experimented with new flavourings for chocolate including musk, jasmine, citron and lemon peel.
In1659 A. D. David Chaliou was granted monopoly for selling chocolate throughout France. Chocolate was first sold
in London in 1657By the end of the 18th century there had been a perceptible increase in the amount of chocolate
being consumed in stabs, in ices and sorbets, as an ingredient in desserts and main dishes and in pastas and soups.

It was in 1828 that a Dutchman ―Van Houten patened the screw press which removed 2/3rd of cacao butter. The
residue so obtained was known as Cocoa. This dispersed easily in water and was considered to be more digestible.

Mr.Van Houten, also developed an Alkalizing process by treating cocoa during

processing with potassium carbonate which led to a milder flavour and darker colour.

By adding the excess cacao butter to ground beans created a smooth paste which could be

moulded and remain solid when cool yet melted easily in the mouth.By 1842 Cadbury Bros. was selling block
chocolates. By 1847 Fry were marketing chocolate déleciux à Manger. Major contributions were made by Swiss for
e.g. In 1880 Randolph Lindt increased the amount of cocoa butter in his formula and developed CONCHING. In 1876
Daniel Peter produced the first milk chocolate.

SOURCES

The Cocoa tree provides with its seed the raw material for making chocolate. The scientist ‗Linnacus‘ assigned the
species to a botanical genus, which he named ‗Theobroma‘ – food of the gods. Botanically the leathery fruits are
giant berries or pods.

In this genus 22 species are now recognized, all native to central and South America, of these two are cultivated. Of
greater importance is ―Theobroma Cacao‖ from which nearly all the world‘s chocolate is produced. Cacao is the
term for the tree and for its seeds corrupted to cocoa in English.

It is now cultivated all over the world within an area of 20 degrees on both sides of the equator. This tree requires
shade when young and is susceptible to fungi and pests. There are many varieties however the Forestero variety
accounts for 80% of the world production.

Cacao flowers are pollinated by a species of Midge and grow directly on the trunk of the tree. Only a few flowers
develop into fruit or pods and average yield annually being 30 per tree. Full grown fruits are about 8 inches (20cm)
long and 4 inches (10 cm) across in an oblong shape. The green pods when ripe are saffron, yellow or red in colour
and contain on an average 30 to 40 seeds, occurring in rows and embedded in a white or pinkish pulp.

West Africa is now the largest producer of Cocao and produces over 60% of the world‘s production.

MANUFACTURE & PROCESSING OF CHOCOLATE

Ripe pods are collected, split and the contents scraped out. The seeds and the surrounding pulp are exposed to the
sun allowing the pulp to ferment. This fermentation process is completed in 5 to 7 days. Fermentation is essential
for the development of good flavour, for use in the making of chocolate. Fermentation develops ―flavour
precursors‖ breaking down sugar to

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lucose and fructose and turning some protein into free amino acids and smaller peptides. After fermentation the
beans are dried and exported to manufactures. They lose 50% of their weight on drying and the yield of a single tree
is approx. 500 gms to 1 kg.

At the manufacturers a complex process of roasting and grinding turns the seeds into chocolate mass i.e. cocoa
and cocoa butter. These two are mixed in varying proportion to form chocolate. Chocolate that contains a very high
percentage of cocoa butter and is known as CHOCOLATE COUVERTURE.

Before preparing chocolate for dipping, moulding, coating, sauces, etc. they must be stabilised or tempered.

TEMPERING

Before preparing chocolate for use they must be stabilised or tempered. This process applies only to genuine
chocolate containing very high cocoa butter or chocolate couverture. Cocoa butter consists of different fats, some
melt at low temperatures others at higher temperatures those with lower melting points are the first to solidify on
being cooled giving chocolate an undesirable grainy texture. It is the high melting point fats that give high quality
chocolate its shine and snap. The objective of tempering is to distribute these fats evenly by creating very fine
crystals evenly throughout so that it becomes smooth, sets evenly and quickly.

Tempering consists of 3 stages:-

Melting: Chocolate couverture must be melted over a Bain Marie to 49o- 50o C (120-122oF)at this temp all fats would
have melted, it should be stirred constantly to evenly distribute the fats.

Tempering: When the chocolate has melted it is removed from the Bain Marie on to a marble top and stirred
constantly to about 29oC (84oF). The object of this process is to seed the mixture with cocoa butter crystals of a
uniform and stable type which will keep well during

storage. At this point nuts, fruits, etc. may be added.

RE-WARMING: After tempering and cooling, if the mass is to thick for using it must be re warmed over Bain Marie
till it reaches a temp of 29oC(84oF). This step must be done

carefully for if the temperature rises to 44oC or 111o F the chocolate is no longer tempered, it SEIZES i.e. it goes
hard and grainy.

Chocolate which has not been tempered will take excessively long time to set and its texture will not be good. Also
some of the cocoa butter with float and then set making a whitish coating called the ‗BLOOM‘.

CHOCOLATE MAKING

Manual: Chocolates can be made by hand dipping, the centres being lowered on a special dipping fork into molten
chocolate, covered and then deposited on paper to set. It is a skill which takes years to master and is a method
used mainly by craft confectioners, who wish to produce high quality individual chocolate selections.

AUTOMATED:

There are two automated methods:-

a) Enrobing: It is a method in which the centres are transported under a curtain of molten chocolate and then
allowed to set.

b) Shell moulding: Molten chocolate is deposited into moulds to form a shell which is then filled. A lid of chocolate
seals the filling in before it is de moulded.

Hand Moulding: This is done using moulds made of plastic, metal or rubber which must be kept clean and dry as
well as smooth. Molten chocolate is then deposited by hand into moulds to form a shell which is then filled and
covered by a layer of molten chocolate and allowed to set. Chocolate shrinks when set thereby pulling it away from
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the moulds so it can be easily de moulded.

TYPES OF CHOCOLATE:

TEMPERED Chocolate is used for dipping, making moulds, pastries, cake icings, cookies and meringues.

LIQUEUR CHOCOLATES can be made by shell moulding or by depositing the syrup into impressions made in trays
of starch & left undisturbed for some time, the syrup ―crusts‖ forming sugar crystals and can be lifted out and
enrobed.

TRUFFLES: Are based on a ganache flavoured with sprits, essences and nuts.

WHITE CHOCOLATE is made by using only cocoa butter

Block Chocolates

Cocoa powder Cocoa powder is made by dehydrating cocoa mass.

Drinking Chocolate: is made by dehydrating prepared Chocolate into powdered form.

Chocolates contain Phenylethlamine a naturally occurring substance in the brain which stimulates euphoric feelings.
It also contains THEOBROMINE a stimulant which acts on the muscles and Caffeine, but in much smaller quantities.

YIELD is 600 calories per 100 gms.

Different forms and flavors of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other
flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.

 "Raw chocolate" is chocolate that has not been processed, heated, or mixed with other ingredients. It is sold in
chocolate-growing countries, and to a much lesser extent in other countries, often promoted as healthy.[2]

 Unsweetened chocolate, also known as bitter, baking chocolate, or cooking chocolate, is pure chocolate liquor
mixed with some form of fat to produce a solid substance. The pure, ground, roasted cocoa beans impart a
strong, deep chocolate flavor. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies,
confections, and cookies.

 "Dark chocolate", also called "plain chocolate" or "black chocolate", is produced by adding fat and sugar to
cocoa. It is chocolate with no milk or much less than milk chocolate. The U.S. has no official definition for dark
chocolate. Dark chocolate can be eaten as is, or used in cooking, for which thicker, baking bars, usually with
high cocoa percentages ranging from 70% to 99% are sold. Dark is synonymous with semisweet, and extra dark
with bittersweet, although the ratio of cocoa butter to solids may vary.

A 200 gram bar of dark baking chocolate, with a minimum cocoacontent of 40%

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 

Swiss dark chocolate

 "Bittersweet chocolate" is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which some sugar (less than a
third), more cocoa butter, vanilla, and sometimes lecithin has been added. It typically has less sugar and more
liquor than semisweet chocolate,[3] but the two are interchangeable when baking. Bittersweet and semisweet
chocolates are sometimes referred to as 'couverture'. Many brands now print on the package the percentage of
cocoa in the chocolate (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter). The higher the percentage of cocoa, the
less sweet the chocolate is.

 "Semisweet chocolate" is frequently used for cooking purposes. It is a dark chocolate with (by definition in
Swiss usage) half as much sugar as cocoa, beyond which it is "sweet chocolate." Semisweet chocolate does
not contain milk solids.[4]

 "Couverture" is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by
professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: Valrhona, Felchlin, Lindt
& Sprüngli, Scharffen Berger, Cacao Barry, Callebaut, Chocodate, Chocofig fuel chocolates, and Guittard. These
chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa.

Semi-sweet chocolate chips

Tempered couverture chocolate

Swiss Milk chocolate

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"Milk chocolate," the variety that accounts for, at minimum, approximately 87.5% of the solid chocolate actually
eaten in the United States alone, is solid chocolate made with milk, in the form of milk powder, liquid milk,
or condensed milk, added. In the 1870s, Swiss confectioner Daniel Peter developed solid milk chocolate using
condensed milk, but German company Jordan & Timaeus inDresden, Saxony had already invented milk
chocolate in 1839;[5] hitherto it had only been available as a drink.[6] The U.S. Government requires a 10%
concentration of chocolate liquor. EU regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids. However, an
agreement was reached in 2000 that allowed what by exception from these regulations is called "milk
chocolate" in the UK, Ireland, and Malta, containing only 20% cocoa solids, to be traded as "family milk
chocolate" elsewhere in the European Union.[7]

 "Hershey process" milk chocolate is popular in the US. The process was invented by Milton S. Hershey,
founder of The Hershey Company, and yields chocolate that can be produced more cheaply than other
processes since it is less sensitive to the freshness of the milk. The process is a trade secret, but experts
speculate that the milk is partiallylipolyzed, producing butyric acid, which stabilizes the milk from further
fermentation. This compound gives the product a particular taste, to which the US public has become
accustomed, to the point that other manufacturers now simply add butyric acid to their milk chocolates.[6]

Swiss White chocolate

"White chocolate" is a confection based on sugar, milk, and cocoa butter, without the cocoa solids.

 "Cocoa powder" is used for baking, and for drinking with added milk and sugar. There are two types of
unsweetened cocoa powder: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by the Broma process), and Dutch-process
cocoa. Both are made by pulverizing partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter;
Dutch-process cocoa is additionally processed with alkali to neutralize its natural acidity. Natural cocoa is light
in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavor. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes that
also use baking soda; as baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action
that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer
colour than natural cocoa. Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate
due to its ease in blending with liquids. However, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavonoids present in
cocoa.[8] In 2005 Hershey discontinued their pure Dutch-process European Style cocoa and replaced it with
Special Dark, a blend of natural and Dutch-process cocoa.

Pieces of dark compound chocolatecake coating

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 "Compound chocolate" is the technical term for a confection combining cocoa with vegetable fat,
usually tropical fats and/or hydrogenated fats, as a replacement for cocoa butter. It is often used for candy bar
coatings. In many countries it may not legally be called "chocolate".

 "Modeling chocolate" is a chocolate paste made by melting chocolate and combining it with corn
syrup, glucose syrup, or golden syrup. It is primarily used by upscale cakemakers and pâtisseries to add
decoration to cakes and pastries.

Flavours such as mint, vanilla, coffee, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate in a creamy form or

in very small pieces. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, fruit, caramel,
and crisped rice. Pieces of chocolate, in various flavours, are sometimes added to cereals and ice crea

Uses of Chocolate

Cocoa powder and Chocolate powder are used:

1. As a hot beverage.
2. AS a flavouring agent.
3. As a colouring agent.
4. For hot and cold sauces.
Courverture is used:
1. As a coating.
2. As a decoration (Piping).
3. For moulding into Easter eggs etc.
4. For sauces.
5. For ice-creams.

HISTORY OF BREAD
BREAD!!!!…….A word of many meanings, a symbol of giving, one food that is common to so many countries….but
what really is bread????

The Hungarians have a saying that bread is older than man is. More than 12000 years ago, primitive people made
flat breads by mixing coarsely ground grain and water and placing these cakes in the sun to bake. Later, bread was
baked/cooked on heated rocks or in the ashes/embers of the fires.
It was the Egyptians who are credited with using a starter of wild yeast from the air that was kept and mixed with
the dough to create a leavened product. Legend has it that a slave in a royal Egyptian household forgot about some
dough he had made and kept aside. When he returned, it had doubled in size. Trying to hide the mistake, the dough
was punched down furiously and baked. The result was lighter bread than anyone had ever tasted.

The ancient Greeks had over 50 kinds of bread. The government built public bakeries and ovens for every ones use
and were popular places to meet the neighbors. The Romans continued the idea of the public bakeries. They also
required that every baker put an identification stamp on their loafs. In Roman times, grain was ground with
millstones and the finest flour was sifted through silk sieves.

Good food needs good bread and to make good bread one needs to understand the components (ingredients) that
are used in bread making, and their functions. The basic ingredients are Flour, Salt, Yeast and Water.

Before we go on to discuss the different components of bread, let us first list the different types of dough.

Bulk Fermented Dough: This is the process that most bakers use to prepare bread. Flour and salt are blended with
yeast and water and mixed to smooth clear dough. The dough is then covered to prevent drying out and a skin
forming, and then giving a period of bulk fermentation. Here all the ingredients are mixed at once and allowed to
ferment. The dough is then knocked back (de gassed) after about two thirds of the fermentation has taken place
and then kneaded to encourage further yeast activity. In addition, to equalize the dough temperature. When the
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fermentation is complete, the dough is weighed off into loafs/rolls. The total fermentation can vary from one to
twelve hours, depending on the recipe.

No Time Dough: This process speeds up the fermentation process by adding an improver that contains chemicals
that would naturally be produced by fermentation, given a little more time. Flour, Yeast, Salt and water with the
improver are blended into a dough, but the mixing is continued for almost double the time. Until the gluten is
developed sufficiently. It is preferable to use a machine rather than mixing by hand. When mixing is complete, the
dough is ready for scaling (weighing). A little extra yeast is added in recipes using improvers, as the quick
fermentation does not allow the yeast to grow to its normal levels. As this process does not allow time for the
gluten to mellow properly, about 4% extra water must be added to compensate. The extra water will increase the
yield, which should pay for the improver. No time dough is ideal for those kitchens with limited time, space and
facilities. Improvers also assist prolonged quality maintenance. Improvers also help make reasonable quality bread
that has less gluten (weak flour).

 Ferment and Dough: This process is meant for heavily enriched dough’s, to allow yeast to become accustomed to
the high amount of fat and sugar, which have been added, and which will slow yeast activity. In the first stage, the
ferment yeast is blended into a thin batter and fermented with about 20% of the flour mentioned in the recipe and
with all the water. Fermentation depends on the yeast content. It is best fermented in a prover or in similar
conditions. The first ferment is then blended with the rest of the flour, salt, fat and perhaps milk powder to form a
dough. This is the second or the dough stage and is bulk fermented for roughly the same time as the ferment. The
dough can then be scaled.

TEMPERATURE

It is important to maintain the ideal dough temperature, which controls the speed of fermentation. Even for basic
bread dough, it is necessary to be exact to get the best from the raw material. The best temperature for
fermentation is between 25 C and 28 C. Above 32 C, fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker. Under
24 C, fermentation is slow. As water temperature can be readjusted, it is the medium that controls the temperature
of the dough, determines the water temperature and the rule of thumb is the doubling method. Double the required
dough temperature, take the temperature of the flour and subtract that from the above number. The result is the
required water temperature. If the dough is required at 28 C, and the flour temperature is 18 C, then 2x28=56, 56-
18=38. Therefore the water temperature should be 38 C. Water is essential to bread making to hydrate the
insoluble wheat portions forming gluten. Dissolve the salt, sugar and soluble proteins and form an elastic dough.
Water has a marked effect on the speed of fermentation – a thin batter fermenting faster than a tight dough. The
water content in dough will vary according to the water Absorption Powers (WAP) of various flours.

THE COMPONENTS

SALT – good bread needs salt to offset the blandness and bring out the flavors present. It is also necessary to
stabilize the gluten, help retain the moisture and control the fermenting yeast, which in turn will affect the crumb or
texture of bread and the crust color. Fermentation is too rapid in dough with too little salt, which checks the growth
of yeast so more sugar is converted to gas. Because the gluten is also weakened, it offers less resistance to the
gas expansion, leaving too much volume and loose crumb texture. The bread lacks brightness and the flavor is
insipid. Too much salt seriously retards yeast activity. Excessive amounts will stop fermentation. With the yeast
activity slowed down, there is a corresponding of the tightening of the gluten resulting in a smaller volume. At worst,
the result is a heavy, rubber like mass with a taste of excessive salt.

 YEAST – is a living organism of the fungal family of plants, which changes sugar into CO2 (carbon di oxide),
alcohol and other by-products. The gas is caught up in the gluten network, which aerates the dough. The second
function of yeast, equally vital to producing quality bread, is to assist the ripening or mellowing of the gluten in the
dough, so that when the item is baked, the gluten is in a condition, which gives evenly to the expanding gases and at
the same time retains them (gases). For fermentation to occur, yeast needs a source of glucose (a simple sugar).
Small amounts of glucose and fructose in the dough are fermented directly by the yeast. Other sugars and
- 102 -
carbohydrates are converted to glucose by enzymes in the flour. Yeast must be in a good condition to work
efficiently. It should be cool to the touch and a creamy color. If it is dark ad of a soft sticky consistency, with an
unpleasant odor, then it should not be used. Small quantities can be kept pressed into a small bar and stored in a
cool place. Yeast works best between 25C and 28C. Above this, the fermentation is rapid but gets progressively
weaker as the temperature increases until 55C to 60C, when yeast is killed. Between 23C and 25C, yeast works
slowly, till at 25C, fermentation stops. It should never be mixed with dry salt or sugar or dispensed in a strong
solution of either, which will kill the yeast. As a living organism, it can never be dissolved in liquid.

 FLOUR - there are two basic types of flour used for bread making, whole meal and strong white flour. Whole meal
flour contains whole-wheat grains, with nothing added or taken away during processing, Strong with flour has
higher protein content and therefore more gluten than soft cake flour. Whole meal flours have a higher water
absorption rate than white flours so the dough may be stickier. Extra enzymes in the bran coating of the grain
speed up the dough ripening so the dough temperature should be a little cooler to slow down the fermentation.
Because the physical and chemical changes in the dough are more rapid, whole meal dough needs shorter
fermentation.

 GLUTEN - Without gluten in the dough, there could be no bread. Gluten is developed in bread during the
manipulation (mixing) of the dough, when two proteins – glutenin and gliadin combine in the presence of moisture
(water) to form gluten. Gluten strands traps the gas generated by the yeast and holds it in the dough structure.
When it coagulates, it becomes the framework of the dough, so that it does not collapse. Gluten is conditioned by
many factors including the amount of yeast and how active it is, the amount of salt and water in the dough,
fermentation time, dough temperature, the acidity of the dough and manipulation (kneading). Given good material
and correct balance, nothing contributes to good bread making than properly made dough. The kneading,
fermentation and the knocking back are also important. Proper mixing gives gluten the opportunity to absorb the
maximum water and become thoroughly hydrated.

 IMPROVERS - contain chemicals, which would be produced in dough naturally, given time, under the skilled eye of
the baker. The are used in no Time dough, 1 to 1 1/2 % for rich dough and 2½% in leaner dough. For basic bread
goods 2% improver are added to the flour, water salt and yeast, and is calculated on the basis of the flour only. For
dough that is enriched with fat and sugar and eggs, 1 to 1 1/2% is enough. The active ingredients in a typical
improver would include sugar, pure emulsifier, soya or guar flour, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and enzyme active malt
flour.

RETARDATION

Retardation is the arresting of fermentation at temperatures between 2 C and 4 C. It enables the dough to be made
in bulk, retarded and then baked through the day as and when required. This ensures freshness and standard quality.
Enriched dough which ferments slowly, retard the best and can be kept for up to 72 hours. Retardation can be done
in two ways:  the dough is given between 50-70% of its Bulk Fermentation Time (BFT), then rolled out in 3 kgs-4kgs
pieces to quickly take out its heat, and then refrigerated. In the second method, the dough is again given 50-70% of
its BFT and then made into pieces, refrigerated and then kneaded, and then brought back to room temperature. The
final proving should not be forced. The dough should be cooled before retarding as a high temperature will extend
fermentation before retardation is effective. To avoid crusting of the dough, it should be kept in the refrigerator at
75% humidity or in polythene bags.

 DOUGH ENRICHMENT

Dough is sometimes enriched with fat, milk or egg yolks, to increase the food value, add to the taste and flavour,
and to produce a softer crumb (texture) and also to retard staling. Salt will have to be reduced when using salted
butter. Fermentation is slower in enriched dough, so the dough should be kept a little softer and for a slightly longer
time.

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 POINTS TO NOTE

- Take careful note of the formula/recipe and the method,

- See that the scales are accurate and the scale pans are clean.

- Carefully weigh the flour, sieve it, and take temperature,

- Calculate water temperature and measure.

- Disperse yeast in a little water, add salt in the rest of the water and add     to the flour,

- Mix thoroughly until clear and elastic.

-Take the dough temperature and cover the dough to prevent skin formation. - Prove in a place at the correct
temperature or in the prover.

- Knock back when proved according to the BFT.

- Prove rolls in the prover or at controlled temperature and humidity.

- Cover with greased polythene sheet to prevent skin formation

- Egg/starch wash and cutting is best done when the dough is ¾ proved.

    Rolls are baked at 230 C with steam.

STEPS IN BREAD MAKING OPERATIONS

To start with, the ingredients should be correctly scaled and weighed as per a good recipe. Baking is a science, it is
essential to begin correctly with the right ingredients in the correct proportions.

1. FERMENTATION:  the dough should be fermented for the proper length of time, during which the yeast cells act
on the sugars and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. A number of physical and chemical changes take place
during this time.

Physical changes include:

    steady increase in the volume of the dough and can be up to five times its original volume

    increase in temperature by about 5 C to 6 C

    Increase in the number of yeast cells by about 26% in straight dough and 56% in sponge dough.

