Chapter 3 Energy and Power in Hydraulic Systems

Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City
University of Technology
Faculty of Geology & Petroleum Engineering
Department of Drilling - Production Engineering
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Machines

Trần Nguyễn Thiện Tâm
trantam2512@hcmut.edu.vn
Chapter 3
Energy and Power in

Hydraulic Systems
11/26/2020 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Machines 2

References
Anthony Esposito. Fluid Power with Applications, 7th Edition. Pearson Education Limited,
2014.

Contents
 Introduction
 Review of mechanics
 Multiplication of force (Pascal's law)
 Applications of Pascal's law
 Conservation of energy
 The continuity equation
 Hydraulic power
 Bernoulli's equation
 Torricelli's theorem
 The siphon
 Energy, power, and flow rate in the SI metric system

Learning Objectives
1. Differentiate between hydraulic energy and hydraulic power.
2. Define the term efficiency.
3. Describe the operation of an air-to-hydraulic pressure booster.
4. Explain the conservation of energy law.
5. Calculate fluid flow rates and velocities using the continuity equation.
6. Evaluate the power delivered by a hydraulic cylinder.
7. Determine the speed of a hydraulic cylinder.
8. Describe the differences among elevation energy, pressure energy, and kinetic energy.
9. Describe the operation of a hydraulic jack.
10. Apply Bernoulli’s equation to determine the energy transfer within a hydraulic
system.
11. Understand the meaning of the terms elevation head, pressure head, and velocity
head.
12. Differentiate between the terms pump head, motor head, and head loss.
Introduction
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work, and thus the transfer of energy is a
key consideration in the operation of hydraulic systems. Figure 3-1 provides a block
diagram illustrating how energy is transferred throughout a hydraulic system
(contained within the dashed lines).

Introduction
As shown, the prime mover (such as an electric motor or an internal combustion
engine) delivers input energy to a pump of the hydraulic system via a rotating shaft.
The pump converts this mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by increasing the
fluid’s pressure and velocity.

Introduction
The fluid flows to an actuator via a hydraulic circuit that consists of pipelines
containing valves and other control components. The hydraulic circuit controls the
pressures and flow rates throughout the hydraulic system. The actuator (either a
hydraulic cylinder or motor) converts the hydraulic energy from the fluid into
mechanical energy to drive the external load via a force or torque in an output shaft.

Introduction
Some of the hydraulic energy of the fluid is lost due to friction as the fluid flows
through pipes, valves, fittings, and other control components. These frictional energy
losses, show up as heat energy which is transferred to the environment and/or to the
fluid as evident by an increase in fluid temperature. Energy transformed into heat (due
to friction) is lost because the heat energy is not available to perform useful work.

Introduction
All these forms of energy are accounted for by the conservation of energy law, which
states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. This is expressed by the
following equation for the system of Figure 3-1:
Input ME - Lost HE = Output ME
where
ME - mechanical energy,
HE - heat energy.

Introduction
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or expending energy. Thus the rate at
which the prime mover adds energy to the pump equals the power input to the
hydraulic system. Likewise, the rate at which the actuator delivers energy to the
external load equals the power output of the hydraulic system. The power output is
determined by the requirements of the external load. The greater the force or torque
required to move the external load and the faster this work must be done, the greater
must be the power output of the hydraulic system.

Introduction
A hydraulic system is not a source of energy. The energy source is the prime mover,
which drives the pump. Thus, in reality, a hydraulic system is merely an energy transfer
system. Why not, then, eliminate hydraulics and simply couple the load directly to the
prime mover? The answer is that a hydraulic system is much more versatile in its ability
to transmit power. This versatility includes advantages of variable speed, reversibility,
overload protection, high power-to-weight ratio, and immunity to damage under stalled
conditions.

Introduction
Figure 3-2 shows a hydraulically powered brush drive that is used for cleaning roads
and floors in various industrial locations. Mounted directly at the hub of the front and
side sweep-scrub brushes are compact hydraulic motors that deliver power right where
it’s needed. The hydraulic system eliminates bulky mechanical linkages for efficient,
lightweight machine operation. The result is continuous, rugged industrial cleaning
action at the flip of a simple valve.

Review of mechanics
 Introduction
 Linear Motion
 Angular Motion

Introduction
Since fluid power deals with the generation of forces to accomplish useful work, it is
essential that the basic laws of mechanics be clearly understood. Let’s, therefore, have a
brief review of mechanics as it relates to fluid power systems.

Introduction
Forces are essential to the production of work. No motion can be generated and hence
no power can be transmitted without the application of some force. It was in the late
seventeenth century when Sir Isaac Newton formulated the three laws of motion
dealing with the effect a force has on a body:
1. A force is required to change the motion of a body.
2. If a body is acted on by a force, the body will have an acceleration proportional to the
magnitude of the force and inverse to the mass of the body.
3. If one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body must exert an equal but
opposite force on the first body.
The motion of a body can be either linear or angular depending on whether the body
travels along a straight line or rotates about a fixed point.

Linear Motion
If a body experiences linear motion, it has a linear velocity (or simply velocity), which is
defined as the distance traveled divided by the corresponding time.
𝑠
υ=
𝑡
where in the English system of units:
s = distance (in or ft),
t = time (s or min),
υ = velocity (in/s, in/min, ft/s, or ft/min).

