SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Human bodies are equipped with sexual organs (gonads) that are used for sexual reproduction.
The male gonads are called testes (singular=testis) while the female gonads are called ovaries.
The female and male gonads occur on separate bodies and are part of the reproductive
system.
Figure 1: Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Male Reproductive System-Side view Female Reproductive System-

Side view

Functions of Parts of the Male Reproductive System

Testes (singular= testis): These are a pair of structures that produce spermatozoa (sperm) and
secrete the hormone called testosterone. They are found in a sac of skin called the scrotum
located outside the lower abdomen. The scrotum holds the testicles outside the body to keep
them at a temperature slightly lower than that of the body for more effective production of
spermatozoa.
Epididymis: This is made of coiled tubes where sperms are stored.
Prostate gland: secretes an alkaline fluid that aids the transport of sperms. Makes the sperm
more active. Sperms matures from 10 – 14 days
Sperm duct (vas deferens): This is the tube that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to
the urethra.
Cowper’s gland: lie below the prostate gland. Produces thick clear mucus that forms part of
the fluid and part of the semen. Semen is sticky fluid that contains sperm, mucus and nutrients.

Seminal vesicle: secrets a thick fluid that is part of semen. Contains nutrients that nourish the
sperm.
Testis: held in a bag like structure called scrotum. The sperm cells are produced in the testes at
about 20C less than the normal body temperature. Seminiferous tubules are convoluted tubules
in the testes.
1|Page
Urethra: This is the tube that carries semen from the sperm duct and urine from the bladder.
Penis: This is an erectile organ that is used to deposit semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse. The semen is deposited into the vagina by a process called ejaculation.
THE STRUCTURE OF A SPERM CELL

A mature sperm consists of a head and tail. The head contains the genetic material that will
contribute half of the genes of the zygote. Acrosome is found at the tip of the head which
contains enzyme needed to penetrate the egg cell. The tail of the sperm rotates like a rotor and
propels the sperm cell forward. The base of the head there are mitochondria that provide
energy for the movement of the sperm. The diagram below shows a sperm cell.

Functions of Parts of the Female Reproductive System

Ovaries: These are a pair of gonads responsible for formation of eggs and for secretion of
oestrogen and progesterone. Release egg cells every 28 days.

Oviduct: This is the tube through which the ovum travels from the ovary to the uterus. It is
also the sight where fertilization occurs. It is the first stage of cell division of the zygote. It is
lined with endometrium and richly supplied with blood vessels.
Uterus: This is the site for implantation and development of the foetus.
Vagina (birth canal). Sperm is deposited by the male organ into the vagina during sexual
intercourse.
Cervix: This connects the vagina to the uterus and forms part of the birth canal. It is the point
where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. The cervix also secretes fluids that
lubricate the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Vagina: This is the part where an erect penis is inserted during sexual intercourse. It also forms
part of the birth canal.

NOTE: primary organs are called ovaries while secondary sexual organs are the oviduct, uterus
and vagina. Internal fertilisation is where eggs are fertilised inside the female body.
TASK: with the help of a diagram, explain the development of ova in the ovaries [12]
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
During sexual development, the human being first develops the primary sexual
characteristics which include the sexual organs and the reproductive systems. To complete its
sexual development, the human body must develop secondary sexual characteristics. These
are characteristics that a human body develops after reaching puberty. They make the body
more adapted to carry out reproduction and are influenced by hormones. In males, their
development is influenced by the hormone called testosterone which is secreted by the
testicles. In females, their development is influenced by the hormone called oestrogen which
is secreted by the ovaries.

2|Page
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics
• Sperm production
• Enlargement of testicles and penis
• Development of pubic hair, beards,
hair on the chest and in the armpits
• Deepening of voice
• The body becomes more muscular

Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

• Menstrual cycle commences
• Enlargement of breasts
• Widening of hips
• Development of pubic hair and hair
in the armpits
• Enlargement of vagina
• Skin becomes more tender and sup

3|Page
Note: Females stop their menstrual cycles when they reach a stage of sexual development called
menopause (at 45 to 50 years of age)
The Menstrual Cycle

This is a cycle of about 28 days during which a woman experiences ovulation and
menstruation, one after the other. Ovulation is the release of an ovum from the ovary.
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining together with some blood through the vagina
which occurs when an ovum does not get fertilized. It lasts three to five days. Ovulation and
menstruation occur approximately 14 days (two weeks) after each other.