    Loss of moisture

    Change in the consistency of the dough – it becomes soft, elastic and extensible

Chemical changes include:

    the PH of the dough reduces from 5.5 to 4.7 due to the production of acetic acid, lactic acid, sulphuric acid and
hydrochloric acid

    formation of maltose by diastatic enzymes by acting on starch

    production of carbon dioxide and alcohol by enzymatic reactions

    Mellowing of the gluten by proteolytic enzymes present in the flour and yeast.
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Fermentation time will depend on:

    type of flour

    quantity of the yeast

    temperature of the dough

    presence of yeast food (sugar)

 2. FERMENTATION CONTROL

It is important to control the fermentation so that the gas production and the gas retention coincide as closely as
possible. If the peak of gas production in the dough is reached before its gas retention capacity is at a maximum,
then much of the gas will be dissipated and not enough will be left to aerate the dough when its extensibility is at its
highest point. On the other hand if the dough reaches its optimum gas retention capacity before gas production is
at its highest rate, much of the gas will be lost subsequently. Hence, fermentation control is important to have the
development of gas production and gas retention capacities at a parallel and even rate.

 3. GAS PRODUCTION:

Gas production will increase with:

    addition of malt and sugar

    the increase of yeast concentration

    the presence of yeast food

    high temperature of the dough (35 C)

 Gas production decreases with:

    addition of salt

    excess amounts of yeast foods

    higher temperature of the dough (above 35 C)

 4. GAS RETENTION

Gas retention is governed by chemical and physical factors such as minerals, moisture, PH, proteolytic enzymes
and oxidising agents, mixing, dough expansion, punching (knocking back).

 5. FERMENTATION LOSSES

The weight loss in fermented dough is in the range of 0.5 to 4%. However, under average conditions it is 1%. The
loss in weight is normally attributed to the loss in moisture, which depends on the temperature and the relative
humidity. Minor loss may be attributed to the escape of carbon dioxide.

 6. KNOCK BACK

Punching of the dough in between fermentation periods:

    increases the gas retention of the dough

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    Equalises the temperature throughout the dough and ensures more even fermentation.

    Reduces the retarding effect of excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide

    Introduces atmospheric oxygen and stimulates yeast activity

    Aids the mechanical development of gluten by the stretching and folding actions

The first punch is normally given when 60% of the fermentation is complete and the second punch is given in half
the time required for the first punch.

 7. DOUGH MAKE UP

The function of dough make up is to transform the dough into properly scaled and moulded dough pieces, which
after prooving and baking will yield the desired bread. The operations involved include:

    Scaling (dividing): the dough is divided into individual pieces of pre determined uniform weight and size. The
weight of the dough depends on the final weight of the dough. Generally, 12% extra dough is weighted to
compensate for the baking losses. Dividing should be performed in the minimum amount of time to ensure even
weight as the dough is scaled on volumetric basis. Longer time changes the density of the dough due to production
of carbon dioxide by yeast, thereby changing the weight of the divided dough. If there is delay n dividing, corrective
steps such as de gassing the dough or increasing the size of the dough should be taken. The de gassers are
essentially dough pumps which fed the dough into the hopper and in the process remove most of the gas. The
advantage of using de gassers are:

    more uniform scaling

    Uniform texture and grain of the bread.

    Rounding The dough pieces, which had lost a good part of the gas during the dividing, is irregular in shape and
sticky with perhaps cut surfaces. The function of the rounding (using a rounder), is to impart a new continuous skin
that will retain the gas as well as reduce the stickiness.

  Intermediate Proof: Dough that has undergone dividing and rounding operations has lost much gas, lacks
tensibility and will tear easily. It is rubbery and will not mould properly. To restore a more flexible and pliable structure,
ich will respond well to the manipulations of the moulder, it is necessary to let the dough rest while the fermentation
ntinues.

    Moulding: The dough is now moulded into the required shapes.

 9. FINAL PROOF

The purpose of the final proof is to relax the dough from the stress received during the moulding operations and to
facilitate the production of gas in order to give volume to the loaf. It also changes the tough gluten to a good,
mellow and extensible character.

10 BAKING

It is the most important step in bread making and the heat transforms the unpalatable dough into a light porous
readily digestible and flavoured product. The factors that influence the quality of baked products are the baking
temperature, humidity and the duration of baking (baking time). There are two types of changes that take place
during baking.

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  Physical Changes:

Film Formation: when the dough is placed in the oven, the effect of heat is the instantaneous formation of a thin
expandable surface film. The length of the time that the film remains expandable depends on the temperature and
the moisture conditions of the oven.

    Oven Spring: Sudden expansion of the dough volume by about 1/3rd of its original size in the oven is called oven
spring. In short, it is the difference in height of the product, before and after baking. The dough piece containing
millions of minute gas cells, under the influence of heat, begins to expand. As the pressure in the gas cells
increases and causes expansion of cell walls, the carbon dioxide generated by yeast in the dough is liberated at
about 50 C. the freed gas increases the pressure in the gas cells causing expansion of the dough. The evaporation
of alcohol and other low boiling point liquid increases the gas pressure, leading to an additional expansion of gas
cells.

Chemical changes:

    Yeast Activity: the yeast in the dough will generate carbon dioxide and alcohol with the rate of generation
increasing the temperature until the thermal death point of yeast (60 C) is reached.

    Starch Gelatinization: the oven spring due to the softening of gluten in the early stages of baking is counter acted
by the starch swelling which begins at about 54C. The degree of gelatinizaton is restricted by the limited availability
of water.

    Gluten Coagulation: Starch geltinization is associated with water absorption resulting in the removal of water in
gluten as it denatures, Gluten coagulation sets in at about 74 C and continues till the end of baking. In this process,
gluten is transformed into a semi-rigid cell structure. The major change that takes place during baking is the re
distribution of water from gluten phase to starch phase.

ernational breads

Name Image Type Origin Description (including main

ingredients and notable aspects)

Aish Merahrah Flatbread Egypt Made with fenugreek seeds and

maize; dough allowed to ferment
overnight, then flattened and baked.

Ajdov Kruh Buckwheat Slovenia Made with buckwheat flour and

bread potato.[1]

Anadama Yeast United A sweet, cornmeal and molasses

bread bread States(New based bread.
England)

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Anpan Sweet bun Japan Filled, with red bean paste usually, or
white beans, sesame, or chestnut.

Appam Varies India(Southern) Bowl-shaped thin pancakes, made

"Hoppers" widely Sri Lanka of fermented rice flour, shaped via
cooking utensil, neutral taste, served
usually with spicy condiment or
curry, for breakfast or dinner.

Arepa Cornbread South Dish made of ground corn dough or

America(North cooked corn flour, similar to
ern) Mesoamerican tortilla and
Salvadoran pupusa.

Baba Various China Round, thick bread, often with

thick, round (Northwestern various sweet or savory fillings.
breads Yunnan, Naxi
people)

Bagel Yeast Jewish(Ashken Ring shaped, usually with a dense,

bread izi) chewy interior; usually topped with
sesame or poppy seeds baked into
the surface.

Baguette Yeast France Thin elongated loaf, made of water,

French stick, bread flour, yeast, salt, instantly
French bread recognizable by slits cut in top
surface before baking to allow gas
expansion.

Balep korkun Flatbread Tibet (Central) Round, flat, easy to make, made of

barley flour, water, baking powder,
cooked in frying pan; Balep Korkun
is a type of Bannock.

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Bammy Flatbread Jamaica Made by frying a mix
of cassava root and salt in coconut
oil, dipped in coconut milk and then
refried.

Banana bread Sweet Dense, made with mashed bananas,

bread often a moist, sweet, cake-like quick
bread, but some recipes are
traditional yeast breads.

Bannock Flatbread United Modern types are made with baking

Kingdom(Scotl soda or baking powder as leavening
and) agent, giving a light, airy texture.
May be baked or fried. Some Native
American peoples in North
America prepare their own versions
of bannock.

Bara Brith Fruit bread United Sometimes termed 'speckled

Kingdom(Wale bread', raisins, currantsand candied
s) peel are added to dough.

Barbari bread Flatbread Iran Invented by Barbar tribes of Iran and

Afghanistan(no northern Afghanistan.
rthwestern)

Barmbrack Yeast Ireland Sweeter than sandwich bread, but

bread less rich than cake, contains
sultanas and raisins to add texture.

Bastone Yeast Italy Shorter and thicker than a French

Italian stick, bread baguette. Sometimes with sesame
cane, staff seed garnish.

- 109 -
Bazlama Flatbread Turkey Flat and circular, average thickness
of 2 cm, usually eaten fresh.

Beer bread Yeast Made with regular beer or other

bread types such as stout or dark beer.

Belgian waffle Waffle North America A type of waffle popular in North

America, but not common in
Belgium. Compared to the standard
American waffle, it is identified by
its larger size, lighter batter, larger
squares, and a higher grid pattern
that forms deep pockets.

Bhakri Unleavened India Usually grayish in color, made of

flatbread Pakistan cereals and thus high in protein and
fiber like Jowar, Bajra or Maize.

Bialy Yeast Poland Similar to a bagel, but instead of a

bread hole it has only a dimple on top,
which is filled with a bit of butter
and diced onion or garlic. Known as
a cebularz in Poland.

Bing Flatbread China Similar to a Mexican tortilla, only

much thicker; usually cooked on a
griddle.

Biscuit Yeast In Europe, "biscuits" are crisp and

bread or dry; in North America, "biscuits" are
unleavened light and fluffy.

- 110 -
Black bread Rye bread Made of rye grain, usually dark
colored and high fiber, ranges from
crispy in texture to dense and
chewy.

Blaa Bap Waterford doughy, white bread bun (roll)

specialty; particularly associated
with Waterford, Ireland.Its currently
made in Waterford and County
Kilkenny and was historically made
in Wexford

Bolani Flatbread Afghanistan Has a very thin crust and can be

stuffed with a variety of ingredients,
such as potatoes, spinach, lentils,
pumpkin, or leeks.

Borlengo Pancake Italy A thin crepe now made with milk,

eggs (sometimes omitted), flour and
salt. Originally a food eaten by the
poor and made with flour and water.

Borodinsky Sourdough Russia A dark brown sourdough rye bread,

traditionally sweetened with
molasses and flavored with
coriander and caraway seeds.

Boule Yeast France From the French for "ball".

bread

Bread roll Leavened Europe Short, oblong or round, served

usually before or with meals, often
with butter.

Breadstick Dry bread Italy A dry bread formed into sticks,

served as an appetizer.

- 111 -
Brioche Yeast France A highly enriched bread, noted for its
bread high butter and egg content,
(sweet) commonly served as a component
of French desserts.

Broa Cornbread Portugal Unlike the cornbread typical of the

southern United States, made of mix
of cornmeal and wheat or rye flour,
leavened with yeast rather than
baking powder or baking soda.

Brown bread Rye or Ireland Made with a significant amount of

wheat whole grain flour, usually rye or
bread wheat; sometimes made with
molasses or coffee. Also known as
"wholemeal bread".

Bublik Wheat Poland Made from yeast-leavened wheat

bread dough that commonly contains milk,
butter, and egg whites and is rather
sweet.

Bun Small, dome-shaped roll, of sweet

bread, or savory bread commonly
used in sandwiches.

Canadian Leavened Canada A thick, protein-rich sliced sandwich

White bread.

Carrot bread Leavened May be prepared with grated

carrot[2] or carrot juice.[3]Pictured is a
vegan carrot bread with raisins.

- 112 -
Česnica Soda bread Serbia Baked during Christmas season with
a solid silver coin in the dough for
good luck; the family member
whose bread piece contains the coin
is viewed as the most fortunate for
that year.

Challah Leavened Jewish Braided, made with wheat flour,

yeast, oil/butter and eggs (optional),
usually made by Jewish people
forShabbat.

Chapati Unleavened South Asia Thin in size and made with wheat
flatbread flour; usually eaten with cooked dal
(lentil soup), vegetable curry,
chicken and mutton curry dishes;
pieces are used to wrap around and
pick up each bite of the cooked dish.

Chickpea Leavened Albania Made from chickpea flour. The most

bread Turkey significant difference of this type of
bread is, instead of using regular
yeast, they use a yeast made with
chickpeas.

Cholermüs Pancake Switzerland Also known as a "Swiss Pancake",

as its name self explains, a Swiss
pancake, or "shredded, fried crepe".
This preparation should not be
confused with Hollermus or
Holdermus, which is an elderberry
mash.

Christmas Ceremonial Eastern Europe Christmas wafers are usually

wafer embossed with images of Christian
figures, such as Jesus or Virgin
Mary.

- 113 -
Ciabatta White Italy Loaf is somewhat elongated, broad
bread and flattish and, like a slipper,
should be somewhat collapsed in
the middle.

Coppia Sourdough Italy Twisted in shape. Sourdough bread

Ferrarese made with flour, lard, olive oil, and
malt.

Cornbread Cornbread Americas Can be baked or fried, has a golden

appearance, usually has a moist
interior.

Cottage loaf Yeast United Name refers mostly to shape of loaf

bread Kingdom(Engla not consistency, loaves are made
nd) when larger and smaller roughly
spherical balls are squashed
together, forming a cottage shape.

Cracker Crispy A baked good typically made from a

bread grain and flour, dough and usually
manufactured in large quantities.
Crackers (roughly equivalent to
savory biscuits in the United
Kingdom and the Isle of Man) are
usually flat, crisp, small in size
(usually 3 inches or less in diameter)
and made in various shapes,
commonly round or square.

Crêpe Pancake France Extremely thin pancakes, can be

stuffed with cheese, asparagus,
ham, spinach, eggs, ratatouille,
mushrooms, artichoke, or meat
products.In Canada, they are often
filled with fruit and consumed as a
breakfast dish.

- 114 -
Crisp bread Flatbread Scandinavia Very dry, traditionally consists of
wholemeal rye flour, salt, and water.

Croutons Crispy France A piece of sautéed or rebaked bread,

bread often cubed and seasoned, that is
used to add texture and flavor to
salads, notably the Caesar salad, as
an accompaniment to soups, or
eaten as a snack food. The word
crouton is derived from the French
croûton, itself derived from croûte,
meaning "crust". Most people
consider croutons to come
invariably in the shape of small
cubes, but they can actually be of
any size and shape, up to a very
large slice.

Crumpet Flatbread United Usually circular and flat, but thick,

Kingdom with pores in upper surface.This
gives it a light spongy texture.

Cuban bread Yeast United A fairly simple white bread, similar

bread States(Florida) to French bread and Italian bread,
but has a slightly different baking
method and ingredient list.

Curry bread Japan Some Japanese curry is wrapped in

a piece of dough, which is coated in
flaky bread crumbs, and usually
deep fried or baked.

Damper Soda bread Australia Made of a wheat flour, traditionally

baked in the coals of a campfire;
iconic Australian dish.

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Dampfnudel White Germany Usually dense and moist with a
bread white top surface.

Dorayaki Pancake Japan Japanese confection, which

consists of two small pancake-like
patties made from castella, wrapped
around a filling of sweet Azuki red
bean paste.

Dosa Pancake India(Southern) Fermented crêpe or pancake made

from rice batter and black lentils. It
is also served with variety of fillings
like potato, coconut, paneer,
vegetables, dry fruits etc.

Eggette Pancake Hong Kong Spherical pancake or ball waffle

popular in Hong Kong and Macao.
The food item is also referred to as
an egg puff, egg waffle, puffle or by
its Cantonese name, gai daan jai,
and is made from eggs, sugar, flour,
and light evaporated milk.

English muffin Yeast United Small, round, thin, usually dusted

bread Kingdom with cornmeal and served split
horizontally, toasted, buttered, eaten
as a snack alone or part of meal,
usually breakfast or, in UK and
Ireland, early-evening tea. In UK,
usually just called a "muffin".

Farl Flatbread United Made by spreading dough on a

Kingdom(Scotl griddle or skillet in a rough circular
and) shape, then cutting it into four equal
pieces and cooking.

Filone Leavened Italy Similar to a French baguette.

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Flatbread Flatbread General term applied to any circular
bread that is flat in shape.

Flatbrød Unleavened Norway Traditional food, usually eaten with

flatbread fish, salted meats and soups.

Flatkaka Unleavened Iceland Soft, round, thin and dark with a

rye characteristic pattern from the
Flatbread frying pan; traditionally fried in small,
heavy cast iron frying pans.

Focaccia Yeast Italy Often punctured with a knife to

bread relieve surface bubbling, or dotted.

Fougasse Yeast France Some versions are sculpted or

bread slashed into a pattern resembling an
ear of wheat.

Green onion Flatbread China Savory, non-leavened flatbread

pancake folded with oil and minced scallions
(green onions). Unlike a true
pancake, it is made from dough
instead of batter.

Hallulla Flatbread Chile Round, baked with butter, used for

Chilean aliados: cheese and ham
sandwich.

Hardebrood Flatbread Germany(Groni Dry white flat bread, consisting of

ngen) two layers, each as thick as an
American pancake, that are
connected at the dents.

- 117 -
Hardtack Flatbread, Simple type of cracker or biscuit,
crispy made from flour, water, and
sometimes salt.

Himbasha Flatbread Eritrea Celebratory, slightly sweet, often

Ethiopia served at special occasions, several
varieties, most distinctive flavoring
is ground cardamom seeds.

Hubuz Flatbread Arab world Yeast bread made with whole wheat
North African flour; Medium size; white, has
Muslim completely hollow inner (center), also
countries used for most famous lamb sandwiches
(shawerma), most distinctive flavoring
is ground cardamom seeds.

Injera Flatbread Eritrea Yeast-risen with unique, slightly

Ethiopia spongy texture, traditionally made of
teff flour.

Johnnycakeor  Flatbread North America Fried gruel made of yellow or white

Hoecake cornmeal, mixed with salt, hot water
or milk; sometimes sweetened;
probable origin: Native Americans.

Ka'ak Leavened Near East Varies with bread rings and sweets.

Kalach Yeast East Slavs Kettlebell-shaped or ring-shaped

bread bread.

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Kaya toast Toasted Singapore Prepared with kaya (coconut jam), a
bread Malaysia topping of sugar, coconut milk and
eggs, pandan, and sometimes
margarine or butter. It is generally
served on toast, and also
sometimes on crackers. It is
considered a breakfast staple, and
remains popular in Singapore. The
dish is sometimes dipped into soft-
boiled egg.

Khanom Flatbread, Thailand Common Thai street food, resemble

bueang crispy Cambodia tacos made of rice flour, usually first
topped or filled with coconut cream,
then sweet or savory toppings:
shredded coconut, strips of fried
eggs or egg yolks, chopped
scallions.

Kipferl Yeast Austria Similar to a bagel, but the dough

bread starts as a wedge and is rolled into a
crescent shape rather than a circle --
or sometimes into a straight stick.
The kipferl is usually given an egg
wash and sprinkled with either
poppy seeds or caraway seeds
mixed with coarse salt.

Kisra Fermented Sudan and A popular bread made in Sudan and

South Sudan South Sudan. Pictured is a Sudanese
woman making kisra.

Kulcha Flatbread India Made of maida flour dough, mashed

Pakistan(Punja potatoes, onion (optional), lots of
b) spices, rolled into flat round shape,
baked until golden brown, usually
rubbed with butter, eaten with spicy
chickpea curry.

- 119 -
Lagana Ceremonial Greece Special kind of azyme bread, baked
only on Clean Monday, the first day
of Lent.

Lahoh Leavened Djibouti Spongy, pancake-like, dough of plain

Somalia flour, self-raising flour, warm water,
Yemen yeast, pinch of salt.

Laobing Flatbread China(Northern Unleavened, sometimes called a

) "Chinese pancake", very like
Indian chapati, can be size of large
pizza, about one centimeter thick,
doughy and chewy texture, made by
pan frying thick unleavened batter
made of salt, flour, water.

Lavash Flatbread Armenia Soft, thin, dough is rolled out flat,

flexible when fresh, easier to use for
wrap sandwiches, dries fast and
grows brittle and hard, for long
storage.

Lefse Flatbread Norway Soft, made of potato, milk or cream

(or sometimes lard), flour, cooked
on a griddle.

Malooga Flatbread Yemen Pizza-like dough (flour, water, yeast,

salt) kneaded well, risen, cut to large
rounds, stretched, repeatedly warm
ghee spread on dough as it is
folded, round is stretched into flat
round form, baked in tandoor-like
oven.

Mantou Bun China Steamed, made of white flour, often

slightly sweetened.

- 120 -
Markook Flatbread Levant Usually large, round, about 2 feet,
thin, almost translucent, dough is
flattened, kept thin before cooking,
baked on domed-convex metal
griddle.

Marraqueta Leavened Chile Kneaded, made with flour, salt,

lobed loaf water, leavening.

Massa Sovada Sweet Portugal Round, made with milk, sugar or

bread honey, subtly sweet lightly textured
loaf, traditionally made for
Christmas and Easter (when hard
boiled eggs often baked in) times,
today made year round.

Matzo Flatbread Jewish Unleavened, used in Judaism mainly

during Passover.

Melonpan Sweet bun, Japan Made of enriched dough covered in

crispy thin layer of crispy cookie dough.

Miche Leavened France Rounded loaf, often sourdough

based.

Michetta Leavened Italy Also known as rosetta, it has a

hollow, bulging shape.

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Milk toast Toasted A breakfast food consisting of
bread toasted bread in warm milk, typically
with sugar and butter. Salt, pepper,
paprika, cinnamon, cocoa, raisins
and other ingredients may be added.
In the New England region of the US,
milk toast refers to toast that has
been dipped in a milk-based white
sauce.

Montreal-style Yeast Canada A bagel that is boiled in honey-

bagel wheat sweetened water and then baked in
bread a wood-fired oven. It is smaller and
denser and uniquely incorporates
egg and honey in the dough. It is the
only bagel to have gone to space,
taken by astronaut Gregory
Chamitoff.

Multigrain Bread prepared with two or more

bread types of grain

Naan Flatbread A leavened and

oven-
bakedflatbread,
typical and
popular in
South, Central,
and West Asia.

Ngome Flatbread Mali Made of millet, water, vegetable oil.