Linear Motion
If the body’s velocity changes, the body has an acceleration, which is defined as the
change in velocity divided by the corresponding change in time (a = Δυ/Δt). In
accordance with Newton’s first law of motion, a force is required to produce this change
in velocity. Per Newton’s second law, we have
F = ma
where
F = force (lb),
a = acceleration (ft/s2),
m = mass (slugs).

Linear Motion
This brings us to the concept of energy, which is defined as the ability to perform
work. Let’s assume that a force acts on a body and moves the body through a specified
distance in the direction of the applied force. Then, by definition, work has been done on
the body. The amount of this work equals the product of the force and distance where
both the force and distance are measured in the same direction:
W = FS
where
F = force (lb),
S = distance (in or ft),
W = work (in • lb or ft • lb).

Linear Motion
This leads us to a discussion of power, which is defined as the rate of doing work or
expending energy. Thus, power equals work divided by time:
𝐹𝑆
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 𝐹υ
𝑡
where
F = force (lb),
υ = velocity (in/s, in/min, ft/s, or ft/min),
power has units of in • lb/s, in • lb/min, ft • lb/s, or ft • lb/min.

Linear Motion
Power is a measure of how fast work is done and (in the English system of units) is
usually measured in units of horsepower (hp). By definition, 1 hp equals 550 ft • lb/s or
33,000 ft • lb/min. Thus, we have
𝐹(𝑙𝑏) × υ(𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠) 𝐹(𝑙𝑏) × υ(𝑓𝑡Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛)
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐻𝑃 = =
550 33,000

Linear Motion
The unit of horsepower was created by James Watt at the end of the nineteenth century,
when he attempted to compare the rate of doing work by a horse in comparison with a
steam engine. During a test he showed that a horse could raise a 150-lb weight (using a
block-and-tackle) at an average velocity of 3.67 ft/s. This rate of doing work equals 150
lb x 3.67 ft/s or 550 ft • lb/s, which he defined as 1 horsepower.

Example 3-1
A person exerts a 30-lb force to move a hand truck 100 ft in 60 s.
a. How much work is done?
b. What is the power delivered by the person?

Angular Motion
Just as in the case of linear motion, angular motion is caused by the application of a
force. Consider, for example, a force F applied to a wrench to tighten a bolt as shown in
Figure 3-3. The force F has a moment arm R relative to the center of the bolt. Thus, the
force F creates a torque T about the center of the bolt. It is the torque T that causes the
wrench to rotate the bolt through a given angle until it is tightened.

Angular Motion
Note that the moment arm is measured from the center of the bolt (center of
rotation) perpendicularly to the line of action of the force. The resulting torque is a
clockwise torque because it rotates the bolt clockwise as shown.

Angular Motion
The magnitude of the torque equals the product of the applied force F and its moment
arm R.
T = FR
where
F = force (lb)
R = moment arm (in or ft),
T = torque (in • lb or ft • lb).

Angular Motion
A second example of angular motion is
illustrated in Figure 3-4. In this case we
have a force F applied to a flat belt wrapped
around the periphery of a circular disk
mounted on a shaft. The shaft is mounted in
bearings so that it can rotate as it drives the
connecting shaft of a pump. The force F
creates a torque T whose magnitude equals
the product of the force F and its moment
arm R that equals the radius of the disk.
The resulting torque causes the disk and
thus the connecting shaft to rotate at some
angular speed measured in units of
revolutions per minute (rpm).

Angular Motion
The resulting torque is clockwise because it rotates the shaft clockwise as shown. As the
shaft rotates and overcomes the load resistance of the pump, work is done and power is
transmitted to the pump. The amount of horsepower transmitted can be found from
𝑇𝑁
𝐻𝑃 =
63,000
where
T = torque (in • lb),
N = rotational speed (rpm),
HP = torque horsepower or brake horsepower.

Angular Motion
In fluid power applications, Eq. (3-7) is used to calculate the horsepower delivered by a
prime mover (such as an electric motor) to drive a pump or by a hydraulic motor to
drive an external load. The system in Figure 3-4 uses a disk with a flat belt wrapped
around its periphery to illustrate how a force can create a torque to deliver power via a
rotating shaft, per Eq. (3-7). Hence, the combination of the disk and its force-loaded belt
represents the prime mover.

Angular Motion
Since the horsepower represented by Eq. (3-7) is transmitted by torque in a rotating
shaft, it is called torque horsepower. It is also commonly called brake horsepower (BHP)
because a prony brake is a mechanical device used to measure the amount of
horsepower transmitted by a torque-driven rotating shaft.

Example 3-2
How much torque is delivered by a 2-hp, 1800-rpm hydraulic motor?

Efficiency
Efficiency is defined as output power divided by input power. Mathematically we have
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
η=
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
where η = Greek letter eta = efficiency.

Efficiency
The efficiency of any system or component is always less than 100% and is calculated
to determine power losses. In hydraulic systems these losses are due to fluid leakage
past close-fitting parts, fluid friction due to fluid movement, and mechanical friction
due to the rubbing of mating parts. Efficiency determines the amount of power that is
actually delivered in comparison to the power received. The power difference (input
power - output power) represents loss power since it is transformed into heat due to
frictional effects and thus is not available to perform useful work. The output power is
usually computed from force and linear velocity (or torque and angular velocity)
associated with the load. The input power is normally computed from the same
parameters associated with the prime mover.

Example 3-3
An elevator raises a 3000-lb load through a distance of 50 ft in 10 s. If the efficiency of
the entire system is 80% (0.80 in decimal fraction form for use in equations), how much
input horsepower is required by the elevator hoist motor?

