6. An ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic expansion, a process in 9.

Which of the following possibilities could increase the effi-

which no heat flows into or out of the gas. As a result, ciency of a heat engine or an internal combustion engine?
(a) the temperature of the gas remains constant and the (a) Increase the temperature of the hot part of the system
pressure decreases. and reduce the temperature of the exhaust.
(b) both the temperature and pressure of the gas decrease. (b) Increase the temperatures of both the hot part and the
(c) the temperature of the gas decreases and the pressure exhaust part of the system by the same amount.
increases. (c) Decrease the temperatures of both the hot part and
(d) both the temperature and volume of the gas increase. the exhaust part of the system by the same amount.
(e) both the temperature and pressure of the gas increase. (d) Decrease the temperature of the hot part and increase
7. A heat engine operates between a high temperature of the temperature of the exhaust part by the same
about 600°C and a low temperature of about 300°C. What amount.
is the maximum theoretical efficiency for this engine? (e) None of the above; only redesigning the engine or
(a) ⫽ 100%. (b) L 66%. (c) L 50%. (d) L 34%. using better gas could improve the engine’s efficiency.
(e) Cannot be determined from the given information. 10. About what percentage of the heat produced by burning
8. On a very hot day, could you cool your kitchen by leaving gasoline is turned into useful work by a typical automobile?
the refrigerator door open? (a) 20%. (b) 50%. (c) 80%. (d) 90%. (e) Nearly 100%.
(a) Yes, but it would be very expensive. 11. Which statement is true regarding the entropy change of
(b) Yes, but only if the humidity is below 50%. an ice cube that melts?
(c) No, the refrigerator would exhaust the same amount (a) Since melting occurs at the melting point temperature,
of heat into the room as it takes out of the room. there is no temperature change so there is no entropy
(d) No, the heat exhausted by the refrigerator into the change.
room is more than the heat the refrigerator takes out (b) Entropy increases.
of the room. (c) Entropy decreases.

For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to the MasteringPhysics website.

Problems
15–1 and 15–2 First Law of Thermodynamics 7. (II) In an engine, an almost ideal gas is compressed adia-
[Recall sign conventions, page 413.] batically to half its volume. In doing so, 2630 J of work is
done on the gas. (a) How much heat flows into or out of
1. (I) An ideal gas expands isothermally, performing the gas? (b) What is the change in internal energy of the
4.30 * 103 J of work in the process. Calculate (a) the gas? (c) Does its temperature rise or fall?
change in internal energy of the gas, and (b) the heat
absorbed during this expansion. 8. (II) An ideal gas expands at a constant total pressure of
2. (I) One liter of air is cooled at constant pressure until its 3.0 atm from 410 mL to 690 mL. Heat then flows out of the
volume is halved, and then it is allowed to expand isother- gas at constant volume, and the pressure and temperature
mally back to its original volume. Draw the process on a are allowed to drop until the temperature reaches its
PV diagram. original value. Calculate (a) the total work done by the gas
in the process, and (b) the total heat flow into the gas.
3. (II) Sketch a PV diagram of the following process: 2.5 L of
ideal gas at atmospheric pressure is cooled at constant 9. (II) 8.5 moles of an ideal monatomic gas expand adiabat-
pressure to a volume of 1.0 L, and then expanded isother- ically, performing 8300 J of work in the process. What is the
mally back to 2.5 L, whereupon the pressure is increased at change in temperature of the gas during this expansion?
constant volume until the original pressure is reached. 10. (II) Consider the following two-step process. Heat is allowed
4. (II) A gas is enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a light to flow out of an ideal gas at constant volume so that its pres-
frictionless piston and maintained at atmospheric pressure. sure drops from 2.2 atm to 1.4 atm. Then the gas expands at
When 254 kcal of heat is added to the gas, the volume constant pressure, from a volume of 5.9 L to 9.3 L, where the
is observed to increase slowly from 12.0 m3 to 16.2 m3. temperature reaches its original value. See Fig. 15–22. Calculate
Calculate (a) the work done by the gas and (b) the change (a) the total work done by the gas in the process, (b) the
in internal energy of the gas. change in internal
5. (II) A 1.0-L volume of air initially at 3.5 atm of (gauge) energy of the gas in P
pressure is allowed to expand isothermally until the pressure the process, and
is 1.0 atm. It is then compressed at constant pressure to its (c) the total heat 2.2 atm a
initial volume, and lastly is brought back to its original flow into or out of
pressure by heating at constant volume. Draw the process the gas. c
1.4 atm
b
on a PV diagram, including numbers and labels for the axes.
6. (II) The pressure in an ideal gas is cut in half slowly, while
being kept in a container with rigid walls. In the process,
465 kJ of heat left the gas. (a) How much work was done
during this process? (b) What was the change in internal FIGURE 15–22
energy of the gas during this process? Problem 10. 0 5.9 L 9.3 L V

