GE 1 = Understanding the Self

Module I
Defining the Self: Personal and Developmental
Perspective on Self and Identity

Contents:
Lesson 1: The Self from Various Philosophical Perspectives
Lesson 2: The Self, Society, and Culture
Lesson 3: The Self as Cognitive Construct
Lesson 4: The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Lesson 1
The Self from Various Philosophical Perspectives

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain why it is essential to understand the self;
2. Describe and discuss the different notions of the self from the points-of-view of the various
philosophers across time and place;
3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented in different philosophical schools;
and
4. Examine one’s self against the different views of self that were studied/discussed in class.

INTRODUCTION:
Before we even had to be in formal institution of learning, among the many things that we were
first taught as kids is to articulate and write our names. Growing up, we were told to refer back to this name
when talking about ourselves. Our parents painstakingly thought about our names. Should we be named after a
famous celebrity, a respected politician or historical personality, or even a saint? Were you named after one? Our
names represent who we are. It has not been a custom to just randomly pick a combination of letters and
number (or even punctuation marks) like zhjk756!! to denote our being. Human beings attach names that are
meaningful to birthed progenies because names are supposed to designate us in the world. Thus, some people
gat baptized with names such as “precious”, “beauty”, or “lovely”. Likewise, when our parents call our names, we
were taught to respond to them because our names represent who we are. As a student, we are told to always
write our names on our papers, projects, or any output for that matter. Our names signify us. Death cannot even
stop this bond between the person and her name. Names are inscribed even into one’s gravestone.
A name is not the person itself no matter how intimately bound it is with the bearer. It is only a
signifier. A person who was named after a saint most probably will not become an actual saint. He may not even
turn out to be saintly! The self is thought to be something else than the name. The self is something that a person
perennially moulds, shapes, and develops. The self is not a static thing that one is simply born with like a mole on
one’s face or just assigned by one’s parents just like a name. Everyone is tasked to discover one’s self. Have you
truly discovered yours?

ACTIVITY:
Do You Truly Know Yourself?
Answer the following questions about your self as fully and precisely as you can.
1. How would you characterize your self?
 2. What makes you stand out from the rest? What makes your self special?

3. How has your self transformed itself?

4. How is your self connected to your body?

5. How is your self related to other selves?

6. What will happen to your self after you die?

ANALYSIS
Were you able to answer the questions above with ease? Why? Which questions did you find easiest to
answer? Which ones are difficult? Why?

Questions Easy or difficult to answer? Why?

Can one truly know the self? Do you want to know about self?
ABSTRACTION
The history of philosophy is replete with men and women who inquired onto the fundamental
nature of the self. Along with the question of the primary substratum that defines the multiplicity of things in the
world, the inquiry on the self has preoccupied the earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy: the Greeks. The
Greeks were the ones who seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to understand
reality and respond to perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of the self. The different
perspectives and views on the self can be best seen and understood by revisiting its prime movers and identify
the most important conjectures made by philosophers from the ancient times to the contemporary period.

Socrates and Plato

Prior the Socrates, the Greek thinkers, sometimes collectively called
the Pre-Socratics to denote that some of them preceded Socrates while
others existed around Socrates’s time as well, preoccupied themselves with
the question of the primary substratum, arche that explains the multiplicity
of things in the world. These men like Thales, Pythagoras, Parmenides,
Heraclitus, and Empedocles, to name a few, were concerned with explaining
what the world is really made up of, why the world is so, and what explains
the changes that they observed around them. Tired of simply conceding to
mythological accounts propounded by poet-theologians like Homer and
Hesiod, these men endeavored to finally locate an explanation about the
nature of change, the seeming permanence despite change, and the unity of
the world amidst its diversity.
After a series of thinkers from all across the ancient Greek world who were disturbed by the same issue, a
man came out to question something else. This man was Socrates. Unlike the Pre-Socratics, Socrates was more
concerned with another subject, the problem of the self. He was the first philosopher who ever engaged in a
systematic questioning about the self. To Socrates, and this has become his life-long mission, the true task of the
philosopher is to know oneself.
Plato claimed in his dialogs that Socrates affirmed that the unexamined life is not worth living. During his
trial for allegedly corrupting the minds of the youth and for impiety, Socrates declared without regret that his
being indicated was brought about by his going around Athens engaging men, young and old, to question their
presuppositions about themselves and about the world, particularly about who they are (Plato 2012). Socrates
took it upon himself to serve as a “gadfly” that disturbed Athenian men from their slumber and shook them off in
order to reach the truth and wisdom. Most men, in his reckoning, were really not fully aware of who they were
and the virtues that they were supposed to attain in order to preserve their souls for the afterlife. Socrates
thought that this is the worst that can happen to anyone: to live but die inside.
For Socrates, every man is composed of body and
soul. This means that every human person is dualistic, that is, he is
composed of two important aspects of his personhood. For
Socrates, this means all individuals have an imperfect,
impermanent aspect to him, and the body, while maintaining that
there is also a soul that is perfect and permanent. Plato, Socrates’s
student, basically took off from his master and supported the idea
that man is a dual nature of body and soul. In addition to what
Socrates earlier espoused, Plato added that there are three
components of the soul: the rational soul, the spirited soul, and
the appetitive soul. In his magnum opus, “The Republic” (Plato
2000), Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be attained if the three parts of the soul are
working harmoniously with one another. The rational soul forged by reason and intellect has to govern the affairs
of the human person, the spirited part which is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay, and the appetitive
soul is in charge of base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are controlled as well. When this
ideal state is attained, then the human person’s soul becomes just and virtuous.
Augustine and Thomas Aquinas

Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the entire

spirit of the medieval world when it comes to man. Following the
ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of
Christianity, Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature.
An aspect of man dwells in the world and is imperfect and
continuously yearns to be with the Divine and other is capable of
reaching immortality.

The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a realm of
spiritual bliss in communication with God. This is because the body can only thrive in the imperfect, physical
reality that is the world, whereas the soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with the all-transcendent
God. The goal of every human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life on
earth in virtue.
Thomas Aquinas, the most eminent thirteenth century scholar
and stalwart of the medieval philosophy, appended something to this Christian
view. Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is
composed of two parts: matter and form. Matter, or hyle in the universe.
“Man’s body is part of this matter. Form on the other hand, or morphe in Greek
refers to the “essence of a substance or thing.” It is what makes it what it is.
In the case of the human person, the body of the human person is something
that he shares even with animals. The cells in man’s body are more or less akin
to the cells of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a human person a human
person and not a dog, or a tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, just as in Aristotle, the soul is what animates
the body; it is what makes us humans.

