Chapter Two

Introduction To Networking
At the end of this session, Student will be able to know:
 What is computer network?
 What are the advantages and disadvantage of network?
 What are the driving force to use data communication and computer
networking
 What are the types of network and what the required infrastructure to
implement those networks?
 What are types of network topology?
Computer Network
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one
another over a shared network medium.
A network as a group of computers and associated devices that are connected by
communications facilities. A network provides two principle benefits: the ability to
communicate and the ability to share.
– A network supports communication among users in ways that other media
cannot. E-mail, the most popular form of network communication, provides
low-cost, printable correspondence with the capability for forwarding,
acknowledgment, storage, retrieval, and attachments.
– Sharing involves not only information (database records, e-mail, graphics, etc.)
but also resources (applications, printers, modems, disk space, scanners, etc.)
Through its ability to share, a network promotes collaboration
A computer network is a collection of two or more connected computers. When
these computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals

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such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. When networks
at multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies,
people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video
conferences in real time with other remote users. When a network becomes open
sourced it can be managed properly with online collaboration software. As
companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database management for
core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly more
important.
Defining standalone and sneaker net.
 Stand alone is a computer that is not connected to the network. These
computers can not be able to share information and resources with other
computers in an easy way.
 Sneaker-Net - Refers to a manual method of sharing files in which a file is
copied from a computer to a memory card or disk, transported to a second
computer by a person physically walking (apparently wearing sneakers) to the
second computer, and manually transferring the file from memory card or disk
to the second computer.
When we use network application basic requirement that should be considered are:
 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.
 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless
communication between networked computers and peripherals is also
possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or
2000, Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux.

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 Importance or advantage of Networking
■ Sharing information: Networks allow users to share information in
several different ways. The most common way of sharing information is to
share individual files. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and
transferring files.
■ Network able software programs are low in cost when compared to
buying individually licensed copies.
■ Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of
installing a network is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer. This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing
updates and tracking files on independent computers.
■ Security: Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy
inhibit," so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs.
■ Resource Sharing: Sharing resources is another advantage of
networks. Laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD players
can easily be shared by many users.
In general data communication and computer networking are important
to:-
■ Electronic transfer of data from one location to another
■ Enables an information system to deliver information
■ Improves the flexibility of data collection and transmission
■ Basis of virtual Communication
organizations ■ Data Sharing and
■ Provides e-collaboration Hardware Sharing
■ Connectivity and ■ Internet Access
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 ■ Internet Access Sharing ■ Performance
■ Data Security and Enhancement and Balancing
Management ■ Entertainment
Why Managers Need to Know About Data Communication and computer
networking
• Separating an organization’s core functions from the data communication
systems that enable and support them is difficult
• Enhances decision makers’ efficiency and effectiveness
• Enables organizations to use e-mail and electronic file transfer to improve
efficiency and productivity
• Highlights how data communication technologies are used in the workplace
• To create collaborative relation with technological approach
Some disadvantages of a network are:

 The set-up and maintenance costs can be expensive.

 A fault with the network server can cause difficulties with the organization.
 Networks need security measures to restrict access to users.
 WANs are vulnerable to hackers and viruses.
 Network Hardware, Software and Setup Costs
 Hardware and Software Management and Administration Costs
 Undesirable Sharing
 Illegal or Undesirable Behavior
 Data Security Concerns

Three forces are driving the evolution of data communications and networking
1. Growth of communication traffic/interchange
— Voice traffic

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 • telephone
— Data traffic
• Internet access, video conferencing
— Challenges (to the network service providers):
• How to maximize the capacity and minimize the cost?
2. Development of new services
3. Advances in technology
— Faster and cheaper computing and communications
— Networks are more intelligent: quality of service
— Internet, Web, intranets, extranets, etc.
— Pervasive computing/ubiquitous computing
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response
time. Transmit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
 Number of users: having a large number of concurrent users can slow
response time in a network not designed to coordinate heavy traffic loads.
 Type of transmission medium: the medium defines the speed at which data
can travel through a connection (the data rate). (i.e. 10mbps, 100mbps,
1000mbps, 10000mbps).
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  Hardware: the types of hardware included in a network affect both the speed
and capacity of transmission.
 Software: the software used to process data at the sender, receiver, and
intermediate nodes also affects network performance

Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability measured by frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in catastrophe.
 Frequency of failure: all networks fail occasionally. A network that fails
often, however, is little value to a user.
 Recovery time of network after failure: how long does it take to restore
service? A network that recovers quickly is more useful than one that does
not.
 Catastrophe: network must be protected from catastrophic events such as
fire, earthquake, one protection against unforeseen damage is a reliable
system to back up network software.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
 Unauthorized access: For the network to be useful, sensitive data must be
protected from unauthorized access. Protection can be accomplished at a
number of levels. At the lowest level are user identification codes and
passwords. At a higher level are encryption techniques (if they are
intercepted by an unauthorized user, they will be unintelligible).
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  Viruses: because a network is accessible from many points, it can be
susceptible to computer viruses. A virus is an illicitly introduced code that
damages the system. A good network is protected from viruses by hardware
and software designed especially for that purpose.

Type of Computer Networking

Depending on one’s perspective, we can classify networks in different ways.
 Based on network size: LAN and WAN and MAN
 Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For
visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between
two points.
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices.
Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multi drop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the
capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
Types of Network (Based on Geography)
LANs (Local Area Networks)
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus. LANs are designed to allow resources to be
shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be shared
can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or
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data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a
workgroup of task-related computers, for example, engineering workstations or
accounting PCs.
• Smaller scope
— Office, Building, Campus
• Usually owned by the same organization that owns the attached devices
• Internal data rates are high
— 10Mbps à 100Mbps à 1Gbps à 10Gbps
• Wireless LANs become more and more popular
— Data rates of wireless LANs are increasing: 11Mbps à 54Mbps à
hundreds of Mbps
In general Local Area Network (LAN)
 Limited geographic area
 High speed and error free data transmission
 Not expensive
 A room, a floor, a building
 Limited by no. of computers and distance covered
 Serve a department within an organization
Examples of LAN
 Network inside the Student Computer Room
 Network inside your home
 network in office and network in campus
The required hardware LAN network:-

 File Server: Runs software, stores files.

 Terminals: Workstations that give network access.
 Print Server: Queues up all print jobs from users in network.
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  Cables (wire/optic): To sends data.
Wide area networks:
A wide area network, or WAN, is a network that spans a large geographic area,
such as an entire city, region, or even an entire country. WANs are typically used
to connect two or more LANs that are relatively far apart. For example, internet

In general WAN

 Connects computers over states, countries and continent

 Unlimited geographical coverage

 More sophisticated

 Connects LANs and MANs

 Expensive technology

Metropolitan area networks:

 A metropolitan area network, or MAN, is a network that’s smaller than a
typical WAN but larger than a LAN. Typically, a MAN connects two or
more LANs within a same city but are far enough apart that the networks
can’t be connected using a simple cable or wireless connection.

 Owned by private company or it may be a service provided by public

company ( such as local tel.-company)

 Extended over an entire city.

 May be single network such as a cable television network, or it may be

connected number of LANs into a large network so that resources may be
shared LAN-TO-LAN.
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 Examples:
 Company can use MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices
throughout the city.
 A part of the telephone line network that can provide DSL line to the
customer

Categories of Network:
Network based on management method or how computers behave in a
network can be divided in to two main categories:
 Peer-to-peer.
 Client/Server – based.
In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy
among the computers. All of the computers are equal and therefore known as
peers. Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is no one
assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire network. Peer-to-
peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations where the
users are allocated in the same general area, security is not an issue and the
organization and the network will have limited growth within the
foreseeable future.
 Nodes provide and request services
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  User in each node administers resources
 No extra investment
 Easy to setup
 Very weak security
 Additional load on nodes
 Peer-to-peer network is also called workgroup
 No hierarchy among computers Þ all are equal
 No administrator responsible for the network

Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer

Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• May have duplication in resources

• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading

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Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:

• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future

Client/Server – based

Client/server networks are more suitable for larger networks. A central

computer, or 'server', acts as the storage location for files and applications
shared on the network. Usually the server is a higher than average
performance computer. The server also controls the network access of the
other computers which are referred to as the 'client' computers. Typically,
teachers and students in a school will use the client computers for their
work and only the network administrator (usually a designated staff
member) will have access rights to the server.