Puran Poli, Flatbread India Sweet dessert served for special

also called occasions and festivals, stuffing of
obbatu, boiled chickpea lentils, turmeric,
bobbatlu, sugar, and spices, cooked on hot
bakshalu griddle, served with ghee and lentil
broth soup.

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Pain d'Epi Yeast France Similar to a French baguette, but cut
wheat stalk bread to resemble an ear of grain.
bread

Pain de mie White France Slightly sweet sandwich-style loaf

bread with a dense crumb.

Pan dulce Sweet Mexico A bread that is one of the poster

bread treats in Mexico and other Latin
American countries.

Panbrioche Leavened Italy A bread similar to brioche.

Pancake Flatbread Thin, flat, round flatbread; most are

quick breads, some use a yeast
raised or fermented batter; most are
cooked on hot griddle or frying pan,
one side first and flipped partway
through to cook other side.

Pandesal Sweet Philippines A rounded bread made of flour,

bread eggs, yeast, sugar, and salt.

Pandoro Holiday Italy Traditional sweet yeast loaf, most

bread popular around Christmas and New
Year, typically Veronese, usually
shaped like a frustum with 8 pointed
-star section, often served dusted
with vanilla scented icing sugar
made to resemble the snowy peaks
of winter Italian Alps.

Pane carasau Flatbread Italy Traditional flatbread, thin, crisp,

Sardinia usually in form of a dish half a meter
wide, made by taking baked

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 Flatbread, splitting it in two sheets
that are re-baked, recipe is ancient
for shepherds who used to stay far
from home for months, can last up
to one year if kept dry.

Pane di Leavened Italy Made from durum flour, often odd in

Altamura shape.

Pane ticinese Leavened Switzerland White, distinguished by its shape

and softness, made of several small
sub-loaves or rolls to be broken off
by hand, with oil added to dough,
which makes it soft.

Panettone Sweet Italy Fluffy, base round, octagon or star

section, takes days to make to cure
acidic dough like sourdough,
contains candied citrus, raisins,
sliced vertically, served with cider or
champagne, esp. for Christmas,
New Year.

Panfocaccia Leavened Italy A bread similar to focaccia.

Papadum or Flatbread India Thin, crisp cracker-like, served with

papad meal, as appetizer, as final item in
meal, or as snack, eaten with
various toppings: chopped onions,
chutney, other dips and condiments.

Paratha Flatbread India Unleavened, made by pan frying

Pakistan whole wheat dough, ghee or cooking
oil usually in dough and on done
loaves, usually stuffed with
vegetables or cheese, served with

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 butter, chutney, spicy sauces or
curries of meat and vegetables.

Parotta orBaro Flatbread India(Southern) A common layered flatbread of

tta Southern India. This is not to be
confused with the North Indian
Paratha. Parottas are usually
available in restaurants and road
side shops across Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
southern Coastal Andhra and the
Middle East.

Paximathia Dried bread Greece Also referred to as rusks, it is

prepared with whole wheat, chick
pea or barley flour and is a common
bread in Greece.

Penia Sweet Italy Made from sugar, butter, eggs, anise

bread seeds and lemons.

Piadina Flatbread Italy Thin, usually made in Romagna

region with white flour, lard or olive
oil, salt, water, dough traditionally
cooked on terracotta dish, today flat
pans or electric griddles are more
common.

Pikelet Pancake United Usually circular and flat, but thick,

Kingdom(Scotl with pores in upper surface.
and)

Pistolet Leavened Belgium Round and small, traditionally filled

with butter and jam for Sunday
morning breakfast

Pita Flatbread Near East Round with inner pocket, as it cooks,

Greece steam puffs up dough, as it cools
and flattens a pocket is left in the
middle.

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Pizza Flatbread Italy Modern pizza was originally made
with leavened wheat flour topped
with tomato, now it also includes
almost any other topping
ingredients.

Potato bread Leavened Potato replaces part of usual wheat

or flour, ratio of potato to wheat varies
unleavened much, leavened or unleavened, may
have many other ingredients baked
in, varied cooking methods.

Potato Pancake Shallow-fried pancakes of grated or

pancake ground potato, flour and egg, often
flavored with grated onion or garlic
and seasoning. They may be topped
with a variety of condiments,
ranging from the savory (such as
sour cream or cottage cheese) to
the sweet (such as apple sauce or
sugar), or they may be served
ungarnished. They are sometimes
made from mashed potatoes to
produce pancake-shaped
croquettes.

Potato waffle Waffle United A potato-based savory food in a

Kingdom waffle-like lattice shape. They are
common in the UK and Ireland and
are also available in some other
countries.

Potbrood Leavened South Africa Produced in a cast iron pot covered

with wood coals, there are a wide
range of flavors but is often made
with wheat flour and sweetcorn.

Pretzel Germany Alemannic knot-shaped bread,

sometimes soft, sometimes hard,
sometimes sweet, sometimes salty.

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Proja Leavened Serbia Small muffins or loaves of
cornbread, was popular in times of
widespread poverty, now is a
common everyday meal.

Pumpernickel Leavened Germany Very heavy, dense, slightly sweet

dark pure rye traditionally made with
coarsely ground flour, now often
made with mixed flour and whole
grain berries.

Qistibi Flatbread Tatarstan Roasted flatbreads with various

Bashkortostan fillings inside. The dough should be
non-fermented. The most popular
filling is mashed potato but it may
also be ragout or millet. Filling is
placed on the one half of the
flatbread and is covered by the other
half. Later, clarified butter is spread
on the flatbreads.

Quick bread Leavened North America Leavened with substance other than
yeast.

Rice bread Rice bread Japan Made from rice flour.

Roti Flatbread South India Unleavened, made from stone

ground wholemeal flour, traditionally
named atta flour.

Rugbrød Sourdough Denmark Made of rye and wheat flour or up to

1/3 whole rye grains may have
whole seeds, usual sourdough base,
low fat, no oil or flavoring but salt,

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 high fiber, little or no sugar, usually
long brown rectangle.

Rumali Roti Flatbread India(Northern) Rumali in Hindi means handkerchief

or napkin. This flatbread is thin and
soft like a handkerchief. It is made
with maida flour (highly refined
wheat flour).

Rye bread Leavened Europe Made of various fractions of rye

grain flour, color light to dark via
flour used and if colors added,
usually denser and higher fiber than
many common breads, darker color,
stronger flavor.

Sacramental Ceremonial Greece Used in the

bread Rome Christian Eucharist ritual.

Saj bread Thinner Lebanon

alternative
to Pita

Salt-rising Leavened United States Made of wheat flour, starter of liquid

bread (water or milk), either corn, potatoes,
or wheat, and some other minor
ingredients; result has dense crumb
and positive cheese-like flavor.

Sangak Sourdough Iran Plain, rectangular, or triangular,

whole wheat sourdough, usually two
types: generic no toppings and
costlier topped with poppy or
sesame seeds.

Scone Quick United Small quick bread usually made of

bread Kingdom wheat, barley or oatmeal, baking
powder leavening.

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Sgabeo Leavened Italy(Lunigiana) Cut into strips, fried and salted.

Shirmal Flatbread Iran Saffron-flavored traditional

flatbread, usually made with milk
instead of water.

Shoti Yeast Georgia made of white flour and shaped like

bread a canoe rowboat baked in tandoor.
Shoti is pictured in the center of the
image.

Soda bread Quick Ireland A variety of quick bread traditionally

bread made in a variety of cuisines in
which sodium bicarbonate
(otherwise known as baking soda) is
used as a raising agent rather than
the more common yeast. The
ingredients of traditional soda bread
are flour, bread soda, salt, and
buttermilk. The buttermilk in the
dough contains lactic acid, which
reacts with the baking soda to form
tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide. Other
ingredients can be added such as
raisins, egg or various nuts.

Sourdough Sourdough unknown, A bread product made by a long

bread possibly fermentation of dough using
theFertile naturally occurring lactobacilli and
Crescent yeasts. In comparison with breads
made quickly with cultivated yeast, it
usually has a mildly sour taste
because of the lactic acid produced
by the lactobacilli.

Speckendick Pancake Germany(Groni A rye pancake made between two

ngen) iron plates, filled with lard or bacon,
dried sausage and a little syrup.

Spelt bread Yeast Made predominately with spelt flour

bread or coarse meal.
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Sprouted Sprouted A type of bread made from sprouted
bread (germinated)whole grains

Taftan Leavened Iran Leavened flour bread with saffron

and small amount of cardamom
powder baked in a clay oven.

Tandoor bread Flatbread A type of bread baked in a clay oven

that is called atandoor.

Teacake Sweet bun United Fruited sweet bun usually served

Kingdom toasted and buttered.

Texas toast Toasted United A type of packaged bread (not sold

bread States(Texas) toasted as the name implies) which
is sold sliced at double the typical
thickness of most sliced breads.
While it can be used in the same
manner as ordinary bread slices
such as in sandwiches, it is
especially useful for dishes involving
liquids, such as barbecue sauce, or
where extra thickness can improve
the product, such as French toast. It
is typically a white bread.

Tiger bread Rice bread Netherlands Rice paste bread made with sesame
oil and with a pattern baked into the
top made by painting rice paste onto
the surface prior to baking. The
paste dries and cracks during the
baking process, creating a two-
colour effect similar to a tiger's
markings, hence the name.

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Toasted bread Leavened A bread that has been browned by
exposing to radiant heat.

Tortilla Flatbread Mexico Thin flatbread made from finely

ground wheat flour. Originally
derived from the corn tortilla (tortilla
in Spanish means "small torta", or
"small cake"), a bread of maize
which predates the arrival of
Europeans to the Americas, the
wheat flour tortilla was an
innovation after wheat was brought
to the New World from Spain while
this region was the colony of New
Spain. It is made with an
unleavened, water based dough,
pressed and cooked like corn
tortillas.

Tsoureki Leavened Greece Sweet bread formed of braided

strands of dough; may also be
savory.

Tunnbröd Flatbread Sweden Soft (used as wrap for other food),

or crisp (used with fermented
herring), many variants depending
on type of grain (any mix of wheat,
barley, rye), leavening agent (or
lack), and rolling pin.

Vánočka Leavened Czech Baked traditionally at

Republic,Slovak Christmastime. It is rich in eggs and
ia butter, making it similar to brioche.
Lemon rind and nutmeg add color
and flavor; the dough can also
contain raisins and almonds, and is
braided like challah.

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Vienna bread Leavened Austria(Vienna) Produced from a process using high
milling of Hungarian grain, cereal
press-yeast for leavening, and care
and thought in the production
process.

White bread Leavened Made from wheat flour from which

the bran and the germ have been
removed through a process known
as milling.

Whole wheat Leavened Made using flour which is partly or

bread entirely made from whole or almost
whole wheat grains.

Yufka Flatbread Turkey Thin, round, unleavened, similar to

lavash, about 18 inches (40–50 cm)
wide, usually made of wheat flour,
water, table salt, has low moisture
content, depending on how low this
is, a long shelf life.

Zopf Leavened Switzerland Made of white flour, milk, egg,

white Germany butter, yeast, dough isbraided,
brushed with egg yolk before baking,
forming a gold crust.

Zwieback Leavened Germany Crisp, sweetened bread, made with

eggs and baked twice. It is sliced
before it is baked a second time,
which produces crisp, brittle slices
that closely resemble melba toast.

Ancient grains
Quinoa
Quin-what?! That’s the question that’s crossing many-a-mind as this gluten-free grain skyrockets into popularity.
Non-GMO, organic quinoa is the cornerstone of Ancient Harvest products, and it’s easy to see why. With its mild
flavor, light crunch and impressive protein content, quinoa is the perfect gluten-free substitute for pasta, rice or
couscous. It’s also frequently milled into gluten-free flour that can be used in baking, or as the base for gluten-free
pastas, cereals and more.
Quinoa is native to Bolivia and is a relative of Swiss chard, spinach and beets—bet you didn’t know that. What’s
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more, it’s comes in three varieties (whole grain white, red and black) and it’s a nutritional powerhouse. Just one cup
contains 8g of protein, 5g of fiber, 15% DV iron, 30% DV magnesium, 19% DV folate and heart-healthy omega 3 fatty
acids.
Quinoa is also a complete protein, which means it provides all nine essential amino acids necessary for good health,
hence the name “essential.” Your body can’t produce these nutrients itself, so you have to get them frequently
through food. Amino acids support strong muscles, keep our immune systems in tip-top shape and do lots of other
stuff to keep our bodies healthy—thing is, not all plant-based proteins are created equal. Wheat, rice and most other
grains are missing one or more essential amino acids, but quinoa is a one-stop shop. Nice, right? Suddenly the word
“wholesome” takes on a whole new meaning.
When it comes to our organic quinoa grains, we always source Royal Bolivian – and we’ve got our reasons for doing
so. Click here to learn why Ancient Harvest quinoa is among the world’s best.
Check out this video to learn more about the protein power of this awesome ancient grain.
Kamut
Now here’s a grain we don’t see often enough: kamut. It’s also called Khorasan wheat or Pharaoh grain, owing to
the fact that grains were discovered in ancient Egyptian tombs. It’s healthier than conventional wheat, and has a
crazy backstory to boot.
Kamut grains made their way to the U.S. via airmail from a soldier, whose farmer father sprouted and grew them
over the next few years. Sadly, the wheat-like kernels never caught on and ended up as cattle feed. Also sadly,
conventional wheat edged kamut out of the game into near-extinction. Thankfully, once we all realized that
unadulterated ancient grains like kamut, quinoa, teff, spelt and buckwheat were not only trendy and awesome but
also delicious and far more nutritious, they came back with a vengeance.
Kamut has about 30% more protein than wheat, and more fatty acids. As an added bonus, some people who are
allergic to wheat can tolerate kamut, which is great because its chewy, toothsome texture and nutty, rich flavor
makes a delicious spring and summer salad. Use it in tabbouleh instead of bulgur wheat or try baking with kamut
flour.
Amaranth
Amaranth has been cultivated as a grain for 8,000 years.[1] The yield of grainamaranth is comparable to rice or
maize. It was a staple food of the Aztecs, and was used as an integral part of Aztec religious ceremonies. The
cultivation of amaranth was banned by the conquistadores upon their conquest of the Aztec nation. Because the
plant has continued to grow as a weed since that time, its genetic base has been largely maintained. Research on
grain amaranth began in the US in the 1970s. By the end of the 1970s, a few thousand acres were being
cultivated.[2] Much of the grain currently grown is sold in health food shops.
Grain amaranth is also grown as a food crop in limited amounts in Mexico, where it is used to make a candy called
alegría (Spanish for happiness) at festival times. Amaranth species that are still used as a grain are Amaranthus
caudatus,Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus. The grain is popped and mixed with honey. In
North India, it is called "rājgīrā" (राजगीरा). The popped grain is mixed with melted jaggery in proper proportion to
make iron and energy rich “laddus,” a popular food provided at the Mid-day Meal Program in municipal schools.
Amaranth grain can also be used to extract amaranth oil - a particularly valuedpressed seed oil with many
commercial uses.
Spelt
What is spelt?
A. Spelt is an ancient grain widely recognized for its many health benefits. Triticum spelta, the scientific name for
spelt, is a hardier and more nutritious cousin to modern wheat (Triticum aestivum). Some taxonomists classify
spelt as a parent of wheat.
One of the earliest domesticated grains, spelt hasn’t changed since Biblical times. It remains unaffected by
concepts such as ‘agribusiness’, ‘cross-breeding,’ ‘hybridization’ and ‘genetically modified’ – words that have come
to dominate our modern food supply. Known for its slightly ‘nutty’ flavor, spelt has long been popular as a health
food in Europe, where it is sometimes known as ‘farro’ (modern Italy) and ‘dinkel’ (Germany).
You can substitute spelt flour for modern ‘common’ wheat flour to make breads, pasta, cookies, crackers, cakes,
muffins, cereals, pancakes and waffles. In addition to spelt flour, spelt is also available in its de-hulled, whole grain
form (often referred to as spelt berries), which can be prepared and enjoyed like rice.You can also purchase many
spelt products such as pasta, crackers and breads ready-made, usually at health food stores, and of course at our
own online store.
One of the best things about spelt – in addition to its health benefits? It tastes wonderful! While whole wheat pasta
tends to be grainy, and crumbles during cooking, spelt pasta retains its texture so it holds up perfectly under sauces
and other ingredients.
Chia
hia is grown commercially for its seed, a food that is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, since the seeds yield 25–30%
extractable oil, including α-linolenic acid. Of total fat, the composition of the oil can be 55% ω-3, 18% ω-6, 6% ω-9,
and 10% saturated fat.[8]
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Chia seeds are typically small ovals with a diameter of about 1 mm (0.039 in). They are mottle-colored with brown,
gray, black, and white. The seeds are hydrophilic, absorbing up to 12 times their weight in liquid when soaked. While
soaking, the seeds develop a mucilaginous gel-like coating that gives chia-based beverages a distinctive texture.

Chia seed is traditionally consumed in Mexico, and the southwestern United States, but is not widely known in
Europe. Chia (or chian or chien) has mostly been identified as Salvia hispanica L. Today, chia is grown commercially
in its native Mexico, and in Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Australia. In 2008, Australia was
the world's largest producer of chia.[9] A similar species, Salvia columbariae or golden chia, is used in the same way,
but is not grown commercially for food. S. hispanica seed is marketed most often under its common name "chia",
but also under several trademarks.
Chia seed (in Persian: ‫ﺗﺨﻢ ﺷﺮﺑﺘﯽ‬ tokhm-e-sharbatī, meaning "beverage seed") is used to prepare a sharbat (cold
beverage) in Iran.
A 100-gram serving of chia seeds is a rich source of the B vitamins thiamine and niacin (54% and 59%, respectively
of the daily value (DV), and a good source of the B vitamins riboflavin and folate (14% and 12%, respectively). The
same amount of chia seeds is also a rich source of the dietary minerals calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese,
phosphorus, and zinc (>20% DV). See chart pictured at right for complete nutritional information.
In 2009, the European Union approved chia seeds as a novel food, allowing up to 5% of a bread product's total
matter.[10]
Chia seeds may be added to other foods as a topping or put into smoothies, breakfast cereals, energy bars, granola
bars, yogurt, tortillas, bread, made into a gelatin-like substance, or consumed raw.[11][12][13][14] The gel can be
used to replace as much as 25% of egg content and oil in cakes while providing other nutrients.
Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of plants in the grass family. Most species are native to Australia, with some extending to
Africa, Asia, Mesoamerica, and certain islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.[2][3][4][5][6][7]
One species is grown for grain, while many others are used as fodder plants, either intentionally cultivated or
allowed to grow naturally, in pasture lands. The plants are cultivated in warm climates worldwide and naturalized in
many places.[8] Sorghum is in the subfamily Panicoideae and the tribe Andropogoneae (the tribe of big
bluestemand sugarcane).
One species, Sorghum bicolor,[9] native to Africa with many cultivated forms now,[10] is an important crop
worldwide, used for food (as grain and in sorghum syrup or "sorghum molasses"), animal fodder, the production of
alcoholic beverages, and biofuels. Most varieties are drought- and heat-tolerant, and are especially important in arid
regions, where the grain is one of the staples for poor and rural people. These varieties form important components
of pastures in many tropical regions. S. bicolor is an important food crop in Africa, Central America, and South Asia,
and is the "fifth-most important cereal crop grown in the world".[11]

Some species of sorghum can contain levels of hydrogen cyanide, hordenine, and nitrates lethal to grazing animals
in the early stages of the plants' growth. When stressed by drought or heat, plants can also contain toxic levels of
cyanide and/or nitrates at later stages in growth.[12]

Another Sorghum species, Johnson grass (S. halapense), is classified as an invasive species in the US by the
Department of Agriculture.

Freekeh
What is freekeh?

In short, freekeh is wheat, nothing else. That's it. Well, there's a bit more. Freekeh is young green wheat that has
been toasted and cracked. It's a healthy whole grain food, much like bulgur wheat and other whole grains.

Although freekeh has been around for centuries, its recent resurgence can be traced back to an Oprah segment in
which freekeh was featured in 2010. Freekeh is part of the "ancient grain" food and health trend that also includes
quinoa and teff and is very popular amongst vegetarians and vegans.

You might occasionally see freekeh called farik or even frik.

Like bulgur wheat, freekeh is a whole grain, but is usually sold cracked which increases its usability, since cooking
time is reduced, but doesn't change it's nutritional content.
Cracked or not, freekeh is a healthy whole grain. Whole freekeh (uncracked) takes about 45-50 minutes to simmer,
while the cracked variety takes about 15-20 minutes to soften.

To prepare freekeh, you'll want a little bit more than a 2:1 ratio of liquid to freekeh, so about 2 1/2 cups of water or
vegetable broth for every cup of freekeh. Simmer freekeh, covered, for 15-20 minutes. When the liquid is absorbed
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and the grains are soft, they're ready to be used. Like pasta, some people prefer to cook freekeh in salted water with
a bit of oil, but this is a personal preference.

If you're already used to cooking with whole grains, then you'll have plenty of ideas for using freekeh, from whole
grain salads, to pilafs, stir-fries, risottos, tabboulis and soups. If you can do it with rice, you can probably do it with
freekeh. Freekeh sushi

Teff
Teff is a fine grain—about the size of a poppy seed—that comes in a variety of colors, from white and red to dark
brown. Teff grows predominantly in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and thrives even in difficult climates. As such, it comprises
the staple grain of their cuisines. The grain has a very mild, nutty flavor, and it packs a serious nutritional punch.
Teff has an excellent balance of amino acids, and it is also high in protein, calcium, and iron. Ground into flour, teff
is used to make the traditional bread, injera: a flat, pancake-like, fermented bread that complements the exotic
spices found in the regional food. It can also be ground into flour to make an excellent gluten-free flour alternative,
and can be used to make pie crusts, cookies, breads, and an assortment of other baked goods. Teff can also be
eaten whole and steamed, boiled, or baked as a side dish or a main course.

Teff’s history traces back thousands of years,to ancient civilizations of Abyssinia, as a reliable support to our early
ancestors’ survival. Attracted to its delicious taste, gluten-free composition, and versatility, more consumers are
committing to teff. Along with other alternative grains like quinoa and millet, this grain has become well-known in
the health foods community because of its great nutritional value.