438 CHAPTER 15 The Laws of Thermodynamics

 11. (II) Use the conservation of energy to explain why the 20. (I) The exhaust temperature of a heat engine is 230°C. What
temperature of a well-insulated gas increases when it is is the high temperature if the Carnot efficiency is 34%?
compressed—say, by pushing down on a piston—whereas 21. (I) A heat engine does 9200 J of work per cycle while absorb-
the temperature decreases when the gas expands. Show ing 25.0 kcal of heat from a high-temperature reservoir.
your reasoning. What is the efficiency of this engine?
12. (III) The PV diagram in Fig. 15–23 shows two possible states 22. (I) A heat engine’s high temperature TH could be ambient
of a system containing 1.75 moles of a monatomic ideal temperature, because liquid nitrogen at 77 K could be TL
gas. AP1 = P2 = 425 N兾m2, V1 = 2.00 m3, V2 = 8.00 m3.B and is cheap. What would be the efficiency of a Carnot
(a) Draw the process which depicts an isobaric expansion from engine that made use of heat transferred from air at room
state 1 to state 2, and label this process A. (b) Find the work temperature (293 K) to the liquid nitrogen “fuel” (Fig. 15–25)?
done by the gas and the change in internal energy of the gas in
process A. (c) Draw the two-step process which depicts an
isothermal expansion from state 1 to the volume V2 , followed
by an isovolumetric increase in temperature to state 2, and
label this process B. P
(d) Find the change (N/m2)
in internal energy 500
1 2
of the gas for the 400
two-step process B.
300
200
100
FIGURE 15–23
Problem 12. 0 2 4 6 8 10 V (m3)
FIGURE 15–25 Problem 22.
13. (III) When a gas is taken from a to c along the curved path
in Fig. 15–24, the work done by the gas is W = –35 J and 23. (II) Which will improve the efficiency of a Carnot engine
the heat added to the gas is Q = –175 J. Along path abc, more: a 10 C° increase in the high-temperature reservoir, or a
the work done by the gas is W = –56 J. (That is, 56 J of 10 C° decrease in the low-temperature reservoir? Give
work is done on the gas.) (a) What is Q for path abc? detailed results. Can you state a generalization?
(b) If Pc = 12 Pb , what
24. (II) A certain power plant puts out 580 MW of electric
is W for path cda? P
power. Estimate the heat discharged per second, assuming
(c) What is Q for b a that the plant has an efficiency of 32%.
path cda? (d) What
25. (II) A nuclear power plant operates at 65% of its maximum
is Ua - Uc? (e) If
theoretical (Carnot) efficiency between temperatures of 660°C
Ud - Uc = 42 J, what
and 330°C. If the plant produces electric energy at the rate
is Q for path da?
of 1.4 GW, how much exhaust heat is discharged per hour?
c d
26. (II) A heat engine exhausts its heat at 340°C and has a
FIGURE 15–24 Carnot efficiency of 36%. What exhaust temperature would
Problem 13. 0 V enable it to achieve a Carnot efficiency of 42%?
27. (II) A Carnot engine’s operating temperatures are 210°C
*15–3 Human Metabolism
and 45°C. The engine’s power output is 910 W. Calculate
*14. (I) How much energy would the person of Example 15–7 the rate of heat output.
transform if instead of working 11.0 h she took a noontime
28. (II) A four-cylinder gasoline engine has an efficiency of 0.22
break and ran at 15 km兾h for 1.0 h?
and delivers 180 J of work per cycle per cylinder. If the engine
*15. (I) Calculate the average metabolic rate of a 65-kg person who
runs at 25 cycles per second (1500 rpm), determine (a) the
sleeps 8.0 h, sits at a desk 6.0 h, engages in light activity 6.0 h,
work done per second, and (b) the total heat input per
watches TV 2.0 h, plays tennis 1.5 h, and runs 0.50 h daily.
second from the gasoline. (c) If the energy content of
*16. (II) A 65-kg person decides to lose weight by sleeping one gasoline is 130 MJ per gallon, how long does one gallon
hour less per day, using the time for light activity. How much last?
weight (or mass) can this person expect to lose in 1 year,
29. (II) A Carnot engine performs work at the rate of 520 kW
assuming no change in food intake? Assume that 1 kg of
with an input of 950 kcal of heat per second. If the tem-
fat stores about 40,000 kJ of energy.
perature of the heat source is 520°C, at what temperature
*17. (II) (a) How much energy is transformed by a typical 65-kg
is the waste heat exhausted?
person who runs at 15 km兾h for 30 min兾day in one week
(Table 15–2)? (b) How many food calories would the per- 30. (II) A heat engine uses a heat source at 580°C and has an ideal
son have to eat to make up for this energy loss? (Carnot) efficiency of 22%. To increase the ideal efficiency
to 42%, what must be the temperature of the heat source?
15–5 Heat Engines 31. (III) A typical compact car experiences a total drag force
18. (I) A heat engine exhausts 8200 J of heat while performing of about 350 N at 55 mi兾h. If this car gets 32 miles per
2600 J of useful work. What is the efficiency of this engine? gallon of gasoline at this speed, and a liter of gasoline
19. (I) What is the maximum efficiency of a heat engine whose (1 gal = 3.8 L) releases about 3.2 * 107 J when burned,
operating temperatures are 560°C and 345°C? what is the car’s efficiency?

