Mautech CDL GST101

2 Contents
COURSE MANUAL
Use of English
GST101
Modibbo Adama University of Technology

Open and Distance Learning Course Development Series
2016 Academic Collective.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner – Academic Collective.
Institution:
E-mail: mail@cdl.mautech.edu.ng
Website: www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng
4 Contents
Course Development Team
Credits
All illustrations (photos and charts) used are sourced from www.edutechportal.org/resources except otherwise
indicated. Credits / sources are properly placed by the image.
Use of English
Contents
About this Course Manual 1
How this Course Manual is structured .................................................................................................................................. 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Use of English GST101 ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Use of English GST101 — is this course for you? ............................................................................................................. 3
Course outcomes ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Study Skills ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Need help? ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Academic Support ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Assessments .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Study Session 1 9
Language Skill (Listening) .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 What is Listening? ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.2 Types of Listening ................................................................................................................................................................ 13
1.3 Bad Listening Habit ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
Session Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Study Session 2 19
Language Skill (Speaking) ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.1 The Sounds of English ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 34
Study Session 3 35
Language Skill (Reading) .......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
3.1 What is Reading? .................................................................................................................................................................. 36
3.2 Methods of Reading ........................................................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Sentence Analyses and Sentence Comprehension ................................................................................................. 40
3.4 Bad Reading Habits ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
ii Contents
Session Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44

Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Study Session 4 45
Language Skill (Writing) ............................................................................................................................................................ 45
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.1 What is Writing? ................................................................................................................................................................... 46
4.2 Types of Writing ................................................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Summary Writing ................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
Study Session 5 53
Hierarchical Element of Language (Morpheme) ............................................................................................................. 53
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
5.1 What is Morpheme? ............................................................................................................................................................ 54
5.2 Types of Morpheme ............................................................................................................................................................ 56
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 57
Study Session 6 58
Hierarchical Element of Language (The Word) ................................................................................................................ 58
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
6.1 Defining Words ..................................................................................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Types of Words ..................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Session Session ............................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Study Session 7 63
The Phrase/Group ....................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
7.1 What is a Phrase? ................................................................................................................................................................. 63
7.2 Types of Phrase ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Study Session 8 72
The Clause ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
8.1 What is a Clause? ................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Study Session 9 79
Sentence.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
9.1 What is a Sentence? ............................................................................................................................................................ 79
9.2 Types of Sentences .............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 84
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 85
Study Session 10 87
Word Group and Determinants ............................................................................................................................................. 87
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
10.1 What are Word Classes? ................................................................................................................................................. 87
10.2 The Determiners ................................................................................................................................................................. 88
Session Review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Assessment .................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Resources........................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Study Session 11 93
Nouns, Pronouns and Verbs ................................................................................................................................................... 93
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................... 93
11.1 What is a Noun? ................................................................................................................................................................. 94
11.2 Defining Pronouns ............................................................................................................................................................ 98
11.3 What are Verbs? .............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 105
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Study Session 12 107

Adverbs, Adjectives and Prepositions .............................................................................................................................. 107
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 107
12.1 What is an Adverb? ........................................................................................................................................................ 108
12.2 What is an Adjective? .................................................................................................................................................... 111
12.3 Prepositions ...................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 114
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 115

Conjunctions and Interjections ........................................................................................................................................... 117
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 117
13.1 What is Conjunction? .................................................................................................................................................... 117
13.2 Interjections ...................................................................................................................................................................... 119
iv Contents
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 119

Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 120

Registers ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 121
14.1 Defining Register ............................................................................................................................................................ 122
14.2 Types of Register ............................................................................................................................................................ 123
Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 135
Resources..................................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Feedback to SAQ Items 137
References 142
GST101 Use of English
About this Course Manual

Use of English GST101 is provided to you by MAUTECH-CDL, AS IS. Module is
localised and adapted to ODL format under the Academic Collective.
How this Course Manual is

structured
Course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information
contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
 Where to get help.
 Course assessments.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Learning outcomes.
 Study Session preview.
 New terminology.
 Structured content of the study session with a variety of focus articles, learning
activities and learning devices.
 Study Session review.
 Self Assessments.
 Resources for further studying.
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Your comments
After completing Use of English we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback
might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course. You
can forward your comments to feedback.mautech@edutechportal.org
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Course overview
Welcome to Use of English
GST101
This course, GST101) will provide a review of reading and writing for students who
need to strengthen their backgrounds in English before taking university-level
courses requiring university-level reading and writing. It establishes a foundation
for success in subsequent university-level courses.
This course manual supplements and complements a blend of resources &
platforms:
GST101 Audiobook – available via Audio Resources Library app on your official
mobile device and accessible online at: www.arlibrary.cdl.mautech.edu.ng.
GST101 Courseware – available in your course pack as a disk, it is also
downloadable from your course website: www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng/schoolboard.
Schoolboard –offers a multi-channel platform for you to discuss with content
experts and other learners from across the nation and the globe at large. You may
also use the platform to enrich your learning with engaging webinars, articulate
presentations, smart puzzles, audiobooks, podcasts, interactive gloassaries, smart
quizzes, case studies and discussions. Schoolboard comes with updates and is
accessible on web and on app. It is also linkable from your course CD.
Use of English GST101 — is

this course for you?
GST101 is a compulsory university course.
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Use of English GST101, you will be able to:
 develop basic factual comprehension of what is heard.

Outcomes  appreciate and enjoy certain aspects of spoken discourse.
 answer basic information questions about what is heard.
 comprehend explicit information in spoken discourse (actions,
ideas, reactions, etc.)
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 comprehend, interpret, appreciate and enjoy spoken discourse

 take note of specific information based on what is heard.
Study Skills
Being a self-learner has become increasingly feasible due to Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) Systems. Studying a course or obtaining a certificate for career
advancement can occur from the comfort of your home, on your own time, and at
your own pace.
You can be a successful higher education student by self learning, it isn't magic!
But it does require desire, dedication and a lot of work. Active listening to your
audiobook, desktop publishing on your laptops, reading comprehension in your
course manual, notetaking in the white margins, stress management, time
management, assessment taking, and memorization are study skills required for a
self learner.
If you really want to learn how to become a successful student, then you should
explore the links that follow:
 http://www.oercommons.org/courses/communication-skills-study-skills-
pdf/view
 http://www.edutechportal.org/resources/studyskills
Timeframe
This is a 15 week course. It requires a formal study time of 12 hours. We recommend you
take an average of one to two hours for an extra personal study on each Study Session. You
can also benefit from online discussions with your course tutor.
Need help?
You may contact via any of the following channels for information, learning
resources and library services.
CDL Student Support Desk
Email: support@cdl.mautech.edu.ng
For technical issues (computer problems, web access, and etcetera), please visit:
www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng/support; or send mail to support@cdl.mautech.edu.ng.
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Academic Support
A course facilitator is commissioned for this course. You have also been assigned
an academic tutor to provide learning support. See contacts of your course
facilitator and academic advisor at the course website:
www.cdl.mautech.edu.ng/schoolboard
Assessments
Generally, there are two types of assessment: formative assessment and summative
assessment. With regards to your formative assessment, there are three basic forms
of assessment in the course: in-text questions (SELF-CHECKs), self assessment
questions (SAQs), and tutor marked assessment (TMAs). This manual provides you
with SELF-CHECKs and SAQs. Feedbacks to the SELF-CHECKs are placed
immediately after the questions, while the feedbacks to SAQs are at the rear of
manual.
You will receive your TMAs as assignments at the MAUTECH schoolboard
platform. Some of your TMAs will be graded and will constitute 30 percent of your
course marks. Feedbacks to TMAs will be provided by your tutor in not more than 2
weeks after entries.
Your summative assessment is your final examination. GST101 exam is in multiple
choice / essay format; and it carries 70 percent of your total earning in the course.
Schedule dates for submitting assignments and engaging in course activities is

available on the course website.
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Listening 10
Figure 1.2 Ineffective Listening can Lead to Frustration 11
Table 1.1 Hearing versus Listening 11
Figure 1.5 Active Listening during discussion 14
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Figure 2.1 Organs of Speech (cc: https://www2.leeward.hawaii.edu) 21

Table 2.1 Monophthongs and Diphthongs 24
Table 2.2 Example of Stress 31
Figure 2.2 Adebola Williams | Speech maker 33
Figure 3.1 Lewis Carrol | A Poet and Writer 36
Figure 4.1 Culture of Egypt kept with Writing (cc: upload.wikimedia.org) 46
Figure 4.2 A Narrative Writing (4.bp.blogspot.com) 48
Figure 4.3 Link between Effective Reading, Comprehension and Effective Summary 50
Figure 5.1 Units of Language 54
Table 3.1 Morphemes 55
Table 11.1 Categories of Personal Pronoun 98
List of Tables
No table of contents entries found.
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Study Session 1
In all spheres of life, listening is a very useful skill for effective communication.
This is because effective communication requires both the ability to produce well-
articulated speeches as well as the ability to receive messages adequately. This
study session will therefore take you through the techniques and strategies for
effective listening.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 define listening
1.2 highlight types of listening
1.3 describe bad listening
What is Listening?
Language Skill Types of Listening
Bad Listening Habit
This Study Session requires a one hour of formal study time. You may spend an
additional two hours for revision.
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Study Session 1 Language Skill (Listening)
Terminologies
is to give one's attention to sound. Listening involves complex affective,

cognitive, and behavioural processes. Affective processes include the motivation to
attend to others; cognitive processes include attending to, understanding, receiving,
and interpreting content and relational messages; and behavioural processes include
responding with verbal and nonverbal feedback. Listening differs from obeying. A
person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then
chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has listened to the speaker, even
though the result is not what the speaker wanted. Listening is a term in which the
listener listens to the one who produced the sound to be listened.
International Listening Association defines listening as the process of receiving,

constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages.
It is also a conscious process by which we seek to understand and retain aural
stimuli for a future use. In the definition above, there are three key points you
should note. These are:
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1. Process of receiving,
2. Constructing meaning from spoken/non-verbal messages, and
3. Responding to spoken/non-verbal messages.
These three points present listening as involving several actions, interactions and
reactions, moving from the point of hearing, through interpretation, through
attention, through retention to recall. In addition, listening helps you to make sense
out of a message before communicating it to someone else. A good listener must be
able to accurately receive and interpret messages in a communication process. As a
good listener, you should be able to give feedback to someone else on the content
you have listened to. Therefore, listening is a key skill to all effective
communication. When you do not listen effectively, messages are easily
misunderstood, resulting in communication breakdown. This may even make the
sender of the message easily frustrated or irritated.
It is important for you to be able to differentiate between and listening

because they are terms that cannot be used interchangeably. The differences are
illustrated in the table below:
Hearing Versus Listening
Hearing is a natural and passive process Listening is an active, deliberate and

which requires little or no conscious effort conscious process.
Hearing is not a mental process Listening is an active mental process.
Hearing requires less energy Listening requires huge energy
While hearing is superficial Listening is profound.
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At this stage, you need to know that listening is a linear process. The three basic
steps in listening are hearing, understanding and judging as discussed below.
1. Hearing: means knowing that a sound is being made using your ear. It is the
first step in listening. You cannot listen without the ability to hear.
2. : is the step that deals with your ability to comprehend what
the speaker said. As a listener, you should understand what is said in your own
way which must not be in conflict with the speaker’s intention.
Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a

person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal
adequately with that object.
3. : is when you evaluate what has been said. After you are sure you
have comprehended what the speaker said, you need to think about whether it
makes sense to you or not.
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There are three goals you should often set in listening. Your listening goals should
state what you personally would like to gain during and after receiving a particular
message. These goals are:
1. Listening to understand ideas: When you listen to understand ideas, you listen
to main ideas or central concepts. You then identify key words and phrases that
will help you to accurately summarize the concepts being discussed.
2. Listening to retain information: This involves focusing your attention on
messages and then learning how to make sure that what you heard is retained.
To retain information, you need certain tools, these are:

a) Repetition: reproducing verbatim what you have listened to;
b) Paraphrase: restating what someone has said in your own words and
c) Visualization: forming a picture about what you have heard in your mind.
3. Listening to analyze and evaluate conflicts: Your ability to analyze and

evaluate what you have listened to calls for a greater skill than retention. When
you listen to analyze and evaluate conflicts effectively, you become skillful at
identifying fallacies or falsehood in the arguments and statements you
encounter in communication.
We have been discussing what listening is all about in the last section. At this stage,
we need to know the types of listening that exists. Broadly speaking, listening can
be categorised into two types; active and passive listening.
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When you engage in active listening, you are listening with a purpose. In other
words, you engage all your senses, attitudes, thoughts, feelings and intentions in the
communication process. It is important for you to know that all successful
communicators and learners generally require because it is
employed to comprehend, extract information and evaluate facts and opinions.
Purposive active listening is:

1. Serious Listening- is a form of active, purposeful and goal-directed listening. Here,
you give rapt attention to what is being said. By its very nature, serious listening
requires a lot of concentration, attention, selectivity and mental processing.
2. Critical Listening – is when you listen to speeches in order to distinguish between
facts and opinions or logical and emotional arguments. This type of listening
involves evaluating as well as analysing the ideas being listened to. iii.
Discriminative Listening – entails listening to draw out the main purpose of a text
in order to remember essential parts of the message. To achieve this, you need
sound knowledge of word discrimination and association. This helps you to use
context clues to find meanings of words as well as relate details of the message to
the main points.
3. Social listening – Social listening is appreciative and conversational in nature. It is
when you give total attention to the communicative process. Therefore, social
listening is employed in dialogues, chit-chats, conversations, friendly
arguments/discussions, gossips and others.
When you engage in passive listening, you have little or no personal involvement in
the communication process. This is the type of listening which you engage in when
you are present in a discussion in which you are not really involved.
14
For example, an apprentice technician who joins the audience in an inaugural lecture
will listen passively. He will just manage to listen to the sounds; he will not be able to
identify meaningfully the spoken signals, least of all correctly interpret what is being
said.
You must note that passive listening is a negative listening behaviour. It is,
however, unavoidable and beyond the listener’s control in some instances.
You should know that different individuals exhibit certain attitudes that negatively
affect listening. These are behaviours which have the tendency to create
misinterpretation or total loss of information that could be important to you. You
can train yourself to lose your bad listening habits and enhance the good ones. The
following are the bad listening habits. You should identify some that you have and
make conscious effort to correct them.
Many listeners conclude that the speech is uninteresting even before listening to it.
When you have convinced yourself that the topic is uninteresting, you will be
discouraged from making sense out of what is being said. A good listener will take
time to listen to a topic even if it sounds uninteresting. You may discover that the
topic, though uninteresting to you, may surprisingly turn out to be useful.
There is always a tendency for one to mentally criticize the speaker’s manner of
presentation or appearance. For example, you claim the voice is too soft, loud or
that the dressing is inappropriate, etc. These criticisms make it difficult for you as a
listener to absorb what is being said. Therefore, you need to concentrate on what
the speaker is saying so as to get the message. Always remember that the form in
which a message is presented is not as important as the content of the message.
15
Sometimes, we disagree with what a speaker has said and rather than keep listening
to them, we get carried away, building our counter argument and formulating
questions in our mind to ask the speaker after the delivery. We therefore miss the
additional comments and lose other important points. This drops our listening
efficacy to nearly zero because of over-stimulation. You must always listen to the
complete presentation of a speaker before drawing conclusion about it.
It is ideal to identify the facts in what you listen to. However, in the course of doing
this, you must not miss the primary ideas being passed across by the speaker.
Therefore, while listening, do not isolate the facts because they are only meaningful
within the primary ideas.
Some listeners, especially at lectures and talks, outline all that is said. You must
develop different styles of outlining for different speakers. Some speakers are
logical in their presentation while some are not. It is good for you to identify the
speaker’s method for your benefit.
Many listeners fake attention by nodding or staring at the speaker while delivering
their message. Their eyes are on them but their minds are miles away. This is
probably one of the most common bad listening habits. As a listener, you need to
identify your faking habit and eliminate it.
When you whisper or listen to someone whispering to you in an audience of

listeners, you are creating distraction or tolerating distraction. You should avoid
falling into this category of listeners because doing so will distract you as well as
other listeners in the audience.
Most listeners have a tendency to listen only to things that are easy to comprehend,
avoiding things that are more difficult. You should always concentrate on all
aspects of a communication process without selectively giving more attention to
what is simpler and easier to comprehend.
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Some words have emotional impact on some listeners. For instance, a child who
has no parents may be emotional when the word “orphan” is mentioned in a
discussion. You should not allow emotional words distract your attention in the
course of listening.
In conclusion, making conscious effort to identify these bad habits and avoid them would
enhance your listening skill.
In this study session, we discussed listening. We started by looking at the different meanings of listening.
Thereafter, we highlighted the different types of listening that human display. We concluded the session by
describing what a bad listening habit means and how to control it.
Abu believe listening is all about just hearing. But since you know better, can you tell Abu what listening really
means.
What do you understand by purposive active listening?
17
Describe 3 types of listening habits.
Articulate Presentation
This is a complimentary resource to facilitate the quick delivery of this session. It is available in your course pack
(Schoolboard disc / online page), and also linked here.
Schoolboard
Access your schoolboard app, or visit www.schoolboard.edutechportal.org/introductiontomicroeconomics to
access updated online activities and resources related to the units of this Study Session.
18
Study Session 2
Human beings differ basically from animals because they can speak. The possession
and use of language to communicate is exclusive to human beings. This study
session therefore introduces you to the sounds of English, stress and intonation, as
well as skills of effective speaking, with a view to enabling the learner speak
intelligible English.
Learning Outcomes
2.1 describe the sounds of English
Consonants
Vowels
The Sounds of
Language Skill Stress
English
Intonationation
Speech making
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Study Session 2 Language Skill (Speaking)
Terminologies
It is essential for you to know the importance of the sounds human beings produce
to make meaning. is a process of constructing meaningful sounds. It is a
stage in the communication process of producing, receiving and processing
information. It is a means by which information is encoded orally into a linguistic
form or code for transmission to a decoder. The encoder is the speaker while the
decoder is the listener. Speaking is a productive skill because it involves the
production of meaningful sounds for the reception of the listener who must also be
proficient in the language in which the message is encoded.
Pronunciation is one area where most non-native speakers of English encounter problems.
You must have observed, as speakers of English, that some of the sounds of
Standard English are not found in the Nigerian languages. You therefore have a
tendency to substitute sounds in your native languages for such sounds for ease of
production.
Let us proceed to study the sound units of English in the webinar that follows.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiqUVnXExTQ
Now, let us look at some of the speech sounds.
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are those sounds in the production of which there is a total or partial

blockage of the airstreams at some point in the vocal tract. There are twenty-four
consonants in English, comprising fifteen voiced and nine voiceless consonants.
Voiced Consonants A consonant is said to be voiced when its production is

accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords.
Voiceless Consonants > A consonant is said to be voiceless when there is no such
vibration of the vocal cords during its production.
Look and Pronounce