Types of dough icings

Royal Icing:
Royal icing is very stiff and dries really hard. Like glaze, it is made with powdered sugar and water. However, egg
whites are also added to make it thicker and hard. The end result is a hard regal looking icing with a matte finish.
Royal icing can be used to make artistic decorations that go on top of softer icing such as Buttercream icing or
frosting. It is also often used as the icing on gingerbread houses and sugar cookies. Instead of using raw egg
whites, most modern bakers use meringue powder. This is to guard against Salmonella and because meringue
powder gives more consistent results. Meringue powder is a fine white powder made from pasteurized egg whites,
sugar, and gum. When working with royal icing, it is important to remember that it dries out very easily. Therefore,
be sure to cover it if you don't use it right away.
Royal icing is similar to flat icing, but adds egg whites to produce a thicker icing, which hardens to a brittle texture.
Royal icing can be used to make beautiful, artistic decorations because it hardens when dried, but the same
property makes it less enjoyable to eat. Royal icing is used primarily for decorative additions to cakes and for
show work such as sugar sculptures
Royal Icing

Royal icing is the traditional British choice for very special format cake. It gives an elegant bright white covering and
it can be used in very simple or very complex ways. Antigue Victorian & Edwardin design show the ultimate use of
piped decoration but even simple minimal, Icing can give a very elegant modern result.

Make royal icing using raw ingredients or you can by commercial prepared powder powder mixes . These mixes
include precise proportions of albumen. Glucose or glycerin necessary for making icing for different tasks. For
example Glycerin is add to give a coating icing tht stays soft for cutting. White run-out icing needs sufficient
albumen for it to become dry and haed but contains no glycerin

Mixing method
Formula Balance Ingredient & their function Preparation for Baking Scaling & paving Baking & cooling Mixing Method
of cakes

GUM PASTE
KNOWLEDGE OF GUM PASTE (PASTILLAGE):¬GLUM PASTE:¬

Gum paste is a pliable mixture that can be used to shape flowers, favors, and all kinds of fancy shapes. Gum paste
decorations are edible, however, they are seldom eaten because they are very hard.
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Gum paste makes it easy to create spectacular floral bouquets, plaques and other cake decorations. There's no
mixing, no mess-just shape your beautiful flowers right from the package! Flowers have a fresh, just picked look,
thanks to the extraordinary shaping qualities of gum paste.

Clay like gum paste can be rolled thinner than fondant for finer detail. Gum paste derces hard and is meant for
decoration only; remove from cake before serving.

A modeling paste made with confectioners sugar, gum tragacanth, and powered starch. It is kneaded by hand or by
machine until firm enough to be rolled out and shaped easily; it may be edoured during kneading.

The pieces shaped from the pastillage.are left to dry and then fixed to the cake (or build up into shapes) with royal
icing or softened pastillage.

In the hands of a skilled confectionary pastillage can be used to create decorative preparations very close to
sculpture. Artistic pastry cooks paint pictures on pastillage plaques

GUM PASTE AS A DECORATING MEDIUM:¬GUM PASTE WHILE WORKING:¬

Gum paste feels and works like modeling clay and can be made into any color desired. It can be formed with hands
or implements or rolled into every thing from decorative boxes to life like flowers, including ribbons and bows or
what ever your imagination captures. It can also be molded in molds or around every day objects. After shaping it,
the Gum paste is set out to dry. Afterwards the surface can be painted and the pieces "glued" together and then
dusted with dusting powder.

Gum paste, also known as sugar paste, pastillage a sometimes called candy clay, is used for making all kinds of
Fandy decorations, such as long¬lasting flowers, ribbons bows leaves and just about anything else you can imagine.
It has a long and interesting history and has been used by

confectioners to make edible decorations since the late medieval period. Today it is quite popular with cake
designers.
Gum paste is really a pliable "sugar dough" mixed with gums, which makes it easy to shape like modeling clay.
Because of its sugar content, dries with the texture a cripness of a new water and can be very brittle it can be tinted,
painted on or dusted with decorating dusts. It is considered "technically" edible, but it is not palatable, especially
because its bland and doesn't taste very good.
Gum paste is versatile and is stronger than fondant. It can be rolled very thin, used for making delicate shapes or
molded into figurines, trees and animals. Pieces can be "glued" together to make large standing ones. Gum paste
dries very quickly if thin, but takes a long time to dry if thick, sometimes 24 hours or more. Decorations can be
made weeks in advance and temporarily stored in airtight containers, in a cool, dark place or kept there indefinitely
always from heat or moisture, which can soften them.

Gum paste flowers by flower guy. The flowers can be made in advance and stored in plastic boxes at the cool side
of room temperature, away from heat and humidity. Pieces within the flower can be "glued" together with a drop of
reconstituted pasteurized powdered egg white.

Gum paste contains sugar or glucose which makes it pliable and slows the drying effect or air. This is important
because the sugar makes it a good medium to work with, especially to those who need ample time to from their.

Gum paste can be mixed with other recipies for decorative work. For example a 50/50 mixture of gum paste and
rolled fondant makes the fondant easier to work with.

GUM PASTE
Gum paste is a pliable mixture that can be used to shape flowers, favors, and all kinds of fancy shapes.

Gum paste decorations are edible; however, they are seldom eaten because they dry very hard.

STORAGE

Many people save Gum paste decorations because they will last indefinitely, Gum paste can be stored for several
months in a plastic bag inside an alright container. It handles best when it is several days old. Unused gum paste
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should be kept covered to prevent it from drying out.

GUM PASTE MIX

Ideal for use with the wilton floral collection flower making set, this mix makes it easy to create pliable gum paste.
Follow the fast mixing and tinting instructions below and you'll be ready to make exquisite daisises, roses, lilies,
holly, and dozens more beautiful cake decorations ! Gum paste mix is available at you local Wilton Retailer or
through our on-line store

READY - TO -USE GUM PASTE

Wuktib readt -to-use gum paste makes it easy to create spectacular floral bouquets, plaques and other cake
decorations. There's no mixing, no mess -just shape you beautiful flowers right from the package ! Flowers have a
fresh, just - picked look, thanks to the extraordinary shaping qualities of gum paste.

TO TINT:

Break off the approximate amount of gum paste you desire to color; add a little icing color using a toothpick. With
your fingers, knead the color into the gum paste until it is evenly spread, Repeat until you reach the desired color.

TO ROLL OUT:

1. Prepare a smooth work surface - formica, plastic or glass. To be sure the gum paste does not stick while you are
rolling it, grease the work surface lightly with white vegetable shortening.

2. Break off the amount of gum paste you need (see directions for the decoration you are making). Keep the
remainder under a glass or plastic container.

3. Knead the piece of gum paste with your fingers, knead in color. Form into a ball about 1 ½ inches in diameter.

4. Roll out the gum paste ball to about 1/2 " thickness. Pick up the piece, turn it over and give it a quarter turn on the
work surface. Repeat this procedure 2 or 3 times until the gum paste is about 1/16" thick.

WORKING WITH GUM PASTE: Gum paste feels and works like modeling clay and can be made into any color
desired. It can be formed with hands or implements or rolled into everything from decorative boxes to lifelike
flowers, including ribbons and bows or whatever your imagination captures. It can also be molded in molds or
around every day objects. After shaping it, the gum paste is set out to dry. Afterwards, the surface can be painted
and the pieces "gluded" together and then dusted with dusting powder.

Gum paste, also known as sugar paste, pastillage or sometimes called candy clay, is used for making all kinds of
fancy decorations, such as long-lasting flowers, ribbons, bows leaves, and just about anything else you can imagine.
It has a long and interesting history and has been used by confectioners to make edible decorations since the late
medieval period.

Gum paste is really a pliable "sugar dough" mixed with gums, which makes it easy to shape like modeling clay.
Because of its sugar content, dries hard with the texture and crispness of a Necco wafer and can be very brittle. It
can be tinted, painted on or dusted with decorating dusts. It is considered "technically" edible, but it is not
palatalble, especially because it's bland and doesn't taste very good.

Gum paste is versatile and is stronger than Fondant. It can be rolled very thin, used for making delicate shapes or
molded into figurines, trees, and animals. Pieces can be "glued" together to make large standing ones. Gum paste
dries very quickly if thin, but takes a long time to dry if thick, sometimes 24 hours or more decorations can be made
weeks in advance and temporarily stored in airtight containers, in a cool, dark place or kept there indefinitely away
from heat or moisture which can soften them.

Gum paste flowers by Flower Guv. The flowers can be made in advance and stored in plastic boxes at the cool side
of room temperature, away from heat and humidity. Pieces within the flower can be "gluded" together with a drop of
reconstituted pasteurized powdered egg white.

You can make Gum paste from scratch or buy it ready-made or as a mix where all you do is add water. When mixed,
the recipe should be smooth and non-sticky.
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Gum paste contains sugar or glucose which makes it pliable and slows the drying effect or air. This is important
because the sugar makes it a good medium to work with, especially for those who need ample time to form their.

Gum paste can be mixed with other recipes for decorative work. For example, a 50/50 mixture of Gum paste and
rolled Fondant makes the Fondant easier to work with.

HOW TO COLOR GUM PASTE

Once you've made the gum paste recipe, you can tint it any color you desire, or divide the mixture and tint it several
different colors.

To color gum paste, apply small amounts of liquid or paste food color with a toothpick. Then with your hands,
knead and work the color into the gum paste piece until the tint is evenly applied. If you would like a deeper shade,
you can add more color a little at a time, and re-work the gum paste until you achieve the desired shade. Remember,
you can always darken a color easier than you can lighten one.

How to roll out gum paste

Always dust your work surface with cornstarch first! This is starndard procedure for rolling out gum paste to cut
any floral shape. After your work surface is adequately dusted, take a small piece of gum paste, work it a while with
your hands and then place it on the LIGHTLY cornstarch covered area. Now dust more cornstarch on the surface of
your rolling pin and roll out gum paste until it's the thickness you desire-this is usually about 1/16-inch for most
flowers, Remember, roll out one small piece of gum paste at a time to avoid drying; and cover every petal and flower
cut you make.

How to hand -work gum paste

When you remove gum paste from a plastic bag or covered container, you will need to re-work it with your hands
until it's soft and pliable once again. If the gum paste has been stored for some time and seems a little stiff, add a
small piece of freshly made gum paste and then re-work it with your hands.

Important reminders:

ALWAYS dust work surface, rolling pin and your hands with cornstarch when handling gum paste and flower cuts.

ALWAYS keep gum paste and flower cuts covered to prevent drying

ALWAYS add food coloring in small amounts until you achiever the gum paste tint you desire.

ALWAYS re-work gum paste before rolling it out to cut flowers and, if the gum paste has been stored for sometime,
add a small piece of freshly made gum paste and re-work until pliable.

Gum paste

OTHER TYPES:

Pastillaqe: is special form of sugar paste especially suitable for molding and rolling. Similar to Gum paste,
pastillage is glycerin, corn syrup or shortening and it dries even harder. It can be rolled very thin and is used
primarily for decorative ribbons, shapes and appliquds, as it dries bone-dry and crusts more quickly than Fondant, It
is also used to make sugar greeting cards, picture framers, bells, boxes or other containers which can then be
decorated with piping or sugar flowers. It is considered "technically" edible, but if eaten, it will not harm you, but it is
not palatable.

Sugar Paste An icing sugar (sugar paste) or a gum based paste (gum paste) Easy to mold, shape, color and roll out
and you don't have to wait for the sugar paste to dry before finishing the final decoration on the cake.

Gum paste : Also known as candy clay or sugar paste, it is basically made with a gum based paste with a stiffening
agent and can be modeled into almost anything. This pliable mixture is most often used for handmade flowers
because they turn out realistic look-in and for other three-dimensional decorations. It dries very hard, but is
susceptible to heat and humidity where it will soften. If properly stored, gum paste decorations will last for years as
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keepsakes.

INTRODUCTION OF SUGAR

Sugar are part of the carbohydrate food groups. Sugai4_.as we know it in the kitchen-granulated, powdered,
confectioners, or broWn- is sucrose and is the product of an extensive refining process that begins with sugarcane
or sugar beets. Although these two pants are totally different in their botanical composition and are often
cultivated on opposite sides of the glove, you cannot identify by taste alone whether the sugar you use to
sweeten your coffee came from sugarcane or sugar beets; their chemical composition and their flavor are
identical after refining. While sugar in different forms has been commercially important since ancient times- in
fact, it affected the world as much as any other single commodity during a period that lasted several hundred
years-only in the last 150 years have its chemistry and biochemical distinctions been studied. Noble prizes for
studies in sugar chemistry were awarded in 1902, 1937, and 1970.

Sugar consumption, as it relates to nutrition has been the topic of much debate and there are those who feel that
eating sugar can produce negative side effects running the gamut from depression to hyperactivity, especially in
children. While it is accepted that consuming sugar can lead to dental problems and raised insulin levels, no
other physical or emotional detriments have been substainted by research. The food and Drug Administration
(FDA) has stated that there is no conclusive evidence on sugars that demonstrates a hazard to the general public
when sugars are consumed at the levels that are current and are now practiced. In other words as with
everything else, moderation is the key. Of course, there are individuals with specific health concerns that require
them to monitor their make of sugar or abstain from it altogether.

All sugars are converted to glucose in the body in the same way, whether the source is refined sugar or naturally
occurring sugar-in fruit , for example. Sugar, like all carbohydrates provides 4 calories per gram, the same as
protein, and is obviously fat-free. With today's focus on reducing fat consumption, sugar can play an
important role in providing flavor and appeal without fat. However, while carbohydrates are the body's primary
source of energy, sugar calories are basically empty calories, containing only trace amounts of vitamins and
minerals.

The work sugar is most commonly used to refer to granulated table sugar. However, many other types of sugar, with
different chemical structures, are used in the pastry shop. The specifics and distinctions between various sugar
products, such as granulated sugar, brown sugar, confectioners sugar, maple sugar, invert sugar, turbinado
sugar, and so on are discussed below.

Sugars are divided into two basic groups; double sugars called disaccharides, which consist of two simple sugars
linked together-these include sucrose (beet and cane sugar), maltose (Known as, malt sugar) and lactose (the
sugar found in milk); and single sugars, or simple sugars, which are called monosaccharides. Simple sugars
include glucose (also called

dextrose) and fructose( also called levulose). In sugarcane and sugar beets, glucose and fructose, both
monosaccharides, or simple sugars, conbine chemically to form the disaccharide, of double sugar, sucrose,
Glucose is added to boiled sugar for many of the techniques used in decorative sugar work. Glucose is also the
form of sugar into which digested carbohydrates are metabolized in the sweetener. These types of sugar vary a
great deal in their sweetness. Lactose is less sweet than sucrose, and fructose is sweeter than both lactose and
sucrose.

The production of sugar has a long and interesting history and has been responsible for changing the course of
many nations, and indeed world history, through sugar's commercial exchange and consumption. Though sugar
has brought pleasure and riches to man, thousands of people were sacrificed during the evolution of its production, as
nearly all of the early mass sugar trade was supported by slavery.
Europeans first tasted sugar at the time of the crusades until then honey had been the only sweetener known in
that part of the world but sugar (although not in the form we know it ) had already existed in the tropical parts of
the world for many hundreds of years, Presumably, sugarcane and, therefore, its early refinement originated in new
Guinea, then spread through the islands of the south pacific to southeast Asia and India . From there, it went to
china and the ancient Arab world, all long before reaching Europe and much longer still before it came to the
Americas, Over time, the taste of red honey, as sugar was once called, improved with better refining techniques
although the process used all the way from the Middle Ages up to the 1800s (when machinery changed the
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manufacture) was fundamentally the same¬extracting the sugar cane juice, boiling the juice, clarifying (this was
done using egg white or animal blood), and crystallizing. The methods used to accomplish these tasks have
simply become more modern over tie. The partially purified sugar that was originally introduced to Europe from
the east had a bitter aftertaste and was very expensive compared with honey which had a better flavor, sugar,
therefore, was definitely a luxury item at first, more common as a status symbol and as medicinal agent than as a
sweetener. It was some time before the craft of the confectioner, or sugar baker (as it was appropriately called at
one time) came into being.

In the 1400s, European explorers, including Columbus, brought sugarcane cuttings to the Caribbean and south
America, and the plants flourished in the moist, warm climate. When the explorers returned with news of these
desirable and unprotected lands, prefect for growing sugar cane, the possibilities for production and the end
to dependence on Eastern sugar sources were immediately evident. By the middle of the 1500s and early 1600s ,
sugar had become a major trade commodity and a form of currency, Europe was importing several tons annually,
and a person with a large chunk of sugar (a sugarloaf) in his kitchen was considered very well-to-do. Sugar
production in South America and the Caribbean islands had become the largest most lucrative industry in the world
at the start of the 1960s, supported, for the most part, by slave trade. Many of the Caribbean islands , as well as the
coasts of western Africa, brazil, and Mexico, had been

colonized first by Portugal and Spain, then by the English, Dutch, and French, Hundreds of sugar factories were in
production, and native island populations were virtually exterminated through forced labor on the plantations.
Soon, Africans were abducted and brought as slaves to the islands, resulting in a trade network between the islands,
the North American colonies, and Europe, and paving the way for the future slave era in the southern United States.

Sugar trade continued to affect the world for the next century: Numerous land exchanges and political decisions
were based on its production, and the wealth it brought shifted the balance of power, When France lost the sugar
Islands in the West Indies to England in the late 1700s, its economic standing was severely affected. This was one
of the reasons France supported the American colonists in the Revolutionary War. The huge fortunes made by
English plantation owners contributed, in large part, to the financing of the Industrial Revolution. Abolitionists,
meanwhile, especially in Britain, were fighting for a ban on sugar products because of the slave labor used in its
production; sugar manufacturers in East India, who made their product without slaves, as well as the retailers
offering East Indian sugar, made sure that that point was known Eventually, as the European countries gradually
outward slavery in the West Indian colonies, sugarcane production in the areas declined. This era of sugar virtually
controlling the world lasted approximately 200years, during which millions of human beings lost their lives to its
cause. In a history of Food by Maguelonne Toussaint-samat (1987), Werner sombart is quoted on this subject: " We
grew rich because whole races died for us. For us, continents were depopulated" The same source quotes Bernardin
de Saint Pierre expressing a similar sentiment; " I do not know whether coffee and sugar are necessary to the
happiness of Europe, but I know very well that those two plants have brought misfortune on both parts of the world.

Because the majority of the sugarcane was grown far away, required transportation, and its availability and price in
Europe continued to be dependent on world conditions. Euripeans attempted to cultivate sugarcane at home,
although without success. A breakthrough occurred in the mid-1700s when a German pharmacist, Andreas Marggraf,
discovered that the surose in beets was identical in chemical composition to the sucrose in sugarcane. In 1787, he
perfected a way to boil the sap from a particular variety of beet that rendered a coarse grain with the look and
taste of cane sugar. With this, the sugar beet industry was born. The trend then spread to France, Russia,
Sweden, and Austria-Hungary. The first sugar beet factory was opened in Germany in 1803. Today, the sugar beet
industry is responsible for more than one-third of the world's sugar production.

Sugarcane production in North America began during the 1600s; the first sugar refinery was built in New York City
in 1689, Sugar production did hot become a major industry in the United states, however, until the 1830s. In 1868.
Claus spreckels of Sanfrancisco invented a new, faste method for refining sugar and opened a major refinery in
California. Finally, by the late 1800s sugar had become the affordable, much used product we know today. Since
1979, the world had made more sugar than can be sold. Consumption

in the united states now stands at about 9 million pounds (4 million Kg) per year.

The ratio of sugar used in the food industry to that used by consumers has changed drastically in the last several
decades. In the early to middle part of the twentieth century. When most food was prepared at home. Consumer use
accounted for about two-thirds of toatal sugar consumption and food manufacture was responsible for about
one-third Now, with much less of the food production requiring large amounts of sugar being done at home-baking,
canning fruit, curing meat, and preparing jams and preserves-those numbers have almost exactly reserved; the food
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industry currently uses a bit more than tow-thirds of total production in the manufacture of processed products.

Sugarcane and sugar beets are the primary sources for commercial sugar production, which consists of harvesting
these sucrose-rich plants and converting the surose into crystallized sugar. Other sources that yield sucrose are
maple sap, sorghum cane, some date and palm trees, water melons, and grapes, but their cultivation for the purpose of
sugar production is negligible in comparison. The worlds largest producers of cane sugar are Brazil, India, Cuba
Mexico, the United States, and Pakistan. Producers of beet sugar include the Ukraine, Russia, Germany, France, and
the United states.

All green plaints manufacture glucose in their leaves through a process called photosynthesis, by which plants transform
the sun's energy into food. In the leaves, the glucose is converted to sucrose before being transported to the roots and
stems. Most plants convert the sucrose a step further making it into starch for storage, Sugarcane and sugar beets
manufacture sucrose in great quantities but, unlike most other plants, they store in unchanged, Figure A-4 illustrates
and process of refining sugarcane and sugar beets.

Refining and processing sugarcane

Sugarcane is a tropical grass that is cultivated in warm moist climates. The canes grow from a little less than a
year to close to three years before harvest, each cane growing to between 10 and 20 feet (3 and 6 m) high. Raw
cane sugar contains 12 to 14 percent sucrose. Sugarcane is produced in the United states in Florida, Louisiana,
Hawaii, and Texas. The production process occurs in two locations at sugar mills and sugar refineries. The plants
are harvested by cutting the cane off close to the ground with machines or, in some areas, by hand, using a
machete. The leaves are stripped off the stalks, which are transported to a sugar mill. The refining process begins by
crushing and shredding the stalks. The resulting material is passed through and pressed under a series of
heavy rollers to extract the cane juice. The waste product left from this process is called bagasse and is most
often used a fuel to run the mills; it is also processed into paper. The cane juice is clarified by adding milk of lime
(made from limestoren) and carbon dioxide. As the carbon dioxide creates bubbles, the lime forms calcium
carbonate. These chalklike crystals bubble through the mixture, attracting the nonsugar matter such as wax, fats,
and gums away from the jice. The calcium carbonate and other mate rails then settle to the bottom, leaving the
clarified sugar cane juice. The

juice is next concentrated by boiling in several stages under a vacuum, which allows the syrup to boil this stage, it
becomes a thick, brown syrup called massecuite. The syrup is crystallized by evaporating the last amount of
water and is then passed into a centrifuge with a perforated basket at the center. After spinning and drying. The
result is golden raw sugar; this is not the same as the product labeled raw sugar, which is sold commercially.

