UNIT - 13

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Structure and function of endocrine gland and
hormones and list glands.
 Hormone produced by different glands and its
uses.
 Male and female sex hormone

✓ Oestrogen

✓ Progesterone

✓ Testosterone

✓ Other hormones
INTRODUCTION
 The endocrine system refers to the collection
of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly
into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant
target organs.
 The endocrine glands act as ductless glands(any glands of
endocrine system that secrete hormones directly into
the circulatory system) which interacts with nervous
system for regulation and coordination of various body
activities.
 Usually one glands secretes more than one hormone.
 Hormones act as chemical messengers that are
released into the blood stream to act on an organ in
another part of the body.
 Although hormones reach all parts of the body, only
target cells with compatible receptors are equipted to
respond. Over 50 hormones have been identified in
humans and other vertebrates.
 Hormone secretion are influenced by external stimuli,
internal rhythmus and usually kept a normal level by
negative feedback system involving other glands and
hormones.
Hormones control or regulate many biological processes
and are often produced in exceptionally low amounts
within the body. Examples of such processes include:
 blood sugar control (insulin);

 differentiation, growth, and function of reproductive

organs (testosterone (T) and estradiol); and
 body growth and energy production (growth hormone
and thyroid hormone).
A. DEPENDING UPON THE COMPOSITION
It is divided into three types:-
a. Amine:- Derived from amino acids tyrosine e.g
Thyroid hormone, Catecholamine's, Dopamine
b. Peptide:- Derived from polymers of different amino
acids e.g pancretic hormones, pituitary hormones ,
parathyroid hormone, calcitonin.
c. Steroid(fat soluble organic compound):- Derived
from cholesterol e.g Mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, Sex hormones.
B. DEPENDING UPON THE SITE OF
PRODUCTION

 Hormones are of two types.

a. Paracrine hormone:-The hormone acts locally by
diffusion from its source of target cells in the
neighborhood. Hormone produced from one type of
cell acts on adjacent cells. E.g Gastrin hormone
produced by G cells acts on parietal cells.
b. Autocrine hormone :- The hormone act on same the
same cell that produced it.(Hormone produced from
one cell acts on the same cell). E.g platelet
activating factors from vascular endothelium.
 There are two great coordinating systems in our body:-
a. Nervous system and
b. Endocrine system
Cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

Posterior
pituitary ANS
Anterior pituitary

Other endocrine
glands

Target tissue
THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS ARE:-
1) Pituitary gland
2) Thyroid gland
3) Parathyroid gland
4) Adrenal glands
5) Ovaries glands in female
6) Testes in the male
7) Pancreas
8) Pineal gland
9) Thymus gland
HYPOTHALAMUS(BIOLOGICAL CLOCK)

 It is not gland but is a part of nervous system.

 It is included in endocrine system because its hormone
nervous signal control the secretions from the pituitary
glands.
 Anterior pituitary is controlled by “hormone releasing
hormones” from the hypothalamus via the
hypothalamic hypophyseal portal vessels.
 The posterior pituitary hormones are actually
synthesized in hypothalamus and their release is
controlled by nervous signal from hypothalamus.
It synthesis following releasing hormones.
 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH or CRF)

 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

 Dopamine (Prolactin-inhibiting hormone) PIH

 Prolactin-releasing hormone

 Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)ADH

 Oxytocin
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HORMONES OF
HYPOTHALAMUS AND ANTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY
GLANDS
Hypothalamus Adenohypophysis Trget glands or tissue

GHRF GH Many glands ,all tissues

GHRF GH Inhibition of GH, thyroid glands,

islet of langerhans, all tissue

TRH TSH Thyroid glands

CRF ACTH Adrenal cortex
NONE PRL Breast
PIF PRL inhibitor Breast
LH-RH FSH Ovaries and testes
LH Ovaries and testes
 Hypothalamus

