Chapter 3

Radiation Integrals and

Auxiliary Potential Functions

3.1 Introduction
In the analysis of radiation problems, the usual procedure is to specify the
sources and then require the fields radiated by the sources. This is in con-
trast to the synthesis problem where the radiated fields are specified, and
we are required to determine the sources.

It is a very common practice in the analysis procedure to introduce auxiliary

functions, known as vector potentials, which will aid in the solution of the
problems. The most common vector potential functions are the A (mag-
netic vector potential) and F (electric vector potential). The introduction
of the potentials often simplifies the solution even though it may require
determination of additional functions. While it is possible to determine the
E and H fields directly from the source-current densities J and M, as shown
in Figure 3.1, it is usually much simpler to find the auxiliary potential func-
tions first and then determine the E and H. This two-step procedure is also
shown in Figure 3.1.

3.2 The Vector Potentials

The vector potential A is useful in solving for the EM field generated by a
given harmonic electric current J. The magnetic flux B is always solenoidal;
that is, ∇ · B = 0. Therefore, it can be represented as the curl of another
vector because it obeys the vector identity

∇ · (∇ × A) = 0

1
 Class Notes on ECEG-6308
3.2. THE VECTOR POTENTIALS Analysis and Design of Antennas

Figure 3.1: Block diagram for computing fields radiated by electric and
magnetic sources.

where A is an arbitrary vector. Thus we define

BA = µHA = ∇ × A (3.1)

We can substitute this into Maxwell’s curl equation ∇ × EA = −jωBA ,

∇ × EA = −jω∇ × A

This can also be written as

∇ × [EA + jωA] = 0

From the vector identity ∇ × (−∇φe ) = 0, it follows that

EA + jωA = −∇φe

or
EA = −∇φe − jωA (3.2)
The scalar function φe represents an arbitrary electric scalar potential which
is a function of position. Taking the curl of both sides of (3.1) and using
the vector identity ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A, reduces it to

∇ × (µHA ) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A

For homogeneous medium,

µ∇ × HA = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A

Using Maxwells equation, ∇ × HA = J + jωεEA ,

µJ + jωµεEA = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A

Murad Ridwan, 2 of 7
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.
 Class Notes on ECEG-6308
3.2. THE VECTOR POTENTIALS Analysis and Design of Antennas

Substituting (3.2),

∇2 A + k 2 A = −µJ + ∇(∇ · A + jωµεφe )

where k 2 = ω 2 µε. In (3.1) the curl of A was defined. Now we are at liberty
to define the divergence of A, which is independent of its curl. Let

∇ · A = −jωµεφe (3.3)

which is known as the Lorentz condition. Substituting,

∇2 + k 2 A = −µJ (3.4)

In addition, 3.3 leads to

1
EA = −∇φe − jωA = −jωA − j ∇(∇ · A) (3.5)
ωµε

Once A is known, HA can be found from (3.1) and EA from (3.5). EA can
just as easily be found from Maxwell’s equation, ∇ × HA = J + jωεEA , with
J = 0. It will be shown later how to find A in terms of the current density
J. It will be a solution to the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation (3.4).

Although magnetic currents appear to be physically unrealizable, equivalent

magnetic currents arise when we use the volume or the surface equivalence
theorems. The fields generated by a harmonic magnetic current in a homo-
geneous region, with J = 0 but M 6= 0, must satisfy ∇ · D = 0. Therefore,
EF can be expressed as the curl of the vector potential F by
1 1
EF = D = − ∇ × F (3.6)
ε ε
By letting
∇ · F = −jωµεφm (3.7)
where φm represents an arbitrary magnetic scalar potential which is a func-
tion of position, we can obtain

∇2 F + k 2 F = −εM (3.8)

Once F is known, EF can be found from (3.6) and HF with M = 0. It will

be shown later how to find F once M is known. It will be a solution to the
inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation (3.8).

Murad Ridwan, 3 of 7
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.
 Class Notes on ECEG-6308
3.3. SOLUTIONS.. Analysis and Design of Antennas

Total Fields
Now, we have developed equations that can be used to find the electric and
magnetic fields generated by an electric current source J and a magnetic
current source M. The procedure requires that the auxiliary potential func-
tions A and F generated, respectively, by J and M are found first. In turn,
the corresponding electric and magnetic fields are then determined (EA , HA
due to A and EF , HF due to F). The total fields are then obtained by the
superposition of the individual fields due to A and F (J and M).
E = EA + E F
1 1
= −jωA − j ∇∇ · A − ∇ × F
ωµε ε (3.9)
1 1
= ∇ × HA − ∇ × F
jωε ε

H = HA + HF
1 1
= ∇ × A − jωF − j ∇∇ · F
µ ωµε (3.10)
1 1
= ∇×A−j ∇∇ · EF
µ ωµε

3.3 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Vector Poten-

tial Equation
The solution of the inhomogeneous vector wave equation is
e−jkR 0
ZZZ
µ
A= J dv (3.11)
4π V R
To derive it, let us assume that a source with current density Jz , which in the
limit is an infinitesimal source, is placed at the origin of a x, y, z coordinate
system.