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and the ovaries.
The hormones from the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone)
act on the ovaries while those from the ovaries (oestrogen and progesterone) act on the lining of
the uterus (endometrium). The roles of these hormones are summarized below:
(i) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes ripening of
the eggs in the ovaries by stimulating the development of Graafian follicles around them.
(ii) Oestrogen is secreted by the Graafian follicle in the ovary. It builds up the lining of the
uterus, inhibits further secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and stimulates secretion of
luteinising hormone.
(iii) Luteinising Hormone (LH) is secreted by the pituitary gland. It stimulates ovulation and the
development of the corpus luteum (yellow body) from the remains of the Graafian follicle.
(iv) Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovaries. It maintains the growth of the
uterus lining and increases blood supply to it in readiness for implantation in case fertilization
occurs. It also inhibits secretion of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland. However, the corpus
luteum gets progressively smaller until it completely degenerates and there is no more
progesterone being secreted. When this happens, lining of the uterus breaks down and the
pituitary gland starts secreting FSH to begin the cycle all over again. On the other hand, if the
egg gets fertilized, the corpus luteum takes longer to degenerate until the placenta has developed
in the uterus.

4|Page
Figure 2: Events of the Menstrual Cycle

5|Page
Fertilization, Implantation and Foetal Development
Fertilization is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female gamete to
form a single cell called a zygote. It normally occurs in the oviduct. After fertilization, the
zygote travels through the oviduct towards the uterus and divides repeatedly by mitosis to form
an embryo. Upon reaching the uterus, the embryo undergoes implantation.
IMPLANTATION IN HUMANS
Implantation is the process by which by which an embryo gets attached to the wall of the uterus
(about 11 or 12 days after fertilization). Early cell division is called cleavage, and increases the
number of cells, but not the size of the zygote. After three days, the repeated cleavage results in a
solid mass of cells. The ball of cells moves down the oviducts aided by peristalsis (muscle
movement) of the oviduct walls, and the wavelike movement of the cilia. The ball of cells that
implant itself in the endometrium of the uterus is called blastocyst which is implanted in the
uterus. The blastocyst makes contact with the lining of the uterus (endometrium) and secretes
enzymes that partially dissolve the uterus at the site of implantation and bring blood vessels into
close contact with the blood vessels of the mother. This is the start of pregnancy. In a pregnant
female, the corpus luteum is maintained for at least the first 16 weeks. This prevents
menstruation. For the first eight weeks, the developing individual is called an embryo. As the
embryo develops, it forms temporal organ known as the placenta. As soon as vital organs begin
developing, the embryo’s name changes to foetus. This occurs four months after fertilization.
Miscarriage: this is the termination of pregnancy before the foetus is viable. It is premature
breakdown of the corpus luteum which leads to the degeneration of the endometrium during
early pregnancy

6|Page
Figure 3: Ten-week Old Foetus

The Placenta: The placenta performs the roles normally performed by the intestines, kidneys
and lungs in adult human being. These include absorption of food, excretion and gaseous
exchange, respectively. The functions of the placenta are summarized as follows:

• Attaching the foetus to the uterus of the mother

• Protecting the foetus from the mother’s immune system, mother’s blood pressure and
pathogens. It does this by forming a barrier that prevents mixing of the blood of the
mother and the blood of the foetus.
• Exchange of materials between foetus and mother by the process of diffusion. Dissolved
food and oxygen diffuse from the mother’s blood to the blood of the foetus while carbon
dioxide and urea diffuse from the blood of the foetus to the mother’s blood. The placenta
has finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area for exchange of
substances.
• Secretion of hormones. It secretes progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterus
lining during pregnancy. It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) which
prolongs the activity of the corpus luteum. The presence of HCG in the urine of a woman
is a sign that she is pregnant.