Releasing hormones

Adenohypophysis of pituitary glands

Trophic hormones to target glands

Hormone secretion by target glands

Raised blood level of target glands hormones

Utilization of hormones

Lowered blood level

DIAGRAM OF THE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK REGULATION OF THE SECRETION OF
HORMONES BY THE ANTERIOR LOBE OF THE PITUITARY GLANDS
 PITUITARY GLAND
 The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine
gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams
(500mg) and size 12 × 8 mm² in humans.
 It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at
the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity
(sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma
sellae).
 The pituitary is functionally connected to the
hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small
tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk.
 It is also known as master glands because it produces a
number of hormones , which control the secretion of
many other endocrine glands of the body.
 Pituitary glands has 3 distinct parts:-
1. Anterior lobe(adenohypophysis)
2. Intermediate lobe
3. Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
ANTERIOR LOBE(ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
 Growth hormone:-Release under the influence of hypothalamic
growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) -
Stimulates growth and cell reproduction.

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)(TSH):- Release under

the influence of hypothalamic thyrotropin releasing
hormone(TRH) - Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) synthesis and release from thyroid gland,
Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid gland.

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone(corticotropin)ACTH:- Release

under the influence of hypothalamic corticotropin releasing
hormone(CRH):- Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid and
mineralcorticoid) and androgen synthesis and release
from adrenocortical cells.
 Prolactin(PRL):- Stimulates milk synthesis and release
from mammary glands, Mediates sexual gratification
(satisfication)
 Luteinizing hormone(LH):-

In females: Stimulates ovulation , Stimulates formation

of corpus luteum
In males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis from Leydig
cells (interstitial cells)
 Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH):- Release under the
influence of Gonadotropin releasing hormone.
In females: Stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles
in ovary
In males: Stimulates maturation of semiferous tubules,
Stimulates spermatogenesis, Stimulates production
of androgen-binding protein from Sertoli cells of
the testes.
INTERMEDIATE LOBE
 The intermediate lobe is prominent in the embryonic
period of human life.
 It synthesis and secretes melanocytes- stimulating
hormones (MSH) that helps in growth and development
of melanocytes which gives the colour to skin.
 It is formed in Rakthe’s pouch
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY LOBE
(NEUROHYPOPHYSIS)
 It develops from neuro- ectoderm(the outer germ layer
that develops into skin and nervous tissue).
 It has neural connection with the hypothalamus.
a. Vasopressin(antidiuretic hormone)ADH :- Increases
water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water
reabsorption and increasing blood volume. And Blood
pressure is maintain.
When concentration of ADH is very high in blood ,the
ADH causes arteriolar smooth muscle contraction
tending to vasoconstriction and elevation of arterial
blood pressure. Therefore ADH is also called
vasopressin.
a. Oxytocin:- In females: uterine contraction during
birthing, It causes ejection of milk(lactation )
 Blood supply:- The pituiary gland is suplied by
superior and inferior hypophyseal artery, which
is branches of internal carotid artery.
 Venous drainage:- Short veins emerge on the
surface of the gland and drain into neighboring
dural venous sinuses.
THYROID GLAND
 Thyroid gland is situated in the lower part of the front
and sides of the neck.
 Location :- On anterior aspect of the neck from the
middle of anterior surface of the thyroid cartilage (C5) of
the larynx to 6th tracheal ring (T1)
 It has a fibrous capsule and is highly vascular gland.

 It has two lobes joined by isthmus (Butterfly shape)

 Size of each 5 × 3 ×cm 2

 Total weight :- 25 gm
 FEEDBACK CONTROL OF THYROID HORMONE
Cold, Exercise, stress, Malnutrition, low blood glucose level, sleep

Hypothalamus

TRH

Inhibition Adenohypophysis stimulation

TSH

Thyroid glands

T3, T4 level in blood

Utilization of T3 and T4

Decrease level of T3 and T4

 THYROID GLAND HAS TWO PART
a. Folicles
 It is functional unit of the thyroid glands.
 It has single layer of follicular cells(Cuboidal cells)
 Follicles secrete and store colloid (which is a thick sticky
substance containing thyroglobulin(Iodine containing
protein) and iodine),
 It secrete thyroid hormone.

b. Parafollicular cells(C cells)