Multiplication of force (Pascal's law)
• Introduction
• Pascal's Law Applied to Simple Hydraulic Jack
• Analysis of Simple Hydraulic Jack

Introduction
Pascal’s law reveals the basic principle of how fluid power systems perform useful work.
This law can be stated as follows: Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid and acts perpendicular to the surfaces
in contact with the fluid.

Introduction
Pascal’s law explains why a glass
bottle, filled with a liquid, can
break if a stopper is forced into
its open end. The liquid
transmits the pressure, created
by the force of the stopper,
throughout the container, as
illustrated in Figure 3-5.

Introduction
Let’s assume that the area of
the stopper is 1 in2 and that the
area of the bottom is 20 in2.
Then a 10-lb force applied to
the stopper produces a
pressure of 10 psi. This
pressure is transmitted
undiminished to the bottom of
the bottle, acting on the full 20-
in2 area and producing a 200-lb
force. Therefore, it is possible to
break out the bottom by pushing
on the stopper with a moderate
force.

Pascal's Law Applied to Simple Hydraulic Jack
The glass bottle example of Figure
3-5 shows how a small force
exerted on a small area can create,
via Pascal’s law, a proportionally
larger force on a larger area.
Figure 3-6(a) shows how Pascal’s
law can be applied to produce a
useful amplified output force in a
simple hydraulic jack which is a
device used for lifting large
weights.

Pascal's Law Applied to Simple Hydraulic Jack
An input force of 10 lb is applied
to a 1-in2 area piston. This
develops a 10-psi pressure
throughout the oil within the
housing of the jack. This 10-psi
pressure acts on a 10-in2 area
piston, producing a 100-lb output
force. This output force performs
useful work as it lifts the 100-lb
weight.

Analysis of Simple Hydraulic Jack
It is interesting to note that there is a
similarity between the simple
hydraulic jack of Figure 3-6(a) and
the mechanical lever system of Figure
3-6(b). Note in Figure 3-6(b) that the
10-lb input force has a moment arm
(distance from force to pivot) that is
10 times as long as the moment arm
of the output force. As a result, the
output force is 10 times as large as
the input force and thus equals 100
lb. This force multiplication in
mechanical systems due to levers is
similar to that produced in fluid
power systems due to Pascal’s law.

An interesting question relative to
the hydraulic jack of Figure 3-6(a)
is, Are we getting something for
nothing? That is to say, does a
hydraulic jack produce more
energy than it receives? A fluid
power system (like any other
power system) cannot create
energy. This is in accordance with
the conservation of energy law
presented in Section 3.6. To
answer this question, let’s analyze
the hydraulic jack illustrated in
Figure 3-7.

As shown, a downward input force
F1 is applied to the small-diameter
piston 1, which has an area A1.
This produces an oil pressure p1 at
the bottom of piston 1. This
pressure is transmitted through
the oil to the large-diameter piston
2, which has an area A2. The
pressure p2 at piston 2 pushes up
on the piston to create an output
force F2.

By Pascal’s law, p1 = p2. Since
pressure equals force divided by
area, we have
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
or
𝐹2 𝐴2
=
𝐹1 𝐴1

Thus, a force multiplication occurs from
the input to the output of the jack if the
output piston area is greater than the
input piston area. The force multiplication
ratio F2/F1 equals the piston area ratio
A2/A1. However, we will next show that the
output piston does not move as far as does
the input piston. The ratio of the piston
movements can be determined by
assuming the oil to be incompressible.
Thus, the cylindrical volume of oil
displaced by the input piston equals the
cylindrical volume displaced by the output
piston:
V1 = V2

Since the volume of a cylinder equals the
product of its cross-sectional area and its
height we have
A1S1 = A2S2
where
S1 = the downward movement of piston 1,
S2 = the upward movement of piston 2.
Thus,
𝑆2 𝐴1
=
𝑆1 𝐴2

Equation 3-10 shows that the large output
piston does not travel as far as the small
input piston. Note that the piston stroke ratio
S2/S1 equals the piston area ratio A1/A2.
Thus, for a piston area ratio of 2, the output
force increases by a factor of 2, but the output
motion decreases by a factor of 2. Hence, in a
hydraulic jack we do not get something for
nothing. The output force is greater than the
input force, but the output movement is less
than the input movement. Combining Eqs. (3-
9) and (3-10) yields the corresponding
relationship
𝐹2 𝑆1
=
𝐹1 𝑆2
Hence,
F1S1 = F2S2

Recall that work energy equals the product of
force and the distance moved by the force.
Thus Eq. (3-11) states that the energy input
to the hydraulic jack equals the energy
output from the jack. This result occurs
because the force-multiplication factor
equals the motion-reduction factor. It should
be noted that in a real hydraulic jack, friction
between the piston and cylindrical bore
surface will produce frictional energy losses.
This causes the actual output energy to be
less than the input energy.

Example 3-4
For the hydraulic jack of Figure 3-7, the following data are given:
A1 = 2 in2, A2 = 20 in2
S1 = 1 in
F1 = 100 lb
Determine each of the following.
a. The energy input
b. The energy output

Applications of Pascal's law
 Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack
 Air-to-Hydraulic Pressure Booster

Hand-Operated Hydraulic Jack
This system uses a piston-type
hand pump to power a hydraulic
load cylinder for lifting loads, as
illustrated in Figure 3-8. The
operation is as follows.