Look at the following words, the emphasis is on the underlined
letters. Try to pronounce each of those words.
================================================
/p/ as in pen, pray, apple, drop

/b/ as in bat, blame, rubber, bride
/t/ as in top, ten, kettle, laughed
/d/ as in day, drug, ladder, lad
/k/ as in cat, quay, bacon, quick
/g/ as in grow, grass, figure, plague
/f/ as in farm, form, trophy, rough
/v/ as in vat, vice, reveal, carve
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/ө/as in thin, thick, method, path
/ð / as in that, then, father, clothe

/s/ as in see, sword, receive, maps
/z/as in zoo, zip, frozen, lads
/∫/ as in shoe, sheep, machine, wash

/ Ʒ / as in treasure, measure, prestige
/h/ as in hat, hoe, behave
/ ʧ / as in chair, cheap, nature, watch
/ ʤ / as in judge, adjust, passage
/m/ as in man, armour, tomb, comb
/n/ as in not, kneel, annual, button
/ ŋ/ as in language, bring, hang
/l/ as in let, lame, select, cruel
/r/ as in right, wreck, sorry, vary

/w/ as in one, we, quick, upward
/j/ as in you, university, new huge
=================================================
Consonant Discrimination
Some English sounds have very similar pronunciations. Yet, they connote different
meanings. We need to know and practise these sounds so as to use them
discriminatorily. E.g. pin and bin are only differentiated by /p/ and /b/ but pin does
not have the same meaning as bin. Let us look at some of those words that sound
alike but have different meaning
/p/ /b/
pan ban
plays blaze
prank brand
peak beak
cramp crab
/ʧ/ /ʤ/
etch edge
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churn John
picture pageant
patch page
catch cage
Words that Sound Alike

Can you now write out some of the words that sound alike but have
different meaning?
You should be able to present some of the following:
/l/ /r/
allowed aroused
lap wrap
allay array
light write
long wrong
/w/ /j/
weed yield
woke yoke
warn yawn
wonder yonder
wood youth
o
ɔ ɒ ɜ ə
ɔ ɩ ɔɪ ɪ
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ɪə ə ɪа

ɔ
ɔɪ
English are in two broad groups: pure vowels (monophthongs) and

diphthongs. Monophthongs are those vowels produced with single vowel nucleus.
There are twelve of them. Diphthongs are produced with double vowel nuclei; that
is, in the production of a diphthong, the tongue moves from one vowel position to
another. There are eight diphthongs in English. In summary, there are twenty vowel
sounds in English.
Monophthongs Diphthongs
/i:/ in as in leave, seat, foetus, quay /eI / as in day, hate, fail, tail
/I/ as in live, sit, city, women, / ∂ʊ / as in so, foe, toe, soul
message
/aI/ as in high, die, tie, sky
/e/ as in egg, bed, guest, leopard,
bury / aʊ / as in house, how howl, allow
/æ/ as in axe, mad, back, tap /ɔI / as in boil, toil, boy, joy
/a:/ as in hard, park, aunt, heart
/I∂/ as in tear, near, deer, cheer
/ ɒ / as in odd, yacht, sausage,
/e∂/ as in share, fare, fair, where
cough
/ ɔ: / as in ore, oar, court, board / ʊ∂/ as in poor, moor, tour, sure
/ ʊ / as in full, pull, good, could

/u: / as in fool, pool, fruit, move
/ ʌ / as in sun, son, bus, fun, love
/3:/ as in earn, serve, work, purse
/∂/ as in about, writer, actor, famous
Vowel sound discrimination:

Read and Pronounce
24
/i/ /i:/ /e/
Sit seat set
Bit beat bet
Tin teen ten
Bid bead bed
Pit Pleats pet
/æ/ / a:/
cat cart
pat part
fat fart
hat heart
pack park
/ʊ/ /u:/
pull pool
cook cool
soot suit
stood stool
brook broom
/ɒ/ /ɔ:/
pot port
don dawn
ton torn
con corn
cot caught
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/ / /з:/
upper usurper
cub curb
such search
judge church
mulch merge
The / Ə / sound called schwa is an important vowel in the English Language.

However, it is the least used sound in Nigerian English! It only occurs in unstressed
syllables and most English vowels weaken to it when the stress is removed from
them. This makes it the most frequently occurring sound of English. The sound can
be practised by looking at a set of English vowels that use stress to change from
nouns to verbs or adjectives.
Note that when there is stress on the syllable, it does not contain a schwa vowel. However,
when stress shifts away from that syllable to another syllable, the strong vowel it had before
would change to schwa. E.g absent / bs nt/ / / bsent/.
/Ə/
Noun Verb or Adjective
'absent ab'sent
'rebel re'bel
'project pro'ject
'pervert per'vert
'conduct con'duct
'contest con'test
'produce pro'duce
'object ob'ject
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/eI/ /aI/
pay pie
gay guy
pray pry
tape type
claim climb
/əʊ / /aʊ /
no now
tone town
load loud
chair cheer
hoe how
/eə/ /Iə/
fare fear
mare mere
dare deer
chair cheer
there dear
/ɔI/ / ʊƏ/
boyish boorish
coin cure
join juror
toiling tourist
Vowel Sound Discrimination:
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Short and Long Vowels
Short Vowels Long Vowels
sit seat
fill feel
pat part
ban barn
pull pool
could cooed
cot court
pot port
wed word
cod curd
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More sound discrimination
wad ward word
ton torn turn
won worn worm
cod cord curd
Silent letters
Some letters of English words are often not pronounced in particular contexts.
While some are easily mastered by learners of English, others are quite challenging.
Let us take a look at some of the letters and practise how to make them silent.
Pronounce:
Letters Examples of words with silent letters
B bomb dumb tomb comb debt
C muscle
D handkerchief sandwich Wednesday
G champagne foreign sign feign
H hour honest honour heir
L calm half talk would should
N autumn hymn
P psychology receipt pneumonia
S isle island
T castle Christmas fasten listen often
U guess guidance guest
In addition to mastering the sound units of English, you should also understand
, an important feature of the English language. Simply put, stress is the
prominence assigned to a particular syllable of a word which makes it stand out
from the other syllables. A stressed syllable is produced with greater muscular
energy and perceived as being longer and louder than the unstressed one. In
English, a word that contains more than one syllable will have one of the syllables
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bear what we call the primary stress. Also, in English, the primary stress is indicated
by a stroke occurring up before the syllable that carries the stress.
For Example:
1. ex'port (verb) 'export (noun)
2. con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun)
3. im'port (verb) 'import(noun)
4. re'bel (verb) 'rebel (noun)
Secondary stress, on the other hand, is placed below and before the secondarily
stressed syllable e.g. edu'cation. As it is the case in the examples cited, stress is
used to distinguish between words with the same spellings, but which belong to
different word classes. In addition to this function, stress can also be used for
emphasis.
For Example:
I saw 'him. ('him' is emphasized)
'I saw him. ('I' is emphasized)
I 'saw him. ('saw' is emphasized)
It is not easy determining which syllable is to be stressed in a polysyllabic English

word. However, if you regularly consult a good dictionary that indicates how a
word is to be pronounced, you should be able to overcome the problem. Listening to
audiobooks of English sound experts can also be helpful to you.
Now, try to pronounce the following words:

ex'port (verb) 'export (noun) con'tract (verb) 'contract (noun) im'port (verb) 'import
(noun) re'bel (verb), 'rebel (noun)
In the examples cited above, stress is used to distinguish between words with the
same spellings which belong to different word classes. In addition to this function,
stress can also be used for emphasis.
For example:
E.g. I saw 'him ('him' emphasised)
I 'saw him ('saw' emphasised)
'I saw him (' I' emphasised)
In English, there is no rule regarding which syllable of a word is to be stressed. For

instance, you cannot say always stress the first, second or third syllable. Hence,
when you learn a new English word, always check its stress pattern.
Try to note the capitalized letters in the table below.
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Contestant Afternoon Diligent Colonial education
January Impossible Depend Helicopter occupation
Educate PHOtograph BEAUtiful unfortunate captivity
Canteen Referee aSSIstant Maroon university
Commercial Grammarian NiGErian emancipation eROsion

[
refers to the variation in the pitch level of the voice. When we speak,
our voice does not remain at one level; it goes up and down and this phenomenon
simply refers to intonation. This variation is not random but depends on the type of
sentence i.e. whether it is a statement or question; the attitude of the speaker to what
is being said or to the listener. In English, there are different intonation tunes such
as falling, rising, and falling-rising.
The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and “wh”-questions,
e.g.:
1. This is a good boy. (declarative)
2. Get out of this place. (command)
3. Where are you going? (Wh-question)
Usually, utterances that are made with the falling intonation tune can be made with
the rising tune to indicate warmth, excitement, etc. Also with intonation, a
declarative statement can be turned into a question.
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What is Intonation?
In this webinar, a facilitator explains to you how to stress English words and assign
appropriate intonation tunes. Access the instructional video of the webinar here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzh3Owutf5Y
Note the following from the foregoing webinar:

 Intonation is the variation in the pitch level of the voice.
 This variation is not random but depends on the type of sentence.
 There are different intonation tunes such as falling, rising, and falling-rising.
 The falling tune is basically used for declaratives, commands and wh-questions.
 The rising tune is used to ask polar questions (i.e. yes/no questions) make requests and
reflect a doubtful attitude.
You need to be familiar with stress and intonation as important features of the English language
to be able to speak English well or use it for academic purpose.
Functions of Intonation
In English, intonation performs grammatical and attitudinal functions, among others.
Grammatical Function
Utter statements with falling tune.
Change statements to questions with a rising tune.
Ask Yes/No questions with rising tune.
Ask wh-questions with falling tune.
Attitudinal Function
Make requests with rising tune.
Give commands with falling tune.
Show boredom with flat tune.
Show indifference with a low-rising tune.
Show excitement with a high rising tune.
Show finality with a falling tune.
(a) He has come. (a statement) Falling intonation
(b) He has come? (a question) Raising intonation
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It is good for you to know that speaker’s skills and habits determine the
success of any communication. As an effective speaker therefore, you need to be
able to pass your message clearly and appropriately according to purpose and
audience.
You also need to understand the topic you have to speak on very well. This could be
achieved through research. Thorough research will guide you in planning what to
say in advance and consequently build your confidence since you would have been
well equipped for the task. There is a tendency for a speaker who is unfamiliar with
his material to get nervous. You should therefore practise your speech or
presentation several times before the time. You also need to decide beforehand how
to structure your presentation because a good presentation needs an introduction,
body and a conclusion. The introduction will ‘tell your audience what you are going
to tell them’; the body will ‘tell them' and the conclusion will succinctly ‘tell them
again'.
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In this Study session, we have discussed how to produce the sounds of English, how to apply stress
appropriately and assign intonation tunes correctly. We have also looked at how to make and deliver
excellent speeches.
Discuss, at least, three speech sounds in English that you know.
Schoolboard
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Study Session 3
This study session is on reading, an important skill we need to be proficient in as a

student. It is basic to learning, and it is one of the most important skills required to
be functional in a literate society. Reading provides the key to all kinds of
information.
Learning Outcomes
3.1 describe reading
3.2 list different types of reading
3.3 differentiate between sentence analysis and comprehension
3.4 explain bad reading habit
What is Reading?
Methods of Reading
Language Skill
(Reading) Sentence Analysis
and Sentence
Comprehension
Bad Reading Habits
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Study Session 3 Language Skill (Reading)
Terminologies
Before we engage in any serious discussion, let us first ask ourselves; what is
Reading? Simply put, reading is a multifaceted process involving word recognition,
comprehension, fluency, and motivation. Reading is making meaning from print. It
requires that we:
1. Identify the words in print – a process called word recognition
2. Construct an understanding from them – a process called comprehension
3. Coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that reading is automatic
and accurate – an achievement called
Sometimes you can make meaning from print without being able to identify all the
words. Remember the last time you got a note in messy handwriting? You may have
understood it, even though you couldn't decipher all the . Sometimes you
can identify words without being able to construct much meaning from them.
Read the opening lines of Lewis Carroll's poem, "Jabberwocky," and you'll see what I
mean:
'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
Finally, sometimes you can identify words and comprehend them, but if the
processes don't come together smoothly, reading will still be a laboured process. For
example, try reading the following sentence:
36
It isn't as if the words
are difficult to identify or
understand, but the spaces
make you pause between
words, which means your
reading is less fluent.
Reading in its fullest sense involves weaving together word recognition and
comprehension in a fluent manner. These three processes are complex, and each is
important. How complex? Here goes?
In the simplest sense, reading means recognising letters and groups of letters as
symbols which stand for particular sounds. The sounds in turn form words that
express ideas in written or printed form. It involves how well the reader remembers,
uses and reacts to the material. The ability to read and write is called literacy, and a
person who can read is said to be literate. A person who cannot read is illiterate.
Reading plays an essential role in the daily lives of most people. To survive in the
literate world today, you need to be able to read road signs, maps, labels on
medicine bottles, directions for operating new appliances, etc. The ability to
perform all such useful activities is sometimes called functional reading or
functional literacy. A special kind of functional literacy is . This
is very important to students. University students must read to gain an
understanding of a wide variety of topics. Learner literacy also requires the ability
to read special kinds of materials, including charts, graphs, maps and tables. People
learn throughout their lives, and so such reading skills remain very useful even after
a person has completed school. Another kind of functional literacy is
. This involves the ability to read written materials necessary for doing a
job. This is one way that a person's ability to read directly influences job success.
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There basically two types of Reading. They are the intensive and extensive reading.
1. Intensive Reading: This involves a close examination of the text to get the full
meaning. This type of reading is that which one does for detail and analysis
when one is aware that the material will have to be later recalled, recast,
discussed and evaluated. It is often necessary to read and re-read the passage
and pause to check up the meaning of some words or concepts. Comprehension
is highly paramount for this kind of reading.
2. Extensive Reading: In extensive reading, the reader develops the habit of
reading for pleasure which involves the ability to read quickly. This is often
enjoyable since the reader does not have to struggle through the material. This
rapid silent reading is also essential for assignments which involve reference
work.
Some students tend to read slowly and laboriously because of uncertainty of what
they are expected to learn from their reading assignments. Their uncertainty is
increased when they are given tests which require accurate recall of minute details.
You need to develop the ability to locate main ideas if you are to read with better
comprehension. The two components of reading efficiency are the ability to read
fast and the ability to comprehend the message. The speed at which you read a
particular material depends on the level of difficulty of the material being read as
well as your ability and background knowledge.
Types of reading speed are listed below:

1. Study Reading Speed: This is the slowest reading speed, and it is used for
difficult materials.
2. Average Reading Speed: This is what students do most of the time. Average
reading speed is useful for extensive reading. Extensive reading involves
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reading rapidly for information as fast as possible and reading as many books
or materials within the shortest time.
3. Skimming and Scanning: These techniques require very fast reading rate and
differ significantly from regular or rapid reading in that not all the contents of
the material is actually read. Skim whenever you want to get a general idea of a
book’s content.
For example, a reader should skim to decide whether a book might be a useful reference
source. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly across a line or down a page to locate
particular information. Look for key words or phrases that indicate you are close to the
information you need. When you locate such a word, stop scanning and read slowly.
As a student, you need to understand the key words of this section, reading and
, and their interrelatedness. Reading involves making visual
contact with letters or groups of letters of alphabet and relating them to the sounds
of the language which they represent. Comprehension involves making meaning out
of the relationship between letters and sounds on the one hand, and between the
sounds and what they refer to in the physical and social environment of the
language on the other. Making meaning or comprehension involves recognizing
what the words and sentences of the text say. You can know this through your own
general knowledge or knowledge of the subject. In addition, this is also possible
through the text being read and your knowledge of the language in which the text is
written.
Effective comprehension involves interpreting the message according to the circumstances or

the contexts that shape the writer's knowledge and your experience as a reader.
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Read the following paragraph and answer the questions

following it:
However, the best kind of honey is the original one with reduced
sugar content. The traditional way to identify original honey,
according to Ahjia Sambo is that it sinks to the bottom of the
container when poured in water. Another way is to rub it on the head
of a matchstick and set it ablaze. If it is real, it will catch fire
immediately.
Question 1: According to the paragraph, how can one identify

original honey?
Feedback:
By dropping it in water or rubbing it on the head of a matchstick and
setting it ablaze.
Question 2: ‘…the original one with reduced sugar content’

What is the grammatical name given to the expression above?
Feedback
Noun phrase
Question 3: What is its function as it is used in the sentence?

