CHAPTER-3

UNDERSTANDING ECOFEMINISM
FROM INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
 CHAPTER-3

UNDERSTANDING ECOFEMINISM FROM

In this chapter we have tried to find the element of ecofeminism from various

texts in the Indian context. This chapter includes the issues related to the ecological

movement by the Bishnois, Chipko movement and ecofeminism, Jainism and ecology

and lastly, Buddhism and ecology. Some important issues relevant to this section in

the context of Anti-arrack movement in Andhra Pradesh have also been discussed.

All the sections illustrate the non-anthropocentric attitude towards nature. Anti-arrack

movement on the other hand, is an instance of women’s movement helping their men

to overcome addiction. Buddhism and Jainism are deeply rooted in the ethos of Indian

people which we also discussed in this chapter.

In this chapter, we have discussed the two major ecological movements

initiated and participated by women of India. Since, women are concerned with the

survival of all life so, they participate in the ecological movements to protect and to

restore nature.

Here, we have also discussed the attitudes of Jainism and Buddhism towards

nature. Religious teachings help us to cultivate an attitude of love, care and respect

towards nature. For a peaceful living, religious teachings not only guides us but also

prompts us to act sympathetically towards nature. Religion instils an ecological

consciousness amongst people which helps us to live in harmony with nature. The

34
survey of the views of Jaina and Buddhist religion provides a reverential attitude

towards nature.

3.1 Ecological movement by the Bishnois

For protecting nature Hindu religion of India played an important role. The

ecological movement by the Bishnois of Rajasthan and the Chipko movement of Uttar

Pradesh are the two significant movements of India for the preservation of nature. In

this section we will discuss the ecological movement led by the Bishnois for the

protection of trees.

The followers of Guru Jambeshwar Maharaj or Guru Maharaj Jambaji are

known as Bishnois who form a small community in the state of Rajasthan. Guru

Maharaj Jambaji was born in 1451 in the village of Pipasar in Rajasthan. When Guru

Maharaj Jambaji was young, he witnessed that extended droughts resulted in

deforestation due to unplanned felling of trees by people to feed animals. Thus, he

saw the need for the conservation of nature. In 1485, he formed a religion based on

twenty-nine principles [‘bis’ that is, twenty and ‘noi’ that is, nine]. The name of this

community comes from these twenty-nine principles. These principles are followed

by his community. Guru Maharaj Jambaji died in 1536. These twenty-nine principles

are as follows.

“1. To observe segregation of the mother and newborn for 30 days after

delivery

2. To keep woman away from all activities for 5 days during her menstrual

periods

35
3. To take early morning bath daily

4. To maintain both external and internal cleanliness and remaining content.

5. To meditate twice a day i.e. morning and evening (times when night is

being separated from the day)

6. To sing the Lord’s glory and reciting His virtues every evening

7. To offer daily oblation to the holy fire with a heart filled with feelings of

welfare, love and devotion

8. Use filtered water, milk and carefully cleaned fuel/firewood

9. Filter your speech!

10. To be forgiving in nature

11. To be compassionate

12. Not to steal

13. Not to revile/condemn someone

14. Not to tell lies

15. Not to indulge in opprobrium

16. To observe fast and meditate on no-moon night (and the same day i.e.

Amavsya)

17. To recite the holy name of Lord Vishnu

18. To be compassionate towards all living beings

19. Not to fell green trees

20. To kill the non-perishables!

36
 21. To partake food cooked by self/other religious person or one who is pure

by heart and work

22. To provide a common shelter (Thhat) for goat/sheep to avoid them being

slaughtered in abattoirs

23. Not to have bull’s castrated

24. Not to partake of opium

25. Not to use tobacco and its products

26. Not to partake of cannabis

27. Not to drink liquor

28. Not to eat meat or non-vegetarian dishes

29. Not to use blue coloured clothes.”1

Out of these twenty-nine principles, the eight principles recommend

preservation of biodiversity and encouragement of good animal husbandry which

includes non-sterilization of bulls, protection to all forms of life, prohibition on the

felling of green trees and the killing of animals. Since, dyes are obtained from the

cutting of shrubs, hence, there is also a prohibition on the wearing of blue-coloured

clothes. Further, there is also instructions to keep the male goats in a sanctuary and

also to see that before burning, firewood should be cleaned and devoid of small

insects. The seven principles recommend to live a pure, simple, truthful, content,

abstemious and tolerant life for a healthy conduct. Criticizing others and adultery is

prohibited. The ten principles aimed at the maintenance of good health and hygiene

which includes prohibition on the use of opium, alchohol, tobacco, bhang, charas and
1
www.bishnoi.org/rules-in-english.html (Accessed 27.05.2011)