• Clients (Workstation):-Computers that request network resources or services

• Servers
 Computers that manage and provide network resources and services to
clients
 Usually have more processing power, memory and hard disk space
than clients
 Run Network Operating System that can manage not only data, but
also users, groups, security, and applications on the network
 Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its performance
and reliability
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  Designated computer to administer
 Resources centralized
 Supports larger networks
 Strong security
 Expensive
 Peer-2-Peer:
 Each computer (peer) has equal responsibilities, capacities, sharing
hardware, data, with the other computers on the peer-to-peer network
 Good for small businesses and home networks
 Simple and inexpensive

Advantages of client/server networks

 All clients must request service from the server

 The server is also called a host
 Different servers perform different tasks: File server, network server,
data base server, print server etc
 Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control
 Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance

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  Enhance security – only administrator can have access to Server
 Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-peer networks

Disadvantages of client/server networks

 High cost for Servers

 Need expert to configure the network
 Introduce a single point of failure to the system

Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks

 Easy to set up  More difficult to set up
 Less expensive to install  More expensive to install
 Can be implemented on a wide  A variety of operating systems can be
range of operating systems supported on the client computers, but the
server needs to run an operating system that
supports networking
 More time consuming to  Less time consuming to maintain the
maintain the software being used software being used (as most of the
(as computers must be managed maintenance is managed from the server)
individually)
 Very low levels of security  High levels of security are supported, all
supported or none at all. These can of which are controlled from the server. Such
be very cumbersome to set up, measures prevent the deletion of essential
depending on the operating system system files or the changing of settings
being used
 Ideal for networks with less  No limit to the number of computers that
than 10 computers can be supported by the network
 Does not require a server  Requires a server running a server
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 operating system
 Demands a moderate level of  Demands that the network administrator
skill to administer the network has a high level of IT skills with a good
working knowledge of a server operating
system

What is a topology?

The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the

arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the
network. "Topology" is the standard term that most network professionals use
when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition to the term "topology,"
you will find several other terms that are used to define a network's design:
 Physical layout
 Design
 Diagram
 Map

A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over
another will have an impact on the:
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  Type of equipment that the network needs
 Capabilities of the network
 Growth of the network
 Way the network is managed

Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding

the capabilities of the different types of networks.

Before computers can share resources or perform other communication tasks they
must be connected. Most networks use cable to connect one computer to another.
However, it is not as simple as just plugging a computer into a cable connecting to
other computers. Different types of cable—combined with different network cards,
network operating systems, and other components—require different types of
arrangements. To work well, a network topology takes planning. For example, a
particular topology can determine not only the type of cable used but also how the
cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and walls. Topology can also determine how
computers communicate on the network. Different topologies require different
communication methods, and these methods have a great influence on the network.

There are four basic types of computer topology: bus, star, ring and mesh.

1. Bus Topology

The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers
are connected in a straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of
networking computers. Figure 1 shows a typical bus topology. It consists of a
single cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that connects all of
the computers in the network in a single line.

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 Figure 1 – The bus topology

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a

particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To
understand how computers communicate on a bus, you need to be familiar with
three concepts:
 Sending the signal
 Signal bounce
 Terminator

1.1 Sending the signal

When sending a signal from one computer on the network to another, network data
in the form of electronic signals is in fact sent to all the computers on the network.
However, only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the data.
Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number
of computers attached to the bus will affect network performance. The more
computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting to put data on the
bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be. Computers on a bus either
transmit data to other computers on the network or listen for data from other
computers on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one
computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest
of the network.

1.2 Signal bounce

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Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from
one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted,
it will keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers
from sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a
chance to reach the proper destination address.

1.3 Terminator
To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at
each end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable
so that other computers can send data.

In a bus topology, if a break in the cable occurs the two ends of the cable at the
break will not have terminators, so the signal will bounce, and all network activity
will stop. This is one of several possible reasons why a network will go "down."
The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone
computers; however, as long as the segment is broken, they will not be able to
communicate with each other or otherwise access shared resources.