7|Page
 HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH FOETAL DEVELOPMENT
Besides the useful materials that cross the placenta from the mother’s blood to the blood of the
foetus, some harmful substances that are made of small molecules also manage to cross the
placenta and affect the baby negatively. These substances include carbon monoxide from
cigarette smoke, drugs such as alcohol and viruses. Carbon monoxide combines with
haemoglobin irreversibly, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen available to the cells of the
foetus. This leads to low birth weights. Alcohol makes a baby be born with a condition called
foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is characterized by mental retardation and deformation
of the baby.
Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical vein)
that transport blood between the foetus and the placenta. The umbilical artery carries blood rich
in metabolic wastes (mainly carbon dioxide and urea) from the foetus to the placenta while the
umbilical vein carries blood rich in dissolved food and oxygen from the placenta to the foetus.

8|Page
Amnion and Amniotic Fluid: The amnion is the membrane responsible for enclosing the
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus from mechanical shocks, drying up and
also maintains a constant temperature around the environment of the foetus.

NB: The mucus plug blocks the cervical canal to keep away foreign substances from the uterus
during pregnancy.
INFERTILITY IN HUMANS
In most cases, when males are the one with a problem when couples fail to conceive, in about a
third of the cases.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING A WOMAN’S FERTILITY

1. Damage to the fallopian tubes
2. Ovulatory problems
3. Endometriosis: endometrial cells that normally line the uterus, implant around the outside
of the uterus and/or ovaries, causing internal bleeding, pain and reduced fertility.
4. Conditions affecting the uterus
5. Medical conditions such as diabetes, epilepsy, and thyroid and bowel diseases.
6. Lifestyle factors such as stress, poor eating habits, being overweight or underweight and
smoking.
CONDITIONS THAT MAY RESULT IN MALE INFERTILITY

1. Low sperm count or sperm of poor quality

2. Problems with the tubes that transport sperm
3. Problems getting an erection and ejaculating
4. Having had inflamed testes or mumps
5. Having received medical treatment such as drug treatment, radiotherapy or surgery – for
instance to correct a hernia, undescended testes or twisted testicles
6. Diabetes, age and STIs
7. Lifestyle factors such as being overweight, poor eating habits, smoking, alcohol or
having a job that involves contact with chemicals or radiation
HEALTHY PREGNANCY AND SAFE CHILDBIRTH
ANTENATAL SERVICES

Antenatal means before (ante) birth (natal). Many women making use of antenatal services live
with HIV and AIDS. It is important so that the mother can get the correct antiretroviral
medication to prevent HIV transmission to her child.
When a woman is pregnant, she should:
1. See her health care provider as soon as possible and throughout her pregnancy
2. Eat a variety of healthy foods. Fresh fruit and vegetables – to provide vitamins and
mineral salts.
3. Eliminate caffeine, alcohol, tobacco any drugs and over – the – counter medications
4. Keep active. Physical activity will keep her muscles strong for the birth process

9|Page
 5. Get enough rest.
Exercise: Write a short essay to describe the special dietary needs of a pregnant woman.
GESTATION PERIOD AND BIRTH

Gestation period refers to the period of time between fertilization and birth. In human beings, the
gestation period lasts for about nine months for a boy child and about eight months for a girl
child.
BIRTH
The process of birth is made of three main stages, namely dilation, delivery and afterbirth.
Dilation is the first major stage of birth and.
Stages of birth
Stage 1 Dilation. Involves widening of the cervix in readiness for expulsion of the baby from the
uterus. Before dilation, a woman experiences intermittent contractions of the uterus which are
called labour pains. Labour pains are initiated by a hormone called oxytocin, which is secreted
by the pituitary gland. After dilation, the amnion bursts to release amniotic fluid. This is called
the breaking of the waters.

Stage 2. Delivery. The second major stage is delivery which is the expulsion of the baby from
the uterus. This is brought about by strong contractions of the uterus, coupled with voluntary
contractions of the abdominal muscles by the woman. The vagina stretches to allow the baby to
be born. During a normal delivery, the head of the baby comes out first. If the legs come out
first, the birth is called a breach

10 | P a g e
Stage 3 is after birth. The third and final stage of birth is the expulsion of the placenta from the
uterus through the vagina. This is called the after-birth.
The baby is still attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord, so this is cut and tied. The
placenta breaks away from the wall of the uterus and passed out (afterbirth).