37
the eating of meat and prescribes ritual forbiddances for five days during menstruation

and for thirty days after child birth and also instructs to take bath daily and to drink

filtered water. The last four principles instructs to worship God daily who is

omnipresent and also prescribes the observance of fasting on every Amavasya and the

performance of Havan for the salvation of soul. Guru Maharaj Jambaji said that

“Untis Dharam ki aankri, Hridya dharey joi Jambeshwar aisey kahey, pher janam

nahin hoi”2 which means, one who follows twenty-nine principles of this religion he

will not be reborn.

Thus, we find that love and care for the natural world is an indispensable

factor in Bishnoi religion which Jambaji expresses in terms of the following basic

rules:

“Never cut a green tree, but wait for a tree to age and die and then use it as

timber.

Bury your dead simply, so that the earth assimilates the flesh  and

you save too, the wood needed for a casket or a cremation.

Practice cleanliness and a high level of hygiene, for these will guard you

from disease.

Protect wildlife  they too play a role in maintaining soil fertility and in

holding the balance of harmful and beneficial life forms.

Conserve water for use by man and animals, by building tanks

everywhere.

2
www.bishnoi.org/details-of-niyams.html (Accessed 27.05.2011)

38

Practice vegetarianism and be addicted to nothing  alcohol, tobacco or

even tea!

Do not expect or seek, alms or subsidy, from king or government; believe

in self-help!

Let women, those founts of life, wear bright clothes of red or orange and

the men white, as a symbol of undiluted devotion to the faith.

If ever you must choose to be violent, may it be in defense of a tree, an

animal or your convictions; for this, even embrace death with cheer.”3

Thus, we find that the principles discussed above as prescribed by Guru

Maharaj Jambaji are based on moral values. To be specific the rules include a

prohibition on the felling of green trees, conservation of wood, protection of wildlife,

conservation of water, practice of cleanliness and vegetarianism.

The sacrifice of the Bishnois for the protection of trees occurred in 1604, in

Ramsadi village and again in 1643 at Peelawas. In 1604, two Bishnoi women died and

in 1643, a Bishnoi saint called Buchoji died. But the Bishnois came to limelight when

the historic event took place in 1731 in Jalnadi village, twenty-five kilometers from

Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The king of Jodhpur, Maharaja Abhay Singh sent his soldiers to

collect wood for his new palace. When Maharaja’s axemen led by their leader

Giridhar Das Bhandari arrived in the Jalnadi village, to cut the green khejari trees, a

Bishnoi woman, Amrita Devi came forward and protested against the felling of trees.

The villagers also gathered and protested. But Gridhar Das Bhandari not paying heed

to it ordered his men to fell the trees. To prevent the felling of trees Amrita Devi

encircled a tree with her body and uttered “Sar Santey Rookh Rahe To Bhi Sasto

3
www.geocities.com/rc_bishnoi/people.htm (Accessed 26.08.2007)

39
Jaan”4 which means, saving a tree is more valuable than one’s head. Uttering these

words Amrita Devi, mother of three daughters clung to the tree and she was axed

along with the tree. Inspired by Amrita Devi’s sacrifice, her three young daughters,

Asu, Ratni and Bhagu also clung to the tree and they were also axed along with the

tree. Then the villagers came to save the trees. But they were all killed by the axemen.

For protecting the trees many men, women and children sacrificed their lives. Three

hundred and sixty-three Bishnois laid down their lives in order to save the trees.

When the king heard the sacrifice of the Bishnois, he immediately rushed to that

place, apologized to the villagers for the mistake committed by the axemen and

ordered that the cutting of any green trees and the hunting of animals is prohibited

around the Bishnoi villages. To pay tribute to the sacrifice of those three hundred and

sixty-three Bishnois in the Jalnadi village, known as Khejarli, there lies an orchard to

give honour to the martyrs.

Thus, here we find that in this ecological movement women took leading role.

The Bishnois led this struggle for the protection and the preservation of nature. Love,

respect and care for the natural world are the fundamental principles of Bishnoi

religion. Bishnois relationship with nature and their sacrifices makes a way for the

Chipko movement of 1973.

