SECTION 5a

Groundwater Flow
1. General Flow Equations
2. Solutions of Flow Equations
2.1 Steady Flow in a Confined Aquifer
2.2 Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer
2.3 Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer
with Leakage

CEE 9870 Winter 2021 Dr. Chris Power

General Flow Equations
Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions
h Total specific discharge vector and
qx = − K x its components qx, qy, and qz
x
h
qy = − K y q = qx2 + q y2 + qz2
y
h
qz = − K z
z
Example:
0.023 m/d

-0.00104 m/d

Note:

(A) h1 = 90.86 masl

(C) h2 = 92.46 masl
General Flow Equations
Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions
Vector: q = qx i + q y j + qz k
  
Gradient operator : = i + j+ k
x y z
h h h
h = i + j+ k
x y z
qx q y qz
Divergence operator • :  • q = + +
x y z

Example: A x = b

 Axx Axy   x 
     = bx by 
 Ayx Ayy   y 
General Flow Equations
Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions
‘discharge’ is a vector ‘head’ is a scalar h
 qx  h
  q = −K ‘hydraulic gradient’ is a vector
qy  x
q   h 
 z ‘hydraulic conductivity’ is a tensor  x 
 
 K xx K xy K xz   h 
   y 
 
 K yx K yy K yz   h 
K K K   z 
 zx zy zz 
h  h 
qx = − K x  x 
x  qx   K xx K xy K xz 
 
h      h 
 q y  = −  K yx K yy K yz 
qy = − K y
y  y 
h q  K K K   
qz = − K z  z  zx zy zz   h 
z  z 
General Flow Equations
Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions
Hydraulic Conductivity Tensor (9 components)
(1) K 0 0  (2)  K xx 0 0  (3)  K xx K xy K xz 
   
K =  0 K 0  K = 0 K yy 0  K =  K yx K yy K yz 
 0 0 K  0 0 K  K K K 
 zz   zx zy zz 
(1) Isotropic: K x = K y = K z
q = qx i + q y j + qz k
q = − K h  h h h 
h h h (1) q = − K  + + 
h = i + j+ k  x y z 
x y z
(2) Anisotropic: K x  K y  K z
coordinate axes not orientated
q = − K h parallel to principal axes
h h h
qx = − K xx − K xy − K xz
coordinate axes orientated x y z
parallel to principal axes (3) q y = − K yx h − K yy h − K yz h
h h h x y z
(2) q = − K xx − K yy − K zz h h h
x y z qz = − K zx − K zy − K zz
x y z
General Flow Equations
Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions
Change orientation to line up with principal directions of medium:
 K xx K xy  Kx'x' 0 
  0 K 
 K yx K yy   y' y' 

In x-y plane:
▪ Let x’ and y’ be principal coordinate directions
K xx + K yy K xx − K yy
Kx'x' = + cos 2 − K xy sin 2
2 2
K xx + K yy K xx − K yy
K y' y' = − cos 2 + K xy sin 2
2 2 y

▪ The required angle of coordinate system y’

rotation (clockwise), θ, can be found:

2 K xy x
tan 2 = − 
K xx − K yy
x’
General Flow Equations
Darcy’s Law in Three Dimensions
Example: Given K and h , compute the magnitude and direction of q

 20 10
K =  h = 0.01i + 0.01 j
10 25 
General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
▪ Mass in - Mass out = Accumulation (𝛥 storage)

J z +z J y +y

z + z

z

Jx J x +x
z
y + y
y
z y
y Jy x
x x + x
x
Jz
General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
▪ Mass in - Mass out = Accumulation (𝛥 storage)

 w qz wqy
J water = wq

y + y

y

 w qx  w qx
y
z + z
z
z z
y wqy x
x x + x
x
 w qz
General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
Mass in - Mass out = Accumulation (𝛥 storage)
Mass flux (mass/time) mw = wnVt

[  w( x ) qx ( x ) yz ] − [  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) yz ]

+[  w( y ) q y ( y ) xz ] − [  w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) xz ] = ( w  n  xyz ) − ( w  n  xyz )
t +t t