Problems 439
15–6 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, Heat Pumps *15–10 Statistical Interpretation
32. (I) If an ideal refrigerator keeps its contents at 2.5°C when *49. (II) Calculate the probabilities, when you throw two dice,
the house temperature is 22°C, what is its COP? of obtaining (a) a 4, and (b) a 10.
33. (I) The low temperature of a freezer cooling coil is – 8°C and *50. (II) Suppose that you repeatedly shake six coins in your hand
the discharge temperature is 33°C. What is the maximum and drop them on the floor. Construct a table showing the
theoretical coefficient of performance? number of microstates that correspond to each macrostate.
34. (II) What is the temperature inside an ideal refrigerator- What is the probability of obtaining (a) three heads and
freezer that operates with a COP = 7.0 in a 22°C room? three tails, and (b) six heads?
35. (II) A heat pump is used to keep a house warm at 22°C. *51. (III) A bowl contains many red, orange, and green jelly beans,
How much work is required of the pump to deliver 3100 J in equal numbers. You are to make a line of 3 jelly beans by
of heat into the house if the outdoor temperature is randomly taking 3 beans from the bowl. (a) Construct a table
(a) 0°C, (b) –15°C? Assume a COP of 3.0. (c) Redo for showing the number of microstates that correspond to
both temperatures, assuming an ideal (Carnot) coefficient each macrostate. Then determine the probability of (b) all
of performance COP = TH兾ATH - TL B. 3 beans red, and (c) 2 greens, 1 orange.
36. (II) (a) What is the coefficient of performance of an ideal *52. (III) Rank the following five-card hands in order of
heat pump that extracts heat from 6°C air outside and increasing probability: (a) four aces and a king; (b) six of
deposits heat inside a house at 24°C? (b) If this heat pump hearts, eight of diamonds, queen of clubs, three of hearts,
operates on 1200 W of electrical power, what is the maximum jack of spades; (c) two jacks, two queens, and an ace; and
heat it can deliver into the house each hour? See Problem 35. (d) any hand having no two equal-value cards (no pairs,
37. (II) What volume of water at 0°C can a freezer make into etc.). Discuss your ranking in terms of microstates and
ice cubes in 1.0 h, if the coefficient of performance of the macrostates.
cooling unit is 6.0 and the power input is 1.2 kilowatt? *15–11 Energy Resources
38. (II) How much less per year would it cost a family to operate
a heat pump that has a coefficient of performance of 2.9 than *53. (I) Solar cells (Fig. 15–26) can produce about 40 W of elec-
an electric heater that costs $2000 to heat their home for a tricity per square meter of surface area if directly facing the
year? If the conversion to the heat pump costs $15,000, how Sun. How large an area is required to supply the needs of
long would it take the family to break even on heating costs? a house that requires 24 kWh兾day? Would this fit on the
How much would the family save in 20 years? roof of an average house? (Assume the Sun shines about
9 h兾day.)
15–7 Entropy
39. (I) What is the change in entropy of 320 g of steam at
100°C when it is condensed to water at 100°C?
40. (I) 1.0 kg of water is heated from 0°C to 100°C. Estimate
the change in entropy of the water.
41. (I) What is the change in entropy of 1.00 m3 of water at
0°C when it is frozen to ice at 0°C? FIGURE 15–26
42. (II) A 5.8-kg box having an initial speed of 4.0 m兾s slides Problem 53.
along a rough table and comes to rest. Estimate the total
change in entropy of the universe. Assume all objects are *54. (II) Energy may be stored by pumping water to a high reservoir
at room temperature (293 K). when demand is low and then releasing it to drive turbines
43. (II) If 1.00 m3 of water at 0°C is frozen and cooled to during peak demand. Suppose water is pumped to a lake
–8.0°C by being in contact with a great deal of ice at 115 m above the turbines at a rate of 1.00 * 105 kg兾s for
–8.0°C, estimate the total change in entropy of the process. 10.0 h at night. (a) How much energy (kWh) is needed to do
this each night? (b) If all this energy is released during a 14-h
44. (II) An aluminum rod conducts 8.40 cal兾s from a heat source
day, at 75% efficiency, what is the average power output?
maintained at 225°C to a large body of water at 22°C. Cal-
culate the rate at which entropy increases in this process. *55. (II) Water is stored in an artificial lake created by a dam
45. (II) A 2.8-kg piece of aluminum at 28.5°C is placed in 1.0 kg (Fig. 15–27). The water depth is 48 m at the dam, and a
of water in a Styrofoam container at room temperature steady flow rate of 32 m3兾s is maintained through hydro-
(20.0°C). Estimate the net change in entropy of the system. electric turbines installed near the base of the dam. How
much electrical
46. (II) A falling rock has kinetic energy KE just before striking
power can be
the ground and coming to rest. What is the total change in
produced?
entropy of rock plus environment as a result of this collision?
47. (II) 1.0 kg of water at 35°C is mixed with 1.0 kg of water at
45°C in a well-insulated container. Estimate the net change
in entropy of the system.
48. (III) A real heat engine working between heat reservoirs at FIGURE 15–27
970 K and 650 K produces 550 J of work per cycle for a heat Problem 55:
input of 2500 J. (a) Compare the efficiency of this real engine Flaming Gorge
to that of an ideal (Carnot) engine. (b) Calculate the total Dam on the
entropy change of the universe per cycle of the real engine, Green River in
and (c) also if the engine is ideal (Carnot). Utah.