3.2 Chipko movement and Ecofeminism

In this section we are going to discuss Chipko movement and its relation to

ecofeminism. We know that the ecological struggle led by the Bishnois for saving

trees paved the way for Chipko movement. The anti-liquor movement by women in
4
www.bishnoi.org/martyrs.html (Accessed 27.05.2011)

40
the 1960s in the Uttarakhand, a region of Uttar Pradesh consisting of mountains,

prepared the way for women to participate in the Chipko movement, a movement

against forest destruction.

During the 1960s the alchohol addiction among men in the Uttarakhand

resulted in poverty in families. So, to overcome poverty in the Utarakhand local

cooperatives based on forest resources were established by the Sarvadaya activists.

Hence, the Sarvadaya activists not only launched movement against liquor but also

for the protection of forest they led Chipko movement.

The Chipko movement in the Uttarakhand region of Uttar Pradesh was started

by Gandhian activists. The Chipko movement began in 1973 in Mandal, thirteen

kilometers from Gopeshwar in Chamoli district of Uttar Pradesh. The Dashauli Gram

Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) was a co-operative organization established in 1964 in the

Chamoli district. The aim of the Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) was to start

forest-based village industries in order to provide employment to the hill people.

In order to make agricultural tools, when the Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh

(DGSS) requested the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department for their yearly allotment of

ten ash trees, the Forest Department denied and allotted three hundred ash trees to the

Simon Company, a manufacturer of sports goods of Allahabad from the Mandal

forest, thirteen kilometers from Gopeshwar. In order to save the trees from felling, at

a meeting of the Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) activists in Gopeshwar on

27th March, 1973, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, a Sarvadaya activists and the leader of the

Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) decided to embrace the trees. This way of

protecting the trees by hugging them gave the name Chipko movement. The word

‘Chipko’ means ‘hugging’ or ‘embracing’. On 24th April, 1973 when the agents of the

Simon Company came in the Mandal forest to fell the ash trees, the Dashauli Gram

Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) activists and hundred villagers gathered and protested. The

41
agents of the Simon Company in the face of such a strong opposition were unable to

cut a single tree and they were compelled to leave the Mandal forest. After this

incident the Forest Department allotted ash trees to the Dashauli Gram Swarajya

Sangh (DGSS) from the Mandal forest.

The Forest Department then allotted ash trees to the Simon Company from the

Phata forest, eight kilometers from Gopeshwar. The movement then spread to the

Phata forest on 24th June, 1973 when the agents of the Simon Company came to enter

into the Phata forest for the felling of trees. But confronted by a strong protest

organized by the Sarvadaya activists and also by the villagers of Phata, the agents of

the Simon Company were unable to enter into the Phata forest and so, returned to

Gopeshwar without felling the trees.

A significant Chipko movement occurred in the Reni forest, near Joshimath

when the government announced the auction of forests in November, 1973. Chandi

Prasad Bhatt protested against the felling of trees and explained the villagers that if

the trees of the Reni forest were cut down then the floods of 1970 would occur again

in the area. He told the villagers to hug the trees in order to save them. On 26th March,

1974 Chandi Prasad Bhatt when stayed at Gopeshwar to attend the meeting with the

Forest Department officials, on that day an announcement was made to the men of the

villages of Reni and to other villages near Reni forest to collect the payments for

lands taken by the army after the 1962 Indo-China war. All the men from the villages

of Reni, Malari and Lata went to Chamoli to collect the payments. In their absence

when the axemen tried to enter into the Reni forest, a small girl noticed and rushed to

Gaura Devi, the local women leader to inform her. Hearing this, Gaura Devi along

with twenty-seven women and children rushed to the forest to oppose them. Gaura

Devi came forward and said to the axemen that the forest is like their mother’s home.

She told them to shoot her first before cutting a tree. Though women met with threats

42
by the axemen but finally, the village women were successful in saving the trees from

felling in the Reni forest.

The Chipko movement next occurred in June 1975 at Gopeshwar and in

January 1978 at Bhyundar Valley of Chamoli district, where the village women took

leading role and protected the oak trees from felling.