Descartes
Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy, conceived of the
human person as having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise, The Meditations
of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much that we should doubt. In fact, he
says that since much of what we think and believe are not infallible, they may turn
out to be false. One should only believe that since which can pass the test of doubt
(Descartes 2008), If something is so clear and lucid as not to be even doubted, then
that is the only time when one should actually buy a proposition. In the end,
Descartes thought that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the
self, for even if one doubts oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and
therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thus, his famous, cogito ergo sum, “I think therefore, I am.” The fact that one
thinks should lead one to conclude without a trace of doubt that he exists. The self then for Descartes is also a
combination of two distinct entities, the cogito, the thing that thinks, which is the mind, and the extenza or
extension of the mind, which is the body. In Descartes’s view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is
attached to the mind. The human person has it but it is not what males man a man. If at all, that is the mind.
Descartes says, “But what then, am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a thing
that doubts, understands (conceives), affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagine also, and perceives” (Descartes
2008).

Hume
David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, has a very unique way of
looking at man. As an empiricist who believes that one can know only what
comes from the senses and experiences. Hume argues that the self is nothing
like what his predecessors thought of it. The self is not an entity over and
beyond the physical body. One can rightly see here the empiricism that runs
through his veins. Empiricism is the school of thought that espouses the idea
 that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced. Men can only
attain knowledge by experiencing. For example, Jack knows that Jill is another human person not because he has
seen her soul. He knows she is just like him because he sees her, hears her, and touches her. To David Hume, the
self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. What are impressions? For David Hume, if one tries to examine
his experiences he finds that they can all be categorized into two: impressions and ideas. Impressions are the
basic objects of our experience or sensation. They therefore form the core of our thoughts. When one touches an
ice cube, the cold sensation is an impression. Impressions therefore are vivid because they are products of our
direct experience with the world. Ideas, on the other hand, are copies of impressions. Because of this, they are
not as lively and vivid as our impressions. When one imagines the feeling of being in love for the first time, that
still is an idea.
What is the self then? Self, according to Hume, is simply “a bundle or collection of different
perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and
movement” (Hume and Steinberg 1992). Men simply want to believe that there is a unified, coherent self, a soul
or mind just like what the previous philosophers thought. In reality, what one thinks is a unified self is simply a
combination of all experience with a particular person.

Kant
Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of impressions
was problematic for Immanuel Kant. Kant recognizes the veracity of
Hume’s account that everything starts with the perception and sensations
of impressions. However, Kant thinks that the things that men perceive
around them are not just randomly infused into the human relationship of
all these impressions. To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes
the impressions that men get from the external world. Time and space, for
example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is built in our
minds. Kant calls these the apparatuses of the mind.
Along with the different apparatuses of the mind goes the “self”. Without the self, one cannot
organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence. Kant therefore suggests that t is
an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is not just
what gives one his personality. In addition, it is also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons.

Ryle
Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running
for a long time in the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an
internal, non-physical self. For Ryle, what truly matters is the behavior that a person
manifests in his day-to-day life.
For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a self as it really exists
is like visiting your friend’s university and looking for the “university.” One can roam
around the campus, visit the library and the football field, and meet the administrators
and faculty and still end up not finding the “university.” This is because the campus, the people, the systems, and
the territory all form the university. Ryle suggests that the “self” is not an entity one can locate and analyze but
simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all the behaviors that people make.

Merleau-Ponty
Merleau-Ponty is a phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body
bifurcation that has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an invalid
problem. Unlike Ryle who simple denies the “self,” Merleau-Ponty instead says that
the mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from one
another. One cannot find any experience that is not an embodied experience. All
experience is embodied. One’s body is his opening toward his existence to the world.
Because of these bodies, men are in the world. Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian
Dualism that spelled so much devastation in the history of man. For him, the Cartesian
problem is nothing else but plain misunderstanding. The living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are
all one.
APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT
A. In your own words, state what “self” is for each of the following philosophers. After doing so, explain how
your concept of “self” is compatible with how they conceived of the “self.”

1. Socrates

2. Plato

3. Augustine

4. Descartes

5. Hume

6. Kant

7. Ryle

8. Merleau-Ponty

Lesson 2:
 The Self, Society, and Culture

Lesson Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the relationship between and among the self, society, and culture;
2. Describe and discuss the different ways by which society and culture shape the self;
3. Compare and contrast how the self can be influenced by the different institutions in the
society; and
4. Examine one’s self against the different views of self that were studied/discussed in the class.

INTRODUCTION
Across time and history, the self has been debated, discussed, and fruitfully or otherwise
conceptualized by different thinkers in philosophy. Eventually, with the advent of the social sciences, it became
possible for new ways and paradigms to re-examine the true nature of the self. People put a halt on speculative
debates on the relationship between the body and soul, eventually renamed body and the mind. Thinkers just
eventually got tired of focusing on the long-standing debate since sixth century BC between the relationships of
these two components of the human person. Thinkers just settled on the idea that there are two components of
the human person and whatever relationship these two have is less important than the fact that there is self. The
debate shifted into another locus of discussion. Given the new ways of knowing and the growth of the social
sciences, it became possible for new approaches to the examination of the self to come to the fore. One of the
loci, if not the most important axis of analysis is the relationship between the self and the external world.
What is relationship between external reality and
the self? In the famous Tarzan story, the little boy named
Tarzan was left in the middle of the forest. Growing up, he
never had an interaction with any human being but apes
and other animals. Tarzan grew up acting strangely like
apes and unlike human persons. Tarzan became an animal,
in effect. His sole interaction with them made him just like
one of them. Disappointedly, human persons will not develop as
human persons without intervention. This story, which was supposed to be based on real life, challenges the
long-standing notion of human persons being special and being a particular kind of being in the spectrum of living
entities. After all, our selves are not special because of the soul infused into us. We may be gifted with intellect
and the capacity to rationalize things but at the end of the day, our growth and development and
consequentially, our selves are truly products of our interaction with external reality.
How much of you are essential? How much of who you are now a product of your society,
community, and family? Has your choice of school affected yourself now? Had you been born into a different
family and schooled in a different college, how much of who you are bow would change?
ACTIVITY
My Self Through the Years
Paste a picture of you when you were in elementary, in high school, and now that you are in
college. Below the picture, list down your salient characteristics that you remember.

My Elementary Self My High School Self My College Self

ANALYSIS
 After having examined your ‘’self’’ in its different stages, fill out the table below.

Similarities in all stages of my Differences in my ‘’self across the Possible reasons for the
‘’self’’ three stages of my life differences in me

ABSTRACTION

What is the Self?

The self, in contemporary literature and even common sense, is commonly defined by the following
characteristics: ‘’separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary, and private’’ (Stevens 1996). By
separate, it is meant that the self is distinct from other selves. The self is always unique and has its own identity.
One cannot be another person. Even twins are distinct from each other. Second, self is also self-contained and
independent because in itself it can exist. Its distinctness allows it to be self- contained with its own thought,
characteristics, and volition. It does not require any other self for it to exist. It is consistent because it has a
personality that is enduring and therefore can be expected to persist for quite some time. Its consistency allows it
to be studied, described, and measured. Consistency also means that a particular self’s traits, characteristics,
tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same. Self is unitary in that it is the center of all experiences
and thoughts that run through a certain person. It is like the chief command post in an individual where all
processes, emotions, and thoughts converge. Finally, the self is private. Each person sorts out information,
feelings and emotions, and thought processes within the self. This whole process is never accessible to anyone
but self.