The raw sugar is approximately 96 to 98 percent sucrose. The crystals are light brow because they are covered by
thin film of molasses. The molasses film contains sugar water, and impurities such as plant materials. At this stage
the raw sugar is transported from the sugar mill to a sugar refinery. Almost always by shi, which is the reason
that major refineries are located at seaports.

At the refinery, the raw sugar is transformed into granulated sugar, brown sugar, and other products for both
consumers and the food industry. The raw sugar is first mixed with a warm syrup made of water and sugar, which
essentially washes the raw sugar to loosen the molasses coating. The mixture is spun in large centrifuges again,
separating the molasses film fron the crystals. The crystals are washed and dissolved into a syrup that is filtered to
remove any remaining molasses and impurities. The sugar is now a clear golden liquid. Further filtering removes
the remaining color, leaving transparent white syrup (whiteners and bleaches are not used to remove color). Some
of the water content is removed and the concentrated syrup is conveyed to a vacuum, where fine sugar crystals
are added. As evaporation occurs, large sugar crystals from around the fine crystal seeds, resulting in crystals of the
proper size. The sugar goes to a centrifuge gain, where any non crystallized syrup is spun off and the crystals are
washes. The damp crystals then go to dryers, After drying the sugar granules are sifted through screens to
separate the crystals by size for packaging.

Refining and processing sugar beets

Sugar beets grow in temperature climates and store sugar in their roots. Sugar beets are raised in many of the United
states, including California Colorado, Idaho, Michigan, Ohio, Oregon, Washington, and many of the Great Plains states. The
sugar beet crop contributes slightly less than half of the total U.S. Sugar crop. Sugar beets weigh about 2 pounds
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(910 g) each and contain 16 to 18 percent sucrose in their raw form. Their growing season is about five months long.
Unlike sugarcane, the process for refining sugar beets takes place all at one location, generally near the growing area,
as the beets do not travel well. Sugar beet factories operate seasonally in response to the harvest; during the time
of operation, the facilities may be in production continuously day and night, seven days a week.

The refining process is basically the same as for sugar cane, although not as many steps are involved. The first
step at the factory is to wash and slice the beets; which then go into a tank known as a diffuser, where they are
agitated as hot water washes over them, The sugar-laden water is drawn off, and the remaining beet pulp is
processed separately, usually for livestock

feed. The watery beet juice is treated with milk of lime and carbon dioxide in carbonation thanks. After the juice is
filtered, it is thin and light brown. This is evaporated under vacuum, where it becomes a syrup. The syrup is filtered
again, boiled again, and crystals now begin to form. The crystal and syrup combination, as in cane sugar
production, is called Massecuite. The massecuite is sent to a centrifuge and, after spinning, is washed to
produce pure white crystals of sugar. These are dried and sifted to separate the crystals by size before they
are packaged.

By looking at the ingredients listed in most pastry recipes, you can clearly see that a pastry chef would find it almost
impossible to produce the majority of traditional bakery products ( keeping the desired flavor and appearance) with
out using some type of sugar. In addition to providing a sweet flavor that seems to be universally popular, sugar acts
as emulsifying (creaming) agent when mixed with fat by incorporating air; becomes a foaming agent when
mixed with eggs; weakens the gluten structure of flour, contributing to a tender and fine-textured product; provides
food for developing yeast; enhances the smoothness and mouth feel of frozen ice cream; caramelizes when heated
to give an appetizing color and crust to just about all baked items; delays coagulation of egg proteins in custards;
helps prevent jams and preserves from spoiling; and last, by retaining moisture, increases the shelf life of baked
goods.

Sugar, can be used to make decorations by boiling it into a thick syrup and turning it into a variety of shapes by
casting, blowing, or pulling, or it can be spun into delicate threads. With the addition of gum tragacanth or gelatin
sugar can be made into a paste to be rolled, formed, or molded I almost any way imaginable. Caramelized sugar is
used to coat fruit and nuts for dessert garnishes; it can be made into fragile cages to showcase a simple dessert
like ice cream and make it special; or it can be piped out into ornaments, figurines, and even flexible spirals. When
nuts are added to caramelized sugar it becomes nougatine, which has many decorative uses. Royal icing is made
by mixing powdered sugar and egg whites, and it too can be used to create decorative ornaments to garnish cakes
and pastries or it can be used for showpieces.

Varieties of sugar
6X sugar - The standard pulverized sugar, commonly known as powered sugar. The particle size found in this type
of powdered sugar is that typically available to the nonprofessional. This product contains 3 prevent cornstarch to
prevent clumping.

10X sugar- A finely pulverized powdered sugar typically used when it is important that the sugar melt quickly. This
product contains 3 percent cornstarch to prevent clumping.
12X Sugar- Also known as fondant sugar, this sugar offers the finest particle size of the powdered sugars . As the
alternate name suggest, it is designed

for use in fondants and icing. This product contains 3 percent cornstarch to prevent clumping.

Brown or golden sugar Brown sugar is cane sugar that is not fully refined or beet sugar that has been fully refined
with cane molasses added to it. All brown sugar contains molasses ad many more impurities than granulated
sugar. A mixture of granulated sugar and molasses can be used as a substitute for brown sugar in most recipes.
Brown sugar is available to the professional in a variety of grades from light to dark brown; the darker sugars have
more impurities and a more bitter taste. Brown sugar contains a great deal of moisture and must be stored in
airtight containers to keep it from drying out and hardening. If the sugar should become hard or lumpy, sprinkle a
few drop of water lightly on top and warm it in a low oven, or place a slice of apple or bread in the sugar bin to add
moisture.

Castor Sugar_ Also spelled caster, castor sugar is a granulated sugar than has been ground more finely than regular
talbe sugar but not as fine as powered sugar. It is actually the British equivalent of American powdered sugar .
Castor sugar is used when it is necessary to use a sugar that will dissolve very quickly. The name derives from its
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association with the tall cylindrical vessel with perforated lid, known in England as castor, often used to store and
dispense it.

Confectioners' sugar- Another name for powdered sugar

Crystal Sugar - The coarsest variety of decorating sugar . The sugar is formed into pellets that are 4 to 6 times
larger than the grains of granulated sugar.

Cube sugar- Sugar cubes are made by pressing damp granulated sugar in molds, drying it, then cutting it into the
desired shapes.

Decorating Sugar - The granules of this sugar are large than those of standard granulated sugar and available in a
variety of textures and colors. It is commonly used for decoratin cookies, cakes, and confections, Sanding sugar
and crystal sugar are both varieties of decorating sugar that are named for the granule shape and size.

Demerara Sugar A popular raw cane sugar native to the Demerara region of Guyana. The light brown, dry sugar has
coarse crystals that dissolve slowly. Because of this, it is a popular additive for sweetening hot cereal and coffee
and for sprinkling on to of baked goods to add texture commonly used much like turbinado sugar.

Fondant sugar - The same as 12X sugar.

Glazing sugar - A powdered sugar with very fine particles usually 12 X. Depending on the brand, this sugar may have
added malt dextrin as a stabilizer to help it absorb and retain moisture so that glazed products will retain their gloss
over a longer period.
Granulated Sugar - White granulated sugar is the most commonly used sugar variety and is what is meant when a
recipe simply calls for sugar. It is produced for both cooking and table use. Granulated sugar is made from either
sugar beets or sugarcane ; both varieties are slightly more than 99 percent pure sucrose. Granulated sugar is
perfect for making cakes because the sugar granules ae intentionally made the right size of incorporating the
proper amount of air into cake batters and to melt and dissolve at the required speed and temperature during
dissolve at the required speed and temperature during baking. In a professional setting superfine sugar (not
always available to the general public) gives an excellent result when used in cakes.

Icing sugar - The same as 12X sugar.

Invert sugar- A product of sugar refining invert sugar is a chemically processed heavy syrup that will not crystallize,
thereby extending the shelf life or products in which it is used. It is used mostly in icings and flavorings.

Loaf sugar- Used to make sugar sculptures. It is produced in the same way as cube sugar.

Malt syrup - See malt sugar

Muscavado Sugar - Minimally refined, with a dark, sticky and strong bittersweet flavor. Used like molasses in goods
such as gingerbread and chutney.

Powdered Sugar- Also called confectioners sugar, this sugar is produced by grinding granulated sugar to a powder
starch is always added to prevent caking and lumping. Powdered sugar is used mostly for uncooked icings,
decorating, and some meringues.

Raw Sugar- Actual raw sugar is inedible. In the united states, the product called sugar in the raw is actually
turbinado sugar. Many people feel that this form of sugar looks more natural than refined granulated sugar.

Rock Sugar - Not a sugar used as an ingredient, this is a decorative product named for its porous, rough, rocklike
appearance. Rock sugar is made by adding royal icing to a sugar syrup cooked to 285°F (1410C). This causes the
sugar syrup to turn opaque and bubble up in the pan. The eruption (swelling) and recrystallization occur as a
reaction to quickly beating the egg white and sugar in the icing into the hot syrup. The mixture is then poured into.

FUNCTIONS OF SUGAR

1. To sweeten beverages, cakes, pastries, drink etc

2. To soften the gluken inflour and to make the bakes product more tender soft and lighter in texture.
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3. to colour the cooked product
4. To retain moisture and prevent baked goods such as cakes from drying out.
5. To act as a preservative, sugar helps yeast to grow faster by providing it with a readily available source of
nourishment.
6. As an anticoagulant, sugar helps to delay the coagulation of proteins in eggs

DIFFERENT STAGES OF COOKING SUGAR

1. Coated (100c, 212F): Absolutely trans gulent syrup about to come to the boil, when a skimmer is dipped in it and
with drawn immediately the syrup coats its surface. It is used for fruit in syrup.
2. Small thread or small gloss (101c-214F): - professional chefs test the consistency of this sugar by plunging the
fingers first in cold water then quickly in the sugar syrup, which has become thicker, on parting the fingers
carefully, short thread will form, about 2-3 mm (1/gin) wide, which break easily, It is dyed for almond paste.
3. Large thread obtained (or) large glass (102-103C-215-217F) the tread obtained between the fingers is how
stronger and about 0.5cm (1/4 in) wide this syrup in used in recipes requiring larger syrup for better greamy ,
icings, frostings etc.,
4. Small pear (103-105C, 217-221F) A few minutes after the large thread stage, rounds bubbles after the turble of
the syrup, when a little is colleted on a spoon & taken b/w the finger, it forms a wide solid thread, the used in
jamy & terrene (a type of nougat)

Large pearl of snuffle (107-109C, 224-228F) The thread sugar blow the fingers may of reach a width of 2cm (3/4 in),
drops back forming a targeted threads cat 1 degree higher Its described as in a pig tail, When one blows on the
skimmer after punning it into the syrup, bubbles are formed on other side. It is used in jams, sugar coated fruits
marrony glaces & icings (frosting)

Small or soft ball (116-118c, 241-244 F) when

Different varieties of sugar

1.Beat or cane sugar containing at least 99.7% sucrose. 2. White sugar - 99.7% sucrose.
3. Brown sugar - un retimed (or raw) cane sugar containing 85-99.5% sucrose.
4. Various types of commercial white sugars:

Granulated Sugar: Produced directly from crystallization of the syrup

Caster with super fine Sugar & fine sugarMade by crystal & sieved granulated sugar

Lump sugar : made by moulding, moistened granulated sugar white hot. Sugar loaf : Sugar moulded into a cone
shape.

Small or soft ball (116-118C, 241-244 F) when a little syrup which has obviously thickened, is removed with a
spoon and plunged into bowl of cod water, it will roll into a soft ball; if one blows on to skimmer dipped into the
syrup bubbles break loose and blow away. It is used in jams and jellies soft caramels, nougats, and Italian
meringue.

Large or Hard ball : (121-124C, 250-255F) after several boiling, the previous operation is repeated and a harder ball
is obtained; if one blows through the skimmer, shows flakes are formed, It is used in Jams, sugar decorations,
Italian meringue fondant, and caramels.

Light, small or soft crack: (129-135C, 265-275F) a drop of syrup in cold water hardens immediately and will crack
and stick to the teeth when chewed. It is used mainly for toffee.

Hard Crock: (149-150C, 295-300F) the drops of syrup in cold water become hard and brittle, but not tickly, the
sugar a canaries a pale straw-yellow colour at the edges of the sauce pan; It must be watched carefully to avoid it
turning into caramel, which would spoil it at this stage . It is for boiled sweets and condies spun sugar decorations,
icings, sugar flowers candy flogs.

Brown or Dark caramel: (Blackjack) (160-170C, 326-338F} when it has turned brown sugar lures its sweetening
power; extra sugar is added to preparations with a basis of dark caramel. As the last stage of cooked sugar before
carbonization, brow caramel is used mainly for colouring sauces calcus and stocks.Spun sugar, poured sugar, fashioned,
drawn, or pulled sugar
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THE STATGES OF COOKING SUGAR
NAME DEGREES DEGREES DENSITY MANNUAL

CELSIUS FAHREMHEIT ASSESMENT

Coated 100 212 1.240 Translucent
coating
Small thread 214 1.251 2-3mm thread
Or small
Glass 101

Large thread 215-217 1.262 0.5 cm thread

Or large gloss 102-103

Small pearl 103-105 217-221 1.296 rounded bubbles

Large pearl 107-109 224-228 1.319 bubbles with

Or snuffle
Small or 116-118 241-244 1.344 Skimmer 2cm
Soft ball Thread
soft ball

Large or 121-124 250-255 1.357 harder ball

Hard ball
Light (small 129-135 265-275 hard bot
Or soft) sticky
Crack
Hard crack 149-150 295-300 ball
brittle but
not
Light 151-160 302-325 Sticky ball
Caramel

Brown or dark 161-170 326-338

Caramel
(black sack)
Icing (confectioners) sugar: fined sugar mixed with 3.6 harch Sucre adant : obtained by slow crystallization of very pure
syrups

Sugar nibs : Rounded grains, obtained by cryting pieces or blocks or white sugar

Preserving sugar:
Special Jam sugar : gelling sugar, consisting of caster of granulated sugar natural pectin (oh-ic) & citric acid (0.6-0.7%)

• Vanilla sugar
• Liquid sugar (sugar syrup)
• Invert sugar
• Candy sugar
• Vergeoije
• Fondant, liquid caramel, pastillage, (syrups, molasses, & black treade)

CAGES SUGAR (POURED SUGAR)

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Sugar cages are most often used to perk up a plate that is simple or minimally designed they can enclose domes
or dices of mousse or parfait. Small portions of cake sorbet presentations and so on the primary tools to make sugar
cages are a ladle and a fork or spoon
• Pick up the hot sugar with a fork and gently wave the fork over the ladle
• Start at the bottom of the ladle go completely around the base and create a lattice of diagonal lines
• Wait a few seconds, them remove the cage from the ladle.

THREAD (BLOWN) SUGAR

Sugar threads are the form of choice far sable, light touches on a plate, They can be used flat on the plate to
accent the dessert forms, or placed vertically in the dessert if self to add hight.

Simply draw some hot sugar with a fork or whisk and form into threads of any shape you descre. For coils wind the
sugar thread around a pen or their object. Plastic or metal is preferred over wood because wood absorbs too much
heat. The colder the item the better.

For longer threads that much maintain some structural integrity: use an air tube to inject some air which adds stability
• To make thread coils, wrap a warm pulled sugar thread around a pen
• When the sugar thread is cool. Slide it off the pen.
• To make longer threads place a glob of sugar on an air tube. Pump airinto the sugar.
• Pull the sugar into a thread
• Form the sugar into the desired shape.

PULLING SUGAR
After the sugar is cooked it is a good ideal to pull it. It the cooked sugar is left as is it will have no shine pulling incorporate
air and gives the sugar a silky sheen.

After pulling segment the sugar and store it. The sugar segments can then be rewarmed relatively quickly and
formed into the finished garnishes. Pieces of this kind can be stored for 6 months in an air tight container with limestone
pellets. Other points worth mentioning.
• Pull sugar on a warm table if the table is too cold the sugar will get cold and break.
• Use your hands rather than a scraper together the sugar into a lump but be careful not to have sweaty hands
• When pulling sugar be sure not to twist it like a bald
• A heat lamp is better than a microwave for rewarming these sugar segments because incorrect use of the
microwave can cause crystallization.
• Pour the sugar on a silpat or oiled marble
• Start to fold the sugar from the edges to the inside
• Use your hand or a scrapes to form the sugar into a lump
• The cold side of the piece is folded into the centre. Repeat this processuntil the consistency starts to change.
• Begin to pull the sugar. Pull with one hand stabilizing the piece with the heel of the other hand.

MAKING THE SUGAR

Chefs who present sugar work as garnishes will devote some time every few months to make finished pulled sugar the
raw material for the actual garnishes. Once it's cooked coloured and cooked it is regmented and stoved for future use.
Preboiled sugar is available from some pastry supply companies.

Why does sugar crystallize

• Repeated dipping od frok or utensil in sugar
• Not skimming during boiling
• Dirty marble
• Sweaty hands
• Over working sugar
• Over warming sugar in the microwave
• Using poor -quality sugar
• Use cold water in the pot so the crystals have more time to become dissolved
• Use a paint brush to wash down the crystalbe on the side of the panand a sieve to skin off the skum from the top
• Before the sugar boils, it is very important that forms on the surface
• Stir and skim as often as necessary
• Add glucose to the sugar and water mixture
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• Add to drops of tartaric to did to the boiling sugar.

Marzipan:
Marzipan is made from sugar, finely ground almond meal, and egg whites (or a pasteurized egg white product).
Note that marzipan is different than almond paste in that it is sweeter and the almond mill is ground more finely. It
can be rolled out and applied to a cake like a fondant icing, used as a cake filling (although almond paste is more
commonly used this way), or sculpted into cake decorations. It can also be rolled very thin and applied as the first
layer of icing over which a different type of icing is applied.
MARZIPAN
is used similarly to rolled fondant because it gives a smooth look. It has a delicious and unique almond flavor.
Marzipan is made of almond paste. Can purchase ready-made.
Dough-like consistency that is rolled out before applied to cake. Is stretchy. Stays semi-soft on cakes.
Rolled out and used as a cake or cookie covering, and then, covered with a sugar icing, such as fondant or
buttercream. Can be used to mold flowers and other decorations that are then placed on a cake or served alone. /
Is off-white and can used in its natural color or be tinted.
Keep almond paste well covered and refrigerated, since it contains almonds which can go rancid.

MARZIPAN

Marzipan is a blend of sugar and freshly balanced almonds ground until very smooth. This paste has a versatile use
in pastry & confectionary products.

Marzipan is used extensively in the pastry and confectionary trade as a covering for celebration cakes, as petits
tous, as a modeling medium and as an ingredient for fancies or tertes. It is also used as a stuffing for dates and.
sandwiched between nuts for dipping.
The marzipan or almond paste can vary n quality and cost -some cheaper covering paste are made firm a blen of
ground peanuts or cashewnuts and almonds, but can not be called marzipan. Commercial products such as
batterburg, French franciew, marzipan fruit and figures use real marzipan (almond paste) or covering paste
depending on the sale price of the goods.

Marzipan and Almond paste recipes:

Confusion exists over their terms marzipan and almond paste. Raw marzipan is made up of two parts of balanced
almonds and one part of sugar almond paste, however is made up of one past almonds and two parts sugar,
together with sufficient egg glucose to made a pliable paste.

French Marzipan

Ingredients
Balanced Almond -1 kg
Bitter Almonds- 28.35 g
Sugar - 1.5 kg
Water - 450m1
Glucose - 75g
Method:¬
Blanch and shred the almonds. Beil the water, glucose and sugar to 117.5°C. Mix with the almond and wet . Grind
the mixture to a fine paste. Wrap the paste well and store.
German Marzipan -
Ingredients
Balanced Almonds 1kg
Bitter almonds - 28.35
g
Icing Sugar - 750 g Method:
Granulated Sugar - 850 g Blanchand stored the almonds Grind them cear sale with the granulated sugar. Dry
mixture in a pan over a sotid top stove. Cool and grind the mixture until the icing
sugar

Marzipan
Ingredients
Ground almonds - 2kg
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Sugar - 5kg
Glucose - 250 g
Rese water - 28 ml

Method:
Boil the sugar and water to a sgt ball all 115°C add ground almonds and mix. well. Ceal and melted the mixture
dusting with icing sugar. Wrap and store until required.
.~ Almond Paste
Ingredients
Ground almond - 450g
Caster sugar - 450
g
Icing sugar - 450
g
Egg white - 175
g
Orange flower water- 56m1
Method:
Mix all the ingredients to a pliable paste wrap the paste well in a plastic bag and store and use as required.

Almond Paste –Boiled

Ingredients
Ground almonds -450 g
Caster Sugar - 900 g
Water - 285 ml
Orange flower water -50m1
Glucose - 56 gm

Method
Boil the water and sugar glucose and flour water. Add its pound almonds and mix well cool the paste wrap well
and

Marzipan and almond paste can also be made from hangel nuts, walnuts, cashew nuts and pistachio nuts;
chocolate coffee and apricot marzipan is also used in Europe.

STORAGE &HANDZING:

Marzipan and almond paste needs to be bandied very carefully, as pastry & bakery environments provide ideal
conditions for the growth if bacteria and mould.

Marzipan is liable to ferment if flower is in contact with the paste. Yeast spores will contaminate and ferment the
paste, causing the product,such as a celebral on cake to bulge and develop a strong alcohol flavour.
When working marzipan chef should be extremely clean and organized. Dampness affects marzipan and almond
based goods, almond paste or marzipan coverings are seal on the surface and the susceptible to mould growth if
not kept in cool dry conditions.
Marzipan paste or products need to be stored correctly to preserve their shelf life. Keep the base paste well
wrapped in a cool, dry well-ventilated Store. On no account keep marzipan in a humid atmosphere or one where
flour is likely to come in contact. Wrap the paste first in two layers of Clingfilm and the place be a thich plastic bag.
Remove as much as our as possible and seal well. Almond paste or marzipan will keep for some months if kept in
these conditions if air is allowed to get to the pastes than a crust will form and the product will not be usable.