Summary

11 | P a g e
Birth Control (Family Planning)
This involves limiting the number of children and spacing their births so as to get the following
benefits:

• Give the mother time to recover from the effects of giving birth before she can have
another child.
• Ensuring each child receives enough nutrition, shelter, clothing, education and attention.
The methods of birth control are also called contraceptive methods because they are used to
prevent conception (fertilization and implantation). Contraceptive methods are divided into two
groups, namely natural methods and artificial methods. Natural methods include the
withdrawal method (coitus interruptus) and the rhythm (safe period) method. The main
advantage of natural methods is that they cost no money. Otherwise, they are unreliable and
require a lot of discipline. Artificial methods include barrier methods (condom, diaphragm and
intra-uterine device), chemical methods (spermicides and hormones such as those found in the
oral contraceptive pill) and surgical methods (vasectomy and tubal ligation or laparatomy)

Withdrawal Method: This is the removal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation. It is
an unreliable method because the fluids that a man releases before ejaculation contain traces of
spermatozoa that may still fertilize an ovum.
Rhythm Method: This is a contraceptive method where a couple only copulates during the safe
period of the menstrual cycle when fertilization is less likely to occur. This method is also
unreliable because the length of the menstrual cycle is modified by factors such as type of diet,
stress and physical exercise.
Condoms: A condom is a thin latex sheath that is fitted around an erect penis or inserted into the
vagina before intercourse so as to keep semen from being deposited directly into the vagina. It is
the only contraceptive method that prevents the transmission of sexually transmitted infections
(STI’s) such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and AIDS. However, if expired or not properly used, they
can break or leak. Some people complain that they reduce enjoyment of sex and cannot be used
spontaneously.

Diaphragm (cap): This is a thin latex cap fitted over the cervix before intercourse so as to block
spermatozoa from entering the uterus. It is more reliable if used in conjunction with spermicides.
Initially, the diaphragm must be fitted by a doctor.

12 | P a g e
Intra-uterine Device (IUD): This is a device made of plastic and copper wire that is inserted into
the uterus to prevent implantation by irritating the lining of the uterus. The device can only be
fitted by experts and it may cause discomfort if wrongly placed.

Spermicides: These are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual
intercourse in order to kill spermatozoa. They are normally used together with the diaphragm.
Hormones: Hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in the form of pills or
injections to prevent ovulation and implantation. They are only reliable if taken according to
prescription and may have side effects such as interfering with the pattern of the menstrual cycle,
nausea and weight gain.

Vasectomy: This is the cutting and tying of sperm ducts to block passage of spermatozoa from
the testicles. The man is still able to engage in sexual intercourse but ejaculates seminal fluids
that have no spermatozoa. The method is highly reliable but may be irreversible.

13 | P a g e
Tubal Ligation (Laparatomy): Oviducts are cut and tied to prevent passage of eggs from the
ovaries to the uterus. This method is also highly reliable and usually irreversible.

Benefits and risks of using contraceptives.

1. It helps prevent unwanted pregnancies, especially in teenagers

2. Women are empowered to decide when to they ready to have a baby
3. Smaller families have more money for their children’s education
4. Some contraceptives such as the male condom, protects against STIs.
Risks of using contraceptives

1. Disturbed menstrual cycle – an IUD interfere with the menstrual cycle, so that women
experience irregular bleeding or longer, heaver bleeding. Other side effects might be
ovarian cysts, acne, change in appetite or depression. An IUD cannot reduce the risk of
STIs.
2. Weight gain – some women experience side effect on the contraceptive pill such as
weight gain
3. Hormonal imbalance – the contraceptive injection contains synthetic progesterone. It can
take six months or longer for fertility to return.

14 | P a g e
SUMMARY ON BIRTH CONTROL

15 | P a g e
16 | P a g e