This last characteristic of the self being private suggests that

the self is isolated from the external world. It lives within its own
world. However, we also see that this potential clash between the self
and the external reality is the reason for the self to have a clear under-
standing of what it might be, what it can be, and what it will be. From
the perspective then, one can see that the self is always at the mercy
of external circumstances that bump and collide with it. It is ever-changing and dynamic, allowing external
influences to take part in its shaping. The concern then of this lesson is in understanding the vibrant relationship
between the self and external reality. This perspective is known as the social constructionist perspective. “Social
constructionists argue for a merged view of ‘the person’ and ‘their social context’ where the boundaries of one
cannot easily be separated from the boundaries of the other” (Stevens 1996).
Social constructivists argue that the self should not be seen as a static entity that stays constant through
and through. Rather, the self has to be seen as something that is in unceasing flux, in a constant struggle with
external reality and is malleable in its dealings with society. The self is always in participation with social life and
its identity subjected to influences here and there. Having these perspectives considered should draw one into
concluding that the self is truly multifaceted.
 Consider a boy named Jon. Jon is a math professor at a Catholic university for more than a decade now.
Jon has a beautiful wife whom he met in college, Joan. Joan was Jon’s first and last girlfriend. Apart from being a
husband, Jon is also blessed with two doting kids, a son and a daughter. He also sometimes serves in the church
as a lector and a commentator. As a man of different roles, one can expect Jon to change and adjust his
behaviors, ways, and even language depending on his social situation. When Jon is in the university, he conducts
himself in a matter that befits his title as a professor. As a husband, Jon can be intimate and touchy. Joan
considers him sweet, something that his students will never conceive him to be. Hid kids fear him. As a father,
Jon can be stern. As a lector and commentator, on the other hand, his church mates knew him as a guy who is
calm, all-smiles, and always ready to lend a helping hand to anyone in need. This short story is not new to most of
us. We ourselves play different roles, act in different ways depending on our circumstances. Are we being
hypocritical in doing so? Are we even conscious of our shifting selves? According to what we have so far, this is
not only normal but it also is acceptable and expected. The self is capable of morphing and fitting itself into any
circumstances it finds itself in.

The Self and Culture

Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one’s context seems paradoxical.
However, the French Anthropologist Marcel Mauss has an explanation for this phenomenon. According to Mauss,
every self has two faces: personne and moi. Moi refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic
identity, his biological giveness. Moi is a person’s basic identity. Personne, on the other hand, is composed of the
social concepts of what it means to be who he is. Personne has much to do with what it means to live in a
particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a particular nationality, and how to behave given
expectations and influences from others.
In the story above, Jon might have a moi but certainly, he has to shift personne from time to time to adapt
his social situation. He knows who he is and more or less, he is confident that he has a unified, coherent self.
However, at some point, he has to sport his stern professorial look. Another day, he has to be the doting but
strict father that he is. Inside his bedroom, he can play goofy with his wife, Joan. In all this and more, Jon retains
who he is, his being Jon – his moi – that part of him that is stable and static all throughout.
This dynamics and capacity for different personne can be illustrated better cross-culturally. An overseas
Filipino worker (OFW) adjusting to life in another country is a very good case study. In the Philippines, many
people unabashedly violate jaywalking rules. A common Filipino treats road, even national ones, as basically his
and so he just merely crosses whenever and wherever. When the same Filipino visits another country with strict
traffic rules, say Singapore, you will notice how suddenly law-abiding the said Filipino becomes. A lot of Filipinos
has anecdotally confirmed this observation.
The same malleability can be seen in how some men easily transform into sweet, docile guys when trying
to woe and court a particular woman and suddenly just change rapidly after hearing a sweet “yes.” This cannot
be considered a conscious change on the part of the guy, r on the part of the law-abiding Filipino in the first
example. The self simply morphed according to the circumstances and contexts.
In the Philippines, Filipinos tend to consider their territory as
a part of who they are. This includes considering their immediate
surrounding as a part of them, thus the perennial “tapat ko, linis ko.”
Filipinos most probably do not consider national roads as something
external to who they are. It is a part of them and they are a part of it,
thus crossing the road whenever and wherever becomes a no-brainer. In another country, however, the Filipino
recognizes that he is in a foreign territory where nothing technically belongs to him. He has to follow the rules or
else he will be apprehended.
Language is another interesting aspect of this social constructivism. The Filipino language is incredibly
interesting to talk about. The way by which we articulate our love is denoted by the phrase, “Mahal kita.” This, of
course, is the Filipino translation of “I love you.” The Filipino brand of thus articulation of love, unlike in English,
does not specify the subject and the object of love; there is no specification of who loves and who is loved. There
is simply a word for love, mahal, and the pronoun kita, which is second person pronoun that refers to the
speaker and the one being talked to. In the Filipino language, unlike in English, there is no distinction between
the lover and the beloved. They are one.
 Interesting too is word, mahal. In Filipino, the word can mean both “love” and “expensive”. In our
language, love is intimately bound with value, with being expensive, being precious. Something expensive is
valuable. Someone whom we love is valuable to us. The Sanskrit origin off the word love is “lubh”, which means
desire. Technically, love is desire. The Filipino word for it has another intonation apart from mere desire,
valuable.
Another interesting facet of our language is its being gender-neutral. In English, Spanish, and other
languages, the distinction is clear between a third person male and third person female pronoun. He and she; el
and ella. In Filipino, it is plain, “siya.” There is no specification of gender. Our language does not specify between
male and female. We both call it “siya.”
In these varied examples, we have seen how language has something to do with culture. It is a salient
part of culture and ultimately, has a tremendous effect in our crafting of the self. This might also be one of the
reasons why cultural divide spells out differences in how one regards oneself. In one research, it was found that
North Americans are more likely to attribute being unique to themselves and claim that they are better than
most people in doing what they love doing. Japanese people, on the other hand, have been seen to display a
degree of modesty. If one finds himself born and reared in a particular culture, one definitely tries to fit in a
particular mold. If a self is born into a particular society or culture, the self will have to adjust according to its
exposure.

The Self and the Development of the Social World

So how do people actively produce their social worlds? How do children growing up become social
beings? How can a boy turn out to just be like an ape? How do twins coming out from the same mother turn out
to be terribly different when given up for adoption? More than his givenness (personality, tendencies, and
propensities, among others), one is believed to be in active participation in the shaping of the self. Most often,
we think the human persons are just passive actors in the whole process of the shaping of selves. That men and
women are born with particularities that they can no longer change. Recent studies, however, indicate that men
and women in their growth and development engage actively in the shaping of the self. The unending terrain of
metamorphosis of the self is mediated by language. “Language as both a publicly shared and privately utilized
symbol system is the site where the individual and the social make and remake each other” (Schwartz, White,
and Lutz 1993).