440 CHAPTER 15 The Laws of Thermodynamics

 General Problems
56. An inventor claims to have built an engine that produces 66. The burning of gasoline in a car releases about
2.00 MW of usable work while taking in 3.00 MW of thermal 3.0 * 104 kcal兾gal. If a car averages 41 km兾gal when driving
energy at 425 K, and rejecting 1.00 MW of thermal energy 110 km兾h, which requires 25 hp, what is the efficiency of the
at 215 K. Is there anything fishy about his claim? Explain. engine under those conditions?
57. When 5.80 * 105 J of heat is added to a gas enclosed in a 67. A Carnot engine operates with TL = 20°C and has an
cylinder fitted with a light frictionless piston maintained at efficiency of 25%. By how many kelvins should the high
atmospheric pressure, the volume is observed to increase operating temperature TH be increased to achieve an effi-
from 1.9 m3 to 4.1 m3. Calculate (a) the work done by the ciency of 35%?
gas, and (b) the change in internal energy of the gas. 68. Calculate the work done by an ideal gas in going from
(c) Graph this process on a PV diagram. state A to state C
P
58. A restaurant refrigerator has a coefficient of perfor- in Fig. 15–28 for
mance of 4.6. If the temperature in the kitchen outside the each of the following
refrigerator is 32°C, what is the lowest temperature that processes: (a) ADC, B C
PC
could be obtained inside the refrigerator if it were ideal? (b) ABC, and (c) AC
59. A particular car does work at the rate of about 7.0 kJ兾s directly.
when traveling at a steady 21.8 m兾s along a level road. This
PA A D
is the work done against friction. The car can travel 17 km
on 1.0 L of gasoline at this speed (about 40 mi兾gal). What
FIGURE 15–28
is the minimum value for TH if TL is 25°C? The energy V
Problem 68. 0 VA VC
available from 1.0 L of gas is 3.2 * 107 J.
60. A “Carnot” refrigerator (the reverse of a Carnot engine) 69. A 38% efficient power plant puts out 850 MW of electrical
absorbs heat from the freezer compartment at a temperature power. Cooling towers take away the exhaust heat. (a) If the
of –17°C and exhausts it into the room at 25°C. (a) How air temperature is allowed to rise 7.0 C°, estimate what volume
much work would the refrigerator do to change 0.65 kg of water of air Akm3 B is heated per day. Will the local climate be
at 25°C into ice at –17°C? (b) If the compressor output is heated significantly? (b) If the heated air were to form a layer
105 W and runs 25% of the time, how long will this take? 180 m thick, estimate how large an area it would cover for
61. It has been suggested that a heat engine could be developed 24 h of operation. Assume the air has density 1.3 kg兾m3 and
that made use of the temperature difference between water has specific heat of about 1.0 kJ兾kg⭈C° at constant pressure.
at the surface of the ocean and water several hundred 70. Suppose a power plant delivers energy at 880 MW using
meters deep. In the tropics, the temperatures may be 27°C steam turbines. The steam goes into the turbines superheated