A hand force is applied at point A of
handle ABC, which pivots about
point C. The piston rod of the pump
cylinder is pinned to the input
handle at point B. The pump
cylinder contains a small-diameter
piston, which is free to move up and
down. The piston and rod are rigidly
connected together. When the
handle is pulled up, the piston rises
and creates a vacuum in the space
below it. As a result, atmospheric
pressure forces oil to leave the oil
tank and flow through check valve 1
to fill the void created below the
pump piston. This is the suction
process. A check valve allows flow to
pass in only one direction, as
indicated by the arrow.
When the handle is then pushed
down, oil is ejected from the small-
diameter pump cylinder and flows
through check valve 2 and enters
the bottom end of the large-
diameter load cylinder. The load
cylinder is similar in construction to
the pump cylinder and contains a
piston connected to a rod. Pressure
builds up below the load piston as
oil ejected from the pump cylinder
meets resistance in finding a place to
go.

From Pascal’s law we know that the
pressure acting on the load piston
equals the pressure generated by
the pump piston. The pressure
generated by the pump piston
equals the force applied to the pump
piston rod divided by the area of the
pump piston. The load that can be
lifted equals the product of the
pressure and the area of the load
piston.

Also, each time the input handle is
cycled up and down, a specified
volume of oil is ejected from the
pump to raise the load cylinder a
given distance. The bleed valve is a
hand-operated valve, which, when
opened, allows the load to be
lowered by bleeding oil from the
load cylinder back to the oil tank.

It should be noted that oil enters and
exits from each cylinder at only one
end. Such a cylinder is called single
acting because it is hydraulically
powered in only one direction. In
the hydraulic jack of Figure 3-8, the
retraction of the load piston is
accomplished by the weight of the
load pushing downward on the load
piston rod when the bleed valve is
opened.

Figure 3-9 shows three sizes of
hand-operated hydraulic jacks
having rated load capacities of 12,20,
and 30 tons respectively. The handle
effort required at rated load capacity
is 60, 70, and 50 lb respectively. The
jack piston strokes are 3 3Τ4 , 3 3Τ8 ,
and 31Τ8 in and the number of pump
strokes required to achieve the
piston strokes are 26, 22, and 35
respectively. These jacks operate
both vertically and horizontally for
use in a variety of lifting, pushing,
and spreading applications.

Figure 3-10 shows a hand-operated hydraulic jack in which the pump and cylinder are
separate units with an interconnecting hydraulic hose. These hydraulic jacks come in
cylinder and pump combinations that provide strokes up to 141Τ4 in and rated load
capacities up to 100 tons.

Example 3-5
An operator makes one complete cycle per
second interval using the hydraulic jack of
Figure 3-8. Each complete cycle consists of two
pump cylinder strokes (intake and power). The
pump cylinder has a 1-in-diameter piston and
the load cylinder has a 3.25-in-diameter piston.
If the average hand force is 25 lb during the
power stroke,
a. How much load can be lifted?
b. How many cycles are required to lift the load
10 in assuming no oil leakage? The pump
piston has a 2-in stroke.
c. What is the output HP assuming 100%
efficiency?
d. What is the output HP assuming 80%
efficiency?

Air-to-Hydraulic Pressure Booster
This device is used for converting shop air into the higher hydraulic
pressure needed for operating hydraulic cylinders requiring small to
medium volumes of higher-pressure oil. It consists of a cylinder
containing a large-diameter air piston driving a small-diameter
hydraulic piston, which is actually a long rod connected to the piston
(see Figure 3-11). Any shop equipped with an air line can obtain
smooth, efficient hydraulic power from an air-to-hydraulic pressure
booster hooked into the air line. The alternative would be a complete
hydraulic system including expensive pumps and high-pressure valves.
Other benefits include a space savings and a reduction in operating
costs and maintenance.

Figure 3-12 shows an application where an air-to-
hydraulic pressure booster is supplying high-
pressure oil to a hydraulic cylinder whose short
stroke piston is used to clamp a workpiece to a
machine tool table. Since shop air pressure
normally operates at 100 psi, a pneumatically
operated clamp would require an excessively
large cylinder to rigidly hold the workpiece while
it is being machined.

The air-to-hydraulic pressure booster operates as
follows (see Figure 3-12): Let’s assume that the
air piston has a 10-in2 area and is subjected to
100-psi air pressure. This produces a 1000-lb
force on the booster’s hydraulic piston. Thus, if
the area of the booster’s hydraulic piston is 1 in2,
the hydraulic discharge oil pressure will be 1000
psi. Per Pascal’s law, this produces 1000-psi oil at
the short stroke piston of the hydraulic clamping
cylinder mounted on the machine tool table.

The pressure ratio of an air-to-hydraulic pressure
booster can be found by using Eq. (3-12).
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
Substituting into Eq. (3-12) for the pressure
booster of Figure 3-12 we have
10000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 10 𝑖𝑛2
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 2
= 10
100 𝑝𝑠𝑖 1 𝑖𝑛

For a clamping cylinder piston area of 0.5 in2
(diameter = 0.798 in), the clamping force equals
1000 lb/in2 x 0.5 in2 or 500 lb. To provide the
same 500-lb clamping force without a booster
would require a clamping cylinder piston area of
5 in2 (diameter = 2.52 in), assuming 100-psi air
pressure.