Mead and Vygotsky

For Mead and Vygotsky, the way that human persons develop
is with the use of language acquisition and interaction with others. The way
that we process information is normally a form of an internal dialogue in our
head. Those who deliberate about moral dilemmas undergo this internal dialog.
“Should I do this or that?” “But if I do this, it will be like this,” “Don’t I want the
other option? “And so cognitive and emotional development a child is always a
mimicry of how it is done in the social world, in the external reality where he is in.
Both Vygotsky and Mead treat the human mind as something that is made, constituted through
language as experienced in the external world and as encountered in dialogs with others. A young child
internalizes values, norms, practices, and social beliefs and more through exposure to these dialogs that will
eventually become part of his individual world. For Mead, this takes place as a child assumes the “other” through
language and role-play. A child conceptualizes his notion of “self” through this. Can you notice how little children
are fond of playing role-play with their toys? How they make scripts and dialogs
for their toys as they play with them? According to Mead, it is through this that
a child internalizes real-life dialogs that he has had with others, with his family,
his primary caregiver, or his playmates. They apply this to their mental and
practical problems along with the social and cultural infusions brought about by
the said dialogs. Can you notice how children eventually become what they
watch? How children can easily adapt ways of cartoon characters they are
exposed to?
Self in Families
Apart from the anthropological and psychological basis for the relationship between the self and
the social world, the sociological likewise struggled to understand the real connection between the two concepts.
In doing so, sociologists focus on the different institutions and powers at play in the society. Among these, the
most prominent is the family.
With every child is born with certain givenness,
disposition coming from his parents’ genes and general con-
dition of life, the impact of one’s family is still deemed as a
given in understanding the self. The kind of family that we
are born in, the resources available to us (human, spiritual,
economic), and the kind of development that we will have
will certainly affect us as we go through life. As a matter of
evolutionary fact, human persons are one of those beings whose importance of family cannot be denied. Human
beings are born virtually helpless and the dependency period of a human baby to its parents for nurturing is
relatively longer than most other animals. Learning therefore is critical in our capacity to actualize our potential
of becoming humans. In trying to achieve the goal of becoming a fully realized human, a child enters a system of
relationships, most important of which is the family.
Human persons learn the ways of living and therefore their selfhood by being in a family. It is
what a family initiates a person to become that serves as the basis for this person’s progress. Babies internalize
ways and styles that they observe from their family. By imitating, for example, the language of its primary agents
of rearing its family, babies learn the language. The same is true for ways of behaving. Notice how kids reared in a
respectful environment becomes respectful as well and the converse if raised in a converse family. Internalizing
behavior may either conscious or unconscious. Table manners or ways of speaking to elders are things that are
possible to teach and therefore, are consciously learned by kids. Some behaviors and attitudes, on the other
hand, may be indirectly taught through rewards and punishments. Others, such as sexual behavior or how to
confront emotions, are learned through subtle means, like the tone of the voice or intonation of the models. It is
the clear at this point that those who develop and eventually grow to become adult who still did not learn simple
matters like basic manners of conduct failed in internalizing due to parental or familial failure to initiate them into
the world.
Without a family, biologically and sociologically, a person may not even survive or become a
human person. Go back too Tarzan example. In more ways than one, the survival or Tarzan in the midst of the
forest is already a miracle. His being a fully grown person with a sense of selfhood is a different story though. The
usual teleserye plot of kids getting swapped in the hospital and getting reared by a different family gives an
obvious manifestation of the point being made in the section. One is who he is because of his family for the most
part.

Gender and the Self

Another important aspect of the self is gender. Gender is one of those loci of the self that is
subject to alteration, change, and development. We have seen in the past years how people fought hard for the
right to express, validate, and assert their gender expression. Many conservatives frown upon this and insist in
the biological. However, from the point-of-view of the social sciences and the self, it is important to give one the
leeway to find, express, and live his identity. This forms part of selfhood that one cannot just dismiss. One
maneuvers into the society and identifies himself as who he is by also taking note of gender identities. A
wonderful anecdote about Leo Tolstoy’s wife that can solidify this point is narrated below:

Sonia Tolstoy, the wife of the famous Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, wrote when
she was twenty-one, “I am nothing but a miserable crushed worm, whom no one wants,
whom no one loves, a useless creature with morning sickness, and a big belly, two rotten
teeth, and a bed temper, a battered sense of dignity, and a love which nobody wants and
which nearly drives me insane.” A few years later she wrote, “It makes me laugh to read
over this diary. It’s so full of contradictions, and one would think that I was such an un-
happy woman. Yet is there a happier woman than I?” (Tolstoy 1975)
 This account illustrates that our gender partly determines how we see ourselves in the world.
Oftentimes, society forces a particular identity unto us depending on our sex and/or gender. In the Philippines,
husbands for the most part are expected to provide for the family. The eldest man in a family is expected to head
the family and hold it in. Slight modifications have been on the way due to feminism, lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender (LGBT) activism but for the most part, patriarchy has remained to be at work.
Nancy Chodorow, a feminist, argues that because mothers take the role of taking care of children,
there is tendency for girls to imitate the same and reproduce the same kind of mentality of women as care
providers in the family. The way that little girls are given dolls instead of guns or any other toys or are encouraged
to play with makeshift kitchen also reinforces the notion of what roles they should take and the selves they
should develop. In boarding schools for girls, young women are encouraged to act like fine ladies, are trained to
behave in a fashion that befits their status as women in society.
Men on the other hand, in the periphery of their own family, are taught early in how to behave
like a man. This normally includes holding in one’s emotion, being tough, fantastic, not to worry about a danger,
and admiration for hard physical labor. Masculinity is learned by integrating a young boy in a society. In the
Philippines, young boys had to undergo circumcision not just for the original, clinical of hygiene but also to assert
their manliness in the society. Circumcision plays another social role by initiating young boys to manhood.
The gendered self is then shaped within a particular context of time and space. The sense of self
that is being taught makes sure that an individual fits in a particular environment. This is dangerous and
detrimental in the goal of truly finding one’s self, self-determination, and growth of the self. Gender has to be
personally discovered and asserted and not dictated by culture and the society.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

A. Answer the following questions cogently but honestly. Write your answers in the space provided.

1. How would you describe your self?

2. What are the influences of family in your development as an individual?

3. Think of a time when you felt you were your “true self.” What made you think you were truly who you

are during this time of your life?

4. Following the question above, can you provide a time when you felt you were not living your “true
self”? Why? Why did you have to live a life like that? What did you do about it?

5. What social pressures help shape your self? Would you have wanted it otherwise?

6. What aspects of your self do you think may be changed or you would like to change?
 Lesson 3:

The Self as Cognitive Construct

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify the different ideas in psychology about the “self”;
2. Create your own definition of the “self” based in the definitions from psychology; and
3. Analyze the effects of various factors identified in psychology in the formation of the “self.”