and 4°C, respectively. (a) What is the maximum efficiency at 625 K and deposits its unused heat in river water at 285 K.
such an engine could have? (b) Why might such an engine Assume that the turbine operates as an ideal Carnot engine.
be feasible in spite of the low efficiency? (c) Can you imagine (a) If the river flow rate is 37 m3兾s, estimate the average tem-
any adverse environmental effects that might occur? perature increase of the river water immediately downstream
62. A cooling unit for a new freezer has an inner surface area of from the power plant. (b) What is the entropy increase per
8.0 m2, and is bounded by walls 12 cm thick with a thermal kilogram of the downstream river water in J兾kg⭈ K?
conductivity of 0.050 W兾m⭈K. The inside must be kept 71. A car engine whose output power is 135 hp operates at
at – 15°C in a room that is at 22°C. The motor for the about 15% efficiency. Assume the engine’s water tempera-
cooling unit must run no more than 15% of the time. What ture of 85°C is its cold-temperature (exhaust) reservoir and
is the minimum power requirement of the cooling motor? 495°C is its thermal “intake” temperature (the temperature
63. Refrigeration units can be rated in “tons.” A 1-ton air of the exploding gas–air mixture). (a) What is the ratio
conditioning system can remove sufficient energy to freeze of its efficiency relative to its maximum possible (Carnot)
1 ton (2000 pounds = 909 kg) of 0°C water into 0°C ice in efficiency? (b) Estimate how much power (in watts) goes
one 24-h day. If, on a 35°C day, the interior of a house is into moving the car, and how much heat, in joules and in
maintained at 22°C by the continuous operation of a 5-ton kcal, is exhausted to the air in 1.0 h.
air conditioning system, how much does this cooling cost 72. An ideal monatomic gas is contained in a tall cylindrical
the homeowner per hour? Assume the work done by the jar of cross-sectional area 0.080 m2 fitted with an airtight
refrigeration unit is powered by electricity that costs frictionless 0.15-kg movable piston. When the gas is
$0.10 per kWh and that the unit’s coefficient of performance heated (at constant pressure) from 25°C to 55°C, the
is 18% that of an ideal refrigerator. 1 kWh = 3.60 * 106 J. piston rises 1.0 cm. How much heat was required for this
64. Two 1100-kg cars are traveling 85 km兾h in opposite direc- process? Assume atmospheric pressure outside. [Hint: See
tions when they collide and are brought to rest. Estimate Section 14–2.]
the change in entropy of the universe as a result of this 73. Metabolizing 1.0 kg of fat results in about 3.7 * 107 J of
collision. Assume T = 20°C. internal energy in the body. (a) In one day, how much fat
65. A 110-g insulated aluminum cup at 35°C is filled with 150 g of does the body burn to maintain the body temperature of a
water at 45°C. After a few minutes, equilibrium is reached. person staying in bed and metabolizing at an average rate
(a) Determine the final temperature, and (b) estimate the of 95 W? (b) How long would it take to burn 1.0 kg of fat
total change in entropy. this way assuming there is no food intake?