Example 3-6
Figure 3-13 shows a pressure
booster used to drive a load F
via a hydraulic cylinder. The
following data are given:
inlet air pressure (p1) = 100 psi
air piston area (A1) = 20 in2
oil piston area (A2) = 1 in2
load piston area (A3) = 25 in2
(diameter = 5.64 in)
Find the load-carrying capacity
F of the system.

Conservation of energy
The conservation of energy law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
This means that the total energy of a system remains constant. The total energy includes
potential energy due to elevation and pressure and also kinetic energy due to velocity.
Let’s examine each of the three types of energy.

Potential energy due to elevation (EPE)
Figure 3-22 shows a chunk of fluid of weight w lb at an elevation z with respect to a
reference plane. The weight has potential energy (EPE) relative to the reference plane
because work would have to be done on the fluid to lift it through a distance Z:
EPE = WZ
The units of EPE are ft • lb.

Potential energy due to pressure (PPE)
If the W lb of fluid in Figure 3-22 possesses a pressure p, it contains pressure energy as
represented by
𝑝
𝑃𝑃𝐸 = 𝑊
𝛾
where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. PPE has units of ft • lb.

Kinetic energy (KE)
If the W lb of fluid in Figure 3-22 is moving with a velocity υ, it contains kinetic energy,
which can be found using
1𝑊 2
𝐾𝐸 = υ
2𝑔
where g = acceleration of gravity.
KE has units of ft • lb.

Per the conservation of energy law we can make the following statement about the W-lb
chunk fluid in Figure 3-22: The total energy ET possessed by the W-lb chunk of fluid
remains constant (unless energy is added to the fluid via pumps or removed from the
fluid via hydraulic motors or friction) as the W-lb chunk flows through a pipeline of a
hydraulic system. Mathematically we have
𝑝 1𝑊 2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑊𝑍 + 𝑊 + υ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
γ 2𝑔

Of course, energy can change from one form to another. For example, the chunk of
fluid may lose elevation as it flows through the hydraulic system and thus have less
potential energy. This, however, would result in an equal increase in either the fluid’s
pressure energy or kinetic energy. The energy equation (presented in Section 3.9) takes
into account the fact that energy is added to the fluid via pumps and that energy is
removed from the fluid via hydraulic motors and friction as the fluid flows through
actual hydraulic systems.

The continuity equation
 Use of Weight Flow Rate
 Use of Volume Flow Rate

Use of Weight Flow Rate
The continuity equation states that for steady flow in a pipeline, the weight flow rate
(weight of fluid passing a given station per unit time) is the same for all locations of the
pipe.

To illustrate the significance of the continuity equation, refer to Figure 3-23, which
shows a pipe in which fluid is flowing at a weight flow rate w that has units of weight per
unit time. The pipe has two different-sized cross-sectional areas identified by stations 1
and 2. The continuity equation states that if no fluid is added or withdrawn from the
pipeline between stations 1 and 2, then the weight flow rate at stations 1 and 2 must be
equal.
w1 = w2

γ1A1υ1 = γ2A2υ2
where
γ = specific weight of fluid (lb/ft3),
A = cross-sectional area of pipe (ft2),
υ = velocity of fluid (ft/s).
Checking units, we have
(lb/ft3)(ft2)(ft/s) = (lb/ft3)(ft2)(ft/s)
or
lb/s = lb/s

Use of Volume Flow Rate
If the fluid is a liquid we can cancel out the specific weight terms from the continuity
equation. This is because a liquid is essentially incompressible, and hence γ1 = γ2. The
result is the continuity equation for hydraulic systems:
Q1 = A1υ1 = A1υ1 = Q2
where Q is the volume flow rate (volume of fluid passing a given station per unit time).
Checking units, we have
(ft2)(ft/s) = (ft2)(ft/s)
or
ft3/s = ft3/s
Hence, for hydraulic systems, the volume flow rate is also constant in a pipeline.

Use of Volume Flow Rate
The continuity equation for hydraulic systems can be rewritten as follows
υ1 𝐴2 (πΤ4)𝐷22
= =
υ2 𝐴1 (πΤ4)𝐷12
where D1 and D2 are the pipe diameters at stations 1 and 2, respectively. The final result
is
2
υ1 𝐷2
=
υ2 𝐷1
Equation (3-19) shows that the smaller the pipe size, the greater the velocity, and vice
versa. It should be noted that the pipe diameters and areas are inside values and do not
include the pipe wall thickness.

Example 3-7
For the pipe in Figure 3-23, the following data are given:
D1 = 4 in, D2 = 2 in, υ1 = 4 ft/s
Find:
a. The volume flow rate Q
b. The fluid velocity at station 2

Hydraulic power
 Hydraulic Cylinder Example
 Hydraulic Horsepower in Terms of psi and gpm Units

Hydraulic Cylinder Example
Now that we have established the concepts of flow rate and pressure, we can find the
power delivered by a hydraulic fluid to a load-driving device such as a hydraulic
cylinder. This power is called hydraulic power. Let’s analyze the hydraulic cylinder of
Figure 3-24 by developing equations that will allow us to answer the following three
questions:

1. How do we determine how large a piston diameter is required for the cylinder?
2. What is the pump flow rate required to drive the cylinder through its stroke in a
specified time?
3. How much hydraulic horsepower does the fluid deliver to the cylinder?