INTRODUCTION

As discussed in the previous lessons, every field of study, at least in the social sciences, have their
own research, definition, and conceptualization of self and identity. Some are similar while some specific only in
their field. Each field also has thousands of research on self and identity as well as related or synonymous terms.
The trend of the lessons also seems to define the concept of the “self” from a larger context (i.e., culture and
society) down to the individual. However, it must be pointed out that modern researchers acknowledge the
contributions of each field and this is not some sort of nurture vs. nature, society/culture vs. individual/brain, and
other social sciences vs. psychology debate. Psychology may focus on the individual and the cognitive functions,
but it does not discount the context and other possible factors that affect the individual. For students who take
up psychology, discussions on theories, and development, among others actually take at least one semester and
there are still more to be learned about the concept of “self.” This lesson provides an overview of the themes if
psychology regarding the said concept.

ACTIVITY

“You” Through Others’ Eye

This activity has two parts that try to compare how we look at ourselves against how people perceive us
depending in how we present ourselves to them. For the first part, list ten to fifteen (10-15) qualities or things
that you think defines who you are around the human figure representing you.

For the second part, in the space below, write “I am __________________ (your name). Who do you
think I am based on what you see me do or hear me say?” Pass your paper around for two to three (2-3) minutes
without looking who writes on it. As you fill out the paper of your classmates, write briefly and only those that
you observe about the person. Do not use any bad words and do not write your name. After the allotted period,
pass all the paper to your teacher who will distribute them to the respective owners.
ANALYSIS
Compare what you wrote about yourself to those written by your classmates. What aspects are similar
and which are not? What aspects are always true to you? What aspects are sometimes true or circumstantial?
What aspects do you think are not really part of your personality? Write your answers below.

ABSTRACTION
In confidence or in an attempt to avoid further analytical discussions, a lot of people say, “I am who I am.” Yet,
this statement still begs the question “if you are who you are, then who are you that makes you who you are?”
As mentioned earlier, there are various definitions of the “self” and other similar or interchangeable concepts
in psychology. Simply put, “self” is “the sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and
Tarry 2014)”.
William James (1890) was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and conceptualized the self as
having two aspects—the “I” and the “me”. The “I” is the thinking, acting, and feeling self (Gleitman, Gross, and
Reisberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). The “me” on the other hand, is the physical characteristics as well as the
psychological capabilities that makes who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). Carl
Roger’s (1959) theory of personality also used the same terms, the “I” as the one who acts and decides while the “me”
is what you think or feel about yourself as an object ((Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011).
Other concepts similar to self are identify and self-concept. Identity is composed of personal characteristics,
social roles, and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one is (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012).
Self-concept is what basically comes to your mind when you are asked about who you are.
Self, identity, and self-concept are not fixed in one time frame. For example, when you are asked about who
you are, you can say “ I was a varsity player in 5 th Grade” which pertains to the past, “a college student” which may be
the present, and “a future politician” which is the future. They are not also fixed for life nor are they ever-changing at
every moment. Think of a malleable metal, strong and hard but can be bent and molded in other shapes. Think about
water. It can take any shape of the container, but at its core, it is still the same element.
Carl Rogers captured this idea in his concept of self-schema or our organized system or collection of
knowledge about who we are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Imagine an organized
list or a diagram similar to the one below:
 The schema is not limited to the example above. It may also include your interests, work, course, age,
name, and physical characteristics, among others. As you grow and adapt to the changes around you, they also
change. But they are not passive receivers, they actively shape and affect how you see, think, and feel about
things (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).
For example, when someone states your first name even if they are not talking about you, your
attention is drawn to them. If you have a provincial language and you hear someone using it, it catches your
attention. If you consider yourself a book-lover, a bookstore may always entice you out of all the other stores in a
mall.
Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs, created and recreated in
memory (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012). Current researches point to the frontal lobe of the brain as the
specific area in the brain associated with the processes concerning the self (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012).
Several psychologists, especially during the field’s earlier development, followed this trend of
thought, looking deeper into the mind of the person to theorize about the self, identity, self-conceot, and in turn,
one’s personality. The most influential of them is Sigmund Freud. Basically, Freud saw the self, its mental
processes, and one’s behavior as the results of the interaction between the Id, the Ego, and the Superego.
However, as mentioned earlier, one cannot fully discount the effects of society and culture on the
formation of the self, identity, and self-concept. Even as Freud and other theories and researchers to understand
the person by digging deeper into the mind, they cannot fully discount the huge and important effects of the
environment. As in the above mentioned definitions of the self, social interactions always have a part to play in
who we think we are. This is not nature vs. nurture but instead a nature-and-nurture perspective.
Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, G.H. Mead (1934) argued that the self is created and
developed through human interaction (Hogg and Vaughan 2010). Basically, there are three reasons why self and
identity are social products (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012):

1. We do not create ourselves out of nothing. Society helped in creating the foundations of who we are
and even if we make our choices, we will still operate in our social and historical contexts in one way
or the other. You may, of course, transfer from one culture to another, but parts of who you are were
still affect you and you will also have to adapt to the new social context. Try looking at your definition
of who you are and see where society had affected you.
2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm and reinforce who we think we
are. We also need them as reference points about our identity. One interesting example is the social
media interactions we have. In the case of Facebook, there are those who will consciously or
unconsciously try to garner more “likes” and/or positive “reactions” and that can and will reinforce
their self-concept. It is almost like a battle between who got more friends, more viewers, and trending
topics. If one says he is good singer but in performance and the evaluation of his audience says
otherwise, that will have an effect on that person’s idea of himself, one way or another.
3. What we think is important to us may also have been influenced by what is important in our social or
historical context. Education might be an important thing to your self-concept because you grew up in
a family that valued education. Money might be important to some because they may have grown in
a low-income family and realized how important money is in addressing certain needs like medical
emergencies. Being a nurse or a lawyer can be priority in your self-schema because it is on-demand
course during your time.