One of the most significant Chipko movement led by women occurred in

February 1980 at Dungri-Paitoli village. In 1978, after a meeting with the officials of

the Government’s Horticulture Department, the men of the village council in Dungri-

Paitoli decided to sell the oak forest to the Horticulture Department. Chandi Prasad

Bhatt and the Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) activists protested and told the

villagers the importance of forest conservation. The Horticulture Department in return

promised the villagers to provide employment, electricity and to establish secondary

school, hospital and road for the Dungri-Paitoli village. But the men of the village

council in order to get the benefits from the Horticulture Department did not support

Chandi Prasad Bhatt. But the women of the village in order to protect the forest

requested the Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) activists and Chandi Prasad

Bhatt for help. Chandi Prasad Bhatt and other Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh

(DGSS) activists have been threatened by the men of the village council from entering

the village and helping other village women. But on 9th February, 1980 women of

Dungri-Paitoli village took leading role and organized a similar Chipko resistance and

thus, protected the trees from felling.

Shobhita Jain (1984) suggests that the ideals of Sarvadaya philosophy that is

adherance to ‘non-violence’, ‘co-operation’ and ‘self-help’ influenced women to

participate in the Chipko movement. Vandana Shiva and J. Bandyopadhyay stated

43
that the Chipko movement is “an extension of traditional Gandhian Satyagraha.”5

Vandana Shiva (1988) identifies Chipko movement as a women’s movement.

According to Shiva, there is a relation between women and nature. Shiva stated that

women and nature are related “not in passivity but in creativity and in the

maintenance of life.”6 According to Shiva (1988), in India, nature is viewed as sacred

and forests are worshiped as ‘Aranyani’ or the ‘Goddess of the Forest’. Thus, in the

words of Vandana Shiva, “Women embedded in nature, producing life with nature,

are therefore taking the initiative in the recovery of nature.”7

In all these Chipko actions, we see that both women and men participated in

the movement. But in the Chipko actions at Reni, Gopeshwar, Bhyundar Valley and

Dungri-Paitoli, women came forward and prevented the trees from felling. We see

that at Reni and at Dungri-Paitoli, the village women took leading role. Women

protested against tree-felling because the reason behind their protest is sustainability.

The village women had to collect food, firewood and fodder from the forests. So, they

depend upon forest resources for their livelihood. Due to deforestation, village women

had to travel on foot in order to collect food, firewood, fodder and water. Trees also

serve as a refuge amid open field. The women who are engaged in the agricultural

sector or work in the open take shelter under the tree as and when necessary. Since,

women are concerned with the issue of sustainability so, for the sustenance of their

family or more profoundly, for the sustenance of both the human and the natural

world they support forest conservation.

5
Shiva, Vandana and Bandyopadhyay, J. (1986); The Evolution, Structure, and Impact of the Chipko
Movement, Mountain Research and Development, Volume 6, Number 2, May, p. 136.
6
Shiva, Vandana (1988): Staying Alive, Women, Ecology and Survival in India, Kali for Women, New
Delhi, Zed Books Ltd., London, p. 47.
7
Ibid., p. 47.

44
 In discussing the Chipko movement, we find that women participated in the

Chipko movement for the preservation of forests. We find that women’s harmonious

and non-violent relationship with nature led them to participate in the Chipko

movement.

3.3 Anti-arrack movement in Andhra Pradesh

In this section, we are going to discuss the famous anti-arrack movement in

Andhra Pradesh. Before discussing this, we need to mention here the early anti-arrack

or anti-liquor movements.

Temperance movement is a worldwide movement that pleads for less alchohol

intake which started sometime around 1860 in England. In India, an anti-liquor

movement was inspired by Gandhi. The Gandhian Sarvadaya activists launched anti-

liquor movement in Uttarakhand during the 1960s. In 1962, Sohanlal Bhubishuk, a

disciple of Vinoba Bhave in Uttar Pradesh started an anti-liquor movement. A strong

anti-liquor movement was also started by Sunderlal Bahuguna and Vimla Bahuguna

in the Uttarakhand in the following year.

The aim of the movement is to promote complete abstinence or pressure the

government to enact anti-alchohol legislation or complete prohibition of alchohol.

Alchoholism as was observed in all the cases is the root cause of man’s misery before

industrial revolution. It is important to note that the instance of anti-alchohol

movement that we will be citing below took place in the post-industrial

developmental period. In the 1990s, started by rural women, there was a strong anti-

45
arrack movement in Andhra Pradesh, a movement directed against socio-economic

cause, which led to the prohibition on the sale of arrack in the state.

An anti-arrack movement was launched by women in the village of Dubagunta

of Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh in August 1992. Women protested against the

sale of arrack and arrack auctions. Women who were protesting against arrack were

mostly rural women. An increased consumption of arrack by men along with the high

price of arrack caused poverty to the poor families, majority of whom were peasants.