 It is present between the follicles.
 It secrete calcitonin.
 Function:- Regulation of blood calcium level.
 Decrsese calcium and phosphate absorption from kidney.
 Decrease release of calcium and phosphate from bone by
decreasing osteoclastic activity.
 There are two types of thyroid hormone.
i. Tri-iodo –thyronine(T3) – 10%
ii. Tetra iodo thyronine (T4) or thyroxine – (90%)

Functions of thyroid hormones are:-

 Stimulates oxygen consumption and energy
consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic
rate(The rate at which heat is produced by an
individual in a reasting state)
 Stimulate protein breakdown in tissue.
 Stimulate absorption of glucose from intestine so blood
glucose level increase.
 Increase cardiac output by combination action of
thyroid and catecholamine on the heart.
 Thyroid hormone is required for cerebral cortex and
basal ganglia development.
 Effect on cholesterol metabolism , decreasing
cholesterol level in blood
 Enhance the normal growth by potentialing the
GH secretion.
 T4 cause loss of calcium via urine.

 Calcitonine:- It reduces the reabsorption of

calcium from bone and inhibits reabsorption
of Ca2+ by the renal tubules.
 Arterial blood supply:- Superior thyroid artery
and branch of external carotid artery and inferior
thyroid artery, branch of the subclavian artery.
 Venous drainage:- Superior , middle and inferior
thyroid veins. Superior and middle veins drain
into internal jugular vein and inferior thyroid
vein drains into left brachiocephalic vein.
 Nerve supply:- Superior , middle and inferior
sympathetic ganglia.
PARATHYROID GLAND
 There are usually four parathyroid glands
 The glands are named according to their position as the
superior and inferior parathyriod glands.
 Size :- 6×4 ×2 mm² (Size of apple seed )
 Weight :- about 30 mg in men and 35 mg in women.
 There are small glands embedded in the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland (2 in each lobe) and
surrounded by fine connective tissue capsule.
 It has two types of cells:
Chief cells :- it secrete parathyriod hormone (PTH)/
parathormone.
Oxyphill cells:- It is develop stage of chief cells.
- Regulation of PTH is by blood calcium level(Decreasing
Ca+ causes increase secretion of PTH and vice versa)
 Arterial supply:- Internal thoracic and inferior
thyroid areteries
 Venous drainage:- Left branchio- cephalic,
internal thoracic and inferior thyroid vein.
 Nerve supply:- sympathetic trunks.
 FUNCTION
1. PTH causes rise of ionized fraction of serum
calcium. This is done by:-
 Increasing rate of reabsorption of bone.

 Reducing the renal clearance or excretion of calcium

and
 Increasing the efficiency of calcium absorption from
intestine by promoting the synthesis of calcitriol.
2. PTH increases renal phosphate excretion so
phosphate level in blood decreases.
ADRENAL GLANDS/ SUPRARENAL GLAND
 There is a pair of adrenal or superior gland.
 One adrenal gland is situated on the upper pole of each
kidney, behind the peritoneum and is enclosed within
the renal fascia.
 Weight :- 5gm

 Size:- 5 × 3 × 1 cm2

 Each glands has outer cortex secreting steroids

hormones , called adrenocorticosteroid or corticoids
and inner medulla secreting catecholamine.
 Steroid hormone:-Any hormones affecting the
development and growth of sex organs.
 ADRENAL CORTEX
Adrenal cortex produces 3 types of hormones:-
 Glucocorticoids
 Mineralocorticoids
 Androgens

 Glucocorticoids:-
❖ Its secretion is increase mainly by sterss, ACTH, heat/ cold ,
surgery, Trauma or infections.
❖ It help in regulation of metabolism of glucose and immune
system suppression.
❖ It maintain blood glucose level by gluconeogenesis by
decreasing peripheral utilization of glucose by deposition of
glycogen in liver.
 Catabolism of protein for gluconeogenesis.
 Lipolysis (breakdown of lipids) in adipose tissue(fat tissue).
❖ It inhibits ACTH(Adrenocorticotropic hormone) secretion.
❖ Maintain normal behavior.