+[  w( z ) qz ( z ) xy ] − [  w( z +z ) qz ( z +z ) xy ]

[  w( x ) qx ( x ) yz ] − [  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) yz ]

+[  w( y ) q y ( y ) xz ] − [  w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) xz ]
+[  w( z ) qz ( z ) xy ] − [  w( z +z ) qz ( z +z ) xy ]
 General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
[  w( x ) qx ( x ) yz ] − [  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) yz ]
h
+[  w( y ) q y ( y ) xz ] − [  w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) xz ] = w Ss xyz
t
+[  w( z ) qz ( z ) xy ] − [  w( z +z ) qz ( z +z ) xy ]

Divide through by xyz :

  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) −  w( x ) qx ( x )    w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) −  w( y ) q y ( y )    w( z +z ) qz ( z +z ) −  w( z ) qz ( z )  h
− −
  −
   =  S
x y z t
w s
     

The left-hand side is a derivative in the limit as 𝛥x shrinks to zero:

 (  w qx )  (  w q y )  (  w qz ) h
− − − = w Ss
x y z t
Substituting Darcy’s law into equation:
General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
Cleaning up the equation:
  h    h    h  h
  w K x  +   w K y  +   w K z  = Ss
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
Dividing by w :
  h    h    h  h
 x 
K +  y 
K +  z 
K = S
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
s

Saturated Flow Equation:

  h    h    h  h
 x 
K +  y 
K +  z 
K = S
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
s

▪ Most universal form of saturated flow equation

▪ Flow in all direction (x,y,z)
▪ Transient flow
▪ Heterogeneous and anisotropic conductivities
General Flow Equations
3D Transient-State Flow (no source/sink term)
(1) Heterogeneous anisotropic aquifer:
K varies between each
  h    h    h  h
 x 
K +  y 
K +  z 
K = S direction and varies
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
s
along each direction
Kx  K y  Kz
(2) Homogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

2h 2h 2h h K varies between each

K x 2 + K y 2 + K z 2 = Ss direction but does not vary
x y z t
along each direction

(3) Homogeneous isotropic aquifer:

 2 h  2 h  2 h S s h K is the same between

+ 2+ 2 = each direction and is the
x 2
y z K t same along each direction

Laplacian 2 2h 2h 2h

Kx = K y = Kz
 h= 2 + 2 + 2
operator x y z
General Flow Equations
3D Steady-State Flow (no source/sink term)
(1) Heterogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

  h    h    h 
 x 
K +  y  +  Kz  = 0
K
x  x  y  y  z  z 

(2) Homogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

2h 2h 2h

Kx 2 + K y 2 + Kz 2 = 0
x y z

(3) Homogeneous isotropic aquifer (Laplace Equation):

2h 2h 2h

+ 2 + 2 =0
x 2
y z
Laplacian 2 2h 2h 2h
 h= 2 + 2 + 2
operator x y z
 General Flow Equations
2D Saturated Flow in Aquifers
Dupuit-Forchheimer Approximation
▪ Two-dimensional in the horizontal plane
▪ In most aquifers, bulk of resistance is resistance to horizontal flow
▪ Assuming h varies with x and y, but not with z
▪ Assumption fails in regions where flow has a large vertical component
▪ e.g., leaky aquifer, sloping bed, near a well in an unconfined aquifer

Vertical cross-section of actual unconfined flow (left) and the same situation as modeled with the Dupuit–Forchheimer
approximation (right). Hydraulic head contours are shown with dashed lines. In the Dupuit–Forchheimer model, there
is no resistance to vertical flow, which results in constant head along vertical lines (∂h/∂z = 0).
General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
▪ Mass in - Mass out = Accumulation (𝛥 storage)

qz (top )
J water = wq wqy

 w qx  w qx

y + y
wqy y
z y
x
y
x x + x
qz represents
x qz (bottom ) recharge/leakage
 General Flow Equations
Conservation of mass of groundwater flow
[  w( x ) qx ( x ) yb] − [  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) yb]
h
+[  w( y ) q y ( y ) xb] − [  w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) xb] = w Ss xyb
t
+  w qz (bottom ) xy −  w qz (top ) xy
Divide through by xy :
  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x )b −  w( x ) qx ( x )b    w( y +y ) q y ( y +y )b −  w ( y ) q y ( y ) b  h
− −
   +  q −  q =  S
x y t
w z ( bottom ) w z ( top ) w
   