Feedback
Functions as the complement of the subject
It is important for us to know that the sentence is an essential basic unit of meaning
and therefore of comprehension. The sentence brings various items of information
to the paragraph. Each sentence contributes some aspects of the meaning of the
paragraph. It is possible for you to understand the words of a sentence without
really understanding what the sentence means. This may happen where the sentence
is long and complex or complicated. To fully understand a sentence, a number of
techniques can be adopted. Take a look at the following:
You should analyse the sentence for its focus or theme. Your focus should be on
content. Main clauses provide some focus of meaning. Subordinate clauses provide
some circumstances modifying the meaning derived from the main clause.
40
Consider this sentence, for example:

He left when we asked him to go.
The main clause supplied the fact that he left while the subordinate clause supplies the
time he left
Punctuation marks can provide some clues to meaning within a sentence. Notice the
difference in meaning between the following two sentences:
1. The man, whom I met, is your brother.
2. The man whom I met is your brother.
The two sentences can be interpreted as follows:
1. The man is your brother. I met him.
2. The man is your brother. It was him I met and no one else.
Some words or phrases function as signal devices or connectors within sentences,

between sentences and between paragraphs. Wherever they are present, you must
note that they point to certain directions of meaning. Some of these words and
phrases are provided in the table below.
Direction of
Words/word group
meaning
Addition
and, as well as, besides, not only…but also, in addition, also,
etc.
despite, but, in spite of, though, etc. Contrast
Comparison
in the same way, like, unlike, in the same vein, etc.
until, if, when, unless, in as much as Condition
because, as a result, hence, due to Cause/effect relations
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Read the following paragraph and answer the questions after it:
…………… We used to visit them and they used to welcome us. In

addition, they prepared very good meals because they were naturally
hospitable. However, we stopped visiting them because their mother
took our father’s land………..
Identify the connectors and signal devices in the paragraph and

indicate their meaning direction.
Feedback
The connectors and signal devices in the paragraph are:
1. In addition – addition
2. Because - cause/effect relations
3. However – contrast
4. Because - cause/effect relations
As there are individual differences, so also we have different bad reading habits.
Some of the bad reading habits can be eliminated fairly easily when identified.
This involves moving the head as the reader follows the words from the left side to
the right side of the page. Such movement slows down the reading speed. Therefore,
while reading, avoid moving your head from left to right.
Do not point to words with your fingers, a ruler, pencil or pen as you read. Besides
slowing down your reading speed, it may cause you to focus your attention on the
wrong information. By pointing to individual words, you are prevented from taking
in whole phrases and sentences, which inhibit your understanding of the writer’s
thoughts and ideas.
This refers to the act of whispering while reading. It is another common fault in
reading. Do not pronounce aloud each word as it is read. tends to tie
reading speed to speaking speed. This adversely affects reading rate and therefore,
comprehension. This is very undesirable in mature readers.
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Sub-vocalization differs from vocalisation in that the reader does not actually move
any part of the vocal apparatus, but he pronounces the words to himself in his mind.
Excessively slow reading speed is often a clue to some type of vocalisation.
Therefore, train yourself to speed up your reading by avoiding concentrating on the
pronunciation of individual words.
refers to glancing back and re-reading words, phrases and sentences

that one has already read. It is a bad habit which often results from lack of
concentration. All readers make some regressions. However, while good readers
make very few, bad readers make many.
This refers to the way in which the eyes move across the lines of prints. When the
eyes are reading a line of print, they make a series of short movements along the
line, stopping after every one or two words for a very brief pause. Each time the eye
stops, it sees a certain span of material and this span is called the "span of
recognition". Poor readers have a small recognition span in that they can only
recognise one or two words at one glance. You should train yourself to have wider
span of recognition so as to be able to take several words per eye fixation.
Inadequate brain development, vision or hearing defects can cause reading

deficiencies. However, they account for only a small percentage of all reading
problems. This might be beyond a reader to correct. In this case, professional
attention should be sought.
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In this study session, we have discussed about reading, how to differentiate the types of reading, methods of
reading, reading and comprehension, sentence analysis and comprehension, as well as how to identify and
eliminate bad reading habits.
Abu is an extensive reader while Taila is an intensive reader. Can you explain these two?
As explained in the study session, there are basically two types of reading skills. Can you discuss the two?
Why do you think sentences should be analysed?
Can you discuss at least three bad reading habits that you know?
Schoolboard
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Study Session 4
In this study session, we will be exposed to the strategies for developing effective
writing skills. As a writer, we must first of all be definite about the goal of our
writing assignment and the type of writing we want to embark upon. Thus, we need
to plan, choose a topic, narrow the topic and prepare a dominant thesis or thesis
statement.
Learning Outcomes
4.1 define writing
4.2 highlight types of writing
4.3 discuss summary writing
What is Writing?
Language Skill
Types of Writing
(Writing)
Summary Writing
Terminologies
45
Study Session 4 Language Skill (Writing)
When we talk about , many student we look at it as if, “is it not what we do
everyday”? Yes, we all write everyday but do we possess the skills of writing? This
study session will be discussing the basics of writing skill. Before we go further,
what exactly is writing? Simply put, writing is a medium of human communication
that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages,
writing is a complement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language,
but a tool developed by human society. Within a language system, writing relies on
many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and
semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols.
The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader.
for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and

diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture,
dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems.
As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic

exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts,
codifying laws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the
complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory,
and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting
transactions in a permanent form. In both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing
may have evolved through calendric and a political necessity for recording
historical and environmental events.
There are basic regulations that guide your writing. To be a successful writer, you
must adhere to four cardinal rules. These are discussed below:
1. : This implies oneness of the subject matter of a piece of writing. This
46
requires the agreement of all your ideas and points. Contradictions to the
central message and sub-themes must be avoided. Sub-themes must be in
agreement with the main theme.
Unity means oneness. It describes writing that sticks to a central idea, theme, or story. Good
writing doesn't wander around like a gossip at a dinner party, it stays focused like an
astronomer at his telescope.
2. : This requires you to ensure that all ideas, thoughts and points
expressed in your writing are arranged logically in sequential order. This makes
your write-up to be connected and to make sense. To achieve this, you need the
use of linking expressions or connectives such as and, but, or, whenever,
wherever, whoever, etc. You also need sequence markers such as first, next,
and firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, finally, etc.
3. : The content of your text shows how creative you are.
In other words, you must not simply reproduce the work of another writer.
When you use extracts of other authors’ works or ideas, you must give them the
credit by making reference to them. This makes your readers able to distinguish
between the ideas of other writers and your original ideas.
4. : This is a very crucial aspect of your writing and it
must be given good attention. The accurate use of the mechanics of language
such as tenses, concord, spelling and punctuation marks makes your writing
beautiful. Thus, to be successful in writing, you need proper mastery and
accurate use of the mechanics of language as errors of spelling, punctuation,
tenses, concord and others discourage readers.
Writing could be classified into several types. As a writer, you may simply want to
tell a story or give a description of a scene, an object, a place, etc. You may also
want to enlighten readers on an issue or postulate an argument with a view to taking
47
a position on a controversial subject. You will be learning about the four major
essay types, which are; narrative, descriptive, expository and argumentative.
A is when you give an account of an event. Therefore, narrative writing

is a type of writing that involves the description of events. It involves giving a
report of what has happened with a view to leaving an impression on your reader. It
could either be a fiction or a non-fiction. While a non-fiction is a true story of what
actually happened (in real life), a fiction is simply your imagination expressed in
writing. The hallmark of a narrative essay is a sense of direction or focus. You must
be able to express, in clear terms, what led to what, and in what circumstances. You
must clearly state the principal actors (characters) in the narration and their
respective roles.
In a , you aim at presenting a vivid picture of a person, an

object, a scene etc., to the mind of your reader in such a way that your reader has a
good idea of that person, object or scene. With your power of description, your
reader becomes capable of properly appraising whatever you have described.
Descriptive writing is rather difficult to separate from other forms of writing as
there are elements of description in, for instance, a narration, exposition and an
argumentation. There are two main types of description. These are objective
description and subjective description. In objective description, you are concerned
with actual details without your sentiment or emotion attached to the writing. You
also present facts without bias. Subjective description, however, reflects your
emotional attachment. For instance “the man was killed” is not as emotive as “the
man was murdered”.
48
This is a kind of writing in which you explain a concept, an idea, a process or a

procedure. You encounter the phenomenon of exposition in your day-to-day use of
language through what you say to or hear from people, through newspapers or the
electronic media, on church pulpits and in mosques, etc. Your expository writing is
aimed mainly at educating and informing your reader as well as offering them
explanation and definition of things that are probably not clear to them.
Here are possible topics on expository writing for you to consider:

1. How to Construct a Bridge;
2. A Look into Heavens;
3. A Dictator;
4. Dividends of Democracy and
5. Factors Responsible for Nigeria's Economic Depression.
In this kind of writing, you engage in a reasoned discussion aimed at securing your
reader’s acceptance of your opinion on an issue. You sometimes engage in reasoned
discussions on topics that appear controversial with a view to persuading your
addressees to agree with you. An argument therefore has to do with reasoning and
drawing a conclusion from one or more premises. There are two types of reasoning.
These are:
1. Inductive reasoning and
2. Deductive reasoning
In inductive reasoning, you make a generalization based on the evidence you
present. You can arrive at a conclusion based on a number of instances.
If for instance, it is discovered that in a particular community, policemen have colluded

with armed robbers to unleash terror on transporters and passengers on many occasions
and it happens that another robbery incident occurs, one can conclude, by inductive
reasoning, that policemen must have colluded with armed robbers in that particular
robbery incident as they have always done. A single instance of robbery operation with
the involvement of the police is, however, not sufficient to make a generalization that
policemen have always colluded with armed robbers in that community.
Possible Topics for Argumentative Writing

1. Developing Countries are not ripe for Democracy.
2. Co-educational Institutions are better than Non-co-educational Institutions.
3. Second Term in Office should be Discouraged in the Polity.
4. Capital Punishment should be Abolished.
49
A is a short statement that gives the main information about something,

without giving all the details. In writing, summary is a short piece of writing in
which you present the main information contained in a text. It is a compressed form
of a longer text without losing its original ideas and without adding to it. As you
read in the previous section, there is a vital link between reading comprehension and
summary. Your ability to write effective summary is dependent on your reading
comprehension. The diagram below illustrates this link.
4.3.1
There are two types of summary; guided summary and unguided summary. Let us
take a look at each of them.
1. Guided Summary: This is a controlled type of summary. When you are
engaged in this kind of summary, you are compelled to adhere to specific
instructions regarding the number of words, sentences or paragraphs. If you
write more than the number required of you, you are penalised.
This is the type of summary favoured by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and
National Examination Council (NECO) for Senior School Certificate Examination in the English
Language.
2. Unguided Summary: In this type of summary, you are given a free hand to
decide the length of your script. This does not mean, however, that you are
totally free; you are not expected to write a long piece. The difference is that
you are not subject to any form of penalty if you choose to write your summary
in a given style, as long as you fulfil the basic requirements of summary
writing. The general principle of this type of summary is for you to write one
50
third (1/3) of the original passage.
To have a good summary, you must satisfy three basic conditions. Let us take a look
at each of the requirements so as to be able to employ them in your summary
writing.
1. Brevity: This is the quality of expressing something in very few words, that is,
being brief. To have a good summary, you must be brief. To achieve this, you
must avoid explanations, examples, illustrations and other excessive details.
2. Clarity: This means expressing clearly. A good summary should be clearly
expressed. In order to accomplish this, you can always write simple sentences,
use punctuation marks appropriately, and rather than engage in mindless lifting
of ideas from the text, use your own words.
3. Originality: This is the quality of being original. This suggests that your
materials for summary should be those that are contained in the original text.
You should consider as irrelevant, all ideas that are not contained in the
original text. Even when you know other points that could be relevant to the
topic, do not add them if they are not in the original text being summarized.
In this study session, we were exposed to the steps in writing and its four cardinal rules. You have also been taught
the forms of writing as well as how to write different types of summary.
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Aishat want to be a successful writer. Can you explain the four cardinal rules of writing to her?
Differentiate between descriptive writing and narrative writing.
There are two basic types of summary, guided and unguided. Explain.
Schoolboard
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Study Session 5
In this study session, you will be exposed to the meaning of morphemes and their
types; based on meanings and functions. Also, you will be acquainted with how to
identify morphemes in words and break words down into different morphemes.
Learning Outcomes
5.1 define morpheme
5.2 highlight types of morpheme
What is Morpheme?
Hierarchical Element of
Language (Morpheme)
Types of Morpheme
Terminologies
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Study Session 5 Hierarchical Element of Language (Morpheme)
The hierarchical arrangement of the units of language is shown below.
You can look at the relationship up-down. If you look at it up-down, you will see
that the units on top comprises the one below it from sentence to morpheme, such
that the sentence is made up of clauses; clause is made up of groups; group is made
up of words, and words comprise morphemes. Thus, the lowest level is the
and the highest level is the sentence. In other words, it cannot be
broken down into any other meaningful unit. It is the minimal unit used in building
words in a language. A morpheme should not be confused with a syllable - the
smallest pronounceable unit of a language. However, it is possible that a morpheme
may be realised as a syllable.
ITQ
o The smallest meaningful unit of expression is--------.

a) morpheme
b) free
c) bound
d) base
Feedback
 .The right answer is a) (morpheme), because in the hierarchy of language

it is the smallest unit.
It is not enough for you to know only morphemes; you need to know how you can
identify these morphemes in words. You should be able to break down words into
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morphemes. Already, you have learnt that morphemes are units in a word. For
instance, let us look at how these words are broken down in the following table.
Word Root morpheme Bound Morpheme
dis-respect-ful respect dis-, -ful
un-prepare –d –ness prepare un-, -d, -ness
classi-fi-cation –s class -y, -ation, -s
un-expect-ed-ly expect un-, -ed, -ly
hurt hurt
*-ed (this morpheme is zero in this word)
feet foot
*-s (this morpheme is not realized in this word.
It is realized by replacing oo with ee
ITQ
o Write the morphemes in the following words:

meant;
2. unpreparedness;
3. constructivists;
4. disjointed and
5. broadcast (present tense).
Feedback
 There are two morphemes in the word. The root morpheme is ‘mean’,
while the bound morpheme is ‘-ed’.
There are four morphemes in the word. The root morpheme is ‘prepare’,
while the bound morphemes are ‘un-’, ‘-d’ and ‘-ness’.
There are four morphemes in the word. The root morpheme is
‘construct’, while the bound morphemes are ‘-ive’, ‘-ist’ and ‘s’.
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Study Session 5 Hierarchical Element of Language (Morpheme)
There are three morphemes in the word. The root morpheme is ‘joint’,
while the bound morphemes include ‘dis-‘ and ‘-ed’.
There are two free morphemes: “broad” and “cast”.
You should know that morphemes are described based on meaning and structure.
Based on meaning, there are two classes of morphemes. These are free morphemes
and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can easily stand alone without being joined
to any other morphemes. They are also known as root morphemes or simple words.
Examples of free morphemes include boy, slow, right, vehicle, church, etc.
However, need free morphemes to stand. Bound morphemes

are also called additive morphemes because they need to be added to free
morphemes.
Examples of bound morphemes are –ness, il-, -hood, -y, -ward, -ation, -s, -ies, etc.
Moreover, bound morphemes are classified into two; derivational and inflectional
morphemes. Derivational bound morphemes change the class of words. They fall
under affixes such as prefix, infix and suffix. Prefixes are derivational morphemes
attached to root, free or base morphemes at the start of words. Examples include:
im-possible, illegal, un-happy, a-political, mis-understand, dis-loyal, en-code, co-
worker, etc. For suffixes, they are added to words at the end.
For instance, teach-er, faith-ful, harm-less, new-ness, induce-ment, fame-ous, etc.
Then, the second group of bound morphemes is inflectional morphemes. They are
sub-divided into plural markers and tense markers. Plural markers are italicized in
these examples boy-s, tomato-es, lorr-ies, liv-es, etc. while tense markers are also
italicized in the following examples:
do-ing, love-s, want-ed, bake-d, etc.
You should also realize that there are replacive morphemes and zero morphemes.
These morpheme types are closely related to inflectional morphemes. Replacive
morphemes occur when one or two letters of words are replaced with others when
marking plurality or tense. For examples, they are italicized here man-men; tooth-
teeth; see-saw; weep-wept; sing-sang, etc. For zero morphemes, it occurs when
tense and plurality are marked in words, but their morphemes cannot show
physically.
Examples are explained in the following words: sheep, hit, hurt, deer, cast, etc.
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ITQ
o The type of morphemes that can change the classification of words is

called------.
a) replacive
b) inflectional
c) derivational
d) root
Feedback
 The correct answer is C (derivational), because it is the only one that has
the ability to change word class.
In this study session, we have been exposed to the meaning of morpheme and its types. Also, we explained how to
break down words into morphemes, and how to identify the types of morphemes in words.
In your own words, describe morpheme.
Differentiate between bound and unbounded morphemes
Schoolboard
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Study Session 6 Hierarchical Element of Language (The Word)
Study Session 6
In this study session, we will be looking at the Hierarchical element of language. In

this study session, our focus will be on the “word”. We will start by define word.
Thereafter, we will highlight the different types of words.
Learning Outcomes
6.1 define word
6.2 highlight different types of word
Defining Word
Hierarchical Element of
Languge (The Word)
Types of Word
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A is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with objective or

practical meaning. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest
unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own. A word may consist of a
single morpheme (for example: oh!, rock, red, quick, run, expect), or several (rocks,
redness, quickly, running, unexpected), whereas a morpheme may not be able to
stand on its own as a word (in the words just mentioned, these are -s, -ness, -ly, -ing,
un-, -ed). A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes
(rock-s, red-ness, quick-ly, run-ning, un-expect-ed), or more than one root in a
compound (black-board, sand-box). Words can be put together to build larger
elements of language, such as phrases (a red rock, put up with), clauses (I threw a
rock), and sentences (He threw a rock too, but he missed). The term word may refer
to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind
either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, and written
words of symbols called graphemes, such as the letters of the English alphabet.
Using the criterion of meaning, you can identify two types of words, which include,
content word and grammatical word.
1. : This is otherwise known as or full word. This
type of word relates to actions, things, people and states in the world. Content
words include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. This class is open-ended,
that is, the members of the class are limitless. They form the largest group in
the vocabulary of any language.
Examples include; take, associate, sure, Bola, Funke, man, ready,
assurance, joy, came, broken, education, lovely, etc.
2. Grammatical Word: This type is also referred to as form word, function word,
or structure word. This type of word performs mainly a syntactic function,
hence the name grammatical word. Grammatical words include articles,
conjunctions and prepositions. They are close-ended, that is, they are limited
in number. Change in membership of this class does not usually happen. If a
change occurs at all, it is not easily noticeable.
Examples include: to, for, by, in, the, a, an, at, with, between, etc.
At this juncture, it has to be stressed that the claim by some scholars that
grammatical words do not express meaning is not tenable. For instance, you should
consider these pairs of expressions.
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B1. (a) The boy is around.