Colouring & flvavouring Marzipan:¬

Colouring needs to meet with the food and drugs acts, colouring marzipan needs to be carried out with are too
much and the effect will not be pleasing to the eye, too little and the finish might be insipid. Use a powdered of
paste based colour, water based colours may affect the paste consistency. Powdered cake colours, mixed with a
little alcohol. Produce excellent results When modeling, make all the light colours first and then the dashes colours
last to avoid staining.

Flavouring can complement the colour : as below

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Yellow : lemon, banana, pineapple, pear, or melon
Green : Apple, mint, Greengage, pear, time or pastiche
Orange : Orange, apricot, Mango
Brown : Chocolate of coffee
Pink ; Rose
Red ; Strawberry, Raspberry, or cherry
Purple : Plum or grape

Modeling Marzipan:
The modeling marzipan is an excellent paste for model items piece Monte work and fine intricate competition work.

Recipe:
Ingredients
Raw marzipan (or) almond paste -2.75 kg
Icing Sugar (sieved) - 2 kg
Liquid glucose - 500 gm

Method:
Warm the glucose to 83°C and add to the marzipan, mixing on a slow speed in a machine using the dough booth.
Add the icing sugar. Add the icing sugar and mix to a smooth paste, colour as required.

Modeling tools for marzipan work:

To produce any marzipan work some basic tools required; the list is given below:
• Ball tool
• Groved spatula
• Double ended gonge
• Plain double ended spatula
• Double ended cone tool
• Double ended podelle plain
• Double ended serrated paddle
• Selection of fine paint brushes
• Cocktail stitches
• Small sharp knife
• Selection of pastry crimpers
• Small sharp scissors
• Plastic rolling pin
• Leaf mould or cutters
• Flower cutter
• Piping tubes
• Spray gun
• Powdered paste colours
• Selection of sharp modeling knives

Modeling Techniques:
There is no one definitive technique for producing modeled marzipan work. Each person will develop their own
techniques and find out how best to produce a creative piece of art.
Advance preparation is important: planning, studying and drawing thumb sketches of the pieces to be produced
children toys, house hotel hems, pictures etc can be as a model.
Plan a piece with a good balance of colour snap, texture, and height.
• Work on small pieces of different colours using palm and fingersstarting from a banc round shape.
• Buid up the pieces by stitching them using egg white & pressingto create more complex figure
• Give final touch with small piece of marzipan or with a royalicing piping or with a paint brush & pasta) colour.
• Lightly wrap finished products with layers of cling film to protectindividual figures..

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 UNIT – 5

Kitchen management- layout & design

- 150 -
 UNIT – 5

Kitchen design
Planning your kitchen layout - Choosing and positioning kitchen wall/floor units

There are three stages to planning a kitchen:

1. Measuring up and noting the position of the existing services, windows and doors.

2. Working out the plan to get the appliances, worktops and cupboards where you want them.

3. Deciding on any changes to the services (electricity, water, drains) you need.

The following is intended to help you with the actual planning, but they are only suggestions and will not be practical
in all situations, you will often have to compromise. The golden rule is - keep it simple - and remember that the
kitchen is one of the main selling points for a house.

The principal activity zones in the kitchen are generally recognized as being - food preparation, cooking and serving,
and finally washing up. Each activity zone needs to include the worktop(s) and appliances required for that activity,
also the zone will require the storage space for the utensils, ingredient etc. required for it.

In addition to the three zones, it is important to arrange the appliances and worktops in the correct order i.e.
worktop - appliance - worktop. A work triangle is formed between the three zones (as shown in the diagrams below).
For the greatest efficiency the total length of the three sides of the triangle should be between 3600mm and
6600mm, and as far as possible, the work triangle should be uninterrupted by through traffic.

The 4 basic layouts are:

1. Corridor layout. In a long, narrow area with doors at each end you have little choice other than two facing rows of
appliances and storage units. You should allow at least 1200mm between two rows for a safe walk-through corridor
and to allow comfortable access to front-loading appliances. In really narrow rooms, the fittings might need to be
restricted to one side of the room.

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  2. L-shaped layout. This is often the best solution where the kitchen can fit into a corner.

 3. U-shaped layout. This layout is convenient as all working areas are within easy reach. It may be the only choice
for small rooms although it can also be used with effect where a kitchen area needs to be fitted at one end of a
larger room. Try to allow for 1200mm between the parallel sides of the U.

 4. Island layout. Often thought of as a luxury, the island layout needs a fairly large room, however in such a room, it
does reduce the amount of walking you need to do. Try to allow for 1200mm between the island and any other

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cupboard/obstruction etc. Although the design shown has the cooking hob on the island, the island could be used
for the food preparation area. Remember that services will need to be taken to the island.

Planning your layout:

Designing a new kitchen layout - remember there are no absolute rules, after all it is your kitchen but . . .

First of all, list the floor/wall mounted appliances you want to include in your kitchen - see choice of appliances
below for the most likely ones you will want to include.

1. Likely appliances required in a kitchen

 Cooker or Hob and Oven

 Extractor hood for cooker/hob

 Washing machine

 Dishwasher

 Tumble dryer

 Fridge/freezer

 Room air extractor

 Measure your kitchen at floor level and at about 900mm from the floor - use the smaller measurement for
your floor plan.

2. Draw a scale plan; using squared paper makes things easier.

3. Mark on the plan the services as they currently exist - hot and cold water, drains, electric points, gas points,
any existing extractor vents in the walls.

4. Cut out paper or card scale footprints for each appliance and sink you want to include. Write the name of
each appliance on its respective piece of paper/card.

5. Most kitchens need three 'work areas'. Preparation, cooking and washing-up, each area should include all
the appliances required and a suitable sized work area around it.

6. Roughly position the scale footprints of the appliances in their most logical position with respect to the
existing position of the services. Do not worry if you need more services, it just indicated that you will need
to add some.

7. Look at the free area between the appliances and decide how many base units you need or can fit. Cut out
paper/card footprints for these units.

8. Position the base unit footprints on your plan.

9. You now need to think if there is enough work top surface around each work zone - a lot of the appliances
are sized to fit under work surfaces so you should not lose too much. Try to avoid having work surfaces less
than 1 metre in length.

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 10. If you cannot fit in all the appliances or base units you have select or you think the room is already too full,
ask yourself if you can relocate any appliance in another room - i.e. move the washing machine to the
garage.

11. Think how you can rearrange the kitchen to make it easier to use, begin to think about relocating the
position of the existing services. Remember that in addition to the floor mounted appliances, you will also
need electric points for the smaller, moveable appliances which you get out of the cupboard each time you
want to use them. All services and window/doors can be repositioned - it is just that additional work is
involved; the rough order from easiest to most difficult is - electricity, gas, water supplies, drains (above
floor), blocking up doors/windows, drains below floor and moving doors/windows. But remember that you
may need professional assistance to move doors/windows and you will need a registered gas fitter to move
a gas point.

12. Bearing all this in mind, 'play' with the layout to achieve your dream kitchen - then look at any relocation of
services required - are you happy with the amount of work involved? You will often that you have to
compromise.

13. When you are happy with a basic floor arrangement, think about the wall area and where you can fit wall
units, these tend to be needed in the food preparation area. Try and keep the wall units inline with the base
units below them.

14. You should now be in the position to list:

 The number and style of floor units you require.

 The number and style of wall units you require.

 The appliances to be fitted.

16. The work you need to do to add or reposition the services.

17. Choosing and positioning wall/floor units.

The colour and style are personal matters but:

1. If you plan to move house in the next few years, it may be worth being a little conservative - the kitchen is a
major selling point and an outlandish style may put off potential buyers.

2. Take into account the natural light of the room; you do not want the room to be too dark.

3. Remember that the kitchen is a working room; you may want to avoid pure white or other light, plain colours
as they can easily discolour unevenly in a kitchen.

4. Although there are many different widths of units available, you do not need to use them all. Try to use one
door/drawer width along a run with just one 'odd' size installed at one end of the run to fill the space.

5. Try to keep the same style for all the units in a run - think carefully before you mix High Line and Drawer Line
styles.

6. Try to keep the doors on wall units in vertical line with the drawers/doors on base units.

7. Where wall units are mounted above floor level cupboards, have the doors opening the same way.

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 8. Do not fit wall units above or immediately to the side of gas hobs/cookers.

Other Considerations for planning a kitchen

Having the kitchen open at both ends creates a through traffic corridor -- you will need a wider space between
counters to avoid congestion
Having the kitchen open on one end is the most efficient arrangement for kitchen use
Place the sink in front of an window or opening in the wall
Ensure you have the proper lighting levels for the task

Kitchen Plans

Kitchen Planning Basics

      The kitchen is one of the busiest and most expensive rooms in the home, and it should be planned to save time
and energy for those who work in it. The well-planned kitchen can prevent hazards that might cause accidents, and
it can also provide a pleasant environment for family members.

      Kitchen planning basics can be applied to any kitchen. You can use these principles to evaluate an existing
kitchen in a house or apartment, to plan a new or remodeled kitchen, or simply to identify small changes that will
make your kitchen more efficient.

      When planning your kitchen consider your family size, the number of persons who will use the kitchen, the type
of entertaining you like to do, and the type and amount of cooking, baking, or food preservation you will do.

      A kitchen can be more than just a place to prepare meals. For many families, it's the heart of the home and the
"nerve center" where family members gather to talk, work, eat meals, and sometimes entertain guests. These
families may choose an open kitchen plan that permits interaction among family members and guests. For them,
the kitchen table may be the most important piece of furniture in the house. Others may prefer a private kitchen
where the cook can work undisturbed.

      A kitchen should have at least 100 square feet of usable floor space, but areas greater than 150 to 160 square
feet become too large to manage efficiently. You will use unnecessary time and energy on tasks in a kitchen that is
too large.

      The location of the kitchen is also important and depends upon several factors:
 Convenience to yard or outside work area. Does a window look out into the yard or work area?
 Convenience of unloading groceries and disposing of garbage and trash.
 Easy access to the front or back door.

Activity Centers

Efficient use of kitchen space is more important than the amount. Every kitchen should be organized around
distinct centers of activity. Besides appliances, each center should have counter space and storage space. Centers
are best arranged so that work moves in one direction. Storage and counter space can serve two appliances and
reduce the space required for separate centers.

      To combine centers, a guideline for amount of counter space is to use the counter dimensions required for the
larger center plus 12 inches. The sink and refrigerator centers often are combined to provide counter space for the
mix center. Recommended counter surface dimensions are identified in Table 1.

Storage and Cabinets

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      A kitchen should have at least 50 square feet of storage in wall and base cabinets. Six linear feet of base
cabinets, with wall cabinets above, will give you 50 square feet. Four drawers, or 11 square feet of drawer space, are
minimum requirements. Cabinets should have at least one shallow drawer.

      Cabinet sizes are fairly standard. Wall cabinets are 12 to 13 inches deep and from 12 to 36 inches high. Base
cabinets are 24 inches deep and 34 inches high. When the countertop is added, the base cabinet will be a standard
36 inches high. However, if you are very tall or short, you can place your cabinets at a more convenient height.

      Cabinet widths range from 9 to 48 inches in multiples of 3 inches. Special base and wall cabinets are available
for corner installations. In addition to standard sizes, there are many specialized cabinets: revolving shelves, built-in
wine racks, partitions for lid and tray storage, waste basket and trash can concealment, and pantry cabinets for
quality storage of staples.

Table 1
Recommended Amounts of Kitchen
Storage and Work Space
Kitchen Industry Recommendations
Counter surface on one side 24-26in.
Sink Center
Counter surface on the other side 18-30 in.
Counter surface on one side 15-24in.
Range Center
Minimum on either side for safety 12 in.
Refrigerator
Counter surface at latch side 15-18 in.
 Center
Mixing Center Counter surface 36-42 in.
Total Counter
  72-109 in.
 Surface
When work centers are combined, the counter should be equal to the longer of the counter tops being
combined plus 12 inches.
Total Base
  72-120 in.
 Cabinets
Wall Cabinets   72-120 in.
Each inch of frontage in a full height storage wall of at least 20 inches deep is equal to 2 inches of
base cabinet; if 12 inches deep, it is equal to 2 inches of wall cabinet.

Cabinet Dimensions
Wall Cabinets:   Depth    12-13 inches
  Height    12-33 inches
  Width    9-60 inches

      Clearance between upper cabinet and counter should be 15-18 inches; over sink, 24-30 inches; over range, 27-30
inches (24 inches if cabinet is fire protected).

Base Cabinets:   Depth 24 inches

  Height normally 36 inches with toe space or 4 inches
  Width 9-60 inches (available in 3-inch modules)
- 156 -
      Standard counter height 36 inches; counter should be 3 inches below elbow for most tasks, 6 inches below
elbow for rolling out or kneading tasks.

Sitting down work surface: 30 inches from floor.

Development of the Plan

      The first thing you should do in planning your kitchen is to measure the kitchen space and make a scale drawing
of the room. Blueprints will give room dimensions, but more exact measurements taken after the interior walls are
in place are needed for a good cabinet fit.

      The following steps will help you in drawing the plan for your kitchen.
1. Measure the length and width of the room. Measure the full distance from corner to corner and the distance
of the subsections within (as a double check on your measurement, compare the overall measurements
with the sum of the subsections).
2. Measure walls with windows in this manner:

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A   from wall to wall
B   from corner to outside trim of window
C   outside window trim to outside window trim
D   outside trim of window to corner

Measure all corners to make sure they are square. To do this, find points A and B (as shown below) on your
wall. The distance between the points should equal 5 feet. Note: If your corners are not square, some adjustments
will need to be made during the installation of cabinets, or problems requiring adjustment will arise.

3. In addition, take these other measurements:

 The distance from the top of the window trim to the ceiling and from the bottom of the window trim to the
floor.

 The dimensions of the SOF fit (the enclosed area below the ceiling and above the wall cabinets) if there is
one.

The distance from the soffit to the floor (measure at several locations).

 Make a scale drawing of the room, 1/2 inch to 1 foot. Use graph paper ruled at four squares to the inch.
Draw in all windows and doors. Note the direction of the door swing and the room or area in which the door
opens. Draw in any chimneys, radiators, or air ducts in the walls, location of water supply drainage pipes and
vents, gas pipes, and electrical outlets. Indicate wall thickness and whether interior walls are load-bearing or
nonload-bearing.
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Work Center Arrangement
      The kitchen is the most used space in the home. Efficient kitchens need well developed work centers. These
centers include sink and cleanup, mix and preparation, range and cooking, and refrigerator and storage; serving is
often combined with the range.
      The work centers should be arranged to reduce the amount of walking in the kitchen to allow the work to flow
easily from one center to another. The work area should not be split by traffic. Normally, the largest number of trips
during meal preparation occurs between the sink and range top. Many trips also occur between the mix center and
the refrigerator.
      Do not install the range next to the refrigerator; it will make the operation of the refrigerator more costly and
reduce its lifetime.

      Measure the distance between the sink, range, and refrigerator. The distance between the centers should be 4 to
6 feet between the sink and range, 4 to 7 feet between the refrigerator and the sink, and 4 to 9 feet between the
range and the refrigerator. The total length of the distance between the work centers should not be less than 12
feet nor more than 22 feet.

Solving Design Problems

For very small kitchens:

 Use small appliances. Appliances are available in widths as narrow as 18 inches for dishwashers, 18 to 20
inches for ranges, and 24 inches for refrigerators. Small-sized appliances are available separately or as a
part of a combination unit frequently used in efficiency apartments or in businesses. A 48-inch unit may
contain a range and a sink with a dishwasher below. An 84-inch unit may contain a range, sink, dishwasher,
and a 30-inch under-counter refrigerator. A portable oven also takes up less space than a built-in oven.

 Use few major appliances. Do not separate the range top and the oven.

 Use specialized storage, such as a full storage or pantry unit, or build shallow storage in the walls between
studs.

 Use a fold-down table or a table that pulls out of the base cabinet for eating.

 Relocate or eliminate doors or windows; consider removing a dividing wall to make one large room.

 Use light colors, no pattern or small patterns, and minimize rough textures and contrast.

 Use light to eliminate shadows.

Kitchen Shapes

      The actual arrangement depends greatly on the room dimensions and the door and window placement.
Changing the location of doors or windows may be necessary for a more efficient arrangement. Kitchens designed
to be used by more than one person need more space for movement and efficient use of equipment. The following
diagrams illustrate the approximate space needed for 9 feet of base and wall cabinets and refrigerator, range, and
dishwasher arranged in the "L," "U," corridor, and island shapes.

"U" Shape

The popular "U"-shaped plan is functional and efficient. It is good for both large and small kitchens and provides a
short distance between work centers. With this plan, at least 10 feet of width should be provided at the base of the
"U" for ample counter and storage space.
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"L" Shape

      The "L"-shaped kitchen is the next most desirable plan and can be adapted to almost any space. It lends itself to
an efficient work triangle by using two walls. The open area of the "L" provides room for an eating area of a family
room.

Corridor Shape

      The corridor kitchen, or two-wall kitchen, uses a small amount of space for maximum use of counter space and
appliances. It is probably the most efficient design in terms of space used. This plan is especially good for long,
narrow rooms. However, traffic can be a problem unless there is an alternate door. Also, there is usually working
space for only one person at a time. For this plan, the room should be at least eight feet wide.

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One Wall

      The one-wall kitchen is used when space permits no other arrangement. It adapts well to a family room or open
plan arrangement. Though often used in small houses and apartments, it is difficult to get either a short work
pattern or enough counter space. This plan should be supplemented with a nearby closet converted to kitchen
storage space or by adding a pantry cabinet. A mobile cart or two can provide extra work space.

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Island or Broken "U" Shape

      The island or broken "U" shape arrangement requires more space than the others in order to have room to walk
around the island. The minimum dimensions for the island are 2'6" by 3'. A larger island is needed if it includes any
type of appliance.

Space Requirements

      When you plan your kitchen, be sure the plan meets the following space requirements:

 Do not place doors closer than 30 inches from the corner if the cabinets are to be extended to the corner. Do
not place windows closer than 12 3/4 inches from the corner if the wall cabinets are to be extended to the
corner.

 Clearance space between base cabinet fronts and an island is 48 to 60 inches. If two people are working, 48
inches is minimum. Walking space between the face of one cabinet and the side of another is 38 inches.

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

 Corner-to-corner clearance space between appliances or base cabinets at right angles to each other is 34
inches.

 Corner clearances are:

 edge of range and corner cabinet -- 12 inches.
 edge of refrigerator to corner cabinet -- 15 inches.
 edge of sink and corner cabinet -- 9 to 12 inches.

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

 A diagonal cabinet of 20 inches requires 39 inches on either wall. A diagonal cabinet or appliance of 30
inches requires 40 inches on either wall.

 Thirty-six inches on either side is needed for a lazy Susan.

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 

 Use extended stiles to insure full operation of cabinet or appliance drawers and doors in the following
situations:

 appliance, such as a dishwasher, is placed too close to a cabinet intersection.

 cabinet is placed too close to a wall that is out of square or has door or window frames that interfere with
pull-out drawer or shelves.

 Hardware projections.

 A built-in conventional oven should be placed so that the top side of the fully open door is between 1 and 7
inches below the user's elbow.

 A microwave oven should be at a height so the shelf or rack(s) is no higher than the user's shoulder; for the
most convenient use, the shelf or rack(s) should be between 2 and 10 inches below the elbow. A microwave
may be built into an oven or wall cabinet or be recessed into an interior wall. It needs work space, counter,
pull-out tray, or a drop leaf near the access side of the door.

 The depth of the range hood determines the height at which it is located. A hood 17 inches or less in depth
should be placed no less than 20 inches above the range top. Hoods 18 inches or more in depth should be
installed no less than 24 inches above the range top.

 For a small dining space within a kitchen at least 8'8" of clear space is needed for a 36" x 48" table and 4
chairs.

Other Considerations

      When developing the design of the kitchen cabinets, consider the following suggestions:

 Molding should be well proportioned to the cabinet doors.

 Lines and shapes should relate to cabinet doors in form and style.

 Avoid the overly ornate and an excess of grooves since both can be grease and dust catchers.

 Back plates behind the cabinet pull will help protect the cabinet finish.
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  Door pulls and hardware should be efficient and convenient to use.

 All surfaces should be easy to clean.

      In all choices, think about the function of the item and how well the form expresses the function. When you
consider this in planning the kitchen, you can be assured that you will have a functional kitchen.

Factors that affect kitchen design

A number of factors including energy and labor costs have affected facility planning and space allocation in
foodservice. Vast kitchens and unrestricted equipment usage may no longer be acceptable or feasible. The purpose
of this study was to obtain a clearer understanding of current design schemes within this environment. In particular,
to identify the amount of space that has recently been allocated to functional areas in kitchens in certain quantity
food settings: to determine whether kitchen size and allocation were different by type of operation; and to identify
current factors which most influence their size, and the methods used to achieve reduction.

The kitchens that are being built today were smaller than those that were built in the ‘60's and ‘70's but not the ‘80's.
Moreover, the consultants expected that kitchens would continue to get smaller. In their most recent design
projects, twice as much space (1.99:1) on average had been assigned to the dining area as to the kitchen area, but
there were variations by type of foodservice. The most important factor when determining the size of a quantity
food kitchen was the type of operation. The next most important factors were the number of meals per hour and
the choice of menu items. This study is useful to foodservice operators in the preliminary stages of planning new
facilities or remodeling existing sites.