Women suffer the most because much of the income of the family was spent by men

on arrack drinking. For this reason, women had to face severe hardships to support

their children and their families. Not only this, they were also beaten by their

drunkard husbands. So, for a dignified life and for the protection of their families,

women led this protest. For the demand of ban on the sale of arrack, a village woman

of Nellore said, “we will not allow arrack sales in our village even if they shoot all of

us women. Better die once than die every day.”8 Women requested and also put

pressure on their men to stop arrack drinking. Even fine was imposed on men to

prevent them from drinking arrack. Women in groups picketed arrack shops, smashed

arrack bottles, prevented arrack auctions and the sale of arrack. Many women were

arrested for this protest. Through these actions women were succeeded in the

prohibition of arrack sales and arrack auctions in the village of Dubagunta of Nellore

district. This movement against the sale of arrack then spread to all other districts of

the state like Warangal, Karimnagar, Adilabad, Mahaboobnagar, and Kurnool.

Thus we find that through this movement against arrack, women fought

against poverty, coercion and oppression that they were facing everyday. They fought

8
Reddy, D. Narasimha and Patnaik, Arun (1993): Anti-Arrack Agitation of Women in Andhra Pradesh,
Economic and Political Weekly, Volume 28, Number 21, May, p. 1064.

46
to save their children and their families. Like the Chipko movement and the

movement led by the Bishnois, the women in anti-arrack movement took leading role.

The same vision guided all the three instances: smooth economic livelihood and

cutting the root of evil. Though anti-arrack movement is a more of a socio-economic

nature and is not directly related to destruction of nature, the purpose behind bringing

this movement under the same banner is the wisdom of women to strike at the right

cause and restore the paralytic state of the menfolk due to the spell of arrack.

3.4 Jainism and Ecology

In this section, we are going to discuss the Jaina attitude towards nature.

Twenty-four teachers or Tīrthakaras laid the foundations of the Jaina

religion. Ṛṣabha was the first Tīrthakara. Vardhamāna, later known as Mahāvīra, the

twenty-fourth Tīrthakara was born in 599 BCE. The Jaina religion is an ascetic

religion.

According to Tattvārtha Sūtra,9 in Jain cosmology, the universe is shaped like

a human and is composed of three regions — ‘upper region’, ‘middle region’ and

‘lower region’. The ‘upper region’ or heavenly domain, situated above the middle

region consists of gods. The ‘middle region’ consists of humans and animals. Below

the ‘middle region’ lies the ‘lower region’ or hells. The ‘lower region’ consists of

‘infernal’ beings. The domain of liberated souls (siddhas) lies at the top of the

universe. The Ākārāga Sūtra describes that the universe is filled with life:

9
Tatia, Nathmal tr. (2007): Umāsvāti/Umāsvāmī’s Tattvārtha Sūtra, That Which Is, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, Sūtra 3.1, pp. 68-70.

47
 “Thoroughly knowing the earth-bodies and water-bodies and fire-bodies and

wind-bodies, the lichens, seeds, and sprouts,

He comprehended that they are, if narrowly inspected, imbued with life, and

avoided to injure them; he, the great Hero.”10

Tattvārtha Sūtra11 describes that different kinds of life-forms exists in the

world in a hierarchical order starting with the one-sensed beings having the sense of

touch which includes the ‘earth-bodied beings’, ‘water-bodied beings’, ‘fire-bodied

beings’, ‘air-bodied beings’ and ‘plant-bodied beings’. The second level consists of

two- sensed beings having the senses of touch and taste which includes ‘worms’,

‘leeches’, ‘snails’, ‘oysters’ etc. The third level consists of three-sensed beings having

the senses of touch, taste and smell which includes ‘ants’, ‘fleas’, ‘termites’, ‘insects’,

‘plant-lice’ etc. The fourth level consists of four-sensed beings having the senses of

touch, taste, smell and sight which includes ‘flies’, ‘wasps’, ‘butterflies’, ‘scorpions’

etc. The last and the fifth level consists of five-sensed beings having the senses of

touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing which includes ‘birds’, ‘fish’, ‘humans’, ‘gods’

etc. Thus, from the Tattvārtha Sūtra, we see that the Jainas perceive the universe as

transfused with different living beings.