(b) A boy is around.
Obviously, (B1.a) and (B1.b) are different. The differences are predicated on the
different articles. While (B1.a) suggests that there has been a discussion of a
particular boy being referred to, such a suggestion is not made in (B1.b).
B2. (a) The book is on the table.

(b) The book is under the table
The prepositions on and under in (B2.a) and (B2b), respectively mean different
things.
The positions of the book relative to the table in each case are different.
Therefore, you should know that what could be said to be the major difference
between lexical and grammatical word is that the kind of meaning expressed by the
latter depends, to a large extent, on the meaning of the former.
Using the criterion of structure, you can identify different types of words. These are
discussed below.
1. : A simple word is a free morpheme. It is possible to add an
affix to it which will change the word from being simple. But when an affix is
added, the base and the affix must be separable, if the word is to be classified
as simple. The words below are examples of simple words:
girl show church Love Life sweet
sun The balance A lorry build
2. Compound Word: A compound word is one which has two bases. In other
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words, it has two free morphemes. Orthographically, compound words can be

formed by combining two or more free morphemes together. Examples include
the following:
heartland wetland teaspoonful stillborn
taskmaster teacup shakedown taxman
lovesick handbill handshake evildoer

You can also form some compound words by using hyphen, (-) to separate two
or more free morphemes. You can find some examples below.
cutting-room father-in-law sound-track counting-house Director-General heart-throb heat-

stroke stumbling-block poverty-stricken jaw-bone.
Lastly, you can form other compound words by using a space between two free
morphemes. Examples are the following:
latent period power politics world power
index finger travel agency grass roots
high table poverty line live birth
Aso Rock White House chewing stick
3. Complex Word: A complex word contains one free morpheme and one or more
bound morpheme. You should note that the morphemes in a complex word may
or may not be easily separated. Also, complex words are derived from plural
forms of irregular nouns and the past tense and past participle form of
irregular/strong verbs.
4. Examples are given below:
teeth children split lice oxen men
feet put born dug were sunk
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In this study session, we examined one of the Hierarchical elements of language; word. We started by
explaining what word means. We also looked at the different types of words based on meaning and structure.
We speak words every day. Can you define WORDS?
Schoolboard
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Study Session 7
In this study session, we will be looking at the phrase. We will start by asking the
question, what is phrase? Thereafter, we will highlight the different types of phrase
that we have.
Learning Outcomes
7.1 define phrase
7.2 list types of phrase
What is a Phrase?
The Phrase/Group
Types of Phrase
Simply put, a is a group of related words without a subject-verb

relationship. In other words, a phrase is an expression consisting of one or more
words forming a grammatical part of a sentence. For your purpose, the technical
terms 'phrase' and 'group' are used interchangeably. Phrase naturally forms a unit in
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Study Session 7 The Phrase/Group
bigger units such as clause and sentence. In order to properly understand what a
phrase is, it is important for you to know what a subject and a finite verb are. A
subject is the performer of the action indicated by the verb or the entity being talked
about in the sentence. A finite verb is a verb that agrees with the subject in person
and in number. However, you should know that a phrase does not have a subject
and a finite verb. Instead, a phrase can have a non-finite verb. Non-finite verbs
include to infinitives, gerunds and participles.
Examples of phrase include:

1. An African goat;
2. In the morning;
3. Extremely clever;
4. Has been sent and
5. Rather fast.
There are many types of phrase. In this section, we will be discussing each of them
one after the other. The first is Noun Phrase.
is a phrase that is headed by a noun or a pronoun. The lexical items

found before and after the headword in noun phrases are called modifiers. Those
before the head are called pre-modifiers while those after the head are called
/qualifiers. Therefore, you should know that noun phrase can be
formed by the combination of these modifiers and nouns. Examples of noun phrase
are the following:
1. Girls
2. The girl
3. The beautiful girl
4. The man in the house
5. The problems of the youth
6. The lady that I told you about
7. A woman who needs help
You should not be surprised that examples (4) and (7) are called noun phrases though
they contain relative clauses – that I told you about, and who needs help, respectively.
What we have in (4) and (4) are instances of embedding. This is a situation in which a
unit higher in hierarchy is found within a lower unit. Embedding may also involve a unit
being found in a unit of its own rank. The relative clauses in (6) and (7) are functioning
as post-modifiers of the nouns lady and woman respectively.
is formed by the combination of lexical (main) verb and auxiliary

verb(s). You need to be aware that verb phrase is different from phrasal verbs.
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Phrasal verb too is formed by the combination of a main verb with an adverbial
particle or a preposition. You should know again that verb phrase consists of only
the verbal elements, not the whole of the predicate.
Examples of verb phrase are underlined in the sentences below:

1. Sambo will go there.
2. Oghomwen should have gone now.
3. Osaru will have been eating that food by now.
4. Chika is reading a novel.
5. Tinuade and Kudirat were not seen at the occasion.
6. They are being insincere.
You should notice that in (5) not is an adverb, but because it occurs in between the
phrase, it is taken to be part of the verb phrase. However, you need to know that the
expressions underlined below are examples of phrasal verbs.
1. He has disposed of the shirts.
2. That country is heading for anomy.
3. You don't have to answer back all your critics.
4. I want to carve out a name for myself in music.
Lastly, you should know that both verb phrase and phrasal verb may function as predicators in
the sentences.
o
o
An is a group of related words headed by an adjective. You

should know that adjectival phrases essentially modify nouns and pronouns. They
are also formed by combining intensive adverbs such as very, quite, much, so, rather,
rarely, etc.
Examples:
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He is very wicked.
They were not all that surprised.
She was almost correct.
The students were so lackadaisical about their studies.
The lady with the big hat is my wife.
You should know that an adverbial phrase is a group of words that is headed by an
adverb. It can be formed by the combination of intensive adverbs and other types of
adverbs. As characteristic of adverbs, an adverbial phrase modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
Examples:
1. The assignment was very neatly written. (Modifies the verb) ‘was’
2. She spoke so fluently that everybody gave her a standing ovation. (Modifies the
verb ‘spoke’)
3. We would very much want a detailed analysis of the confession. (Modifies the verb
phrase ‘would want’)
4. She is not so much into prostitution. (Modifies the verb phrase ‘is not’)
o
o
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A is a group of words that is headed by a preposition.

There are two obligatory elements in a prepositional phrase; a preposition and a
nominal entity. Such phrases can function as adjectival, adverbial, complement of a
verb, subject complement and adjunct.
The underlined expressions below are prepositional phrases:

1. The boy on the field is my grandson. (As adjective modifying the noun phrase ‘The
boy’)
2. They eat without meat. (As adverb modifying the verb ‘eat’).
3. We love the boy in that department. (As adjective modifying the noun phrase ‘the
boy’).
4. In my opinion, Tairu is the best student in my class. (As adjunct in a sentence).
5. The best time to eat breakfast is between 8am and 10am. (As subject complement).
o
o
This is a phrase that gives more information about a noun, pronoun, or a noun
phrase. You should not confuse it with an adjectival phrase which modifies a noun.
Rather than modify a noun, an appositive phrase, which can either be a noun phrase,
a gerundive phrase or infinitival phrase, presents the subject in the sentence in a
different way. Another important difference you should note between an appositive
phrase and an adjectival phrase is that the former can be used in place of subjects
that are nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases, whereas the latter cannot be interchanged
with the noun. Appositive phrases are marked off by commas at the beginning and
at the end, when used in a sentence.
Examples include:
President Mohammadu Buhari, the President of Nigeria, will be at the wedding
ceremony.
Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe's first novel, is a classic.
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Wole Soyinka, the first African Nobel laureate, is a genius.

University of Ibadan, Nigeria's premier university, remains the first and best.
Success, a many-faceted concept, is not in the curriculum vitae of an indolent man.
You should know that another name for a is verbal noun. Also, gerund is
the 'ing' form of a verb (present participle form) used as a noun.
Examples include:
1. Dancing is not ungodly.
2. He needs spanking.
3. They are accused of spying.
4. Writing is an art.
Meanwhile, a gerundive phrase is a group of words that is headed by a gerund. You

should also know that gerundive phrase can function as subject of a verb, object of a
verb, appositive to subject, adjective modifying nouns, pronouns and noun phrase,
adverb modifying verbs. The structures underlined below are examples of gerundive
phrase:
Smoking in public places is against the law.

- Subject of the verb ‘is’
Eating well lengthens life.
- Subject of the verb ‘lengthens’.
They were flabbergasted by his supporting their family foe.
- Complement of the preposition “by”
He likes travelling with celebrities.
- Object of a verb ‘likes’
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This is group of words that is headed by the participle form of a verb. You should
know that there are two participle forms of a verb: present participle and past
participle. The former is the progressive form of a verb, i.e., the ‘-ing' form. You
should not confuse it with the gerund. A gerund is used as a noun, but the present
participle is used as a verb. The past participle is the form of a verb that takes the
suffix '-en'. This ’-en' may be realised in different forms: '-t', '-ed', '-d', etc. In other
words, you should also know that the past participle form of a verb is the form that
can be used sometimes after the auxiliary verb, has, have, and had.
Also, you should note that participial phrase functions as an adjective. This means
that participial phrase is used to modify nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases in the
sentences.
Examples of participial phrase are:

1. Driven by his promise to do his parents proud, he read thoroughly for the
examination. (Modifies the pronoun ‘he’)
2. Extremely scandalised by the write-up, the lecturer decided to change the course
outline. (Modifies the noun phrase ‘the lecturer’)
3. Shocked by outright cancellation of her work, Mary could not eat for two days.
(Modifies the noun ‘Mary’)
4. Going by his disposition to humanity, we can expect more days of enjoyment.
(Modifies the pronoun ‘we’)
5. Having apologized, they can now present their case. (Modifies the pronoun ‘they’)
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This is a group of words that is headed by an . You can say that

infinitival phrase is a group of words that is headed by a ‘to’. Infinitival phrase can
function as a noun standing as subject of a verb, object of a verb, subject
complement, object complement, adjective modifying nouns, an adverb modifying
verbs, or an appositive in a sentence.
Examples include:
1. To stand out among my equals is my aim in life.
Subject of the verb ‘is’
2. We intend to celebrate our birthday in style.
Object of the verb ‘intend’
3. To control a woman is difficult.
Subject of the verb ‘is’
4. My biggest dream, to own a house, will be achieved this year.
Appositive element
5. Every parent’s prayer is to eat the fruit of their labour.
Subject complement
6. They expect us to contribute our quota.
Object complement
Note also that the underlined parts of the sentences above are equally referred to
as-to infinitive non-finite clauses.
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In this study session, we have been exposed to the various types of phrase and their functions. Also, we have
been shown how to identify their grammatical names, functions and usage.
What is a phrase?
Differentiate between noun phrase and verb phrase.
Schoolboard
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Study Session 8 The Clause
Study Session 8
In this study session, we will be discussing clause. What it is and its different types.
We will be looking at noun clause, adjectival clause, adverbial clause and verbless
clause.
Learning Outcomes
8.1 identify a clause
Noun Clause
What is a
Clause?
Adjectival
The Clause
Clause
Types of Clause
Adverbial
Clause
Verbless Clause
A is a group of words having a subject and a finite verb which makes

meaning. It is essential that you know the functions and types of clauses. You need
to know that not all clauses can stand alone. Those that express complete thoughts
and as such can stand on their own are called independent/main clauses. When a
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sentence is comprised of an independent clause/main clause alone, it is called a

simple sentence. Those clauses that cannot stand on their own, in that they do not
express complete thoughts, are called dependent/subordinate clauses.
are usually introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as if, unless,
that, because, while, when, etc. For a subordinate clause to express complete thought,
it needs a main clause.
In the examples below, the underlined expressions are main clauses:

1. Amina is serious because she has a purpose.
2. They came when we did not expect.
3. We love one another as our God enjoins us.
4. She believes in herself since she has good education.
5. However you do it, we will still appreciate your effort.
The underlined expressions below are subordinate clauses just as those not
underlined above):
1. Amina is serious because she has a purpose.
2. They came when we did not expect. iii. We love one another as our God enjoins us.
iv. She believes in herself since she has good education.
3. However you do it, we will still appreciate your effort.
Apart from using the criterion of meaning to classify clauses, in which case we have
main/independent clause and subordinate/dependent clause, you can also classify
clause using function as a criterion. In this respect, you can still remember
subordinate/dependent clauses. So, you should know that there are three types of
subordinate/dependent clause. The types include noun clause, adjectival clause, and
adverbial clause. We now discuss them one after the other.
is a subordinate clause used as a noun. You can identify it in a

sentence by the headwords such as that, what, whatever, when, and how. Noun
clause can function as subject of a verb or verb phrase, object of a verb or verb
phrase, subject complement and object complement.
Below are examples of functions of noun phrase:

1. That we greet you always does not mean that we are sycophants.
Subject of the verb phrase ‘does not mean’
2. Don't let out what I want to do.
Object of the verb phrase ‘don’t let out’
3. A famous musician is what Sade wants to become.
Subject complement
4. The main problem now is when the members should meet again.
Subject of the verb “is”
5. They made the man who he is.
object complement
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is a subordinate clause used as an adjective. In other words, an

adjectival clause is a relative clause. You should know that adjectival clause
modifies nouns, pronouns and noun phrases in sentences. The underlined
expressions below are adjectival clauses.
Those who respect me are many.

Modifies the pronoun ‘Those’
One of the ladies that are brilliant in our class is proud.

Modifies the noun phrase ‘One of the ladies’
Those whom he invited did not come.

Modifies the pronoun ‘Those’
The house which I built is the best around.

Modifies the noun phrase ‘The house’
The place where I am going is known only to me.

Modifies the noun phrase ‘The place’
is a subordinate clause used as an adverb. Besides, you should

know that adverbial clause modifies only verbs or verb phrases that are in the main
74
clause. This is the only function it performs. Adverbial clauses are of different
types. The types and what they modify will be considered below.
Adverbial Clause of Time

This answers the question “when”? You should know that adverbial clause of time
usually begins with when, after, before, while etc.
He was provoked when the man asked for a bribe.
Modifies the verb phrase ‘was provoked’
When I saw him, I was perplexed.

Modifies the verb phrase ‘was perplexed’
Before we responded, they had run away.

Modifies the verb phrase ‘had run’
As at the time I was an undergraduate, she was not yet born.

Modifies the verb phrase ‘was not’
Adverbial Clause of Place

This answers the question “where” You can identify adverbial clause of place usually
with where and wherever.
Nobody knows where Nigeria is heading to.
Modifies the verb ‘knows’
I am ready to sleep wherever you give me.

Modifies the verb phrase ‘am ready to sleep’
Where I will be tomorrow nobody can tell.

Modifies the verb phrase ‘can tell’
He stays where the gods meet.

Modifies the verb ‘stays’
Adverbial Clause of Reason

An adverbial clause of reason answers the question “why”? You can identify adverbial
clause of reason usually with why, because, etc.
Because I did well they were happy.
Modifies the verb ‘were’
She cried because she was jilted.

Modifies the verb ‘cried’
Never leave an idea because nobody believes in it.

Modifies the verb ‘leave’
I will make it because God is on my side.

Modifies the verb phrase ‘will make’
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Adverbial Clause of Concession

This adverbial clause shows contrast between the main clause and the subordinate
clause. The markers of this clause include although, though, even though, etc.
However, you should note that but does not co-occur in a construction where these
markers occur. Examples include:
Although he prepared, he did not do well in the test.
Modifies the verb phrase ‘did not do’
Even though I know it, I won’t tell you

Modifies the verb phrase ‘won’t tell’
Adverbial Clause of Manner

This answers the question “how”? You should be aware that adverbial clause of manner
can be identified with such words as how, as, as if, etc.
He talks as if he knows everything.
Modifies the verb ‘talks’
She dances as an insect does.

Modifies the verb ‘dances’
They prayed as if only prayer could solve their problem.

Modifies the verb ‘prayed’
Constance thinks the way her father wants.