The left-hand side is a derivative in the limit as 𝛥x shrinks to zero:
 (  w q x b)  (  w q y b) h
− − +  w qz (bottom ) −  w qz (top ) =  w S
x y t
Substituting Darcy’s Law into the equation:
  h    h  h

 w x
K b  + 
 w y
K b  +  q −  q =  S
x  x  y  y  t
w z ( bottom ) w z ( top ) w

  h    h  h
 Tx  +  Ty  + qz (bottom) − qz (top ) = S
x  x  y  y  t
Can be represented
by ‘N’
General Flow Equations
Confined
2D Transient-State Flow in Aquifers T = Kb
S = Ssb
(1) Heterogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

  h    h  h
 x 
T +  y 
T + N = S
x  x  y  y  t

(2) Homogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

2h 2h h
Tx 2 + Ty 2 + N = S
x y t
Prismatic element of a 2D aquifer

(3) Homogeneous isotropic aquifer:

N(x,y,) can be used to simulate both
 2 h  2 h N S h distributed and point sources (+ve)
+ 2+ = and sinks (-ve)
x 2
y T T t
N has the units [L/T], and is defined
as the volume of inflow per unit area
(ΔxΔy) of aquifer per unit of time.
General Flow Equations
2D Steady-State Flow in Aquifers

(1) Heterogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

  h    h 
 Tx  +  Ty  + N = 0
x  x  y  y 

(2) Homogeneous anisotropic aquifer:

2h 2h
Tx 2 + Ty 2 + N = 0
x y

(3) Homogeneous isotropic aquifer (Poisson Equation):

2h 2h N If there is zero net recharge/leakage (N=0),

+ 2− then Poisson Equation reduces to
x 2
y T Laplace Equation.
General Flow Equations
2D Saturated Flow in Aquifers
Flow in an isotropic, homogeneous, unconfined aquifer with a hz base:
   h    h   h
K   h  +  h  + N = S
 x  x  y  y   t
Boussinseq
or
Equation
  h    h  N S h
h + h + =
x  x  y  y  K K t
An unconfined aquifer with a
▪ Nonlinear partial differential equation. horizontal impermeable base

(1) Write in terms of variable h² instead of h (2) Assume h can be replaced by

Substitute in the following two relations: average thickness b:
h 1  2 h 1  2
h = (h ) h = (h ) 2h 2h N S h
x 2 x  
y 2 y
+ + =
to make: x 2 y 2 Kb Kb t
K  2 2 2 2  h
2  x 2
( h ) +
y 2
( h )  + N = S
t

Divide by K/2:
2 2  2 2 2 N 2S h
x 2
( h ) + y 2 ( h ) + K = K t
General Flow Equations
3D Unsaturated Flow in Aquifers
▪ Similar to 3D saturated flow equation except for the transient storage
▪ Changes in water content occur in addition to expansion/compression
[  w( x ) qx ( x ) yz ] − [  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) yz ]
h
Saturated +[  w( y ) q y ( y ) xz ] − [  w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) xz ] =  w S s xyz
t
+[  w( z ) qz ( z ) xy ] − [  w( z +z ) qz ( z +z ) xy ]

[  w( x ) qx ( x ) yz ] − [  w( x +x ) qx ( x +x ) yz ]


Unsaturated +[  w( y ) q y ( y ) xz ] − [  w( y +y ) q y ( y +y ) xz ] =  w xyz
t
+[  w( z ) qz ( z ) xy ] − [  w( z +z ) qz ( z +z ) xy ]

General   h    h    h  
Unsaturated  x 
K +  y  +  Kz  =
K
Flow Equation x  x  y  y  z  z  t
▪ Written as a function of pressure (Richards Equation):
  P    P     P  
           
        P
K x ( P)  w   +  K y ( P)  w   +  K z ( P)   w  + 1  =
g g g
x  x  y  y  z   z   P t
       
 
       