Umāsvāti’s Tattvārtha Sūtra outlines that each of these living beings consist of

a soul (jīva) and are part of a continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Depending

upon the nature of karma the souls either ascends to a heavenly domain or descends to

the hells. According to Jaina religion, the bondage of karma causes rebirth. The goal

of Jaina religion is the liberation of the soul from bondage. Through the elimination of

10
Jacobi, Hermann tr. (2002): Jaina Sūtras, Part I, in The Sacred Books of the East, F. Max Muller
(ed.), Volume-22, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, Ākārāga Sūtra 1.8.1. paragraph11-
12, pp. 80-81.
11
Tatia, Nathmal tr. (2007): Umāsvāti/Umāsvāmī’s Tattvārtha Sūtra, That Which Is, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, Sūtra 2.24, pp.45-46.

48
all karma, the soul ascends and attains the state of liberation. Only human beings are

capable of attaining liberation.

Umāsvāti’s Tattvārtha Sūtra describes the five ‘great vows’ of Jainism. The five

‘great vows’ (mahāvrata) of the Jaina ascetics are non-violence (ahisā), truthfulness

(satya), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya) and non-possession

(aparigraha). These vows are strictly practiced by the ascetics. Non-violence

(ahisā) that is, abstaining from all forms of violence or any kind of injury to mobile

beings (trasa) and immobile beings (sthāvara) in thought, word and deed is the first

and the most important vow. Truthfulness (satya) that is, abstaining from all forms of

falsehood in thought, word and deed is the second important vow. Non-stealing

(asteya) that is, abstaining from stealing in thought, word and deed is the third

important vow. Celibacy (brahmacarya) that is, abstaining from carnality in thought,

word and deed is the fourth important vow. Non-possession (aparigraha) that is,

abstaining from all possessions in thought, word and deed is the fifth important vow.

The practice of these five ‘great vows’ frees the soul from the bondage of karma.

The Ākārāga Sūtra gives a detailed account of the practice of non-violence

towards all life-forms. The Ākārāga Sūtra describes that to abstain from killing any

life, the monks and nuns inspect while walking and sweep their path, they cover their

face before breathing and also inspect food before eating. The Ākārāga Sūtra

prescribes abstinence from killing animals and injuring plants. Trees and plants are

revered in Jaina religion. The Ākārāga Sūtra prescribes the protection of trees and

plants:

“He who injures these (plants) does not comprehend and renounce the sinful

acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts.

Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards plants, nor cause others to

49
act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to plants,

is called a reward-knowing sage. Thus I say.”12

Umāsvāti’s Tattvārtha Sūtra prescribes the cultivation of compassion and

friendliness towards all life and also emphasizes on the practice of charity.

Umāsvāti’s Tattvārtha Sūtra gives a detailed account of the practice of the five ‘small

vows’ (auvrata) by the householders, which are simple and partial observance of the

five ‘great vows’ (mahāvrata) of the ascetics. As described in the Tattvārtha Sūtra,

one of the small vows of the householders is refraining from destroying the natural

world in thought, word and deed which includes refraining from killing, hurting,

torturing animals, cutting trees, digging fields etc. Thus, we see that killing or injuring

any forms of life and the destruction of the natural world are an act of violence

according to Jaina religion. We see that Jaina religion emphasizes on the practice of

non-violence towards all forms of life.

Umāsvāti’s Tattvārtha Sūtra describes that the function of souls is to help each

other and that the souls are dependent on each other: (“parasparograho jīvānām”).13

Thus, we find that Jaina religion emphasizes that all life are interrelated and

interdependent.

Thus, we can say that in interpreting the five ‘great vows’ (mahāvrata) of Jainas

in the context of nature, we find that the practice of non-violence (ahisā) helps us to

develop an attitude of love, respect and compassion towards both human beings and

nature. The practice of truthfulness (satya) prompts us to lead a truthful life with

nature and not destroying it. The basic truth is that nature is living and nature is our

mother. Any harm to nature may cause a threat to humanity. The practice of non-

12
Jacobi, Hermann tr. (2002): Jaina Sūtras, Part I, in The Sacred Books of the East, F. Max Muller
(ed.), Volume-22, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, Ākārāga Sūtra 1.1.5, paragraph 7,
pp. 10-11.
13
Tatia, Nathmal tr. (2007): Umāsvāti/Umāsvāmī’s Tattvārtha Sūtra, That Which Is, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, Sūtra 5.21, p. 131.