Modifies the verb ‘thinks’
Adverbial Clause of Condition

This gives the condition under which something or event will happen. You should know
here too that adverbial clause of condition can be identified with words such as unless,
if, except, unless, until, etc.
Unless you are rightly connected, you may not make headway.
Modifies the verb phrase ‘may not make’
If you think you are the wisest person, you are the king of the fools.
Modifies the verb ‘are’
Except the masses voice out, the government may do nothing about their plight.
Modifies the verb phrase ‘may do’
Until we believe in the sanctity of human life, this society may not witness peace.
Modifies the verb phrase ‘may not witness’
Provided you know him, you can consult him.
Modifies the verb phrase ‘can consult’
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It is good for you to know that it is possible to delete the verb be and its other forms,
as well as the subject in some subordinate clauses and the expression will still be
meaningful. When this happens, it usually results in a verbless clause. In other
words, a verbless clause can be conceived as an elliptical form of a subordinate
clause with the verb be (or its other forms) omitted.
Examples include these:

1. If possible, see me at noon.
(If it is possible, see me at noon).
2. React when necessary.
(React when it is necessary)
3. Whether rough or smooth, I must get to my destination.
(Whether the road is rough or smooth, I must get to my destination).
4. This proposal will yield great dividends if fully implemented.
(This proposal will yield great dividends, if it is fully implemented).
o
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In this study session, we have discussed noun clause, adjectival clause, adverbial clause and their functions.
We also looked at how to use verbless clauses.
If Noun clause is described as a subordinate clause used as a noun, what is Adjectival clause?
Schoolboard
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Study Session 9
In this study session, we will be discussing sentence. We will explain what it means
and its different types. We will also try to describe sentence based on structure and
functions.
Learning Outcomes
9.1 define sentence
9.2 highlight different types of sentence
What is a
Sentence?
Sentence based
Sentence
on Structure
Types of
Sentence
Sentence based
on Function
You need to know that the can be looked at from different perspectives.
For instance, some scholars see it as a group of words beginning with a capital letter
and ending with a full stop. Some others have looked at it as a group of words
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Study Session 9 Sentence
having a subject and a predicate. Here, the view we want to take is that a sentence is
a group of related words that express complete thought. Put differently, sentence is
a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate,
conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a
main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
The sentence does not usually form a part of any grammatical unit. However, we
can talk about such discourse units as the paragraph and the text which are above
the sentence. Also, you should know that there are two major parameters for
classifying sentences; form/structure and function. We are going to first look at
sentence typology from the perspective of form/structure. In this view, we look at
the number of verbs and the number and types of clauses contained in the sentence.
Therefore, you can identify the following sentence types; simple, compound,
complex and compound-complex.
Let us look at the classification of sentences based on their structures.

1. Simple Sentence: Simple sentence expresses a single complete thought. It has
only one main verb.
Examples include:
a) Shefiyat is wise.
b) He laughed.
c) Esosa brought that book.
d) On that matter, I have crossed the Rubicon.
e) Thinking about the loss everyday has weighed her down.
f) I will win many awards.
2. : This is a combination of at least two simple
sentences. You should know that in forming compound sentence, you will need
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to employ coordination conjunction such as and or but. You also know that
compound sentence can actually be broken down into simple sentences.
Examples are:
a) Eat well but don't over eat.
Eat well.
Don't over eat.
b) Come and dance.
Come.
Dance.
c) Leave now and never come again.
Leave now.
Never come again.
d) We went to the manager, begged him, but he did not listen to us.
We went to the manager.
We begged him.
He did not listen to us.
e) He goes to the stream every evening but he doesn't swim.
He goes to the stream every evening.
He doesn't swim.
3. Complex Sentence: You should know that complex sentence contains a main
clause and at least a subordinate clause. While coordinating conjunctions are
used for compound sentences, subordinating conjunctions such as when, if,
after, where, who, which, because, etc. are used when joining main and
subordinate clauses to form a complex sentence.
Examples are:
a) The day which I will never forget has not come.
 The day has not come. (main clause)
 which I will never forget (subordinate clause)
b) Because he is a genius, they hate him no matter how nice he tries to be.
 They hate him. (main clause)
 because he is a genius (subordinate clause)
 no matter how nice he tries to be (subordinate clause)
c) A man needs a wife, if he can find one.
 A man needs a wife. (main clause)
 If he can find one. (subordinate clause)
d) They laughed when I entered.
 They laughed. (main clause)
 when I entered (subordinate clause)
e) Some ladies appreciate you only when you are rich.
 Some ladies appreciate you. (main clause)
 only when you are rich (subordinate clause)
4. Compound-Complex Sentence: This is a combination of compound and
complex sentences. Essentially, it consists of at least, two main clauses and at
least one subordinate clause.
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Examples include:
a) They came and left immediately when they saw the woman.
 They came. (main clause)
 They left immediately. (main clause)
 when they saw the woman (subordinate clause)
b) Whenever you are disappointed, see the disappointment as a blessing in disguise
and press on so that you can get to your haven.
 See the disappointment as a blessing in disguise. (main clause)
 Press on. (main clause)
 whenever you are disappointed (subordinate clause)
 so that you can get to your haven (subordinate clause)
c) When you are criticised, examine yourself but don't reply your detractors so that
they don't feel important.
 Examine yourself. (main clause)
 Don't reply your detractors. (main clause)
 when you are criticised (subordinate clause)
 so that they don't feel important (subordinate clause)
d) We sleep and wake up because God still needs us in the world.
 We sleep. (main clause)
 We wake up. (main clause)
 because God still needs us in the world (subordinate clause)
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We now want to consider sentence types based on function. You should be aware
that there are four types of such sentences; declarative, imperative, interrogative and
exclamatory.
1. Declarative/Statement: This is a sentence that makes a statement of fact. The
statement may be true or false. It may also be in the affirmative or in the
negative.
Examples include:
a) Times are hard for many Nigerians.
b) They are not trustworthy.
c) There is no sane rapist.
d) Some ladies are shameless.
e) At times, the best man for a position is a woman.
2. Imperative/Command: An imperative sentence is one that makes a command or
an entreaty. The subject is usually you but it is often deleted because it is
understood.
Examples include:
a) Keep quiet.
b) Give us this day our daily bread.
c) Don't go out at night.
d) Love your neighbour as yourself.
e) Blame them for my shortcomings.
f) See me tomorrow.
3. Interrogative/Question: An interrogative sentence is one that asks a direct
question. The question may be polar (Yes/No) question or a Wh-type question.
You should be aware that an interrogative sentence ends with a question mark.
Examples:
a) Have you studied him enough?
b) How promiscuous is he?
c) What is wrong with that dog?
d) Can we go now?
e) Did he read the letter?
In addition, you should note that not all sentences that end with a question mark are
interrogative in function. You should consider the sentences below:
a) Will you keep quiet?
b) Shall we pray?
c) Could you send me the parcel?
d) Will you get out of my presence?
These sentences are commands that are hidden as requests and requests that are
hidden as questions. They are attempts not to make the imperatives bold. They are
mild imperatives. The sentences are used for politeness to the addressee(s).
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4. : This is a sentence that is used to express sudden feelings or

emotions. It ends with an exclamatory mark. At times, it looks like a question
but it is not. It merely expresses outburst of strong feelings or emotions.
Examples:
a) Can this be my Constance!
b) What a nice gift!
c) You are a rare gem!
d) Why are we so favoured!
e) Can I believe this!
In this study session, we have looked at what a sentence is. We also introduced us to the classification of
sentence based on structure and function.
How would you describe a sentence?
Exclamation is a type of sentence based on structure. Explain.
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Schoolboard
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Study Session 10
In this study session, we will be looking at word groups and determinants. We begin
by explaining what word classes are. Thereafter, we will discuss the determinants.
In doing so, we will look at different types of determinants.
Learning Outcomes
10.1 describe word group
10.2 point-out the determinants
What are Word Classes?
Word Groups and

Determiners
The Determiners
All the words in English can be broadly divided into two categories: open and
closed. Words belonging to open class can have new words added to the class as
the need arises. For instance, nouns have increased constantly, especially in the age
of technology when new words such as Internet, website, URL, CD-ROM, email,
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Study Session 10 Word Group and Determinants
newsgroup, , modem, multimedia have emerged. There are also new verbs
such as download, upload, reboot, right-click, double-click etc. On the other hand,
closed word class is made up of finite sets of words which are never expanded.
These are prepositions, determiners or conjunctions. These classes include words
like of, the, and but.
Let us now look at the two groups of Word Classes in more details.
This word class does not easily accept new words. Its members are fixed and do not
usually change.
1. Closed class words are relatively limited in number. They are sometimes
referred to as grammatical or function words. These words include pronouns,
prepositions, interjections, determiners, conjunctions and auxiliary verbs.
2. Open Class: These words belong to the major parts of speech namely: nouns,
verbs (lexical or main), adjectives, and adverbs. In any language these are quite
large and open-ended. This means you can create or add an unlimited number
of new words to this category.
The parts of speech in this class make up about 90% of the words in your personal vocabularies.
It is possible to coin new words in this class.
These are words that you can use to introduce nouns in English sentences. They can
also occur with other modifiers (e.g. adjectives) and nouns to form noun phrases.
Some determiners can only be used with countable nouns while others can be used
with uncountable nouns.
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Some examples of determiners that you can use with countable nouns are: many, some, a, an,
a few, few, a lot of, this, that, those, these, etc. Some determiners that you can use with
uncountable nouns include much, some, a little, etc.
There are different types of determiners in English language. They are discussed
below.
1. Articles: These are words you use with nouns to specify if the noun is specific
or not. There are two types of articles. These are the definite and the indefinite
articles. The definite article is 'the', while the indefinite articles are 'a' and 'an'.
Below, you can see how these articles are used with nouns:
Definite article Indefinite article
the teacher a teacher
the students a student
the egg an egg
It is important for you to note that 'a' is used before a word that starts with a consonant sound
whereas 'an' is used before a word that starts with a vowel sound.
2. Possessives: These are words used with nouns to show possession or ownership
of the nouns following them. Possessives are pronouns like his, her, their,
your, our, my, its, etc.
Examples:
a) his book
b) our offices her pencil
c) your bag
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3. Quantifiers: These are determiners that indicate or show the quantities of nouns
following them. Examples are many, any, some, a few, few, a lot of, much,
both, a little, each, every, one of, several, most, etc.
Examples:
a) a few people
b) some salt many ladies
c) each student a lot of ideas
d) much time
4. Demonstratives: These are pronouns that point to the nouns they are referring
to or modifying. These are this, that, these and those.
Example
a) this boy
b) these boys that man
c) those men
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5. Numerals: These indicate numbers and positions occupied (in a sentence).

Numerals are divided into two; cardinal and ordinal.
6. Cardinals deal with numbers. Some examples are one, two three, four, five
etc. Ordinals indicate positions. Some example of ordinals include first,
second, third, etc.
In this study session, we examined two groups of word classes. We have the closed group and the opened group.
We also looked as at determinants. We highlighted some of the determinants that we have.
There are basically two groups of word classes, describe these two.
Discuss any two of the following determiners:

1. Articles
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2. Possessives
3. Quantifiers
4. Demonstratives
Schoolboard
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Study Session 11
In these study session, we will begin by looking at noun. We will discuss its
characteristics and classes. Thereafter, we will describe what a pronoun is. We will
also highlight its different types. Lastly, we will explain verbs and look at its
various categories.
Learning Outcomes
11.1 define noun
11.2 kwon how to use pronoun
11.3 use verbs correctly
What is a Noun?
Nouns, Pronouns
Defining Pronouns
and Verbs
What are Verbs?
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Study Session 11 Nouns, Pronouns and Verbs
Simply put, a is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or
set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of
existence, or ideas. Linguistically, a noun is a member of a large, open part of
speech whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the
object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Lexical categories (parts of speech) are defined in terms of the ways in which their members
combine with other kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to
language. In English, nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive
adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.
Nouns are words that are used to make reference to persons, places, animals, objects
and ideas. In other words, nouns are words that name persons, places, animals,
ideas, etc. Some examples are John, Adikwe, Abuja, Kaduna, tiger, chimpanzee, chair,
shoe, honesty, courage, happiness, goodness, etc.
Nouns in English display certain features. Let us take a look at the following:
1. Only nouns can take determiners such as the, an, a, some, this, that, etc.
Example: a lawyer, a house, the teacher, some people, my mind, an orange, etc.
2. Nouns are mostly changed into plural forms by the simple addition of plural
markers: - s, -es, -ies.
Examples:
Singular Plural
lawyer lawyers
house houses
box boxes
baby babies
3. You can still pluralise certain nouns through some other means. For example:
 by changing the internal vowel as in: tooth - teeth; mouse - mice.
 by foreign plural as in: stadium - stadia; medium - media.
4. Only nouns indicate their possessive forms by taking apostrophe, plus ‘s.’ Here
are some examples for you.
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However, there are some nouns which cannot change their forms. Some examples are sheep-
sheep; deer- deer, etc.
Ordinary form Possessive form
lawyer John's
John lawyer's
5. You can also form some nouns by the addition of certain suffixes like: (-tion;
ion; or; -ness; -hood; -ian; -it; -ment; -ist; -ation). Here are some examples to
demonstrate this process of noun formation.
-hood -ian -ity
fatherhood politician Visibility
-ment -ist -ation
Movement motorist Education
You can classify nouns in the English language into the following types:
1. Proper Nouns
2. Common Nouns and
3. Collective Nouns
Let us now look at each of them.
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1. Proper Nouns: These are the names that we give to particular persons, places.
Some examples are: Junaid, Abubakar, Abuja, etc.
All these proper nouns have some characteristics which are not shared
with other nouns, like the capitalization of initial letters.
You would note that proper nouns are not usually used in the plural. They
always appear in the singular form.
Consider the following examples:

a) Adikwe built a house.
b) Abuja is my home.
2. can also be sub-classified into the following:
 Personal names: e.g. Bako, Goodluck, Ighodaro, etc.
 Names of countries, states, cities, rivers, oceans: e.g. Nigeria, Ghana,
Cross River, Kano, Pacific Ocean, River Niger
 Names of months and days: December, Sunday, etc.
 Names of newspapers, magazines, titles of books, plays: e.g. The Punch;
The News, The Nation
 Names of Festivals: e.g. Good Friday, Ramadan, Eid, Boxing Day, etc.
 Names of important places such as offices, buildings, hospitals, etc.
Loyola College, Cocoa House, Cultural Centre.
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3. : These are names that do not specify a particular person,

place, animal or object. They refer to a class of people, places, animals or
objects. Examples are teacher, animal, vehicle, friend, etc. Common nouns are
of two types; concrete and abstract nouns.
 Concrete Nouns: These refer to things that have physical forms. Concrete
nouns are tangible e.g. car, spoon, etc.
 Abstract Nouns: These are names of entities that have no physical forms.
That is, those nouns that are immaterial e.g.; peace, hope, love, kindness,
honesty, etc.
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4. : These are nouns that name or refer to groups or

a collection of people, animals or things as unified entities e.g.
audience, committee, family, team, etc. Collective nouns display two
features.
They can take either a singular or a plural verb.
Examples are:
i. The team leaves for London next week.
ii. The family were divided in their opinion.
In (i) above, members of the team are considered as a single unit, whereas, (ii)
shows that individual members of the team are being considered.
Some of the collective nouns are specific to certain groups of people, animals, or objects.
Examples: a swarm of bees, a troop of soldiers, bunch of keys, a herd of cattle, etc.
5. Count Nouns and Non-count Nouns: You can also classify nouns in
English into count and non-count nouns.
 Count Nouns: These are nouns which can be counted and are realised
in both the singular and plural forms.
Example:
Singular Plural
window windows
room rooms
car cars
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Count nouns can take the definite and the indefinite articles a, an, the. Examples: a room, a
dog, an envelope, an elephant, the room.
You can also us count nouns with the cardinal numerals because they can be
counted.
Examples:
a) One room,
b) One dog,
c) Two elephants, etc.
 Non-Count Nouns: These are nouns that cannot be counted. They are
also called uncountable nouns. They are always in the singular form.
You can also call them mass nouns because they exist as an
undifferentiated mass. Some examples here include water, gold,
furniture, equipment, information, etc. Other examples of non-count
nouns in English are abstract nouns such as loyalty, faithfulness,
endurance, etc.
However, there are many concrete nouns which are still non-count nouns. Although
they can be seen or touched, they can still not be counted, because you cannot
separate them into single units. For example, paper, salt, water, oil, etc.
Even though they can be seen or touched, they cannot be separated into single units. However,
you can use certain units of measurement to indicate quantities of these nouns. For example,
you can say a piece of paper, a cup of wine, a litre of oil, etc.
Pronouns are words that you can use instead of nouns. In a discourse you can use
pronouns when you do not know the name of the person or thing you are referring
to. You can also use pronouns to refer to persons or things when you do not want a
third party to know what you are talking about. There are different types of
pronouns in English language as you can see below.
The following are the types of pronoun you can find in the English language:
1. Personal Pronouns: These are pronouns used to refer to persons and non-
persons. Examples are I, we, me, us, she, her, it, you, they, and them. These are
categorised into three in terms of person and number. Study the table below.
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Person Number Gender Subject Object
1st Person Singular I We
Plural We Us
2nd Person Singular