Appropriate knee clearance in height and depth is noted for safety and aesthetic purposes. Floor clearance in front
of appliances and the distance from the sink to the dishwasher are noted. The sink's location should be between or
across from the cooking area, preparation area or refrigerator. Clearance between the cooking surface and items
above it are covered as well as ventilation systems. The cooking surface should not be below an operable window
unless minimum clearances are met. The bottom of the microwave oven should be between 24"-48" above the floor.
Keep in mind that if it is too high (as in microwave/hood combinations) small persons might burn them trying to
remove hot objects. Two work center heights should be included in your new kitchen. This makes it easy for cooks
(of varying heights) to accomplish multiple tasks. For example, chopping and kneading bread is more comfortable
at a lower level. The amount of countertop space required differs for small and large kitchens; however, minimum
depth should be 16" with wall cabinets located at least 15" above countertop height. Minimum countertop space
adjacent to sink and appliances is noted, as well as minimum space required for food preparation. If you plan a
kitchen bar or peninsula with seating, clearances are noted to allow for sufficient elbow and knee room. Countertop
corners should be finished to eliminate sharp corners Handles, pulls, and knobs for controls should be able to be
used with one hand. Light switches and all other controls located on the wall should be 15"-48" above the floor.
Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI's) should be specified on all kitchen receptacles. A GFCI needs to be within
six feet of any water source. A fire extinguisher is recommended to be located in the kitchen where it can be easily
seen yet away from cooking equipment and located 15"-48" above the floor. Include a smoke alarm in or close to
the kitchen. Window and skylights are addressed and it is suggested that all work surfaces have task and/or
general lighting. In homes with only general lighting (one overhead light), a shadow is cast on the countertop when
you are preparing or cooking food. Proper illumination is achieved by installing under-the-counter lighting It is
suggested to plan kitchen storage needs for items that you currently own as well as those that you may purchase in
the future. Even if you have extra room in the beginning, a well-planned kitchen with ample storage room reduces
the time spent on preparing a meal since everything will be easily accessible and in its place--where you know you
can always find it. By manipulating your surroundings, you can make them more compatible with your lifestyle.

Many storage accessories may be added to your kitchen at a later date if your budget does not currently allow for
them. However, you will want to plan the space and placement for them now so that they may be added in the
future.

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Flow of work

The kitchen area, is one of the busiest areas in a hotel, should be planned with a thoughtful, meticulous approach
for smooth flow of work

Conventionally, a good workflow in a kitchen means that materials and staff will move smoothly from the stores
through preparation areas into cooking sections and then to the servery and the guest tables. Similarly, the dirties
will move back from the guest tables to wash up and back to the servery.

However, the definition of an ideal workflow has different connotations for different operators in the present
context. Design concepts aim at preparing free movement for the kitchen professionals to carry out their task in an
easy manner. The layout should allocate space to various areas with respect to its importance in a kitchen and
most importantly, should make sense to chefs.

The need is to identify factors that make professionals achieve work with minimum movement and well within
limited time. The basic crux of good designing is the intrinsic information of space (or would-be-kitchen) that
should give optimum benefit.

The layout should allocate space to various areas with respect to its importance in a kitchen and most importantly,
should make sense to chefs

For an ideal kitchen

An ideal kitchen is the soul of the restaurant business. It is widely observed that kitchen planning is a rarity and a
scientific plan of the area to facilitate smooth flow is hard to come by. Following are some of the elements that
define the essentials of an institutional kitchen:

Drainage system: With heavy flow of wastewater, oil, food, grease and peel, the drainage system is susceptible to
clogging. A good drainage system of pipes and outlets with traps is a must to ensure regular and uninterrupted
cleaning.

Covered drains: The waste flow removal should be a hygienic affair. All sorts of bacteria and pests develop rapidly
in the drains. Covered drains eliminate the risk of pollution and bad hygiene.

Says Chef H S Malik, promoter of Tulip Institutional Services Pvt Ltd and ex-executive chef of The Oberoi, New Delhi,
"Since I focus primarily on providing catering services to the top MNCs in NCR, I prefer commissary based work
flow whereby I can offer consistent quality. Since hygiene is my major concern, my kitchen functions department-
wise, which allows me to shut a section of the kitchen and thoroughly clean it without disturbing the rest of the
operations."

Water supply: No kitchen can run without a regular and ample supply of water - both for cooking and cleaning
purposes. Hot and cold water are needed. There should be equipment that helps prevent water wastage, as the cost
of wasted water can be prohibitive in the long run. Besides, the quality of water should also be ensured by all means.

Lighting: This aspect is often neglected. Correct lighting ensures more focused light on food preparation areas as
the colour and appearance of food, even as it is being cooked, reveals a lot to the chef. The kitchen needs more
light than an office. Poor or uneven lighting can result in mistakes that can only prove costly.

Exhaust and ventilation: The adage `More perspiration than inspiration' rings true, here, as everywhere else. A stuffy
kitchen not only spoils the attention span and mood of the chefs and their assistants, but also ultimately results in
damaging kitchen equipment.

Needless to add, chefs will not be able to add anything positive to their work in a stuffy atmosphere. Air-
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conditioning in the kitchen goes a long way in elevating the atmosphere and productivity.

Right surfaces: Kitchens needs constant cleaning. The surfaces of floors, walls and ceilings should therefore be
easy to maintain.

Space planning & equipment: No amount of space can be enough if proper planning is not implemented. Kitchen
design consultants can assist in planning the kitchen space. Also, the use of right equipment can make working
easier. Utensils should preferably be of stainless steel with no crevices to make cleaning easy.

Fire safety: There are always hazards of fire in any kitchen. Safety and fire fighting systems need to be in place to
tackle small fires. And space allocation should be done in such a manner that no activity or operation hinders fire
safety tasks and extinguishing operations. Fire exits also need to be planned.

Space allocation

1. Space programming

Quite often, kitchens are designed hastily and it’s discovered at the last minute that no provision has been made for
a critical function, such as dry storage. Make a detailed list of all the back-of-house functions you must
accommodate. Then, allocate the appropriate amount of space into your design. Functions may include:

o Line cooking

o Bulk preparation

o Dry, refrigerated and frozen storage

o China, utensil and pot storage

o Coffee and tea service

o Dish and pot washing

o Garbage receptacles

o Ice machines

o Receiving

o Offices, staff change rooms and washrooms

Ensure the space allocation is balanced and that one function does not suffer at the expense of another. Frequently,
the cooking function becomes the primary focus of the design process and other functions are overshadowed.

2. Choose the right equipment

Select the correct type and size of equipment for the intended task. In order to accurately specify equipment, a
planner needs detailed information about the menu content and style of operation. Input from your chef and
operator will help to ensure the kitchen can produce the necessary volume of food in peak periods.
Keep in mind:

 Based on your menu, calculating the production capacity of all equipment should only take a few minutes,
and it can reduce costs and headaches.

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  An oversized piece of equipment can be just as costly as an undersized one. Oversized cooking equipment
can increase utility costs in gas consumption, as well as electricity costs to exhaust the unit.

Avoid this trap: Many kitchen operators oversize their grills by purchasing 36-inch or 48-inch units, only to have half
of it used as storage. Unless you’re serving a large quantity of grilled items, typically a 24-inch grill will suffice.

3. Make room for waste

Kitchens are sometimes designed with wall-to-wall equipment and the only place left for garbage bins are in the
aisles. As you know, busy kitchens can generate extraordinary amounts of waste, as well as soiled equipment. In
your plan, ensure space is designated for garbage bins and the accumulation of soiled equipment, as well as for
clean dishes, linens, silverware and even take-out containers.

4. Ensure adequate workspace

Ask yourself if there’s too much equipment crammed into too small a space. Initially, it’s easy to lose sight of the
need for proper landing and workspaces. A flat-landing area, or spreader between ranges and fryers is as important
to the cooking process as the actual cooking equipment. These areas for plating and landing during peak periods
can make all the difference between an efficient kitchen and one that is constantly bogged down.

Planning Tip: For maximum efficiency, landing areas for ovens should include space for at least two pans within a
short distance of the oven.

5. Provide ample refrigeration

Is your cooking line designed to give you adequate refrigeration? Consider refrigerated drawer units that can be
located under sauté units and grills to increase your storage space without increasing square footage. Worktables
with refrigerated bases can also pull double-duty not only as a prep area but also as cold storage to ensure food
safety.

6. Swing a useful equipment plan

Your equipment plan should allow for adequate clearances for door swings and drawer extensions. When planning,
ensure the layouts show the full swing arc of all doors to ovens, refrigerators and storage areas so that any
problems can be identified before installation to prevent accidents or unsafe work areas.

Planning Tip: Doors should swing open into work areas for which they are intended and walk-in cooler doors should
not open into traffic aisles.

7. Face the budget reality – with a plan

Equipping a kitchen on a budget can be challenging but not impossible. Be smart – defer

purchasing some of the equipment that can easily be added later. These items can be planned for and all services
provided (i.e. power and water supply) but the item is “futured” in the plan. When volume (and cash flow) allows,
you simply add it to the lineup since all hookups are already in place. Sticking to your budget and setting realistic
expectations can go a long way.

Planning Tip: Some expensive equipment such as dishwashers can be leased to reduce capital costs.

Selection of kitchen equipment

To say that the kitchen is the lifeline of a restaurant or a hotel is stating the obvious. But it is the correct selection of
equipment that determines the potential of a great kitchen, says M Ram Vittal Rao

Equipment selection is a science and it cannot be done randomly. Right sized equipment, which actually fits in with
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the operator's job, so as to ensure smooth flow of work is the key to the success of any restaurant.

There is always a fine line that is drawn when consultants select equipment. The tussle is branded versus non-
branded. For example, the range of prices of locally custom fabricated deck baking ovens compared to the branded
American or European Deck Baking ovens. These baking ovens can be obtained at prices ranging from Rs 60,000 to
Rs 600,000 to Rs 2.5 lakh. For quality automation and the need to produce the finest bakery items, the consultant
should recommend the correct oven be it a Swiss or European brand, unmindful of the cost.

While on costs, kitchens today cost Rs 1500 to Rs 4000 per square foot of usable kitchen space. This does not
include civil and services costs.

Today, many are conscious of the hazards that hotel kitchens are exposed to - it could range from safety or hygiene
or the processes themselves. HACCP or Hazards Analysis Critical Control Point is an important and a universally
followed platform that qualifies many of the hospitality related businesses.

While on the process of design, the infrastructure in terms of utilities that need to be provided such as stabilised
electrical power, treated and purified water, proper drainage and proper ventilation should be given priority.

Equipment specification and branding

Equipment procured from various agencies that represent brands that are manufactured abroad or from custom
fabricated manufacturers within the country need service support. Equipment abuse in work areas happen due to
bad infrastructure planning. Give the kitchen brigade excellent equipment, but a badly ventilated and lit kitchen, and
watch the equipment being abused, and the high turnover of staff or the staff turning ill due to bad work place
conditions. Under and over specifying of equipment are the many issues that are facing today's consultants.

This should be controlled with the total involvement of all concerned. It is worthwhile educating and sharing
information. This only enhances the consultant's value.

The emphasis should be on the total picture starting from concept to design to the execution. This should be the
focus for all involved in the projects.

Branded equipment for the kitchen range comes from companies like Hobart, Vulcan Hart, Blodgett, Scotsman,
Meiko, Brenda, Cimbali, Carimalli, Faema, Santos, Crathco, Bunnomatic, Cecilware, Halton, Ventmaster, Gaylord,
Garland, Henry Vogt, Ice-O-Matic, Rational, Power Flame, Kolb-Pitec, Traulsen, Foster, Bally, Hamilton Beach, T&S
Brass, Perlick, Robot Coupe, Therma and MKN. These are the leading world-renowned brands with companies like
Hobart being known in India for over fifty long years.

Many of these are today being supported with a good service network in India. However, this list is not exhaustive
and sacrosanct. Today, clients, operators and consultants are approached by newer and innovative equipment
manufacturers and distributors stocking equivalent brands. The decision that has to be taken should be both
technically and commercially valid.

A consultant who knows the ropes can help achieve this delicate techno commercial balance for the deserving
client. Deserving, because only after the client has done the requisite homework and ensured that the fees agreed
upon are paid as per the agreement, can the client deserve a good consultant.

All correct equipment selected need optimum infrastructure such as stabilised electrical power, treated and purified
water, proper drainage, proper ventilation, trained human resources and finally a good distributor or manufacturer.

Proper attention needs to be paid to all these factors, as they are the clients' partners in progress.

F&B equipment
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Kitchen planning has undergone a sea change in the last decade. While the key elements in planning and
coordination are design yardsticks, criteria for correct ventilation, provision for waste disposal, water drainage and
electric and structural aspects, the selection of equipment becomes the vital element that determines the potential
of a great kitchen.

Often, when the front of the house areas occupy center stage in the restaurant plan, the priority can be appreciated,
but any lack of attention to kitchen planning, especially in the selection of the right equipment, can have severe
repercussions ranging from inefficient kitchen to its natural consequences - falling profits. One reason for the latest
emphasis on efficient kitchen equipment is the concept that involves the guest in a complete experience of food,
right from the cooking stage to the table. With the latest food fads and eating outs concepts not being foreign to
the guest today, the kitchen planners are rightly giving planning and selection of equipment the seriousness, which
is due to it.

Why is it that kitchen equipment was getting less than the necessary attention it deserved? Of the many reasons,
cheap labour, prohibitive costs of imported equipment and plain lack of expertise can be cited as the prime causes.

Productivity, commonly perceived as the higher number of guests served in a day, depends more on the efficiency
of planning of the kitchen area than any other single factor. Besides, the equipment directly involved in the cooking
process, the air-conditioning, waste disposal and planned layout of working area also go a long way in elevating
efficiency levels of the staff.

The time for the interactive kitchen is here and show kitchens are already making a debut, even in the smaller towns
across the country.

Indian cuisine restaurants in particular, which a lot of grilling and smoke, need fresh air curtains and effective
exhaust systems to not only prevent smoke and odour from reaching the guest, but also to create a better working
ambience for the staff. Fire safety equipment and wastewater disposal systems take care of not only the aesthetics,
but also the hygiene aspects, which can never be ignored. Good air-conditioning ensures the comfort of the guest
and kitchen area staff, which reflects in the interactive bonhomie of the modern interactive kitchen even if it were
through glass separators. Human resource considerations point to an increased involvement and pride for the
cooking staff in case of interactive or show kitchens. The future is interactive kitchens and one can visualise the
time when chefs and cooking staff double up as stewards too.

The right equipment for the right need

The reason the selection of the perfect equipment for restaurants is gaining importance is apparently the case and
efficiency of operation. Even more significantly, the sound financial reason of raising profitability levels through
establishing the right relationship between the staff, machines and the actual processing is the raison-d'etre for the
right selection. All the votes in favour of procuring standard and efficient equipment bear the stamp of the
necessity of the drive for production efficiency.

It can be referred here that HACCP is the most effective food safety system that identifies Critical Control Points for
minimising or eliminating potential hazards in the complete flow of food from receiving, storing and preparing to
holding and serving. It has proven to be the most effective way to ensure food safety and comply with local and
state sanitation laws, reducing violations by as much as 75 per cent. As food safety regulations become more strict
in the future, the use of HACCP systems will gain further currency.

Initially, restauranteurs often need to be aware of the fact that commercial cooking equipment is not expensive, as
the multiple benefits ultimately offset the initial investment.

Future expansion and optimum utilisation of space are effectively met with the right equipment. The benefits are
most often pretty tangible.

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Let us take the example of proper storage equipment at all stages of food presentation. Hot and cold foods, even in
the raw material stages are open to contamination. A thorough cleaning process is therefore essential. Milk
products, meats, raw celery, should all be treated and preserved in the right cold equipment. Blast chillers and
combi-ovens need to have temperature probes to monitor constant food protection.

Refrigeration takes care of food preservation and is essential for storing perishable foodstuff. While a fabricator or
manufacturer can build a cold room at street savvy prices, one is left holding the bath water after the baby of utility
goes out of the window, shortly thereafter. The capacity of the kitchen, the style of the kitchen, the style of the
restaurant, the cuisine and hence the food and raw material to be stored along with the size of the restaurant
dictate the selection of the cold systems. Cutting costs by bringing smaller capacity systems invariably
boomerangs because overburdened equipment breaks down faster. The long-term planner looks at the electricity
consumption, maintenance costs and availability of the service as factors that matter.

With the fresh breeze of information technology and communication, more spending power and lifestyle changes,
comes the heightened awareness of guests of international food trends and tastes. Restaurants will have to keep
abreast of this, if only to stay in the business. The necessity of the model kitchen is staring the modern
restaurateurs in the face.

Ergonomics

The word "Ergonomics" comes from two Greek words "ergon", meaning work, and "nomos" meaning "laws". Today,
however, the word is used to describe the science of "designing the job to fit the worker, not forcing the worker to fit
the job." Ergonomics covers all aspects of a job, from the physical stresses it places on joints, muscles, nerves,
tendons, bones and the like, to environmental factors which can effect hearing, vision, and general comfort and
health.

Physical stressors include repetitive motions such as those caused by typing or continual use of a manual
screwdriver. Other physical stressors could be tasks involving vibration such as using a jackhammer, or tasks which
involve using excessive force, such as lifting boxes of heavy books. Working in an awkward position, such as
holding a telephone to your ear with your shoulder, can also cause problems. Repetitive motions, vibration,
excessive force, and awkward postitions are frequently linked to ergonomic disorders; however, the majority of
"Cumulative Trauma Disorders "(CTDs) or "Repetitive Strain Injuries" (RSIs), are caused by repetitive motions that
would not result in undue stress or harm if only performed once. Carpal tunnel syndrome, Tendonitis, Tenosynovitis,
DeQuarvain's Syndrome, Thoracic Outlet Syndrome, many back injuries, and several other conditions may result
from repetitive motions.

History
In ancient societies
The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of Ancient
Greece. A good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic principles in
the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the
description Hippocrates gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should
be arranged.[15] The archaeological record also shows that the early Egyptian dynasties made tools and household
equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles.
In industrial societies
In the 19th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the "scientific management" method, which proposed a
way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the
amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the
fastest shoveling rate was reached.[16] Frank and Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to
develop the "time and motion study". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and
actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5,
allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.[16]

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However this approach was rejected by Russian researchers who focused on the well being of the worker. At
the First Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour (1921) Vladimir Bekhterev and Vladimir Nikolayevich
Myasishchev criticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that "The ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it
[Taylorism], but is in such organisation of the labour process that would yield a maximum of efficiency coupled with
a minimum of health hazards, absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the sound health and all round personal
development of the working people."[17] Myasishchev rejected Frederick Taylor's proposal to turn man into a
machine. Dull monotonous work was a temporary necessity until a corresponding machine can be developed. He
also went on to suggest a new discipline of "ergology" to study work as an integral part of the re-organisation of
work. The concept was taken up by Myasishchev's mentor, Bekhterev, in his final report on the conference, merely
changing the name to "ergonology

Etymology
The term ergonomics (from the Greek ἔργον, meaning "work", and νόμος, meaning "natural law") first entered the
modern lexicon when Polish scientist Wojciech Jastrzębowski used the word in his 1857 article Rys ergonomji czyli
nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody (The Outline of Ergonomics; i.e. Science of
Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science).[6] The introduction of the term to the English lexicon is
widely attributed to British psychologist Hywel Murrell, at the 1949 meeting at the UK's Admiralty, which led to the
foundation of The Ergonomics Society. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during
and after World War II.[7]
The expression human factors is a predominantly North American[8] term which has been adopted to emphasise the
application of the same methods to non work-related situations. A "human factor" is a physical or cognitive property
of an individual or social behavior specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems.
The terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous.[2]
Different pot-washing applications
Manual hand washing
The classic and “old” process for cleaning pots and pans is the manual hand-washing method. Washing
pots and pans by hand is still the ideal way to do the job. Cleaning by hand involves a pot-washing sink,
which almost always is divided into 3 different sections. The first section, or "sink", is where the pots are
washed and scrubbed. The middle section is for rinsing and the third for sanitizing.

Power scrubber
In simple terms, the power scrubber is a pot brush with an electric motor. Recognizing the effort it takes
to scrub pots with baked-on food or grease, at least one manufacturer has designed these brushes to
rotate on flexible power shafts and scour pots, pans and utensils with minimal effort. The power unit for
the scrubber typically mounts on the wall at the pot sink and is connected to a six-foot flexible shaft used
to scrub the soiled dishware. One manufacturer makes a variety of brushes and scrubbers that can be
easily changed on the shaft. In addition to the traditional brushes, there are wire brushes for scouring
tougher soil and even an impregnated plastic composite head for scrubbing baked-on carbon deposits
from pots and baking pans.

Recirculating soaker
Fairly new to the restaurant industry, the recirculating soaker does most of the work itself with little
manual scrubbing required. While the actual design is a bit more complex, these units basically consist of
a big water pump built into a pot sink. The cleaning formula behind the recirculator is simply water
agitation or water moving around soiled pots and pans to loosen and wash away food particles and dirt.
While this motion will quickly wash away light to medium soil, heavy soil and baked-on carbon deposits
could require some scrubbing. Some units also have built-in heaters that work in conjunction with the
circulating jets. By keeping the water warm, these heaters act as an aid in loosening soil.

Several types of recirculators are currently on the market. Effective and reasonably priced, the smaller
units are composed of fractional horsepower attachments to a pot sink, which loops water through a
pump at one end of the sink. All that is needed to retrofit most recirculators in the pot sink is an electrical
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outlet and a mechanic who will make the appropriate cutout in your sink. One manufacturer has
introduced a unit that is able to recirculate, agitate and heat water using the existing drain hole as the
water inlet. This new unit can be installed easily and does not require any holes to be punched in the sink
itself.

On the other hand, if you run a larger operation and use a lot of labor to wash pots, it might be worth the
extra money to go big. Most of the larger recirculating soakers are bought as an entire specialized pot
sink in an integral unit and cannot be retrofitted into an existing sink. These might have a 1¼ or 2
horsepower (1.5 kW) motor with water intakes and outlet jets perfectly positioned in a properly sized sink
bowl. Essentially custom built for different types of operations and the space configuration available, the
larger recirculators are available in three compartment sink sizes with various options. In addition to
requiring a three-phase supply for the water pump and high-power heater, these larger units have wash
sinks with up to 75 U.S. gallons (280 L) of water capacity for handling many pots and pans. Some of the
other options available with recirculators include built-in waste disposers, drain boards of various lengths,
shelves over or under and additional scraper sinks. Along with the standard heater for the wash tank that
keeps the water at about 120 °F (49 °C), operators can choose sanitizer sink heaters that boost water to
180 °F (82 °C). As operators use these recirculating soakers as a replacement for ordinary pot washing,
they will find that using this type of equipment has even more advantages: reduced labor, cleaner pots
and pans, and improved morale among pot washers.