2. Star topology

In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a
centralised component called a hub. Figure 2 shows four computers and a hub
connected in a star topology. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer
through the hub to all computers on the network.

Figure 2 – The star topology

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Because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a
great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails,
the entire network goes down. If one computer - or the cable that connects it to the
hub - fails on a star network, only the failed computer will not be able to send or
receive network data. The rest of the network continues to function normally.
3. Ring topology

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus
topology, there are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one
direction and pass through each computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the
signal and send it on to the next computer. Figure 3 shows a typical ring topology
with one server and four workstations. The failure of one computer can have an
impact on the entire network.

Figure 3 – The ring topology

4. Mesh topology

A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh

topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling.
(See Figure 4.) This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the
network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of
troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite benefits, these networks are

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expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will
be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.

Figure 4 – The mesh topology

5. Hybrid topologies

Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh
topologies. Two of the more common are described below.

5.1 Star bus topology

The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a star-bus topology,
several star topology networks are linked together with linear bus trunks. Figure 5
shows a typical star-bus topology.

If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The other
computers can continue to communicate. If a hub goes down, all computers on that
hub are unable to communicate. If a hub is linked to other hubs, those connections
will be broken as well.

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 Figure 5 – The star bus hybrid topology

5.2 Star ring topology

The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears similar to the star bus.
Both the star ring and the star bus are centred in a hub that contains the actual ring
or bus. Figure 6 shows a star-ring network. Linear-bus trunks connect the hubs in a
star bus, while the hubs in a star ring are connected in a star pattern by the main
hub.

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 Figure 6 – The star ring hybrid topology

6. Physical vs. logical topologies

Until now we have assumed that the word topology is used to refer only to the
physical layout of the network. In fact, we can talk about two kinds of topology:
physical and logical. A network's physical topology is the wire itself. A network's
logical topology is the way it carries signals on the wire. This is an important
distinction that will become clearer in the following discussion of the token ring
topology.

6.1 Example: Token ring LANs

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is
a special series of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has
only one token.) The token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a
computer that has data to send. Figure 7 shows a token ring topology with the
token. The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the
data, and sends it around the ring.

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The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that
matches the address on the data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that
the data has been received. After verification, the sending computer creates a new
token and releases it on the network. The token circulates within the ring until a
workstation needs it to send data.

Therefore the token ring network uses a logical ring topology – the token travels
around in a circle from computer to computer. However, the physical topology of a
token ring network is a star – the wires connecting the computers to each other are
connected via a central hub. This is sometimes referred to as a “star-shaped ring”
network.

Figure 7 – The token ring topology

The token ring avoids a common problem with bus topologies. If there are many
computers on the network a bus will often be busy, seriously affecting network

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 performance. However, with a token ring the network is never busy – each
computer must simply wait for the token to arrive and add its message.

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus Use of cable is economical. Network can slow down in
Media is inexpensive and easy to work heavy traffic.
with. Problems are difficult to
System is simple and reliable. isolate.
Easy to extend. Cable break can affect many
users.
Ring System provides equal access for all Failure of one computer can
computers. impact the rest of the
network.
Problems are hard to isolate.
Star Modifying system and adding new If the centralized point fails,
computers is easy. the network fails.
Centralized monitoring and
management are possible.
Failure of one computer does not
affect the rest of the network.
Mesh System provides increased redundancy System is expensive to install
and reliability as well as ease of because it uses a lot of
troubleshooting. cabling.

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Summary of Key Points

 The physical layout of computers on a network is called a topology

 There are four primary topologies: star, bus, ring, and mesh
 Topologies can be physical (actual wiring) or logical (the way they work)
 In a bus topology, the computers are connected in a linear fashion on a
single cable
 Bus topologies require a terminator on each end of the cable
 In a star topology, all computers are connected to a centralized hub
 Mesh topologies connect all computers in a network to one another with
separate cables
 In a token-ring topology, the computers are connected physically in a star
shape, but logically in a ring or circle. The data is passed from one computer
to another around the circle

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