You You
Plural
3rd Person Singular

Masculine He Him
Feminine She Her
It It
Plural non person
They Them
2. Possessive Pronouns: These are pronouns that indicate possession or

ownership of particular things. Examples are mine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, and
theirs.
You can use them as indicated in the examples below.
 The book is mine.
 The car is theirs.
 The building is hers.
3. Reciprocal Pronouns: These are expressions such as each other and one another.
You can use them to show mutual interaction between or among a group of
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people. You can use reciprocal pronouns as they are used in the following
examples:
a) Husband and wife should love each other.
‘each other' is often used for two persons or items. However, the dictionary
confirms it can be used interchangeably with “one another”.
b) Members of the department could not see one another at the conference.
'one another’ is often used for more than two persons or items. However, the
dictionary confirms it can be used interchangeably with “each other”.
4. Reflexive Pronouns: Reflexive pronouns function as grammatical object, and

they refer to the subjects of the clauses or sentences in which they appear.
Examples are myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
and oneself.
Here are some examples
a) I need to take care of myself.
b) We are only worrying ourselves for nothing.
c) They should blame themselves for their misfortunes.
5. Indefinite Pronouns: Indefinite pronouns are words that refer to quantity
unknown. You should know as well that these are pronouns you use to refer to
people or things in general.
Examples are many, both, few, all, any, another, every, some, everything, nothing,
something, no one, none, anything etc.
However, you should know that some of these examples are compound words and always
written together with no space between them.
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Here are examples used in sentence for you.

a) Nothing is impossible before God.
b) Many came to write the test; eventually, few were chosen from them.
c) I know something is still missing in the essay.
6. Interrogative Pronouns: Interrogative pronouns are pronouns you use to ask
questions.
Examples include who, what, whom, which, whose, etc. Here are examples for you as
they can be used in sentences.
a) Who are you?
b) Which do you want?
c) What is it exactly?
7. Emphatic Pronouns: Emphatic pronouns are also called intensive pronouns.
They lay emphasis on the subject of the sentence. They also end in "-self” and
“-selves”. The difference between the reflexive and emphatic pronoun is that in
the former, the action performed by the subject is on the same subject, whereas
in the latter, the action performed by the subject is not on the subject.
Here are some examples for you.
a) Farooq failed himself (reflexive pronoun).
b) Farooq himself failed to turn up (Emphatic).
Emphatic pronouns are italicised in the sentences below:
a) Dr. Jimoh himself sponsored the programme.
b) My friend himself testified to the statement.
8. Relative Pronouns: These are linking pronouns. You use relative pronouns to
introduce relative clauses and link them with the main clauses in complex
sentences.
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Examples are whom, which, that, whose, and who. Below are some examples for
you.
a) The man who gave us a ride is around.
b) That is the car which I bought.
c) That is the dog that/which killed the antelope.
You should note the following:

 ‘who' is used for human beings while "which' is used for non-human.
 ‘That’ can be used to replace 'who' and 'which'.
'Which' cannot be used to replace 'who" and vice versa.
9. Demonstrative Pronouns: These are pronouns that point out the nouns they are
referring to in sentences. Examples are this, these, that, those. They are divided
into singular and plural forms, this, that (singular); these, those (plural).
Demonstrative pronouns are used in the sentences below.
 This is my pen.
 That is the house where I live.
 These are our books.
 Those are the people that misbehaved yesterday.
From the above examples, you can see that 'this' and 'these' are used to refer to objects or
people that are nearby, whereas 'that and 'those' are used to refer to objects or people that are
far away.
Feedback
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10. Numerical Pronouns: You use these to show the number or position a thing or a
subject occupies in a scheme or arrangement. Numerical pronouns are of two
types. Cardinals are words such as one, two, three, etc. Ordinals are words like
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first; second; third, etc.

a) Many people were invited but only two will be interviewed.
b) My father has two houses, the first is in Lagos and the second is in Ibadan.
A is a word (part of speech) that in syntax conveys an action (bring, read,

walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist,
stand). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the
particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected (modified in
form) to encode tense, aspect, mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with the
person, gender or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object.
Verbs have tenses: present, to indicate that an action is being carried out; past, to
indicate that an action has been done; future, to indicate that an action will be done.
Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that
accompany it and the relationship those words have with the verb itself. Classified
by the number of their valency arguments, usually three basic types are
distinguished; intransitives, transitives, ditransitives and double transitive verbs.
Some verbs have special grammatical uses and hence complements, such as copular
verbs (i.e., be); the verb "do" used for do-support in questioning and negation, and
tense or aspect auxiliaries, e.g., "be", "have" or "can". In addition, verbs can be non-
finite, namely, not inflected for tense, and have various special forms such as
infinitives, participles or gerunds.
1. Intransitive verbs: An intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object.
Intransitive verbs may be followed by an adverb (a word that addresses how,
where, when, and how often) or end a sentence. For example: "The woman
spoke softly." "The athlete ran faster than the official." "The boy wept."
2. Transitive verbs: A transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These
noun phrases are not called predicate nouns, but are instead called direct
objects because they refer to the object that is being acted upon. For example:
"My friend read the newspaper." "The teenager earned a speeding ticket."
A way to identify a transitive verb is to invert the sentence, making it passive. For example: "The
newspaper was read by my friend." "A speeding ticket was earned by the teenager."
3. Ditransitive verbs: Ditransitive verbs (sometimes called Vg verbs after the verb
give) precede either two noun phrases or a noun phrase and then a prepositional
phrase often led by to or for.
For example: "The players gave their teammates high fives." "The players gave high
fives to their teammates."
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When two noun phrases follow a transitive verb, the first is an indirect object
that which is receiving something, and the second is a direct object, that being
acted upon. Indirect objects can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases.
4. Double transitive verbs: Double transitive verbs (sometimes called Vc verbs
after the verb consider) are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct
object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase. The
second element (noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive) is called a complement,
which completes a clause that would not otherwise have the same meaning.
For example: "The young couple considers the neighbours wealthy people." "Some
students perceive adults quite inaccurately." "Sarah deemed her project to be the hardest
she has ever completed."
5. Copular verbs: Copular verbs (a.k.a. linking verbs) can't be followed by an

adverb or end a sentence, but instead must be followed by a noun or adjective,
whether in a single word or phrase. Common copulae include be, seem,
become, appear, look, and remain. For example: "His mother looked worried."
"Josh remained a reliable friend." Copulae are thought to 'link' the adjective or
noun to the subject.
The verb be is manifested in eight forms: be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being.
These verbs precede nouns or adjectives in a sentence, which become predicate nouns
and predicate adjectives similar to those that function with a linking verb. They can also
be followed by an adverb of place, which is sometimes referred to as a predicate adverb.
For example: "Her daughter was a writing tutor." "The singers were very nervous." "My
house is down the street."
Adjectives that come after copular verbs are predicate adjectives, and nouns that come after
linking verbs are predicate nouns.
In this study session, we started by discussing what noun is. To buttress our point, we looked at the
characteristics and classes of noun. Thereafter, we moved on to discuss pronouns and highlighted it different
types. We concluded the session by looking at the verbs
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Give, at least, five (5) characteristics of Noun.
Highlight, at list, four (4) types of pronoun.
Discuss any three types of verb.
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Study Session 12
In this study session, we will be discussing adverbs, adjectives and prepositions. We

will begin by explaining what an adverb is. We will look at its functions and
different types. We will then proceed to explain adjective. We will also look at its
types and how it is ordered. Finally, we will discuss prepositions and it different
categories.
Learning Outcomes
12.1 use adverbs, adjectives and prepositions correctly
What is an Adverb?
Adverbs, Adjectives
What is an Adjective?
and Prepositions
Prepositions
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Study Session 12 Adverbs, Adjectives and Prepositions
is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner,

noun phrase, clause, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time,
frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering questions such as how?, in
what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent?. This function is called the
adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word
expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses). Adverbs are traditionally
regarded as one of the parts of speech. However, modern linguists note that the term
"adverb" has come to be used as a kind of "catch-all" category, used to classify
words with various different types of syntactic behavior, not necessarily having
much in common except that they do not fit into any of the other available
categories (noun, adjective, preposition, etc.)
The English word adverb derives (through French) from Latin adverbium, from ad-
("to"), verbum ("word", "verb"), and the nominal suffix -ium. The term implies that
the principal function of adverbs is to act as modifiers of verbs or verb phrases. An
adverb used in this way may provide information about the manner, place, time,
frequency, certainty, or other circumstances of the activity denoted by the verb or
verb phrase.
Some examples:
1. She sang loudly (loudly modifies the verb sang, indicating the manner of singing)
2. We left it here (here modifies the verb phrase left it, indicating place)
3. I worked yesterday (yesterday modifies the verb worked, indicating time)
4. You often make mistakes (often modifies the verb phrase make mistakes,
indicating frequency)
5. He undoubtedly did it (undoubtedly modifies the verb phrase did it, indicating
certainty)
Adverbs can also be used as modifiers of adjectives, and of other adverbs, often to
indicate degree.
Examples:
1. You are quite right (the adverb quite modifies the adjective right)
2. She sang very loudly (the adverb very modifies another adverb – loudly)
They can also modify noun phrases, prepositional phrases, or whole clauses or
sentences, as in the following examples:
1. I bought only the fruit (only modifies the noun phrase the fruit)
2. She drove us almost to the station (almost modifies the prepositional phrase to
the station)
3. Certainly we need to act (certainly modifies the sentence as a whole).
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Adverbs are thus seen to perform a wide range of modifying functions. The major
exception is the function of modifier of nouns, which is performed instead by
adjectives (compare she sang loudly with her loud singing disturbed me; here the
verb sang is modified by the adverb loudly, whereas the noun singing is modified
by the adjective loud). However, as seen above, adverbs may modify noun phrases,
and so the two functions may sometimes be superficially very similar:
1. Even camels need to drink
2. Even numbers are divisible by two
The word even in the first sentence is an adverb, since it is an "external" modifier,
modifying camels as a noun phrase (compare even these camels ...), whereas the
word even in the second sentence is an adjective, since it is an "internal" modifier,
modifying numbers as a noun (compare these even numbers ...). It is nonetheless
possible for certain adverbs to modify a noun; in English the adverb follows the
noun in such cases, as in:
1. The people here are friendly
2. The show features dances galore
3. There is a shortage internationally of protein for animal feeds
Adverbs can sometimes be used as predicative expressions; in English this applies especially to
adverbs of location:
 Your seat is there.
When the function of an adverb is performed by an expression consisting of more

than one word, it is called an adverbial phrase or adverbial clause, or simply an
adverbial.
There are different types of adverb in English language. Some of them are explained
below.
1. Adverbial of Time: This answers the question, “when?.” You use it to indicate
when an action takes place.
Example
 She went to school yesterday.
 We arrived home by 5 p.m.
Adverbial of Place: This answers the question “where?”. You use it to indicate
where an action takes place.
Example
 My uncle lives here.
 My boss will leave for Abuja tomorrow evening.
Adverbial of Manner: This answers the question “how?” You use it to
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indicate how an action is carried out. e.g.

 The man walked into his office sluggishly.
 She shouted angrily at me.
4. Adverbial of Frequency: An adverb of frequency answers the question “how
often?” You use it to describe how often an action is carried out. e.g.
 She rarely eats at home.
 Farida reads daily.
5. Adverbial of Degree: It answers the question “how much” or “to what
extent?” You use it to show the extent in which an action is performed. e.g.
 It is very beautiful.
 The work is completely done.
6. Adverbial of Cause/Reason: This answers the question “why?” It is used
when stating why an action is performed.
 Mr Tairu was late for the interview because his car broke down.
 We were punished for insulting the lecturer.
7. Adverbial of condition: It answers the question “under what condition?” You
use adverbial of condition when the fulfilment of an action depends on another
action. e.g.
 If you love me, you will marry me.
 Unless you stop misbehaving, I won’t allow you to go out of this house.
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are words that you use to describe nouns such as person, places,
objects and ideas. Adjectives are also used to describe pronouns. By using
adjectives, you give specific descriptions of the nouns or pronouns you are referring
to. Adjectives are of different types.
Adjectives are of different types. We will take time now to explain these different
types.
1. Proper Adjectives: These types of adjectives are derived from personal names
and are used to describe nouns. For example, Platonic love (from the personal
name – Plato); Caesarean section (derived from the name Caesar) etc.
2. Common Adjectives: This an adjective used to qualify a common noun.
Examples, of this include lazy girl, broken table etc.
3. Interrogative Adjectives: These are words used in asking questions. Consider
the following examples.
(a) Whose books are these? (b) When will you travel to Kaduna?
4. Numerical Adjectives: This type of adjective has to do with numbers. There are
two types of this type of adjective namely Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinals
include words like: one, two, three, etc.
For example:
(a) There are three boys in the class.
(b) We have five houses in Adamawa.
Possessive Adjectives: You use this type of adjective to show possession. For
example: (a) This is my bag. (b) Turai has found your textbooks.
6. Limiting Adjectives: This type of adjective consists of the articles ‘a/an’
(indefinite article) and ‘the’ (definite article). They place restriction on the
number of reference. For example: (a) I saw a monkey in the zoo. That means I
did not see more than one monkey. (b) The man is sleeping. This implies that I
am referring to a particular man known to both the listener and I.
7. Relative Adjectives: This is the kind of adjective that you use to modify a noun
or pronoun that has already been mentioned in the same sentence. For example:
(a) This is the boy whose uniform was torn. (b) The shoe which/that the cobbler
made is bad.
It is important for you to know that more than one adjective can be used in describing a single
noun or pronoun in a sentence. For example: This is the big bad wolf. Therefore, it is essential
for you to know the order of adjectives in a sentence.
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The proper arrangement of adjectives is as shown below:
Adjective of size/shape big, tall, round, triangular, etc
Adjective expressing facts soft, hard, rough, tight, etc
Adjective expressing value/quality beautiful, intelligent, fresh,

good, etc
Adjective of colour blue, yellow, gray, green, etc
Adjective of age old, new, archaic, modern, etc
‘-ing’ adjective interesting, disturbing,

discouraging, etc
‘-ed’ beloved, disillusioned,

fatigued, etc
Adjective of origin/nationality Nigerian, Italian, American,

etc
Here are some examples of how to order adjectives in English sentences:

1. The tall intelligent young Nigerian man won the prize for science.
2. The soft gray Italian belt has been stolen.
3. The fat middle-aged Chinese disillusioned woman has committed suicide.
Adjectives can also be used in making comparison in different degrees. There are
three forms of comparison namely: positive, comparative and superlative. The
adjectives that take regular form in this sense are also known as gradable adjectives.
Below are some examples for you.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Tall taller tallest
Fine finer finest
wise wiser wisest
Easy easier easiest
There are other types of adjectives which cannot follow the regular pattern above to
show degrees. These are also referred to as non-gradable adjectives. Some examples
include:
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Good better best
bad worse worst
Many more most (used for countable

nouns)
Much more most (used for uncountable

nouns
A is a word that is used to show the relationship between different

items. A preposition is usually followed by a noun phrase. There are two types of
prepositions namely: simple preposition and complex preposition.
In English language, we have different types of prepositions. Let us now take a look
at some of them.
1. Simple Prepositions: These are single-word prepositions, such as in, at, beside,
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on, behind, into, against, outside, from, for, of, above, over , across, etc. Some of
these are used in the sentences below:
 He came from London.
 The book is on the table.
 The boy walked across the road.
2. Complex Prepositions: A complex preposition is made up of more than one
word. Some examples include in compliance with, in view of, in addition to, by
means of, as a result, with regard to, etc. Some other kinds of complex
prepositions are made up of an adjective or an adverb or a conjunction followed
by a simple preposition, e.g. but for, except for, due to, because of, according
to, as regards, etc.
□
□
In this study session, we started by looking at Adverb. We looked at its various functions and types. We then
proceeded to discuss what adjective is. We also looked at its types and how it is ordered. Lastly, we
discussed preposition and its different types.
There are many types of adverbs. Can you mention, at least, three of them?
Discuss any three types of adjectives.
Prepositions are either simple or complex. Explain.
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Schoolboard
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Study Session 13
In this study session, we will be looking at conjunctions and interjections. We will

begin by explaining what a conjunction is.
Learning Outcomes
13.1 use conjunctions properly
13.2 identify interjections
What is a Conjunction?
Conjunctions and
Interjections
Interjections
are typically words that are used to join words, phrases, or clauses
in a sentence. Examples: and, but, or, so, yet, either-or, neither-nor, that, who,
whom, after, which, since, because, until, whenever, while, etc. There are two types
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Study Session 13 Conjunctions and Interjections
of conjunctions in English language. These are subordinating conjunctions

(subordinators) and coordinating conjunctions (coordinators)
These are conjunctions you can use to introduce subordinate or dependent clauses
and also connect them to the main clauses to form complex sentences. Some
examples are because, that, what, how, which, whose, if, wherever, etc.
1. You can study these examples for clarity:
2. You can go wherever you want to go.
3. I will give you the money, if you work for it.
4. I want to have what you wish to give me.
5. A thief entered the house because nobody was in.
You can use coordinating conjunctions to join or connect words, phrases or clauses
that belong to the same grammatical class. Coordinators are used to join two or
more nouns, verbs, or adjectives or clauses that have the same status. Some
examples are: but, or, so, yet, either-or, neither-nor, and, etc.
Below are some examples for you to consider:
1. Jimoh and Farooq are friends.
2. He worked hard but could not win the competition.
3. I want to see the programme director or his assistant.
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An is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and

expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. The category is quite heterogeneous,
and includes such things as exclamations (ouch!, wow!), curses (damn!), greetings
(hey, bye), response particles (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), and hesitation markers (uh,
er, um). Due to its heterogeneous nature, the category of interjections partly
overlaps with categories like profanities, discourse markers and fillers.
Interjections can better be explained by using them in sentences. Below are some examples to
show you how it is used in sentences.
Examples:
1. Oh! The boy died at last.
2. Alas! The journey was not interesting.
3. Gosh! He missed that beautiful opportunity to score the goal.
In this study session, we looked at conjunction. In doing so, we examined the two types of conjunction;
subordinating and coordinating conjunctions. We then moved on to discuss interjections.
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Study Session 13 Conjunctions and Interjections
There are basically two types of conjunction; subordinate and coordinate conjunctions. Discuss.
What are interjections? Give, at least five (5) examples.
Schoolboard
120
Study Session 14
In this study session, we will be discussing registers. We will start by describing

what a register is. In doing so, we will trace how humans begin to use those
registers. We will then end the session by highlighting different types of registers.
Learning Outcomes
14.1 define register
14.2 state different types of register
Defining History and use