Social interaction and group affiliation, therefore, are vital factors in creating our self-concept
especially in the aspect of providing us with our social identity of our perception of who we are based on our
membership to certain groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014.) It is also inevitable that we can have several social
identities, that those identities can overlap, and that we automatically play the roles as we interact with our
groups. For example, you are a student who is also part of a certain group of friends. You study because it is your
role as a student but you prefer to study with your friends and your study pattern changes when you are with
your friends than when you do it alone.
There are times, however, when we are aware of our self-concepts; this is also called self-
awareness. Carver and Scheier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be aware of: (1) the private self or
your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings, and (2) the public self or your public image commonly
geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others (Hogg and Vaughan 2010).
 Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema: the actual, ideal, and ought
self. The “actual” self is who you are at the moment, the “ideal” self is who you like to be, and the “ought” self is
who you think you should be (Higgins 1997 in Hogg and Vaughan 2010). As an example is that you are a student
interested in basketball but is also academically challenged in most of your subject. Your ideal self might be to
practice more and play with the varsity team but ought to pass your subjects as a responsible student. One has to
find a solution to such discrepancies to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative emotions. In some instances,
however, all three may be in line with one another.
Self-awareness may be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our next course
of action. Self-awareness can keep you from doing something dangerous; it can help remind you that there is an
exam tomorrow in one of your subjects when you are about to spend time playing computer games with your
cousins, among others. In other instances, self-awareness can be too much that we are concerned about being
observed and criticized by others, also known as self-consciousness (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). At other times,
especially with large crowds, we my experience deindividuation or “the loss of individual self-awareness and
individual accountability in groups” (Festinger, Pepitone, and Newcomb 1952; Zimbardo 1969 in Jhangiani and
Tarry 2014). A lot of people will attune themselves with the emotions of their group and because the large crowd
also provides some kind of anonymity, we may lessen our self-control and act in ways that we will not do when
we are alone. A common example is a mass demonstration erupting into a riot.
Our group identity and self-awareness also has a great impact on our self-esteem, one of the
common concepts associated with the “self”. It is defined as our own positive or negative perception or
evaluation of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Gleitman, Gross and Reisberg 2011).
One of the ways in which our social relationship affects our self-esteem is through social
comparison. According to the social comparison theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our
behaviors, as well as our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people (Jhangiani and Tarry
2014; Hogg and Vaughan 2010).
The downward social comparison is the more common type of comparing ourselves with others.
As the name implies, we create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those who we are worse off
than us (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104). By having the advantage, we can raise our self-esteem. Another comparison is
the upward social comparison which is comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us (Jhangiani and
Tarry 2104). While it can be a form of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this actually felt lower self-
esteem as they highlight more of their weakness or inequities.
Take note that this occurs not only between individuals but also among groups. Thus, if a person’s
group is performing better and is acknowledged more than the other group, then his self-esteem may also be
heightened.
Social comparison also entails what is called self-evaluation maintenance theory, which states
that we can feel threatened when someone out-performs us, especially when that person is close to us (i.e., a
friend or family) (Tesser 1988 in Jhangiani and Tarry 2104). In this case, we usually react in three ways. First, we
distance ourselves from that person or redefine our relationship with them (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Some will
resort to the silent treatment, change of friends, while some may also redefine by being closer to that person,
hoping that some association may give him a certain kind of acknowledgement also. Second, we may also
reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which you were outperformed (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104). If
you got beaten in a drawing competition, you might think that drawing is not really for you and you will find a
hobby where you can excel, thus preserving your self-esteem. Lastly, we may also strengthen our resolve to
improve that certain aspect of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104). Instead of quitting drawing, you might join
seminars, practice more often, read books about it, and add some elements in your drawing that makes it unique,
among others. Achieving your goal through hard work may increase your self-esteem, too.
However, in the attempt to increase or maintain self-esteem, some people become narcissistic.
Narcissism is a “trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness” (Jhangiani
and Tarry 2104). They are often charismatic because of how they take care of their image. Taking care of that
image includes their interpersonal relationships thus they will try to look for better partners, better
acquaintances, as well as people who appreciate them a lot. This makes them a bad partner or friend since they
engage in relationships only to serve themselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104).
Sometimes, there is a thin line between high self-esteem and narcissism and there are a lot of
tests and measurements for self-esteem like the Rosenberg scale but the issue is that the result can be affected
by the desire of the person to portray herself in a positive or advantageous way (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104).In
case you want to try to take a test and find a numerical value or level of your self-esteem, try to be honest and
objective about what you feel and see about yourself. And though self-esteem is a very important concept
related to the self, studies have shown that it only has a correlation, not causality, to positive outputs and
outlook (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104). It can be argued that high or healthy self-esteem may result to an overall
good personality but it is not, and should not be, the only source of a person’s healthy perspective of herself.

People with high self-esteem are commonly described as outgoing, adventurous, and adaptable in
a lot of situations. They also initiate activities and building relationship with people. However, they may also
dismiss other activities that do not conform to their self-concept or boost their self-esteem. They may also bullies
and experiment on abusive behaviors like drugs, alcohol and sex (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104).
This duality in the behavior and attitudes only proves the above-mentioned correlation.
Bausmeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) in their research on self-esteem concluded that programs, activities, and
parenting styles to boost self-esteem should only be for rewarding good behavior and other achievements and
not for the purpose of merely trying to make children feel better about themselves or to appease them when
they get angry or sad (Jhangiani and Tarry 2104).

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

A. Do a research and list ten (10) things to boost your self-esteem or improve your self-concept. Cite your
sources. Analyze which of those tips are more likely to backfire and make someone conceited or narcissistic and
revise them to make the statements both helpful to the individual as well as society in general.
 Lesson 4
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate the concept of self according to Western thought against Eastern/Oriental
perspectives;
2. Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts;
3. Create a representation of the Filipino self.

INTRODUCTION

Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and
one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy
wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America. It must be
understood that this distinction and the countries included was politically colored at that aforementioned
concepts were accepted and used in the social sciences. Furthermore, it must be reiterated that while
countries who are geographically closer to each other may share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors
that create differences. In the Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception
regarding the “self.”

ACTIVITY

Two Sides of the Same Planet

Write top five (5) differences between Western and Eastern society, culture, and individuals in the table
below. Cite your sources.

Western Eastern

ANALYSIS
Do you agree with the differentiation between the West and the East? Where can you find the
Philippines in the distinction? What are the factors that make the Philippines similar or different from its Asian
neighbours? Is there also a difference between regions or ethno linguistic groups in the Philippines?
ABSTRACTION