❖ Also helps in mineral metabolism – promotion of sodium

and water reabsorption from renal tubule and excretion
of potassium from renal tubule.
❖ It inhibits all inflammatory responses and delay wound
healing & suppresses manifestations of allergic from
tissue.
❖ It increase RBC, neutrophils & platelets and decreasing
lymphocytes ,eosinophils & basophils.
❖ It stimulates secretion of HCL so leading to peptic ulcer.
 MINERALOCORTICOIDS
❖ It helps in regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte
balance by renin – angiotensin – aldosterone system.
❖ Mineralocorticoids are aldosterone , fludrocortisone and
desoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA).
ANDROGENS
 Androgen are the hormones that exert
masculinizing(Give a masculine apperence)
effects and they promotes protein anabolism and
growth.
 Secretion of adrenal androgen is controlled by
ACTH & causes same suppression of feminine
characters in female & causes appearance of acne
vulgaris & sexual hair.
 Excess of these steroids , they can cause
hirsutism. (Hirsutism is excessive body hair in
men and women on parts of the body where hair
is normally absent or minimal, such as on the
chin or chest in particular, or the face or body in
general)
 ADRENAL MEDULLA
 Medulla is completely surrounded by the cortex.
 Secretion of adrenal medulla called medullary
hormones is very closed to sympathetic system. It
secrete hormones called adrenaline and
noradrenalin(Catacholamines) which are the
neurotransmiters in sympathetic nervous system.
 It is responsible for “Fight and flight” response.

 It is the part of the sympathetic division of the ANS.

 The main function of the nor adrenalin is maintenance of

blood pressure by causing general vasoconstriction
: except of the coronory arteries.
 Adrenaline affects the nervous system , which controls
function such as heart rate, dilatation of the pupils &
secretion of sweat & saliva.
 Function of adrenaline and noradrenaline:-
❖ They increase heart and force of cardiac contraction.

❖ Constrict blood vessels of skin.

❖ Dilated blood vessels of muscles , Brain and , heart

❖ Dilate bronchi (Bronchodilator , Not noradrenalin)

❖ Pupils dilatation.

❖ Gut relaxation (slowing down the peristalsis in the GI

tract),
❖ Inhibits micturation by relaxing detrusor muscle and
constricting trigone of bladder.
❖ Contraction of non pregnant uterus and Relaxation of
pregnant uterus
❖ Increasing the metabolic state Hyperglycemia,
Calorigenesis(Production of heat via food digestion) and
hyperkalemia.
❖ Increase the activity of the sweat glands and
contraction of the skin muscles causing “Goose
flesh ”
(A pimply state of the skin with the hairs erect
produce by cold or fright)
❖ Reduction in the secretion of saliva and other
digestive juices.
OVARIES GLANDS IN FEMALE
 Ovaries is ovum producing female reproductive organ
found in pairs. Each ovaries is whitish in colour and
located alongside the lateral wall of uterus called
ovarian fossa.
 The main function of ovaries is gamete production.

 Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone

 ESTROGEN
 Estrogen is collective name for a group of steroid
compounds (Osteradial, oestriol, oestrone)
 Function:-
❖ Developes secondary sexual character in female.
✓ Feminine fat deposition in breast , hip and thigh.
✓ Voice change
✓ Shyness (A feeling of fear of embarrassment)
❖ Development and maturity of female genitalial organs.
❖ Maintenance of vaginal flora.
❖ Regulation of endometrium after menstruation(pre-
ovulation).
❖ Increase watery cervical secretion (For easy sperm
penetration).
❖ Increase fallopian tube motility, Blood coagubility, bone
formation , bone reabsorption.
 PROGESTERONE
 It affects only those tissue which have already been
influenced by estrogen.
 Function:-

✓ It helps in thickening of endometrium .

✓ Bring about decidual changes in endometrium after

pregnancy occurs.
✓ Decrease sensitivity of endometrium to oxytocin.