50
stealing (asteya) will be extended to non-stealing of the richness and beauty of

Mother Nature which is her treasure for our convenience. The practice of celibacy

(brahmacarya) instils us that by self-control and by restraining our behaviour with

others as well as nature, we can lead a pure life. The practice of non-possession

(aparigraha) directs us not to possess more than one’s need. Possessing more of

natural resources results in the denudation of nature.

Thus, in discussing Jainism and ecolgy, we find that the Jaina attitude towards

nature is friendly. We find that the Jaina advocacy of non-violence, respect for all

forms of life and protection to all life-forms forms the basis of Jaina religion. We find

that the practice of all these five principles guides us in developing a harmonious,

peaceful and non-violent relationship with nature.

3.5 Buddhism and Ecology

In this section, we are going to discuss the Buddhist attitude towards nature.

Siddhārtha Gautama (563-483 BCE) who became the Buddha or the

Enlightened, was the founder of the Buddhist religion. Love, compassion, sympathy

and respect for all forms of life are the fundamental principles of Buddhist religion.

Buddha’s teachings are contained in the Pali Canon called ‘Tripiaka’ or the

‘Three Baskets.’ The ‘Three Baskets’ are: ‘Vinaya Piaka’, ‘Sutta Piaka’ and

‘Abhidhamma Piaka’. In the introduction of the Dīgha Nikāya14 there is a detailed

account of Buddhist cosmology. The various realms recognized in Buddhist

cosmology are mentioned in many suttas of the Dīgha Nikāya. In Buddhist

14
Walshe, Maurice tr. (1987): Thus Have I Heard, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, A New
Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya, Wisdom Publications, London, pp. 37-42.

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cosmology, the universe is composed of three realms  the ‘World of Sense-Desires’

(kāma-loka), the ‘World of Form’ or the ‘fine-material world’ (rūpa-loka) and the

‘Formless World’ or the ‘immaterial world’ (arūpa-loka). Beyond these three realms

lies the realm of the ‘Supramundane’ (lokuttara) or Nibbāna. These three realms are

comprised of thirty-one states. The ‘World of Sense-Desires’ (kāma-loka) is the

lowest of the three realms. This realm consists of eleven states. In this realm, the fifth

state is the ‘human world’ (manussa loka). Below the ‘human world’ lies the four

states  the ‘animal world’ (tiracchāana yoni), the ‘world of hungry ghosts’ (peta

loka), the ‘asuras’ or ‘titans’ (asurā) and lastly, the lowest state is ‘hell’ (niraya).

Above the ‘human world’ lies six heavens  ‘Devas of the Four Great Kings’

(catumahārājikā devā), the ‘Thirty-Three Gods’ (tāvatisa devā), ‘Yāma devas’

(Yāmā devā), ‘Contented devas’ (tusitā devā), ‘Devas Delighting in Creation’

(nimmānaratī devā), and ‘Devas Wielding Power over Others’ Creations’

(paranimmita-vasavattī devā). In the ‘World of Sense-Desires’ (kāma-loka), ‘Devas

Delighting in Creation’ and ‘Devas Wielding Power over Others’ Creations’ are the

two highest states. Above the ‘World of Sense-Desires’ (kāma-loka), lies the ‘World

of Form’ (rūpa-loka). This realm consists of sixteen heavens  ‘Retinue of Brahmā’

(brahma-parisajjā devā), ‘Ministers of Brahmā’ (brahma-purohitā devā), ‘Great

Brahmās’ (mahā-brahmā), ‘Devas of Limited Radiance’ (Parittabhā devā), ‘Devas of

Unbounded Radiance’ (Appamāabhā devā), ‘Devas of Streaming Radiance

(ābhassarā devā), ‘Devas of Limited Glory’ (parittasubhā devā), ‘Devas of

Unbounded Glory’ (appamāasubhā devā), ‘Devas of Refulgent Glory’ (subhakiā

devā), ‘Very Fruitful devas’ (vehapphalā devā), ‘Unconscious beings’ (asaññasattā),

‘Devas not Falling Away’ (avihā devā), ‘Untroubled devas’ (atappā devā), ‘Beautiful

devas’ or ‘Clearly Visible devas’ (sudassā devā), ‘Clear-Sighted devas’ (sudassī

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devā) and finally, above this state lies ‘Peerless devas’ (akanihā devā). Above the