Note that the horsepower delivered by the fluid to the cylinder is called hydraulic
horsepower (HHP). The output horsepower delivered by the cylinder to the load equals
the hydraulic horsepower minus any horsepower loss due to friction and fluid leakage
between the piston and bore of the cylinder. The horsepower delivered by the cylinder
to the load is called output horsepower (OHP). Output horsepower is always less than
hydraulic horsepower due to friction and leakage losses. This is consistent with the fact
that the efficiency of any component is always less than 100%.

Answer to Question 1
A pump receives fluid on its inlet side at about atmospheric pressure (0 psig) and
discharges the fluid on the outlet side at some elevated pressure p sufficiently high to
overcome the load. This pressure p acts on the area of the piston A to produce the force
required to overcome the load:
pA = Fload

Solving for the piston area A, we obtain
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴=
𝑝
The load is known from the application, and the maximum allowable pressure is
established based on the pump design. Thus, Eq. (3-20) allows us to calculate the
required piston area if the friction between the piston and cylinder bore is negligibly
small.

The volumetric displacement VD of the hydraulic cylinder equals the fluid volume swept
out by the piston traveling through its stroke S:
VD(ft3) = A(ft2) x S(ft)
If there is negligibly small leakage between the piston and cylinder bore, the required
pump volume flow rate Q equals the volumetric displacement of the cylinder divided by
the time t required for the piston to travel through its stroke.
3
3
𝑉 𝐷 (𝑓𝑡 )
𝑄(𝑓𝑡 ൗ𝑠) =
𝑡(𝑠)
but since VD = AS, we have
𝐴(𝑓𝑡 2 ) × 𝑆(𝑓𝑡)
𝑄(𝑓𝑡 3 ൗ𝑠) =
𝑡(𝑠)

Recall that for a pipe we determined that Q = Aυ where υ equals the fluid velocity.
Shouldn’t we obtain the same equation for a hydraulic cylinder since it is essentially a
pipe that contains a piston moving at velocity w? The answer is yes, as can be verified by
noting that s/t can be replaced by υ in Eq. (3-21) to obtain the expected result:
Q(ft3/s) = A(ft2) x υ(ft/s)
where υ = piston velocity.
Note that the larger the piston area and velocity, the greater must be the pump flow rate.

It has been established that energy equals force times distance:
energy = (F)(S) = (pA)(S)
Since power is the rate of doing work, we have
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑝𝐴)(𝑆)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 𝑝𝐴υ
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
Since Q = Aυ, the final result is
hydraulic power (ft-lb/s) = p(lb/ft2) x Q(ft3/s)
Recalling that 1 hp = 550 ft • lb/s, we obtain
1 ℎ𝑝
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐻𝐻𝑃 = 𝑝(𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 2 )× 𝑄(𝑓𝑡 3 Τ𝑠)×
550 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑠
As expected, all the units cancel out except the units of hp, yielding the following result:
𝑝(𝑙𝑏Τ𝑓𝑡 2 ) × 𝑄(𝑓𝑡 3 Τ𝑠)
𝐻𝐻𝑃 =
550

Hydraulic Horsepower in Terms of psi and gpm Units
Pressure in psi (lb/in2) and flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm) are the most common
English units used for hydraulic systems. Thus a hydraulic horsepower equation using
these most common English units is developed as follows, noting that hydraulic power
equals the product of pressure and volume flow rate:
hydraulic power = p x Q
𝑙𝑏 𝑔𝑎𝑙 231 𝑖𝑛3 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 1 ℎ𝑝
=𝑝 2
×𝑄 × × × ×
𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙 60 𝑠 12 𝑖𝑛 550 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑠
Since all the units cancel out except hp, we have the final result:
𝑝(𝑝𝑠𝑖) × 𝑄(𝑔𝑝𝑚)
𝐻𝐻𝑃 =
1714
Note that the constants 550 and 1714 in Eqs. (3-24) and (3-25) contain the proper units
to make these two equations have units of hp on the right side of the equal sign.

Observe the following power analogy among mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic
systems:
mechanical power = force x linear velocity
= torque x angular velocity
electrical power = voltage x electric current
hydraulic power = pressure x volume flow rate

All three types of power (mechanical, electrical and hydraulic) are typically involved in
hydraulic systems, as illustrated in Figure 3-25. In this diagram an electric motor is used
as the prime mover to drive the pump. As shown, the electric motor converts electric
power into mechanical power via a rotating shaft. The pump converts this mechanical
power into hydraulic power. Finally, a hydraulic cylinder or hydraulic motor transforms
the hydraulic power back into mechanical power to drive the load. A hydraulic cylinder
delivers a force to move the load in a straight-line path with a linear velocity. Conversely
a hydraulic motor delivers a torque to move the load in a rotary motion with an angular
velocity.

Example 3-8
A hydraulic cylinder is to compress a car body down to bale size in 10 s. The operation
requires a 10-ft stroke and a 8000-lb force. If a 1000-psi pump has been selected, and
assuming the cylinder is 100% efficient, find
a. The required piston area
b. The necessary pump flow rate
c. The hydraulic horsepower delivered to the cylinder
d. The output horsepower delivered by the cylinder to the load

Example 3-9
Solve the problem of Example 3-8 assuming a frictional force of 100 lb and a leakage of
0.2 gpm.