There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyze the perspective of each culture and country
about the concept of “self”. You can see it in their literature like how one culture depicts a hero or a villain in
their stories. You can see it in their social organization like how they see their boss or their subordinate.
Artworks, dances, even clothing may show you clues about the “self.”
In this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly influenced the
mindset of each nation or culture. Since almost all the theories about the self, which were discussed in the
previous lessons, also came from the Western scientific research, we will highlight Eastern thoughts in this
lesson.
First is Confucianism, Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly
act according to their relationship with other people; thus, it is also focused on having a harmonious social life
(Ho 1995). Therefore, the identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity and status
of his/her community or culture, sharing its pride as well as its failures (Ho 1995).
Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the characteristics of a chun-tzu, a man of virtue
or noble character, is still embedded in his social relationships (Ho 1995). The cultivated self in Confucianism is
what some scholars call a “subdues self” wherein personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many,
making Confucian society also hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society (Ho 1995).
The second philosophy is Taoism. Taoism is living the way of the Tao or the universe. However, Taoism
rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-
flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. Taoism rejects the hierarchy and
strictness brought by Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how
to attain that life (Ho 1995).
The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the universe, one of the forms
and manifestations of the Tao (Ho 1995). The ideal self is selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it is
living a balanced-life with society and nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about prejudices
and egocentric ideas and thinking about equality as well as complementary among humans as well as other
beings (Ho 1995). In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will not be restricted by some
legalistic standards but because you are in harmony with everything.
The third belief is Buddhism. There are various groups who have adopted Buddhism; thus, you may find
differences in their teachings with our discussion but more likely, their core concepts remained the same. The self
is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control things, or human-centered needs; thus,
the self is also the source of all these sufferings (Ho 1995). It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self,
forget the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have in the world, and to renounce the self which is the
cause of all suffering and in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana (Ho 1995).
The self or the individual is not the focus of the abovementioned Asian or Eastern philosophies or beliefs.
Even with extended discussions about how the self should work. Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self
within a bigger context. In striving to become a better person, one does not create a self above other people or
nature but a self that is beneficial to his community as well as in order and harmony with everything else. As for
Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out of the center of the picture, but
from the whole picture entirely.
As previously discussed, Western perspective does not discount the role of environment and society in
the formation of the self but the focus is always looking forward the self. You compare yourself in order to be
better; you create associations and bask in the glory of that group for your self-esteem you put primacy in
developing yourself.
One can also describe that the Western thought looks at the world in dualities wherein you are distinct
from the other person, the creator is separate from the object he created, in which the self is distinguished and
acknowledged (Wolter 2012). On the other hand, the Eastern perspective sees the other person as part of
yourself as well as the things you may create, a drama in which everyone is interconnected with their specific
roles (Wolter 2012).
Several studies showed that Americans, for example, talk more about their personal attributes when
describing themselves while Asians in general talk about theirs social roles or the social situations that involved
certain traits that they deem positive for their selves (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011). Evaluation of the self
also differs as Americans would highlight their personal achievements while Asian would rather keep a low profile
as promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness that disrupts social relationships (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011).

The Western culture is what we would call an individualistic culture since their focus is in the person.
Asian culture, on the other hand, is called a collectivistic culture as the group and social relations that is given
more importance than individual needs and wants.
By valuing, Westerners may seem to have loose associations or even loyalty to their groups. Competition
is the name of the game and they are more likely straightforward and forceful in their communication as well as
decision-making. Eastern or oriental persons look after the welfare of their groups and values cooperation. They
would also be more compromising and they tend to go around the bush in explaining things, hoping that the
other person would “feel” what they really want to say (Qingxue 2003).
Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if they see that the individual can rise
above everything else. Because everyone is on their own in the competition, one can say that they also promote
ideals that create “fair” competition and protect the individual. Asians, with their collectivistic culture, put more
emphasis on hierarchy as the culture wants to keep things in harmony and order (Qingxue 2003). For example,
Westerners would most likely call their bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first name. The boss can also be
approached head-on when conflicts or problems about him arises. For Asians, we have respectful terms for our
seniors and a lot of workers would not dare go against the high-ranking officials (Qingxue 2003).
It must be emphasized, however, that these are general commonalities among Western cultures as
compared to Asian or Oriental cultures. In the case of the Philippines, we can also consider the colonization
experience for differences and similarities with our Asian neighbors. We might also find variation among
provinces and regions due to geographical conditions.
With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety between the Western and Asian perceptions
may either be blurred or highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in diversity, peace is also possible through
understanding of where each of us is coming from.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

A. Create a representation, diagram, or concept map of the SELF according to Filipino culture. Provide a brief
explanation of your output. You can also cite books and researchers about Filipino culture, self, and identity to
further elaborate on the topic.

B. Do the following tasks:

1. Differentiate the concept of self according to Western thought against Eastern/Oriental
perspectives;
2. Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts;
3. Create a representation of the Filipino self.
 Module II
UNPACKING THE SELF
Contents:
Lesson 1: The Physical and Sexual Self
Lesson 2: To Buy or Not to Buy? That Is the Question!
Lesson 3: Supernaturals: Believe It or Not!
Lesson 4: The Political Self and Being Filipino
Lesson 5: Who Am I in the Cyberworld? (Digital Self)

Lesson 1
The Physical and Sexual Self

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss the developmental aspect of the reproductive system;

2. describe the erogenous zones;
3. explain human sexual behavior;
4. characterize the diversity of sexual behavior;
5. describe sexually transmitted diseases; and
6. differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception.

INTRODUCTION

It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of humans define the sex (female or male) and
their secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our genetic makeup. It influences
the way we treat ourselves and others. However, there are individuals who do not accept their innate sexual
characteristics and they tend to change their sexual organs through medications and surgery. Aside from our
genes, our society or the external environmental helps shape our selves. This lesson helps us better understand
ourselves through a discussion on the development of our sexual characteristics and behavior.

ACTIVITY

Defining Beauty

Complete the sentences below.

1. For me, beauty means

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. A beautiful person is
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. I am beautiful because
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. List down names of people you know who are beautiful.
_______________________________________________________________________________
 _______________________________________________________________________________

Fill out the table below by listing the common secondary sexual male and female characteristics.

Male Secondary Sexual Female Secondary Sexual

Characteristics Characteristics

ANALYSIS

1. When do we usually observe the changes listed above for males and females?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Were you able to experience the same changes? When?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. If you were not able to experience the above listed changes, what might have caused such difference?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. How does the society shape the sexual behavior of an individual?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Can we really change our natural or innate sexual organ and sexual response?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACTION

Marieb, E.N. (2001) explains that the gonads (reproductive glands that produce the gametes;
testis or ovary) begin to form until about the eighth week of embryonic development. During the early stage of
human development, the embryonic reproductive structures of males and females are alike and are said to be in
the indifferent stage. When the primary reproductive structures are formed, development of the accessory
structure and external genitalia begins. The formation of male or female structures depends on the presence of
testosterone. Usually, once formed, the embryonic testes release testosterone, and the formation of the duct
system and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos that forms ovaries, it will cause the
development of the female ducts and external genitalia since testosterone hormone are not produced.
 Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo results in
strange abnormalities. For instance, a genetic male develops the female accessory structure and external
genitalia if the embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone. On the other hand, if a genetic female is exposed to
testosterone (as in the case of a mother with androgen-producing tumor of her adrenal gland), the embryo has
ovaries but may develop male accessory ducts and glands, as well as a male reproductive organ and an empty
scrotum. As a result, pseudohermaphrodites are formed who are individuals having accessory reproductive
structures that do not “match” their gonads while true hermaphrodites are individuals who possess both ovarian
and testicular tissues but this condition is rare in nature. Nowadays, many pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex
change operations to have their outer selves (external genitalia) fit with their inner selves (gonads).