Heated soak tanks

Another recent innovation is that of heated soak tanks. These tanks come in various sizes, but all act off
the same principles. The tanks are heated to a temperature of approximately 185 °F (85 °C) which acts as
a catalyst for the chemical reactions whereby the carbon and fats from the heavily soiled pots and pans
break down. The chemicals used in these cleaning tanks are non caustic and often biodegradable, with a
PH of 10-11. Lightly soiled items can be soaked for a couple of hours, whilst badly burnt pots should be
soaked over night. The tanks are known to be used in no less than 20 000 restaurants worldwide.[1][2]

HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning; also heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)[1] is the technology of
indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.
HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles ofthermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer. Refrigeration is sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR,
(heating,ventilating and air-conditioning & Refrigeration) or ventilating is dropped as in HACR (such as the designation of
HACR-rated circuit breakers).

HVAC is important in the design of medium to large industrial and office buildings such as skyscrapers, onboard vessels,
and in marine environments such asaquariums, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to
temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

Ventilating or ventilation (the V in HVAC) is the process of "exchanging" or replacing air in any space to provide
high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke,
heat, dust, airborne bacteria, and carbon dioxide. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture,
introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of the interior air.

Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the
most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may
be divided into mechanical/forced andnatural types.[2]
Heating
Main article: Central heating
"Heaters" redirects here. For the community in the United States, see Heaters, West Virginia.
"Heater" redirects here. For other uses, see Heater (disambiguation).
Heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat (i.e. warmth) for the building. This can be done

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via central heating. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air in a
central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large building. The heat can
be transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation.

Generation

Central heating unit

Heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels, liquids, and gases. Another type of heat
source is electricity, typically heating ribbons made of high resistance wire (see Nichrome). This principle
is also used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are often used as backup or
supplemental heat for heat pump systems.

The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s.[where?] Heat pumps can extract heat from various
sources, such as environmental air, exhaust air from a building, or from the ground. Initially, heat pump
HVAC systems were used in moderate climates, but with improvements in low temperature operation and
reduced loads due to more efficient homes, they are increasing in popularity in other climates.

Distribution
Water / steam
In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms. Most modern hot
water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the
distribution system (as opposed to older gravity-fed systems). The heat can be transferred to the
surrounding air using radiators, hot water coils (hydro-air), or other heat exchangers. The radiators may be
mounted on walls or installed within the floor to give floor heat.

The use of water as the heat transfer medium is known as hydronics. The heated water can also supply
an auxiliary heat exchanger to supply hot water for bathing and washing.

Air[edit]
Warm air systems distribute heated air through duct work systems of supply and return air through metal
or fiberglass ducts. Many systems use the same ducts to distribute air cooled by an evaporator coil for air
conditioning. The air supply is typically filtered through air cleaners to remove dust and pollen particles.

Dangers
The use of furnaces, space heaters, and boilers as means of indoor heating may result in incomplete
combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, volatile organic
compounds, and other combustion byproducts. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient
oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing various contaminants and the outputs are harmful byproducts,
most dangerously carbon monoxide which is a tasteless and odorless gas with serious adverse health
effects.[12]

Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be lethal at concentrations of 1000 ppm (0.1%). However,
at several hundred ppm, carbon monoxide exposure induces headaches, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting.
Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin in the blood, forming carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the blood's
ability to transport oxygen. The primary health concerns associated with carbon monoxide exposure are
its cardiovascular and neurobehavioral effects. Carbon monoxide can cause atherosclerosis (the
hardening of arteries) and can also trigger heart attacks. Neurologically, carbon monoxide exposure
reduces hand to eye coordination, vigilance, and continuous performance. It can also affect time
discrimination.[13]

Ventilation
Main article: Ventilation (architecture)
Ventilation is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or remove any
combination of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, or carbon dioxide, and to replenish
oxygen. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air with the outside as well as circulation of air within
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the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in
buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types.[14]

Mechanical or forced ventilation

HVAC ventilation exhaust for a 12-story building

"Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is provided by an air handler and used to control indoor air quality.
Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or replacement with outside
air. However, in humid climates much energy is required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air.

Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhausts to control odors and sometimes humidity.
Factors in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and
exhaust vent size) and noise level. Direct drive fans are available for many applications, and can reduce
maintenance needs.

Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room for the purpose of reducing the perceived
temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the occupants. Because hot air rises,
ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the winter by circulating the warm stratified air from
the ceiling to the floor.

Natural ventilation

Ventilation on the downdraught system, by impulsion, or the 'plenum' principle, applied to schoolrooms
(1899)
Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without using fans or other mechanical
systems. It can be via operable windows, louvers, or trickle vents when spaces are small and the
architecture permits. In more complex schemes, warm air is allowed to rise and flow out high building
openings to the outside (stack effect), causing cool outside air to be drawn into low building openings.
Natural ventilation schemes can use very little energy, but care must be taken to ensure comfort. In warm
or humid climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely via natural ventilation may not be possible. Air
conditioning systems are used, either as backups or supplements. Air-side economizers also use outside
air to condition spaces, but do so using fans, ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and
distribute cool outdoor air when appropriate.

An important component of natural ventilation is air change rate or air changes per hour: the hourly rate of
ventilation divided by the volume of the space. For example, six air changes per hour means an amount of
new air, equal to the volume of the space, is added every ten minutes. For human comfort, a minimum of
four air changes per hour is typical, though warehouses might have only two. Too high of an air change
rate may be uncomfortable, akin to a wind tunnel which have thousands of changes per hour. The highest
air change rates are for crowded spaces, bars, night clubs, commercial kitchens at around 30 to 50 air
changes per hour.[15]

Room pressure can be either positive or negative with respect to outside the room. Positive pressure
occurs when there is more air being supplied than exhausted, and is common to reduce the infiltration of
outside contaminants.[16]

Airborne diseases
Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the
common cold, influenza and meningitis. Opening doors, windows, and using ceiling fans are all ways to
maximize natural ventilation and reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little
maintenance and is inexpensive.[17]

Air conditioning
Main article: Air conditioning
An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and humidity control for all or
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part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would
work against the system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions. Outside, fresh air is
generally drawn into the system by a vent into the indoor heat exchanger section, creating positive air
pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can usually be manipulated by adjusting the
opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about 10%.

Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed through
radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as water, air, ice, and chemicals
are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a heat pump system in which a
compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling system which uses
pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix).

Refrigeration cycle
Main article: Refrigeration cycle

A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator
coil, 4) compressor
The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool.

The system refrigerant starts its cycle in a gaseous state. The compressor pumps the refrigerant gas up
to a high pressure and temperature.
From there it enters a heat exchanger (sometimes called a condensing coil or condenser) where it loses
energy (heat) to the outside, cools, and condenses into its liquid phase.
An expansion valve (also called metering device) regulates the refrigerant liquid to flow at the proper rate.
The liquid refrigerant is returned to another heat exchanger where it is allowed to evaporate, hence the
heat exchanger is often called an evaporating coil or evaporator. As the liquid refrigerant evaporates it
absorbs energy (heat) from the inside air, returns to the compressor, and repeats the cycle. In the process,
heat is absorbed from indoors and transferred outdoors, resulting in cooling of the building.
In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that switches from heating in winter to
cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump refrigeration cycle is changed from
cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows a facility to be heated and cooled by a single piece of
equipment by the same means, and with the same hardware.

Free cooling
Main article: Free cooling
Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal
thermal energy storage so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common storage
mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter,
heat exchanger equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storages are hybrids, using free cooling
early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the
storage. The heat pump is added-in because the storage acts as a heat sink when the system is in cooling
(as opposed to charging) mode, causing the temperature to gradually increase during the cooling season.

Some systems include an "economizer mode", which is sometimes called a "free cooling mode". When
economizing, the control system will open (fully or partially) the outside air damper and close (fully or
partially) the return air damper. This will cause fresh, outside air to be supplied to the system. When the
outside air is cooler than the demanded cool air, this will allow the demand to be met without using the
mechanical supply of cooling (typically chilled water or a direct expansion "DX" unit), thus saving energy.
The control system can compare the temperature of the outside air vs. return air, or it can compare the
enthalpy of the air, as is frequently done in climates where humidity is more of an issue. In both cases, the
outside air must be less energetic than the return air for the system to enter the economizer mode.

Central vs. split system

Central, 'all-air' air conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor
condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in modern residences, offices, and public buildings, but are
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difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to receive it) because of the bulky air ducts
required.

An alternative to central systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split systems. These
systems, although most often seen in residential applications, are gaining popularity in small commercial
buildings. The evaporator coil is connected to a remote condenser unit using refrigerant piping between
an indoor and outdoor unit instead of ducting air directly from the outdoor unit. Indoor units with
directional vents mount onto walls, suspended from ceilings, or fit into the ceiling. Other indoor units
mount inside the ceiling cavity, so that short lengths of duct handle air from the indoor unit to vents or
diffusers around the rooms.

Dehumidification
Dehumidification (air drying) in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since the
evaporator operates at a temperature below the dew point, moisture in the air condenses on the
evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a pan and removed by
piping to a central drain or onto the ground outside.

A dehumidifier is an air-conditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. It is often
employed in basements which have a higher relative humidity because of their lower temperature (and
propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing establishments, large open chiller cabinets are
highly effective at dehumidifying the internal air. Conversely, a humidifier increases the humidity of a
building.

Maintenance
All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped with internal air
filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauzy material, and must be replaced or washed as conditions
warrant. For example, a building in a high dust environment, or a home with furry pets, will need to have
the filters changed more often than buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to replace these filters as
needed will contribute to a lower heat exchange rate, resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment life,
and higher energy bills; low air flow can result in "iced-up" or "iced-over" evaporator coils, which can
completely stop air flow. Additionally, very dirty or plugged filters can cause overheating during a heating
cycle, and can result in damage to the system or even fire.

Because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor coil and the outdoor coil, both must be kept
clean. This means that, in addition to replacing the air filter at the evaporator coil, it is also necessary to
regularly clean the condenser coil. Failure to keep the condenser clean will eventually result in harm to the
compressor, because the condenser coil is responsible for discharging both the indoor heat (as picked up
by the evaporator) and the heat generated by the electric motor driving the compressor.

Energy efficiency
Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make the systems
they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs, and has more recently
been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues. Additionally, improvements to the HVAC
system efficiency can also help increase occupant health and productivity.[18] In the US, the EPA has
imposed tighter restrictions over the years. There are several methods for making HVAC systems more
efficient.

Heating energy
In the past, water heating was more efficient for heating buildings and was the standard in the United
States. Today, forced air systems can double for air conditioning and are more popular.

Some benefits of forced air systems, which are now widely used in churches, schools and high-end
residences, are

Better air conditioning effects

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Energy savings of up to 15-20%
Even conditioning[citation needed]
A drawback is the installation cost, which can be slightly higher than traditional HVAC systems.

Energy efficiency can be improved even more in central heating systems by introducing zoned heating.
This allows a more granular application of heat, similar to non-central heating systems. Zones are
controlled by multiple thermostats. In water heating systems the thermostats control zone valves, and in
forced air systems they control zone dampers inside the vents which selectively block the flow of air. In
this case, the control system is very critical to maintaining a proper temperature.

Forecasting is another method of controlling building heating by calculating demand for heating energy
that should be supplied to the building in each time unit.

Geothermal heat pump

Main article: Geothermal heat pump
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, it confuses ground source heat
pumps with geothermal heat. (July 2014)
Geothermal heat pumps are similar to ordinary heat pumps, but instead of transferring heat to or from
outside air, they rely on the stable, even temperature of the earth to provide heating and air conditioning.
Many parts of the country experience seasonal temperature extremes, which would require large-capacity
heating and cooling equipment to heat or cool buildings. For example, a conventional heat pump system
used to heat a building in Montana's −70 °F (−57 °C) low temperature or cool a building in the highest
temperature ever recorded in the US—134 °F (57 °C) in Death Valley, California, in 1913 would require a
large amount of energy due to the extreme difference between inside and outside air temperatures. A few
feet below the earth's surface, however, the ground remains at a relatively constant temperature. Utilizing
this large source of relatively moderate temperature earth, a heating or cooling system's capacity can
often be significantly reduced. Although ground temperatures vary according to latitude, at 6 feet (1.8 m)
underground, temperatures generally only range from 45 to 75 °F (7 to 24 °C).

An example of a geothermal heat pump that uses a body of water as the heat sink, is the system used by
the Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago, Illinois. This building is situated on the Chicago River,
and uses cold river water by pumping it into a recirculating cooling system, where heat exchangers
transfer heat from the building into the water, and then the now-warmed water is pumped back into the
Chicago River.[19]

While they may be more costly to install than regular heat pumps, geothermal heat pumps can produce
markedly lower energy bills – 30 to 40 percent lower, according to estimates from the US Environmental
Protection Agency.[citation needed]

Ventilation energy recovery

Energy recovery systems sometimes utilize heat recovery ventilation or energy recovery ventilation
systems that employ heat exchangers or enthalpy wheels to recover sensible or latent heat from
exhausted air. This is done by transfer of energy to the incoming outside fresh air.

Air conditioning energy

The performance of vapor compression refrigeration cycles is limited by thermodynamics. These air
conditioning and heat pump devices move heat rather than convert it from one form to another, so
thermal efficiencies do not appropriately describe the performance of these devices. The Coefficient-of-
Performance (COP) measures performance, but this dimensionless measure has not been adopted.
Instead, the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) has traditionally been used to characterize the performance of
many HVAC systems. EER is the Energy Efficiency Ratio based on a 35 °C (95 °F) outdoor temperature. To
more accurately describe the performance of air conditioning equipment over a typical cooling season a
modified version of the EER, the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER), or in Europe the ESEER, is used.
SEER ratings are based on seasonal temperature averages instead of a constant 35 °C (95 °F) outdoor
temperature. The current industry minimum SEER rating is 14 SEER.[20]
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Engineers have pointed out some areas where efficiency of the existing hardware could be improved. For
example, the fan blades used to move the air are usually stamped from sheet metal, an economical
method of manufacture, but as a result they are not aerodynamically efficient. A well-designed blade
could reduce electrical power required to move the air by a third.[21]

Air filtration and cleaning

Air handling unit, used for heating, cooling, and filtering the air
Air cleaning and filtration is an important factor of our indoor environment because cleaning the air filters
out what the lungs cannot by removing particles, contaminants, vapors and gases from the air. The
filtered and cleaned air then is used in heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Air cleaning and filtration
should be taken in account when protecting our building environments.[22]

Clean air delivery rate and filter performance

Clean air delivery rate is the amount of clean air an air cleaner provides to a room or space. When
determining CADR, the amount of airflow in a space is taken into account. For example, an air cleaner with
a flow rate of 100 cfm (cubic feet per minute) and an efficiency of 50% has a CADR of 50 cfm. Along with
CADR, filtration performance is very important when it comes to the air in our indoor environment. Filter
performance depends on the size of the particle or fiber, the filter packing density and depth and also the
air flow rate.[22]

HVAC industry and standards

The HVAC industry is a worldwide enterprise, with roles including operation and maintenance, system
design and construction, equipment manufacturing and sales, and in education and research. The HVAC
industry was historically regulated by the manufacturers of HVAC equipment, but regulating and
standards organizations such as HARDI, ASHRAE, SMACNA, ACCA, Uniform Mechanical Code,
International Mechanical Code, and AMCA have been established to support the industry and encourage
high standards and achievement.

The starting point in carrying out an estimate both for cooling and heating depends on the exterior climate
and interior specified conditions. However, before taking up the heat load calculation, it is necessary to
find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as pressurization is an important consideration.

International
ISO 16813:2006 is one of the ISO building environment standards.[23] It establishes the general principles
of building environment design. It takes into account the need to provide a healthy indoor environment for
the occupants as well as the need to protect the environment for future generations and promote
collaboration among the various parties involved in building environmental design for sustainability.
ISO16813 is applicable to new construction and the retrofit of existing buildings.[24]

The building environmental design standard aims to:[24]

provide the constraints concerning sustainability issues from the initial stage of the design process, with
building and plant life cycle to be considered together with owning and operating costs from the
beginning of the design process;
assess the proposed design with rational criteria for indoor air quality, thermal comfort, acoustical
comfort, visual comfort, energy efficiency and HVAC system controls at every stage of the design process;
iterate decisions and evaluations of the design throughout the design process.
North America[edit]
United States
Main article: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
In the United States, HVAC engineers generally are members of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), EPA Universal CFC certified, or locally engineer
certified such as a Special to Chief Boilers License issued by the state or, in some jurisdictions, the city.
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ASHRAE is an international technical society for all individuals and organizations interested in HVAC. The
Society, organized into regions, chapters, and student branches, allows exchange of HVAC knowledge and
experiences for the benefit of the field's practitioners and the public. ASHRAE provides many
opportunities to participate in the development of new knowledge via, for example, research and its many
technical committees. These committees typically meet twice per year at the ASHRAE Annual and Winter
Meetings. A popular product show, the AHR Expo, is held in conjunction with each winter meeting. The
Society has approximately 50,000 members and has headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia.

The most recognized standards for HVAC design are based on ASHRAE data. The most general of four
volumes of the ASHRAE Handbook is Fundamentals; it includes heating and cooling calculations. Each
volume of the ASHRAE Handbook is updated every four years. The design professional must consult
ASHRAE data for the standards of design and care as the typical building codes provide little to no
information on HVAC design practices; codes such as the UMC and IMC do include much detail on
installation requirements, however. Other useful reference materials include items from SMACNA, ACGIH,
and technical trade journals.

American design standards are legislated in the Uniform Mechanical Code or International Mechanical
Code. In certain states, counties, or cities, either of these codes may be adopted and amended via various
legislative processes. These codes are updated and published by the International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) or the International Code Council (ICC) respectively, on a 3-
year code development cycle. Typically, local building permit departments are charged with enforcement
of these standards on private and certain public properties.

In the United States and Canada, as well as throughout the world, HVAC contractors and Air Duct Cleaning
companies are members of NADCA, the National Air Duct Cleaners Association. NADCA was formed in
1989 as a non-profit association of companies engaged in the cleaning of HVAC air duct systems. Its
mission was to promote source removal as the only acceptable method of cleaning and to establish
industry standards for the association. NADCA has expanded its mission to include the representation of
qualified member companies engaged in the assessment, cleaning, and restoration of HVAC systems,
and to assist its members in providing high quality service to their customers. The goal of the association
is to be the number one source for the HVAC air duct cleaning and restoration services. NADCA has
experienced large membership growth in the United States, Canada and overseas and has been extremely
successful with the training and certification of Air Systems Cleaning Specialists (ASCS)and Certified
Ventilation Inspectors (CVI). The association has also published important standards and guidelines,
educational materials, and other useful information for the consumers and members of NADCA.
Standards include the Assessment, Cleaning and Restoration (ACR), Certified Ventilation Inspector (CVI)
and other important guidelines.

HVAC professionals in the US can receive training through formal training institutions, where most earn
associate degrees. Training for HVAC technicians includes classroom lectures and hands-on tasks, and
can be followed by an apprenticeship wherein the recent graduate works alongside a professional HVAC
technician for a temporary period.[25] HVAC techs who have been trained can also be certified in areas
such as air conditioning, heat pumps, gas heating, and commercial refrigeration.[26]

Europe
United Kingdom
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers is a body that covers the essential Service
(systems architecture) that allow buildings to operate. It includes the electrotechnical, heating, ventilating,
air conditioning, refrigeration and plumbing industries. To train as a building services engineer, the
academic requirements are GCSEs (A-C) / Standard Grades (1-3) in Maths and Science, which are
important in measurements, planning and theory. Employers will often want a degree in a branch of
engineering, such as building environment engineering, electrical engineering or mechanical engineering.
To become a full member of CIBSE, and so also to be registered by the Engineering Council UK as a
chartered engineer, engineers must also attain an Honours Degree and a master's degree in a relevant
engineering subject.
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CIBSE publishes several guides to HVAC design relevant to the UK market, and also the Republic of
Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong. These guides include various recommended design
criteria and standards, some of which are cited within the UK building regulations, and therefore form a
legislative requirement for major building services works. The main guides are:

Guide A: Environmental Design

Guide B: Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
Guide C: Reference Data
Guide D: Transportation systems in Buildings
Guide E: Fire Safety Engineering
Guide F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings
Guide G: Public Health Engineering
Guide H: Building Control Systems
Guide J: Weather, Solar and Illuminance Data
Guide K: Electricity in Buildings
Guide L: Sustainability
Guide M: Maintenance Engineering and Management
Within the construction sector, it is the job of the building services engineer to design and oversee the
installation and maintenance of the essential services such as gas, electricity, water, heating and lighting,
as well as many others. These all help to make buildings comfortable and healthy places to live and work
in. Building Services is part of a sector that has over 51,000 businesses and employs represents 2%-3% of
the GDP.

Australia
The Air Conditioning and Mechanical Contractors Association of Australia (AMCA), Australian Institute of
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heating (AIRAH), and CIBSE are responsible.

Asia
Asian architectural temperature-control have different priorities than European methods. For example,
Asian heating traditionally focuses on maintaining temperatures of objects such as the floor or
furnishings such as Kotatsu tables and directly warming people, as opposed to the Western focus, in
modern periods, on designing air systems.

Philippines
The Philippine Society of Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers (PSVARE) along with
Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME) govern on the codes and standards for HVAC / MVAC
in the Philippines.

India
The Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE) was established to
promote the HVAC industry in India. ISHRAE is an associate of ASHRAE. ISHRAE was started at Delhi in
1981 and a chapter was started in Bangalore in 1989. Between 1989 & 1993, ISHRAE chapters were
formed in all major cities in India and also in the Middle East.

See also
ASHRAE Handbook
Fan coil unit
Glossary of HVAC terms
Sick building syndrome
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Climate control.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Air conditioners.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cooling.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ventilation fans.
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