Bernoulli's equation
 Derivation of Bernoulli's Equation
 The Energy Equation
 Venturi Application

Derivation of Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli’s equation is one of the
most useful relationships for
performing hydraulic circuit analysis.
Its application allows us to size
components such as pumps, valves,
and piping for proper system
operation. The original Bernoulli
equation can be derived by applying
the conservation of energy law to a
hydraulic pipeline, as shown in Figure
3-26. At station 1 we have W lb of
fluid possessing an elevation Z1, a
pressure p1, and a velocity υ1. When
this W lb of fluid arrives at station 2,
its elevation, pressure, and velocity
have become Z2, p2, and υ2,
respectively.
With respect to a common zero elevation reference plane, we can identify the various
energy terms as follows:
Type of Energy Station 1 Station 2
Elevation WZ1 WZ2
Pressure 𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑊 𝑊
𝛾 𝛾
Kinetic 𝑊υ12 𝑊υ22
2𝑔 2𝑔

Daniel Bernoulli, the eighteenth-century
Swiss scientist, formulated his equation by
noting that the total energy possessed by
the W lb of fluid at station 1 equals the total
energy possessed by the same W lb of fluid
at station 2, provided frictional losses are
negligibly small:
𝑝1 𝑊υ12 𝑝2 𝑊υ22
𝑊𝑍1 + 𝑊 + = 𝑊𝑍2 + 𝑊 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

If we divide both sides of Eq. (3-26) by W, we are examining the energy possessed by 1
lb of fluid rather than W lb. This yields the original Bernoulli equation for an ideal
frictionless system that does not contain pumps and hydraulic motors between stations
1 and 2: The total energy per pound of fluid at station 1 equals the total energy per
pound of fluid at station 2:
𝑝1 υ12 𝑝2 υ22
𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + +
Checking units, we find that each term has units of length (ft · lb/lb = ft). This is as
expected, since each term represents energy per pound of fluid:
Z = ft
p = lb/ft2
γ = lb/ft3
υ2 (𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠)2
= 2
= 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠

Since each term of Bernoulli’s equation has units of length, the use of the expression
head has picked up widespread use as follows:
Z is called elevation head.
p/γ is called pressure head.
υ2/2g is called velocity head.

The Energy Equation
Bernoulli modified his original equation to take into account that frictional losses (HL)
take place between stations 1 and 2. HL (called head loss) represents the energy per
pound of fluid loss due to friction in going from station 1 to station 2. In addition, he
took into account that a pump (which adds energy to fluid) or a hydraulic motor (which
removes energy from fluid) may exist between stations 1 and 2. Hp (pump head)
represents the energy per pound of fluid added by a pump, and Hm (motor head)
represents the energy per pound of fluid removed by a hydraulic motor.

The Energy Equation
The modified Bernoulli equation (also called the energy equation), is stated as follows
for a fluid flowing in a pipeline from station 1 to station 2:
The total energy possessed by a 1-lb chunk of fluid at station 1 plus the energy added to
it by a pump minus the energy removed from it by a hydraulic motor minus the energy
it loses due to friction, equals the total energy possessed by the 1-lb chunk of fluid when
it arrives at station 2.
The energy equation is given as follows, where each term represents a head and thus has
units of length:
𝑝1 υ12 𝑝2 υ22
𝑍1 + + + 𝐻𝑝 − 𝐻𝑚 − 𝐻𝐿 = 𝑍2 + +

The Energy Equation
The method used for determining the head loss (HL) for a given application is presented
in Chapter 4. The equation for determining the pump head (Hp) can be derived by using
Eq. (2-9):
Thus we have p = γHp. Then, as shown in Appendix H, substituting p = γHp into Eq. (3-
25) yields
3950 × 𝐻𝐻𝑃
𝐻𝑝 𝑓𝑡 =
𝑄 𝑔𝑝𝑚 × 𝑆𝐺
The motor head can also be calculated using Eq. (3-29), where the Hp term is replaced by
Hm.The HHP and Q terms then represent the motor hydraulic horsepower and gpm flow
rate, respectively. Note that pump hydraulic horsepower is the power the pump delivers
to the fluid, whereas motor hydraulic horsepower is the power the fluid delivers to the
motor.

Venturi Application
The use of a venturi in an automobile engine carburetor is an application of Bernoulli’s
equation.
Figure 3-27 shows a venturi, which is a special pipe whose diameter is gradually
reduced until a constant-diameter throat is reached. Then the pipe gradually increases
in diameter until it reaches the original size. We know that inlet station 1 has a lower
velocity than does the throat station 2 due to the continuity equation. Therefore, υ2 is
greater than υ1.

Venturi Application
Let’s write Bernoulli’s equation between stations 1 and 2 assuming ideal flow and equal
elevations:
𝑝1 υ12 𝑝2 υ22
+ = +
Solving for p1 - p2, we have
𝛾 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = (υ2 − υ12 )
2𝑔

Venturi Application
Since υ2 is greater than υ1, we know that p1 must be greater than p2. The reason is
simple: In going from station 1 to 2 the fluid gained kinetic energy due to the continuity
theorem. As a result, the fluid had to lose pressure energy in order not to create or
destroy energy. This venturi effect is commonly called Bernoulli’s principle.

Venturi Application
Figure 3-28 shows how the venturi effect is
used in an automobile carburetor. The
volume of airflow is determined by the
opening position of the butterfly valve. As the
air flows through the venturi, it speeds up
and loses some of its pressure. The pressure
in the fuel bowl is equal to the pressure in the
air horn above the venturi. This differential
pressure between the fuel bowl and the
venturi throat causes gasoline to flow into the
airstream. The reduced pressure in the
venturi helps the gasoline to vaporize.