✓ Converts the watery cervical secretion induced by

estrogen to viscid, scanty and cellular secretion which is
hostile to sperm penetration.
✓ Causes proliferation of acini in mammary glands &
prepare breast for lactation.
✓ Leads to slight rise in temperature (0.5 c) when
progesterone is at high level.
✓ Inhibits growth hormones secretion.
✓ Prolonged use causes impairs glucose
intolerance.
✓ High circulating concentration of progesterone
leads to sedative effects.
 Hypothalamus

Gonadotropin releasing hormone(GnRH)

Stimulate
Anterior pituitary

FSH LH
Stimulate
Follicle growth Development of corpous luteum

Matured follicle Secrete progesterone

Oestrogen
DIFFERENT BETWEEN ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE
estrogen progesterone

It causes proliferative changes of It causes secretory changes of

menstrual phase in the endometrium. menstrual phases in the
endometrium.
Induces watery secretion in the It converts the watery secretion into
cervix favorable for sperm viscid, scanty and cellular , hostile to
penetration sperm penetration.

It causes secondary sexual changes It causes decidual changes, breast

(pubertal changes) and uterine changes for pregnancy

It sensitizes the uterus to oxytocin It decreases sensitivity of the

and ripens the cervix. endometrium to oxytocin
TESTES IN THE MALE

 Testes are the male gonads one on each side lying in

the scrotum being suspended by spermatic cords.
 It secrete testosterone hormone.

 Function:-

❖ It helps in spermatogenesis(i.e production of sperm)

❖ LH inhibition.

❖ Development of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal

vesicles.
❖ It helps skeletal and muscular growth.

❖ Formation of scortum , penis, male urethra.

❖ Male pubertal changes, sexual maturity, male behavior.

 PANCREAS(ISLETS OF LANGERHANS)
 Islets of Langerhans: Known as the insulin-producing
tissue, the islets of Langerhans do more than that.
 They are groups of specialized cells in the pancreas that
make and secrete hormones.
 The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive
system and endocrine system of vertebrates.
 In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind
the stomach.
 It is an endocrine gland producing several
important hormones including:-

➢ Alpha (α) cells secrete glucagons

➢ Betta (β) cells secrete insulin
➢ Delta (δ ) cell secrete somatostatin and
➢ F cell secrete pancreatic polypeptide
FUNCTION OF GLUCAGONS
 It tends to increase the blood glucose level.
 Stimulates liver to breakdown glycogen to be
released in blood as glucose.(Glycogenolysis)
 Activates glyconeogenesis – Conversion of amino
acid into glucose. Breakdown stored fat into
fatty acids for use as fuel by cells (lypolysis)
 FUNCTION INSULIN
 Insulin reduces blood glucose level.
 It converts glucose to glycogen in liver for storage.

 Increase lipid (Fatty acids) synthesis.

 Decrease release of glycogenic amino acids.

 Increase protein synthesis & decrease protein

catabolism.
 Decrease glucose output from the liver.
FUNCTION OF SOMATOSTATIN
 It inhibits secretion of several hormones like
growth hormones , thyroid stimulating
hormones, cholecystokinin & insulin.
 It inhibits rapid reproduction of normal & tumors
cells.
FUNCTION OF PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE

 The function of PP is to self-regulate pancreatic

secretion activities (endocrine and exocrine); it also has
effects on hepatic glycogen levels and gastrointestinal
secretions.
 Its secretion in humans is increased after a protein
meal, fasting, exercise, and acute hypoglycemia and is
decreased by somatostatin and intravenous glucose.
 Plasma PP has been shown to be reduced in conditions
associated with increased food intake and elevated
in anorexia nervosa(eating disorder characterized by low
weight and a strong desire to be thin, resulting in food
restriction).
 Artery :- Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, anterior
superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, posterior
superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, splenic artery
 Vein:- Pancreaticoduodenal veins, pancreatic veins

 Nerve:- Pancreatic plexus, celiac ganglia , vagus nerve

 Lymph:- Splenic lymph nodes, celiac lymph

nodes and superior mesenteric lymph nodes
PINEAL GLAND
 It is also known as the pineal body.
 The pineal glands is a small glands situated under the
brain behind the third ventricles.
 It is approximately 10mm in length . It is connected to
the brain by a short stalk.
 There are nerve fibers in the stalk, but they apparently
do not reach the gland.
 In young and infant, the pineal glands is large.