Since the current density is directed along the z -axis (Jz ), only an Az com-
ponent will exist. Thus we can write ∇2 A + k 2 A = −µJ as
∇2 Az + k 2 Az = −µJz
At points outside of the infinitesimal source,
∇ 2 Az + k 2 Az = 0 (3.12)
Point source: Az is not a function of direction (θ and φ) and Az = Az (r),
where r is the radial distance.
 
2 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Az (r)
∇ Az (r) + k Az (r) = 2 r + k 2 Az (r) = 0
r ∂r ∂r

Murad Ridwan, 4 of 7
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.
 Class Notes on ECEG-6308
3.3. SOLUTIONS.. Analysis and Design of Antennas

d2 Az (r) 2 dAz (r)

+ + k 2 Az (r) = 0 (3.13)
dr2 r dr
This differential equation has two independent solutions

e−jkr
Az1 = C1 : radially outward traveling wave.
r
e+jkr
Az2 = C2 : radially inward traveling wave.
r
Therefore, we choose
e−jkr
Az = Az1 = C1
r
In the static case (ω = 0, k = 0), this simplifies to

C1
Az = Az1 =
r
which is the solution to the wave equation (3.13) when k = 0. Thus at
points outside the source, the time-varying and static solutions differ only
by e−jkr , the phase retardation factor.

In the presence of the source (Jz 6= 0), and k = 0, the wave equation reduces
to
∇2 Az = −µJz (3.14)

Murad Ridwan, 5 of 7
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.
 Class Notes on ECEG-6308
3.3. SOLUTIONS.. Analysis and Design of Antennas

This equation is recognized to be Poissons equation, the most familiar form

being that relates the scalar electric potential φ to the electric charge density
ρ.
ρ
∇2 φ = −
ε
The solution is ZZZ
1 ρ 0
φ= dv
4πε V r
where r is the distance from any point in the charge density to the observa-
tion point. Using a similar form
ZZZ
µ Jz 0
Az = dv (3.15)
4π V r

This represents the static solution. The time-varying solution is

ZZZ
µ Jz −jkr 0
Az = e dv (3.16)
4π V r

If we consider the current densities in x- and y-directions (Jx and Jy ),

e−jkr 0
ZZZ
µ
A= J dv (3.17)
4π V r
If the source is removed from the origin and placed at a position represented
by (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ),

e−jkR 0
ZZZ
µ
A(x, y, z) = J(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dv (3.18)
4π V R
where (x, y, z) is the observation point and R = |r − r0 | is the distance from
any point on the source to the observation point. In a similar fashion we
can obtain
e−jkR 0
ZZZ
ε
F(x, y, z) = M(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dv (3.19)
4π V R
If J and M represent linear densities,
e−jkR 0
ZZ
µ
A(x, y, z) = Js (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) ds (3.20)
4π S R
e−jkR 0
ZZ
ε
F(x, y, z) = Ms (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) ds (3.21)
4π S R
For electric and magnetic current Ie and Im
e−jkR 0
Z
µ
A(x, y, z) = Ie (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dl (3.22)
4π C R
e−jkR 0
Z
ε
F(x, y, z) = Im (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dl (3.23)
4π C R

Murad Ridwan, 6 of 7
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.
 Class Notes on ECEG-6308
3.4. FAR-FIELD RADIATION Analysis and Design of Antennas

3.4 Far-Field Radiation

The far-fields radiated by antennas of finite dimensions are spherical waves.
For these radiators, a general solution to the vector wave equation in spher-
ical components is
A = ar Ar (r, θ, φ) + aθ Aθ (r, θ, φ) + aφ Aφ (r, θ, φ)
The amplitude variations of r in each component are of the form 1/rn .
Neglecting the higher order terms, for large r,
 e−jkr
A ' ar A0r (r, θ, φ) + aθ A0θ (r, θ, φ) + aφ A0φ (r, θ, φ)

r
Consider
1
EA = ∇φe − jωA = −jωA − j ∇(∇ · A)
ωµε
If we evaluate the second term in spherical coordinates, we will notice that
higher powers of 1/r are produced. Neglecting them,
EA ' −jωA for θ and φ components.
Neglecting the higher order terms of 1/rn , the radiated E- and H-fields have
only θ and φ components. They can be expressed as
Er ' 0,
Eθ ' −jωAθ ,
Eφ ' −jωAφ .
Hr ' 0, (3.24)
ω Eθ
Hθ ' +j Aθ = − ,
η η
ω Eφ
Hφ ' −j Aφ = .
η η
Radial far-field terms exist only for higher order terms of 1/rn .

In a similar manner, the far-zone fields due to magnetic source M (potential

F) can be written as
Hr ' 0,
Hθ ' −jωFθ ,
Hφ ' −jωFφ .
(3.25)
Er ' 0,
Eθ ' −jωηFφ = ηHφ ,
Eφ ' +jωηFθ = −ηHθ .
The corresponding far-zone E- and H-field components are orthogonal to
each other and form TEM (to r ) mode fields.

Murad Ridwan, 7 of 7
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.