‘World of Form’ (rūpa-loka), lies the ‘Formless World’ (arūpa loka). This realm

consists of four heavens  ‘Sphere of Infinity of Space (devas of)’

(ākāsānañcâyatanūpagā devā), above this state lies the ‘Sphere of Infinity of

Consciousness (devas of)’ (viññāañ câyatanūpagā devā), above this state lies the

‘Sphere of No-Thingness (devas of)’ (ākiñcaññâyatanūpagā devā), and finally, above

this state lies the ‘Sphere of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception (devas of)’

(nevasaññānâsaññâyatanūpagā devā). The living beings from the realm of the ‘Devas

of the Four Great Kings’ are known as ‘devas’ or ‘Brahmās’. The ‘World of Form’

and the ‘Formless World’ consists of beings who have attained jhānas. The realm of

‘Contented devas’ consists of Bodhisattas. Depending upon the nature of karma, the

living beings are part of a continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Living beings

take rebirth in these thirty-one states. Only the beings of the animal world and the

human world are visible. Thus, in discussing Buddhist cosmology, we see that the

Buddhists perceives the whole world as inhabited by living beings.

In Buddhism, the Peepul tree or Bodhi tree is considered as sacred because

under this tree Buddha attained enlightenment. Buddha was born in a grove of sal and

Asoka trees. Also under the tree, Buddha preached his first lesson. Buddha attained

his final Nirvāa (Nibbāna) in a grove of twin sal trees. In Buddhism sal tree, fig tree,

banyan tree are revered. Thus, trees are venerated in Buddhist religion.

The Brahmajāla Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya15 gives a detailed description of the

precepts practiced by the Buddhist ascetics which includes abstinence from killing,

abstinence from stealing, abstinence from unchastity, abstinence from lying and

15
Walshe, Maurice tr. (1987): Thus Have I Heard, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, A New
Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya, Wisdom Publications, London, Sutta 1, pp. 68-69.

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abstinence from destroying crops and seeds. Thus, we find that Buddhism emphasizes

on the principles of morality. The Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya16

describes that with the gradual decline of morality of human beings, the life-span and

beauty of human beings will decrease and also ‘ghee’, ‘butter’, ‘sesame-oil’,

‘molasses’ and ‘salt’ will disappear from the earth. Here, we find that the immoral

actions of human beings cause the destruction and the loss of natural resources,

resulting into non-availability of the nutritious and essential food from man.

The Sangīti Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya17 describes that Buddhists emphasizes on

the practice of loving-kindness (mettā) and compassion (karuṇā). The practice of

loving-kindess (mettā) towards all life is prescribed in Mettasutta.18 Thus, we find that

Buddhists adopt a non-violent attitude towards life on earth. According to Lily De

Silva (1994), the Buddhists belief in the theory of karma and rebirth plays an

important role in cultivating sympathy and kindness towards animals.

Thus, we find that the symbiosis between man and nature is ensured through

the philosophy of Buddhism. Here, we find that the Buddhist practice of love,

compassion and kindness towards all life helps us to live harmoniously with nature.

Thus, in interpreting the teachings of Buddhism, we find that their emphasis on non-

violence guides us to cultivate a loving and compassionate attitude towards both

human beings and nature. A non-violent and compassionate attitude towards all life

can resist the degradation of nature and helps to create a peaceful living environment.

Like Jainism, Buddhism too helps to develop positive attitude towards nature.

16
Ibid., Sutta 26, pp. 400-402.
17
Ibid., Sutta 33, p. 500.
18
Chalmers, Lord (ed.) (1932): Buddha’s Teachings Being The Sutta-Nipāta or Discourse-Collection,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Sutta 8, pp. 36-39.

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 In conclusion, we can say that the ecological movement led by the Bishnois,

and Chipko movement are the best examples of ecological movements in India. In

anti-arrack movement, women uncovered the economic and social problems due to

liquor consumption by men. It is for the cause of social environment that the

movement took place. These major movements were initiated by women and their

contribution is appreciating. The movement by the Bishnois and the Chipko

movement were led for the protection and the conservation of nature. Anti-arrack

movement was an organized movement. But the movement by the Bishnois and

Chipko movement were an unorganized movement. Women at the cost of their lives

spontaneously took action to save the trees from felling. And finally, the precepts and

injunctions of Jainism and Buddhism guides us to live harmoniously with nature. In

the next chapter, we are going to discuss the difference between ecofeminism from

Indian perspective and ecofeminism from Western perspective.



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