 It produces melatonin, which affects the modulation

of sleep patterns.
 They also inhibits the onset of puberty in human. The
glands tends to atrophy after puberty and may become
calcifies in later life.
 THYMUS GLAND
 Thymus gland is located behind the sternum and
between lungs & is active until puberty. After puberty
thymus starts to slowly shrink & become replaced by
fat.
 Thymosin is secreted by the thymus gland, and its
mainly important because it stimulates the
development of T lymphocytes. (T lymphocytes, also
known as killer T blood cells,
 function in the immune system to recognize foreign
antigens on the surface of invading cells.
 LOCAL HORMONES
 A number of body tissue not normally describe as endocrine
glands secrete substances that act locally.
 The term local hormones usually means the following
chemical are secreted by the cells not in glands E.g
Histamine, 5HT, Bradykinin, Prostaglandin etc

 Heart:-
➢ It secrete Atrial – natriuretic factors in response to
hypervolaemia.
➢ It increase Na+ excretion through kidney and inhibits further
secretion of ADH (Maintain fluid volume in the body).

o Kidney:-
➢ Erythropoietin
➢ Renin
➢ Calcitriol(Vitamin D3)
 Small intestine:-
➢ Gastrin
➢ Secretin
➢ Cholecystokinin
➢ Enterokinin
➢ Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

o Placenta
➢ It secrete estrogen. Progesterone, Human chorionic gonadotropin
hormone (HCG)
➢ Human placental lactogen(HPL)

 Histamine:- It is synthesized by mast cells in tissues and basophils in

blood.

Function:-
 It increase capillary permibility and dilatation of capillaries.
 Cause contraction of smooth muscles of bronchi and alimentary tract.
 Stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.
 It is also related to the pain and itching sensation.
 Serotonin(5 – hydroxy - tryptamine):- It is present in platelates ,
brain and intestinal wall
Function:-
➢ Haemostasis
➢ Contraction of smooth muscle
➢ Intestional secretion
➢ Vasoconstriction
➢ Also act as neurotransmitter in the CNS.

 Bradykinin:- It is powerful vasodilator. So it may cause local

vasodilator and emigration of leucocytes during inflammation .
 It is also one of the pain producing substance.

 Eicosanoids:- Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, prostacycline,

Lipoxin and leukotroenes are collectively called Eicosanoids.

Prostaglandins:-They act on blood vessels to cause increase cellular

permeability, Vasodilatation and broncho- dilatation and also
inhibits inflammatory cell function.
 Thromboxanes:-It is vasoconstrictor and
bronchoconstrictor and enhance inflammatory cells
function by causing platelet aggregation.
 Prostacycline:- It is synthesized by endothelial and
smooth muscles cells in the wall of the blood vessels . It
induces vasodilatation broncho-constriction and inhibits
inflammatory cells function by acting as anti-
aggregating agent for platelets.
 Leukotroenes:- they cause broncho constriction, increase
capillary permeability , vasoconstriction and attact
neutrophils and eosinophils to the inflammatory site.
QUESTION
 Question
 Define endocrine glands and list out the hormone release from these glands
with its function.
 Name the hormone produced by the pituitary glands and explain the function
of them.
 Name the hormone produced by the thyroid glands and explain the function of
them.
 Name the hormone produced by parathyroid gland and explain the function of
them.
 Name the hormone produced by the female ovaries glands and explain the
function of them.
 Name the hormone produced by the male testes glands and explain the
function of them.
 Name the hormone produced by the pineal gland and explain the function of
them.
 Name the hormone produced by the thymus glands and explain the function of
them.
 Name the hormone produced by the cortex and medulla of the adrenal glands
and explain the function of them.
 Name the hormone produced by pancreas and explain the function of them.
 Define local hormone and write short notes about local hormone.