General Problems 441

 74. (a) At a steam power plant, steam engines work in pairs, 76. An ideal air conditioner keeps the temperature inside a room
the heat output of the first one being the approximate heat at 21°C when the outside temperature is 32°C. If 4.8 kW
input of the second. The operating temperatures of the of power enters a room through the windows in the form of
first are 750°C and 440°C, and of the second 415°C and direct radiation from the Sun, how much electrical power
270°C. If the heat of combustion of coal is 2.8 * 107 J兾kg, would be saved if the windows were shaded so only 500 W
at what rate must coal be burned if the plant is to put out enters?
950 MW of power? Assume the efficiency of the engines is 77. An ideal heat pump is used to maintain the inside tempera-
65% of the ideal (Carnot) efficiency. (b) Water is used to ture of a house at Tin = 22°C when the outside temperature
cool the power plant. If the water temperature is allowed to is Tout . Assume that when it is operating, the heat pump does
increase by no more than 4.5 C°, estimate how much water work at a rate of 1500 W. Also assume that the house loses
must pass through the plant per hour. heat via conduction through its walls and other surfaces at
75. Suppose a heat pump has a stationary bicycle attachment a rate given by (650 W兾C°)ATin - Tout B. (a) For what outside
that allows you to provide the work instead of using an temperature would the heat pump have to operate all the time
electrical wall outlet. If your heat pump has a coefficient in order to maintain the house at an inside temperature of
of performance of 2.0 and you can cycle at a racing pace 22°C? (b) If the outside temperature is 8°C, what percentage
(Table 15–2) for a half hour, how much heat can you of the time does the heat pump have to operate in order to
provide? maintain the house at an inside temperature of 22°C?

Search and Learn

1. What happens to the internal energy of water vapor in the 7. A dehumidifier removes water vapor from air and has been
air that condenses on the outside of a cold glass of water? referred to as a “refrigerator with an open door.” The humid
Is work done or heat exchanged? Explain in detail. air is pulled in by a fan and passes over a cold coil, whose
2. Draw a PV diagram for an ideal gas which undergoes a temperature is less than the dew point, and some of the air’s
three-step cyclic thermodynamic process in which the first water condenses. After this water is extracted, the air is warmed
step has ¢U = 0 and W 7 0, the second step has W = 0, back to its original temperature and sent into the room. In a
and the third step has Q = 0 and W 6 0. well-designed dehumidifier, the heat that is removed by the
3. What exactly is a Carnot engine and why is it important? cooling coil mostly comes from the condensation of water
How practical is it? vapor to liquid, and this heat is used to re-warm the air. Esti-
mate how much water is removed in 1.0 h by an ideal
4. (a) Make up an advertisement for a refrigerator or air con-
dehumidifier, if the temperature of the room is 25°C, the
ditioner that violates the first law of thermodynamics (see
water condenses at 8°C, and the dehumidifier does work at
Section 15–6). (b) Make up an ad for a car engine that vio-
the rate of 600 W of electrical power. (See Sections 15–6,
lates the second law of thermodynamics (see Section 15–5).
13–12, and 14–5.)
*5. One day a person sleeps for 7.0 h, goes running for an hour,
*8. Trees offsetting CO2 . Trees can help offset the buildup of
gets dressed and eats breakfast for an hour, sits at work for
CO2 due to burning coal and other fossil fuels. CO2 can be
the next 9.0 h, does household chores for a couple of hours,
absorbed by tree foliage. Trees use the carbon to grow,
eats dinner for an hour, surfs the Internet and watches TV
and release O2 into the atmosphere. Suppose a refrigerator
for a couple of hours, and finally takes an hour for a bath
uses 600 kWh of electricity per year (about 2 * 109 J) from
and getting ready for bed. If all of the energy associated
a 33% efficient coal-fired power plant. Burning 1 kg of coal
with these activities is considered as heat that the body out-
releases about 2 * 107 J of energy. Assume coal is all
puts to the environment, estimate the change in entropy the
carbon, which when burned in air becomes CO2. (a) How
person has provided. (See Sections 15–3 and 15–7.)
much coal is burned per year to run this refrigerator?
6. A particular 1.5-m2 photovoltaic panel operating in direct (b) Assuming a forest can capture 1700 kg of carbon per
sunlight produces electricity at 20% efficiency. The resulting hectare (= 10,000 m2) per year, estimate how many square
electricity is used to operate an electric stove that can be used meters of forest are needed to capture the carbon (in the
to heat water. A second system uses a 1.5-m2 curved mirror form now of CO2) emitted in (a).
to concentrate the Sun’s energy directly onto a container of
water. Estimate how long it takes each system to heat 1.0 kg
of water from 25°C to 95°C. (See also Chapter 14.)

A N S W E R S TO E X E R C I S E S
A: 700 J. E: (c).
B: Less. F: (a) Heat QL comes from outside to conserve energy;
C: –6.8 * 103 J. (b) 560 W.
D: (d), (e). G: (e).

442 CHAPTER 15 The Laws of Thermodynamics