Registers of Registers
Communication
and Media
Legalese
Registers
Officialese
Medicalese
Types of
Registers
Religion
Science
Agriculture
Sports
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Study Session 14 Registers
A is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular

social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker
may be more likely to use features of prescribed grammar than in an informal
setting—such as pronouncing words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an
alveolar nasal (e.g. "walking", not "walkin'"), choosing more formal words (e.g.
father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc.), and refraining from using words considered
nonstandard, such as ain't. As with other types of language variation, there tends to
be a spectrum of registers rather than a discrete set of obviously distinct varieties—
numerous registers could be identified, with no clear boundaries between them.
Discourse categorisation is a complex problem, and even in the general definition of
"register" given above (language variation defined by use not user), there are cases
where other kinds of language variation, such as regional or age dialect, overlap.
Consequent to this complexity, scholarly consensus has not been reached for the
definitions of terms including "register", "field" or "tenor"; different scholars'
definitions of these terms are often in direct contradiction of each other. Additional
terms including diatype, genre, text types, style, acrolect, mesolect, basilect,
sociolect and ethnolect among many others, may be used to cover the same or
similar ground.
Some prefer to restrict the domain of the term "register" to a specific vocabulary (Wardhaugh,
1986) (which one might commonly call slang, jargon, argot or cant), while others argue against
the use of the term altogether. These various approaches with their own "register", or set of
terms and meanings, fall under disciplines including sociolinguistics, stylistics, pragmatics or
systemic functional grammar.
The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956, and
brought into general currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to
distinguish among variations in language according to the user (defined by variables
such as social background, geography, sex and age), and variations according to
use, "in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between
them at different times" (Halliday et al., 1964). The focus is on the way language is
used in particular situations, such as legalese or motherese, the language of a
biology research lab, of a news report, or of the bedroom. M. A. K. Halliday and R.
Hasan (1976) interpret register to be "the linguistic features which are typically
associated with a configuration of situational features – with particular values of the
field, mode and tenor...". Field for them is "the total event, in which the text is
functioning, together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer; includes
subject-matter as one of the elements". Mode is "the function of the text in the
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event, including both the channel taken by language – spoken or written, extempore
or prepared – and its genre, rhetorical mode, as narrative, didactic, persuasive,
'phatic communion', etc." The tenor refers to "the type of role interaction, the set of
relevant social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants
involved". These three values – field, mode and tenor – are thus the determining
factors for the linguistic features of the text.
"The register is the set of meanings, the configuration of semantic patterns that are typically
drawn upon under the specified conditions, along with the words and structures that are used
in the realization of these meanings."
Register, in the view of M. A. K. Halliday and R. Hasan, is one of the two defining
concepts of text. "A text is a passage of discourse which is coherent in these two
regards: it is coherent with respect to the context of situation, and therefore
consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore
cohesive."
There are different types of register. However, the focus is on the way you as a
language user have a choice in the form of language you use, though particular
situations dictate that choice. For example, the type of English used in courts and
legal documents (legalese) is necessitated by the setting, which of course differs
from the type of choice a biologist will use in describing or discussing biological
experiment.
Register is identified in terms of the unique vocabulary items that are used and which identify a
particular field. It is common to find expressions with the suffix-lese, used to mean ‘language
used in a particular field or profession.’
This is the non-technical term used generally to refer to the written or spoken form
of language that journalists use. Features that can be attributed to this register
include extensive use of clichés, use of neologism, preference for
, use of sensational adjectives, occurrence of occasional unusual
or faulty syntax, packing more details than usual in the first paragraph of stories,
use of striking words or graphic details to attract interest.
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You have to know that under journalese register, events and actions are given emotive and
romantic colouring by the use of certain nouns and adjectives. Some features of journalese
include nouns such as burden, disaster, dream, fantasy, glamour, horror, nightmare, terror;
adjectives like amazing, bizarre, cataclysmic, devastating, heart-stopping, heart-warming,
horrendous, moving, outrageous, scandalous, shattering, staggering; euphemisms such as
confirmed bachelor (a homosexual man), constant companion (a lover), fun-loving (of a woman:
sexually free-and-easy), good-time girl, party girl, commercial sex worker (a prostitute) Clichés:
Amid mounting (Amid mounting calls for his resignation, X has decided to tough it out), many
(mothers, many with children in their arms), that was once (standing in the ruin that was once
central Beirut)
Preference for words with one syllable (monosyllabic words) and words with two
syllables (disyllabic words): poll for ‘election’ , blast for ‘explosion’, jobless for
‘unemployed’, homeless for ‘destitute’. Emotive and inflated expressions: ever for
‘excitement’ (World Cup fever grips Barcelona); rage or fury for ‘anger’ (Fury over
Poll Tax); stricken or crippled for ‘disabled’ (stricken tanker adrift in Med); glory for
any sporting achievement (glory day for Tottenham); storm and row for ‘controversy’
(storm over price-hikes; Cabinet row over inflation).
Examples of words from the field of Information, Communication Technology (ICT) are
DeskTop, Laptop, Central Processing Unit (CPU), Keyboard, Mouse, website,
Internet, Twitter, facebook, email, etc.
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Instruction:
Choose the most appropriate option for each gap.
Social media is the ___________ among people in which they create, share
or exchange information and ideas in ____________ communities and
networks. Furthermore, social media depend on mobile and web-based
__________ to create highly interactive platforms through which
individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-
generated _________. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to
communication between organisations, communities, and individuals.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media, retrieved 2014-3-26).
A B C D
collaboration interaction interface relation
virtual visual simulated open
equipment machineries Tools technologies
subject content substance matter
exchange communique communication message
Feedback
1. The correct answer is B. (interaction), because it is what social media
entail.
2. The correct answer is A (virtual), because social media is mediated
communication system.
3. The correct answer is D (technologies), because social media make
use of them. iv. The right answer is B (content), because it is the
product of social media.
4. The right answer is C (communication), because social media are
used for communication.
is a term used to describe a type of technical writing mainly used by

lawyers, judges, legislators and others in law profession to express legal matters. It
is characterised by reliance on citation of authority and precedent, specialized
vocabulary or jargon, complex syntax and extreme use of the formal style. You
need to know here, that legal writing extensively uses technical terminology that
can be categorised in four:
1. Specialized words and phrases unique to law, e.g. tort, fee simple, and novation.
2. Quotidian words having different meanings in law, e.g. action (lawsuit),
consideration (support for a promise), execute (to sign to effect), and party (a
principal in a lawsuit).
3. Archaic vocabulary: legal writing employs many old words and phrases that
were formerly quotidian language, but today exist only in law, dating from the
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1500s. English examples are herein, hereto, hereby, heretofore, whereas,

whereby, and wherefore, said and such (as adjectives).
4. Loan words and phrases from other languages: in English language, this
includes terms derived from French estoppel, laches, and voir dire) and Latin
(certiorari, habeas corpus, prima facie, inter alia, men srea, sub judice) and are not
italicised as English legal language, as would be foreign words in mainstream
English writing.
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Instruction: choose the most appropriate option for each gap.

Law is a term which does not have a-------accepted definition, but one
definition is that law is a system of rules and guidelines which are
enforced through social------to govern behaviour. Laws can be made by
legislatures through legislation resulting in-------, the executive through
decrees and regulations, or judges through binding precedents (normally
in common law jurisdictions). Private individuals can create legally
binding-------4, including (in some jurisdictions) arbitration agreements
that exclude the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves
may be influenced by a-------- (written or unwritten) and the rights
encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, and society in
various ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law, 2014-3-26.)
A B C D
i. totally universally collectively commonly
ii. organisations associations institutions foundations
iii. Statutes bills rulings edits
iv. bonds pacts agreements contracts
v. constitution condition composition establishment
Feedback
1. The correct answer is B (universally), because it is suitable in that
context. ii. The right answer is C (institutions), because laws are
enforced through it.
2. The right answer is A (statutes), because they are the laws made by
legislators.
3. The correct answer is D (contracts), because it collocates with
‘binding’.
4. The correct answer is A (constitution), because it is where laws come
from.
This is used to refer to the type of register typically used in official communication
in offices, in government and politics. Examples of words regarded as officialese
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include allowance, approval, arrears, consultation, remuneration, consultation,

implementation, directive, retrenchment, query etc. Examples of phrases regarded
as officialese include; please act, standing regulation, in respect of, keep in view
(KIV), pay as you earn (PAYE) etc. Examples of register of government and
politics include: executive, legislative, judiciary, ballot-box, constituency, electoral
commission, bill, act affidavit, voting age, political party, despot, democracy,
nomination, nominee, electorate, plaintiff, defendant, accused, decree, etc.
Instruction:
The signing into law of two--------amending the 1999 constitution, by
President Goodluck Jonathan, is understandably a refreshing--------. It
is the first time since 1999 that such--------are taking place. More
importantly, perhaps, the signing laid to rest the controversy that
had------ for months over the legal status of the amendments,
following------ views over the necessity or otherwise of the president
assenting to the amendment bills.
Feedback
A B C D
Bills laws Ideas rules
phenomenon development News event
changes amendments revelations incidents
existed lingered gone on shown
convergent opposite controversial divergent
Feedback
1. The right answer is A (bills), because bills are written proposal for
a new law.
2. The right answer is B (development), because it is used to
indicate a process or progress. ii. The correct answer is B
(amendments), because the word collocates with changing of
laws. iii. The correct answer is B (lingered on), because the word
collocates with controversy.
3. The correct answer is D (divergent), because it collocates with
expressing different opinions or views.
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This is used to refer to the type of register typically used in the field of medicine
and of course sometimes in hospitals and clinics. Examples of words and
expressions regarded as medicalese include: diagnosis, operation, suture, infection,
treatment, blood pressure, hypertension, call duty, viral infection, signs and
symptoms, therapy, physiotherapy, theatre etc.
Instruction: Choose the most appropriate option for each gap.

Cocaine and heroin are particularly dangerous--------. People who are-
------- on them take an enormous risk with their lives. When-------- is
under the influence of the drug, on-------- to use a colloquial phrase,
his behavior changes and he can easily endanger his own life and
other people’s. If an addict is not able to obtain the drug he craves,
he begins to suffer-------- 20-------- symptoms.
A B C D
i. medicines drugs injections symptoms
ii. content concentrated dependent heightened
iii. a suspect a trafficker a participant an addict
iv. a high a journey a dose an excursion
departure Aggressive perception withdrawal
Feedback
1. The correct answer is B (drugs), because it is appropriate in the
context of cocaine and heroin.
2. The correct answer is C (dependent), because it is appropriate in
the case of addiction.
3. The correct answer is D (an addict), because it is an appropriate
name for someone that depends on drugs.
4. The correct answer is A (a high), because it explains an excited
feeling got from using drugs.
5. The correct answer is D (withdrawal), because it is appropriate
for effects of drug use.
This register covers words that are associated with all religions such as Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, Judaism etc. can be defined as an organized collection
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of beliefs, cultural systems, and world views that relate humanity to an order of
existence. It is necessary for you to know that several religions have narratives,
symbols, and sacred histories that are intended to explain the meaning of life and/or
to explain the origin of life or the Universe. Also, you have to know that these are
examples of words used in the field of religion rituals, sermons, commemoration or
veneration of a deity, gods or goddesses, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance,
initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art,
dance, public service or other aspects of human culture. These are what constitute
the register of religion.
You need to be aware that the word religion can be used interchangeably with words such as
faith, belief system or sometimes set of duties
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Instruction:
Islam considers governance as a serious business and leadership as a
position of -------. It is not what every Tom, Dick and Harry can contest
and win. Apart from the fact that Allah (SWT) will------- a just ruler with
Al-Janah (Paradise) and punish the unjust-------with hell fire and
humiliation on the day of-------; the masses always rain heavy curses
on leaders who convert public------- into personal gains.
A B C D
Trust inheritance lust means
condemn reject punish reward
followers leaders preachers prophets
Decision ruling judgment Verdict
Capitals funds interests Moneys
Feedback
1. The correct answer is A (trust), because it collocates with the
context.
2. The right answer is D (reward), because it goes with ‘a just’ in the
context.
3. The correct answer is B (leaders), because it is in line with the
topic of discussion. iv. The correct answer is C (judgment),
because it collocates with ‘the day of’ in that context.
The right answer is B (funds), because it is in line with the topic of
discussion.
Science has been described as a systematic enterprise that builds and organises
knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
The branches of science include physics, chemistry, geology and biology; while a
practitioner of science is known as a scientist. The register of science include words
such as astrophysics, astronomy, atom, beaker, biochemistry, biology, botany,
Bunsen burner, burette, cell, chemical, chemistry, climate, climatologist, control,
cuvette, data, datum, electricity, electrochemist, element, energy, entomology,
evolution, experiment, fact, flask, fossil, funnel, genetics, geology, geophysics,
glassware, graduated cylinder, gravity, herpetology hypothesis,
ichthyology, immunology, lab, laboratory, laws, lepidoptery, magnetism, mass,
matter, measure, meteorologist, meteorology, microbiologist, microbiology,
microscope, mineral, mineralogy, molecule, motion, observe, observatory,
131
organism, ornithology, paleontology, particle, Petri dish, phase, physical science,

physics, pipette, etc.
Instruction:
People who have cars should take care of the tyres. They should--------
them now and again and test them with a--------, and at the same time
make sure that the-------tyre is all right, so that if the car has a
puncture on the road it can be------- and the tyre--------.
A B C D
peruse Check investigate enumerate
gauge Measure scale Valve
free Duplicate unused Spare
pulled up levered over hauled up jacked up
renewed Changed alternated installed
Feedback
1. The correct answer is B (check), because it collocates with
knowing the condition of a tyre.
2. The correct answer is A (gauge), because it is used to know the
condition of a tyre.
3. The right answer is D (spare), because it collocates with having
extra tyre.
4. The right answer is D (jacked up), because it explains the process
of racing a car so as to replace a faulty tyre.
5. The right answer is B (changed), because a punctured tyre of a
car requires to be changed.
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food,
fibre, biofuel, medicinal and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.
The register of agriculture the use of words such as shifting cultivation, intensive
pastoral farming, subsistence cultivation, commercial cultivation, mixed crop
cultivation, dairy farming, dry farming, intensive arable farming, market gardening
(fruit and salad vegetables), silk farming, plantation or tree farming, extensive
pastoral farming (e.g. Hill Sheep Farming), organic farming, bio-intensive farming.
132
Instruction:
The art and science of rearing bees is called--------. Apiculture is well
developed in countries like Cuba, Greece, Israel, India and China. In
these countries, it is taken as a serious source of high-------- and
employment generation. Apart from honey production, there are
other products which have both local and export-------that can be
obtained from bee keeping. Anyone can make money from--------. Bee
keeping does not require a large space. You don’t even need to own a
land and you don’t need to feed your bees. You simply need to buy----
---- and place them in a safe place then you are on.
A B C D
apiculture horticulture sericulture aquaculture
risk value rate income
licenses commercials potentials demands
insects bees ants beetles
hide-out beehives houses Stalls
Feedback
1. The correct answer is A (apiculture), because it means rearing of
bees.
2. The right answer is D (income), because it collocates with money
making. ii. The correct answer is C (potentials), because it goes
with the context. iii. The right answer is B (bees), because
it indicates the subject matter.
3. The correct answer is B (beehives), because that is where bees
live or can be reared.
Sport is all forms of usually competitive physical activity through casual or

organised participation. It aims to use, maintain or improve physical ability and
skills while providing entertainment to participants or spectators. There are many
types of sports. There are those that require only two participants, to those with
hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals.
133
Meanwhile, the register of sports includes different types of sports such as Acrobatics,
Aikido, Archery, Auto racing, Autocross, Badminton, Baseball, Basketball, Biathlon,
Bicycling, Bobsledding, Bowling, Boxing, Calisthenics, Card games, Cricket, Croquet,
Cross country skiing, Curling, Cycling, Decathlon, Discus, Diving, Dog racing,
Dressage, Equestrian, Fencing, Field hockey, Figure skating, Fishing, Football, Go-
carting, Golf, Hammer throw, Hang gliding, High jumping, Hockey, Horseback riding,
Horseshoes, Hunting, Hurling, Ice dancing, Ice hockey, Jacks, Jai alai, Javelin throw,
Judo, Karate, Kayaking, Lacrosse, Lawn bowling, and Luge. Others are Mah-Jong,
Marathon, Motocross, Poker, Pole vault, Power lifting, Race walk, Racing, Racquetball,
Road race, Roller sports, Rugby, Running Sailing, Shark diving, Shuffleboard,
Skateboarding, Skeet shooting, Skiing, Slalom, Sleddog racing, Sledding,
Snowboarding, Soccer, Softball, Spinning, Squash, Stock-car racing, Sumo wrestling,
Surfing, Swimming, Table tennis, Tae Kwon Do, Tennis, Tobogganing, Track, Track
and field, Triathlon, Vaulting, Volleyball, Water polo, Water skiing, Weightlifting,
Wrestling etc..
134
Instruction:
Broadly speaking, badminton--------is similar to conditioning for the other
------- sports such as tennis and squash. A simple movement analysis
however, reveals a few key differences that will affect the competitive
badminton players’ training------. Many-----in badminton are played
overhead more so than tennis or squash for example. Badminton
players also rely much more on the------flexors for generating power
compared to tennis players. While this may not lead to a vastly different
training program, exercise selection and the percentage of time
dedicated to some exercises over others will change. (http://www.sport-
fitnessadvisor.com/badminton-training.html, 2014-3-26).
A B C D
schooling teaching training education
racket court combat field
life project lifestyle regimen
balls shots throws serves
arm hand wrist knuckle
Feedback
1. The correct answer is C (training), because the passage is based on
badminton programme. ii. The correct answer is A (racket), because
just like squash and tennis, badminton is a racket game.
2. The right answer is D (regimen), because it fits the sport.
3. The correct answer is B (shots), because of all the options it is the
most suitable.
4. The right answer is C (wrist), because badminton racket is held by
wrist.
In this study session, we looked at register. Also, we exposed you to types of register with relevant
examples.
135
In your own words, describe what you understand by “Register”.
Discuss any two of the following:
1. Register of Religion
2. Register of Law
3. Register of Medicine
Schoolboard
136
Feedback to SAQ Items