Example 3-10
For the hydraulic system of Figure 3-29, the
following data are given:
a. The pump is adding 5 hp to the fluid
(pump hydraulic horsepower = 5).
b. Pump flow is 30 gpm.
c. The pipe has a 1-in. inside diameter.
d. The specific gravity of the oil is 0.9.
Find the pressure available at the inlet to
the hydraulic motor (station 2). The
pressure at station 1 in the hydraulic tank is
atmospheric (0 psig). The head loss HL due
to friction between stations 1 and 2 is 30 ft
of oil.

Torricelli's theorem
Torricelli’s theorem states that ideally the
velocity of a free jet of fluid is equal to the
square root of the product of two times the
acceleration of gravity times the head
producing the jet. As such, Torricelli’s
theorem is essentially a special case of
Bernoulli’s equation for the system of
Figure 3-30. In this system we have a tank
with an opening in its side. The tank is filled
with a liquid to a height h above the
centerline of the opening. As a result, a jet
of fluid flows through the opening.

To derive Torricelli’s equation we shall
consider a reference point (1) at the top
surface of liquid in the tank and a second
reference point (2) in the jet just beyond its
opening. Since the fluid jet flows into the
atmosphere, it is called a “free jet.”
Writing the energy equation between
points 1 and 2, we have
𝑝1 υ12
𝑍1 + + + 𝐻𝑝 − 𝐻𝑚 − 𝐻𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔
𝑝2 υ22
= 𝑍2 + +
𝛾 2𝑔

For the system of Figure 3-30, we can make
the following observations:
1. p1 = p2 = atmospheric pressure = 0 psig.
2. The area of the surface of liquid in the
tank is large so that the velocity υ1 equals
essentially zero.
3. There is no pump or motor (Hp = Hm = 0).
4. The fluid is ideal, and therefore there are
no frictional losses (HL = 0).
5. Z2 can be taken as the reference zero
elevation plane (Z2 = 0).

Substituting known values yields
υ22
ℎ+0+0+0−0−0=0+0+
2𝑔
Solving for υ2, we have
υ2 = 2𝑔ℎ
where
υ2 = jet velocity (ft/s),
g = acceleration of gravity (ft/s2),
h = pressure head (ft).

If we do not assume an ideal fluid, frictional
head losses occur, and therefore IIL does
not equal zero. The solution becomes
υ2 = 2𝑔(ℎ − 𝐻𝐿 )
This shows that the jet velocity is reduced if
the fluid is not ideal because there is less
net pressure head to push the fluid through
the opening. Thus, the actual velocity of the
jet depends on the viscosity of the fluid.

Example 3-11
For the system of Figure 3-30, h = 36 ft and
the diameter of the opening is 2 in.
Assuming an ideal fluid, find
a. The jet velocity in units of ft/s
b. The flow rate in units of gpm
c. The answers to parts a and b if HL = 10 ft

The siphon
The siphon is a familiar hydraulic
device. It is commonly used to cause a
liquid to flow from one container in an
upward direction over an obstacle and
then flow downward into a second
lower container. As shown in Figure 3-
31, a siphon consists of a U-tube with
one end submerged below the surface
of the liquid in the container. The
center portion of the U-tube lies above
the level of the liquid surface, and the
free end lies below it on the outside of
the container.

The siphon
For the fluid to flow out of the free end, two
conditions must be met:
1. The elevation of the free end must be lower
than the elevation of the liquid surface inside
the container.
2. The fluid must initially be forced to flow up
from the container into the center portion of
the U-tube. This is normally done by
temporarily providing a suction pressure at
the free end of the siphon. For example, when
siphoning gasoline from an automobile gas
tank, a person can develop this suction
pressure by momentarily sucking on the free
end of the hose. This allows atmospheric
pressure in the tank to push the gasoline up
the U-tube hose, as reqmred. For continuous
flow operation, the free end of the U-tube hose
must lie below the gasoline level in the tank.
The siphon
We can analyze the flow through a siphon by
applying the energy equation using points 1
and 2 in Figure 3-31:
𝑝1 υ12 𝑝2 υ22
𝑍1 + + + 𝐻𝑝 − 𝐻𝑚 − 𝐻𝐿 = 𝑍2 + +
The following conditions apply for the siphon:
1. p1 = p2 = atmospheric pressure = 0 psig.
2. The area of the surface of the liquid in the
container is large so that the velocity υ1 equals
essentially zero.
3. There is no pump or motor (Hp = Hm = 0).
4. Z1 - Z2 = h = differential head between liquid
level and free end of U-tube.

The siphon
Substituting known values, we have
υ22
𝑍1 + 0 + 0 + 0 − 0 − 𝐻𝐿 = 𝑍2 + 0 +
2𝑔
Solving for υ2 yields
υ2 = 2𝑔(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 − 𝐻𝐿 ) = 2𝑔(ℎ − 𝐻𝐿 )
Equation (3-32) is identical to Torricelli’s
equation, and, as expected, the velocity inside
the siphon tube is reduced as the head loss HL
due to viscosity increases. The flow rate of the
siphon can be found by using the continuity
equation.

Example 3-12
For the siphon of Figure 3-31, the following
information is given:
h = 30 ft
HL = 10 ft
U-tube inside diameter = 1 in.
Find the velocity and flow rate through the
siphon.

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