SAQ 1.1 Listening is to give one's attention to sound. Listening involves complex affective, cognitive, and
behavioural processes.
SAQ 1.2 Purposive active listening can be described thus:
1. Serious Listening: is a form of active, purposeful and goal-directed listening.
2. Critical Listening: is when you listen to speeches in order to distinguish between facts and
opinions or logical and emotional arguments.
3. Discriminative Listening: entails listening to draw out the main purpose of a text in order to
remember essential parts of the message.
4. Social listening: Social listening is appreciative and conversational in nature. It is when you
give total attention to the communicative process.
SAQ 1.3 Some of the bad listening habits includes:
1. Critiquing: There is always a tendency for one to mentally criticize the speaker’s manner of
presentation or appearance. These criticisms make it difficult for you as a listener to absorb
what is being said.
2. Over Stimulation: Sometimes, we disagree with what a speaker has said and rather than keep
listening to them, we get carried away, building our counter argument and formulating
questions in our mind to ask the speaker after the delivery.
3. Listening only for facts: It is ideal to identify the facts in what you listen to. However, in the
course of doing this, you must not miss the primary ideas being passed across by the speaker.
Therefore, while listening, do not isolate the facts because they are only meaningful within the
primary ideas.
SAQ 2.1 We will be looking at three types of sound in English Language:

1. Consonants are those sounds in the production of which there is a total or partial blockage of
the airstreams at some point in the vocal tract. There are twenty-four consonants in English,
comprising fifteen voiced and nine voiceless consonants.
2. English vowels are in two broad groups: pure vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs.
Monophthongs are those vowels produced with single vowel nucleus. There are twelve of
them. Diphthongs are produced with double vowel nuclei; that is, in the production of a
diphthong, the tongue moves from one vowel position to another. There are eight diphthongs
in English. In summary, there are twenty vowel sounds in English.
3. Stress: In addition to mastering the sound units of English, you should also understand stress,
an important feature of the English language. Simply put, stress is the prominence assigned to
a particular syllable of a word which makes it stand out from the other syllables. A stressed
syllable is produced with greater muscular energy and perceived as being longer and louder
than the unstressed one. In English, a word that contains more than one syllable will have one
of the syllables bear what we call the primary stress. Also, in English, the primary stress is
indicated by a stroke occurring up before the syllable that carries the stress.
SAQ 3.1 There basically two types of Reading. They are the intensive and extensive reading.
1. Intensive Reading: This involves a close examination of the text to get the full meaning.
2. Extensive Reading: In extensive reading, the reader develops the habit of reading for pleasure
which involves the ability to read quickly.
137
SAQ 3.2 There are three types of reading speed. They are discussed thus:
1. Study Reading Speed: This is the slowest reading speed, and it is used for difficult materials.
2. Average Reading Speed: This is what students do most of the time. Average reading speed is
useful for extensive reading. Extensive reading involves reading rapidly for information as fast
as possible and reading as many books or materials within the shortest time.
3. 3. Skimming and Scanning: These techniques require very fast reading rate and differ
significantly from regular or rapid reading in that not all the contents of the material is actually
read. Skim whenever you want to get a general idea of a book’s content.
SAQ 3.3 You should analyse the sentence for its focus or theme. Your focus should be on content. Main
clauses provide some focus of meaning. Subordinate clauses provide some circumstances modifying
the meaning derived from the main clause.
SAQ 3.4 There are many types of reading habits. Some of which includes:
1. Head Movement: This involves moving the head as the reader follows the words from the left
side to the right side of the page.
2. Pointing at Words: Do not point to words with your fingers, a ruler, pencil or pen as you read.
Besides slowing down your reading speed, it may cause you to focus your attention on the
wrong information.
3. Vocalization: This refers to the act of whispering while reading. It is another common fault in
reading. Do not pronounce aloud each word as it is read.
4. Sub-vocalization: Sub-vocalization differs from vocalisation in that the reader does not actually
move any part of the vocal apparatus, but he pronounces the words to himself in his mind.
SAQ 4.1 For Aishat to be a good writer, she must adhere to four cardinal rules. These are discussed below:
1. Unity: This implies oneness of the subject matter of a piece of writing. This requires the
agreement of all your ideas and points.
2. Coherence: This requires you to ensure that all ideas, thoughts and points expressed in your
writing are arranged logically in sequential order. This makes your write-up to be connected
and to make sense.
3. Originality of Ideas: The content of your text shows how creative you are. In other words, you
must not simply reproduce the work of another writer.
4. Mechanical Accuracy: This is a very crucial aspect of your writing and it must be given good
attention. The accurate use of the mechanics of language such as tenses, concord, spelling and
punctuation marks makes your writing beautiful.
SAQ 4.2 Narrative writing is a type of writing that involves the description of events. It involves giving a
report of what has happened with a view to leaving an impression on your reader. While in a
descriptive writing, you aim at presenting a vivid picture of a person, an object, a scene etc., to the
mind of your reader in such a way that your reader has a good idea of that person, object or scene.
SAQ 4.3 Guided Summary is a controlled type of summary. When you are engaged in this kind of summary,
you are compelled to adhere to specific instructions regarding the number of words, sentences or
paragraphs. While in an Unguided Summary you are given a free hand to decide the length of your
script. This does not mean, however, that you are totally free; you are not expected to write a long
piece. The difference is that you are not subject to any form of penalty if you choose to write your
summary in a given style, as long as you fulfill the basic requirements of summary writing.
SAQ 5.1 Morpheme is a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g. in,
come, -ing, forming incoming).
138
SAQ 5.2 A bound morpheme is a morpheme that appears only as part of a larger word; a free morpheme or
unbound morpheme is one that can stand alone or can appear with other lexemes. A bound
morpheme is also known as a bound form, and similarly a free morpheme is a free form.
SAQ 6.1 Word is a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or sometimes
alone) to form a sentence and typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed.
SAQ 7.1 A Phrase is a group of related words without a subject-verb relationship. In other words, a phrase is
an expression consisting of one or more words forming a grammatical part of a sentence. Phrase
naturally forms a unit in bigger units such as clause and sentence.
SAQ 7.2 Verb phrase is formed by the combination of lexical (main) verb and auxiliary verb(s). You need to
be aware that verb phrase is different from phrasal verbs. Phrasal verb too is formed by the
combination of a main verb with an adverbial particle or a preposition. You should know again that
verb phrase consists of only the verbal elements, not the whole of the predicate.
Noun phrase is a phrase that is headed by a noun or a pronoun. The lexical items found before and
after the headword in noun phrases are called modifiers. Those before the head are called pre-
modifiers while those after the head are called postmodifiers/qualifiers. Therefore, you should know
that noun phrase can be formed by the combination of these modifiers and nouns
SAQ 8.1 Adjectival clause is a subordinate clause used as an adjective. In other words, an adjectival clause is
a relative clause. Adjectival clause modifies nouns, pronouns and noun phrases in sentences.
SAQ 9.1 A sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate,
conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and
sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
SAQ 9.2 Exclamations this is a sentence that is used to express sudden feelings or emotions. It ends with an
exclamatory mark (!). At times, it looks like a question but it is not. It merely expresses outburst of
strong feelings or emotions.
SAQ 10.1 There are two groups of word classes; closed and open word classes. The two are explained below:
1. Closed class words are relatively limited in number. They are sometimes referred to as
grammatical or function words. These words include pronouns, prepositions, interjections,
determiners, conjunctions and auxiliary verbs.
2. 2. Open Class: These words belong to the major parts of speech namely: nouns, verbs
(lexical or main), adjectives, and adverbs. In any language these are quite large and open-
ended. This means you can create or add an unlimited number of new words to this category.
SAQ 10.2 There are about four determiners in English language. Let us look at two of them:
1. Articles: These are words you use with nouns to specify if the noun is specific or not. There are
two types of articles. These are the definite and the indefinite articles.
2. Possessives: These are words used with nouns to show possession or ownership of the nouns
following them. Possessives are pronouns like his, her, their, your, our, my, its, etc.
139
SAQ 11.1 Below are some of the characteristics of a noun:

1. Only nouns can take determiners such as the, an, a, some, this, that, etc.
2. Nouns are mostly changed into plural forms by the simple addition of plural markers: - s, -es, -
ies.
3. You can still pluralise certain nouns through some other means.
4. Only nouns indicate their possessive forms by taking apostrophe, plus ‘s.’
5. You can also form some nouns by the addition of certain suffixes like: (-tion; ion; or; -ness; -
hood; -ian; -it; -ment; -ist; -ation).
SAQ 11.2 Below are some examples of pronouns:
1. Personal Pronouns: These are pronouns used to refer to persons and non-persons. Examples are
I, we, me, us, she, her, it, you, they, and them. These are categorised into three in terms of
person and number.
2. Possessive Pronouns: These are pronouns that indicate possession or ownership of particular
things.
3. Reciprocal Pronouns: These are expressions such as each other and one another. You can use
them to show mutual interaction between or among a group of people.
4. Reflexive Pronouns: Reflexive pronouns function as grammatical object, and they refer to the
subjects of the clauses or sentences in which they appear.
SAQ 11.3 There are many types of verbs. We will discuss a few of them below:
1. Intransitive verbs: An intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive
verbs may be followed by an adverb (a word that addresses how, where, when, and how often)
or end a sentence. For example: "The woman spoke softly." "The athlete ran faster than the
official." "The boy wept."
2. Transitive verbs: A transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These noun phrases
are not called predicate nouns, but are instead called direct objects because they refer to the
object that is being acted upon. For example: "My friend read the newspaper." "The teenager
earned a speeding ticket."
3. Double transitive verbs: Double transitive verbs (sometimes called Vc verbs after the verb
consider) are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct object and then a second noun
phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase.
SAQ 12.1 There are many types of adverbs. We will discuss a few of them below:
1. Adverbial of Manner: This answers the question “how?” You use it to indicate how an action is
carried out. e.g.
2. Adverbial of Frequency: An adverb of frequency answers the question “how often?” You use it
to describe how often an action is carried out. e.g.
3. Adverbial of Degree: It answers the question “how much” or “to what extent?” You use it to
show the extent in which an action is performed. e.g.
4. Adverbial of Cause/Reason: This answers the question “why?” It is used when stating why an
action is performed.
5. Adverbial of condition: It answers the question “under what condition?” You use adverbial of
condition when the fulfilment of an action depends on another action. e.g.
140
SAQ 12.2 We have many types of adjectives. Some of which are:

1. Proper Adjectives: These types of adjectives are derived from personal names and are used to
describe nouns.
2. Common Adjectives: This an adjective used to qualify a common noun. Examples, of this
include lazy girl, broken table etc.
3. Interrogative Adjectives: These are words used in asking questions.
4. Numerical Adjectives: This type of adjective has to do with numbers. There are two types of
this type of adjective namely Cardinal and Ordinal.
SAQ 12.3 Simple Prepositions: These are single-word prepositions, such as in, at, beside, on, behind, into,
against, outside, from, for, of, above, over, across, etc.
Complex Prepositions: A complex preposition is made up of more than one word. Some examples
include in compliance with, in view of, in addition to, by means of, as a result, with regard to, etc.
SAQ 13.1 There are two types of conjunctions in English language. These are subordinating conjunctions
(subordinators) and coordinating conjunctions (coordinators).
1. Subordinating Conjunctions: These are conjunctions you can use to introduce subordinate or
dependent clauses and also connect them to the main clauses to form complex sentences.
Some examples are because, that, what, how, which, whose, if, wherever, etc.
2. Coordinating Conjunctions: You can use coordinating conjunctions to join or connect words,
phrases or clauses that belong to the same grammatical class. Coordinators are used to join
two or more nouns, verbs, or adjectives or clauses that have the same status. Some examples
are: but, or, so, yet, either-or, neither-nor, and, etc.
SAQ 13.2 An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a
spontaneous feeling or reaction. The category is quite heterogeneous, and includes such things as
exclamations (ouch!, wow!), curses (damn!), greetings (hey, bye), response particles (okay, oh!, m-
hm, huh?), and hesitation markers (uh, er, um).
Examples are:
Oh! Adamu is ill.
Gosh! The water is so cold.
Ah! Playing with snake is dangerous.
SAQ 14.1 A register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For
example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may be more likely to use features
of prescribed grammar than in an informal setting—such as pronouncing words ending in -ing with a
velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. "walking", not "walkin'"), choosing more formal words
(e.g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc.), and refraining from using words considered nonstandard,
such as ain't.
SAQ 14.2 There are many types of registers, however, we will be looking at only two of them:
1. Register of Medicine (Medicalese): This is used to refer to the type of register typically used in
the field of medicine and of course sometimes in hospitals and clinics. Examples of words and
expressions regarded as medicalese include: diagnosis, operation, suture, infection, treatment,
blood pressure, hypertension, call duty, viral infection, signs and symptoms, therapy,
physiotherapy, theatre etc.
2. Register of Religion: This register covers words that are associated with all religions such as
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism etc.
141
References
References
Adegbite, Wale, Adekoya, Segun and Adegoju, Adeyemi. (2012) (eds.). Use of English: A Manual on
Communication Skills for Tertiary Institutions. Ile-Ife: Department of English, OAU.
Babalola, E.T. (2005). ‘The Grammar of Paragraphs and Mechanics of Good
Written English’ in Oyeleye, Lekan and Olateju, Moji (eds.). Perspectives on Language and Literature,
Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press
____________ (ed.) (2010). Use of English for University Students: Osun State University: UniOsun
Textbook Series One.
Boojj, G. (2007). The Grammar of Words. London: Oxford University Press.
George E. Bell (1996). Writing Effective Sentences. Allyn and Bacom, 160 Gould Street Needliam
Heights, MA 02194.
Graver, B.D. (1963). Advanced English Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Henderson & Voiles (1995). Business English Essentials. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Joan G. Roloff (1979). Punctuation. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., inc.
Meyer, C.F. (2009). Introduction English Linguistics. London: Cambridge University Press.
Michael Cullup (1997). Brush Up Your Grammar. U.K: Elliot Right Way Books, Tadworth, Surrey,
KT206TD.
Odejide, Biola et al. (1999). English for Communicative Tasks in Higher Education. Ibadan: Stirlin-
Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.
Tom McArthur (ed.) (1996). The Oxford Companion to the English Language (Abridged edition).
Oxford University Press.
142

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2 Contents

Modibbo Adama University of Technology

Course Development Team

Session Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44

Study Session 12 107

Study Session 13 117

Session Review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 119

Study Session 14 121

Feedback to SAQ Items 137

About this Course Manual

How this Course Manual is

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

Use of English GST101 — is

 develop basic factual comprehension of what is heard.

 comprehend, interpret, appreciate and enjoy spoken discourse

Schedule dates for submitting assignments and engaging in course activities is

Figure 2.1 Organs of Speech (cc: https://www2.leeward.hawaii.edu) 21

Language Skill Types of Listening

Bad Listening Habit

is to give one's attention to sound. Listening involves complex affective,

International Listening Association defines listening as the process of receiving,

It is important for you to be able to differentiate between and listening

Hearing Versus Listening

Hearing is a natural and passive process Listening is an active, deliberate and

Hearing is not a mental process Listening is an active mental process.

Hearing requires less energy Listening requires huge energy

While hearing is superficial Listening is profound.

Understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a

To retain information, you need certain tools, these are:

3. Listening to analyze and evaluate conflicts: Your ability to analyze and

Purposive active listening is:

When you whisper or listen to someone whispering to you in an audience of

What do you understand by purposive active listening?

Describe 3 types of listening habits.

Now, let us look at some of the speech sounds.

are those sounds in the production of which there is a total or partial

Voiced Consonants A consonant is said to be voiced when its production is

Look and Pronounce

/p/ as in pen, pray, apple, drop

/v/ as in vat, vice, reveal, carve

/ө/as in thin, thick, method, path

/ð / as in that, then, father, clothe

/∫/ as in shoe, sheep, machine, wash

/r/ as in right, wreck, sorry, vary

Words that Sound Alike

You should be able to present some of the following:

English are in two broad groups: pure vowels (monophthongs) and

/ ʊ / as in full, pull, good, could

Vowel sound discrimination:

/i/ /i:/ /e/

Sit seat set

Bit beat bet

Tin teen ten

Bid bead bed

Pit Pleats pet

The / Ə / sound called schwa is an important vowel in the English Language.