A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place about one month before
birth wherein the male testes formed in the abdominal cavity at approximately the same location as the female
ovaries, descend to enter the scrotum. If this normal event fails, it may lead to cryptorchidism. This condition
usually occurs in young males and causes sterility (which is also a risk factor for cancer of the testes) that is why
surgery performed during childhood to solve this problem.
Moreover, abnormal separation of chromosomes during meiosis can lead to congenital defects of
the reproductive system. For instance, males who possess extra female sex chromosome have the normal male
accessory structures, but atrophy (to shrink) of their testes causes them to be sterile. Other abnormalities result
when a child has only one sex chromosome. An XO female appears normal but lacks ovaries. YO males die during
development. Other much less serious conditions also affect males primarily such as phimosis, which is due to a
narrowing of the foreskin of the male reproductive structure and misplaced urethral openings.
Puberty is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old, when the
reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising levels of gonadal
hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen in females). After this time, reproductive capability continues until
old age in males and menopause in female.
The changes that occur during puberty is similar in sequence in all individuals but the age which
they occur differs among individuals. In males, as they reach the age 13, puberty is characterized by the increase
in the size of the reproductive organs followed by the appearance of hair in the public area, axillary, and face. The
reproductive organs continue to grow for two years until sexual maturation marked by the presence of mature
semen in the testes.
In females, the budding of their breasts usually occurring at the age of 11 signals their puberty
stage. Menarche is the first menstrual period of females which happens two years after the start of puberty.
Hormones play an important role in the regulation of ovulation and fertility of females.

Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System

Infection are the most common problems associated with the reproductive system in adults.
Vaginal infections are more common in young and elderly women and n those whose resistance to diseases is
low. The usual infections include those caused by Escherichia coli which spread through the digestive tract; the
sexually transmitted microorganism such as syphilis, gonorrhea, and herpes virus; and yeast (a type of fungus).
Vaginal infections that are left untreated may spread throughout the female reproductive tract and may cause
pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility. Problems that involve painful or abnormal menses may also be due to
infection or hormone imbalance.
In males, the most common inflammatory conditions are prostatitis, urethritis, and epididymitis, all of
which may follow sexual contacts in which sexually transmitted disease (STD) microorganisms are transmitted.
Orchiditis, or inflammation of the testes, is rather uncommon but is serious because it can cause sterility.
Orchiditis most commonly follows mumps in an adult male.
 Neoplasms are a major threat to reproductive organs. Tumors of the breast and cervix are the most
common reproductive cancers in adult females, and prostate cancer (a common sequel to prostatic hypertrophy)
is a widespread problem in adult males.
Most women hit the highest point of their reproductive abilities in their late 20s. A natural decrease in
ovarian function usually follows characterized by reduced estrogen production that causes irregular ovulation
and shorter menstrual periods. Consequently, ovulation and menses stop entirely, ending childbearing ability.
This event is called as menopause, which occurs when females no longer experience menstruation.
The production of estrogen may still continue after menopause but the ovaries finally stop functioning as
endocrine organs. The reproductive organs and breasts begin to atrophy or shrink if estrogen is no longer
released from the body. The vagina becomes dry that cause intercourse to become painful (particularly if
frequent), and vaginal infections become increasingly common. Other consequences of estrogen deficiency may
also be observed including irritability and other mood changes (depression in some); intense vasodilation of the
skin’s blood vessels, which causes uncomfortable sweat-drenching “hot flashes”; gradual thinning of the skin and
loss of bone mass; and slowly rising blood cholesterol levels, which place postmenopausal women at risk for
cardiovascular disorders. Some physicians prescribe low-dose estrogen-progestin preparations to help women
through this usually difficult period and to prevent skeletal and cardiovascular complications.
There is no counterpart for menopause in males. Although aging men show a steady decline in
testosterone secretion, the reproductive capability seems unending. Healthy men are still able to father offspring
well into their 80s and beyond.

Erogenous Zones
Erogenous zones refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual arousal when
touched in a sexual manner. Some of the commonly known erogenous zones are the mouth, breast, genitals, and
anus. Erogenous zones may vary from one person to another. Some people may enjoy being touched in a certain
area more than areas. Other common areas of the body that can be aroused easily may include the neck, thighs,
abdomen, and feet.

Human Sexual Behavior

Human sexual behavior is defined as any activity-solitary, between two persons, or in a group-that
induces sexual arousal (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). There are two major factors that determine human sexual behavior:
the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that become
part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on
the individual by society in the expression of his sexuality.

Types of Behavior
The various types of human sexual behavior are usually classified according to the gender and number of
participants. There is solitary behavior involving only one individual, and there is sociosexual behavior involving
more than one person. Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into heterosexual behavior (male with female)
and homosexual’s behavior (male with male or female with female). If there or more individuals are involved, it
is, possible to have heterosexual and homosexual activity simultaneously (Gebhard, P.H. 2017).
1. Solitary Behavior
Self-gratification means self-stimulation that leads to sexual arousal and generally, sexual
climax. Usually, most self-gratification takes place in private as an end in itself but can also be done in a
sociosexual relationship.
Self-gratification, generally beginning at or before puberty, is very common among young
males, but becomes less frequent or is abandoned when sociosexual activity is available. Consequently,
self-gratification is most frequent among the unmarried. There are more males who perform acts of self-
gratification than females. The frequency greatly varies among individuals and it usually decreases as
soon as they develop sociosexual relationships.
Majority of males and females have fantasies of some sociosexual activity while they
gratify themselves. The fantasy frequently involves idealized sexual partners and activities that the
individual has not experienced and even might avoid in real life.
Nowadays, humans are frequently being exposed to sexual stimuli especially from
advertising and social media. Some adolescents become aggressive when they respond to such stimuli.
 The rate of teenage pregnancy is increasing in our time. The challenge is to develop self-control in order
to balance suppression and free expression. Adolescents need to control their sexual response in order to
prevent premarital sex and acquire sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Sociosexual Behavior
Heterosexual behavior is the greatest amount of sociosexual behavior that occurs
between only one male and one female. It usually begins in childhood and may be motivated by curiosity,
such as showing or examining genitalia. There is varying degree of sexual impulse and responsiveness
among children. Physical contact involving necking or petting is considered as an ingredient of the
learning process and eventually of courtship and the selection of a marriage partner.
Petting differs from hugging, kissing, and generalized caresses of the clothed body to
practice involving stimulation of the genitals. Petting may be done as an expression of affection and a
source of pleasure, preliminary to coitus. Petting has been regarded by others as a near-universal human
experience and to interact with another person sexually.
Coitus, the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive
organ, is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the marital status of the individuals.
Majority of human societies allow premarital coitus, at least under certain circumstances. In modern
Western society, premarital coitus is more likely to be tolerated but not encouraged if the individuals
intend marriage. Moreover, in most societies, marital coitus is considered as an obligation. Extramarital
coitus involving wives is generally condemned and, if permitted, is allowed only under exceptional
conditions or with specified persons. Societies are becoming more considerate towards males of morality
is also evident in premarital life. Post marital coitus (i.e., coitus by separated, divorced, or widowed
persons) is almost always ignored. There is a difficulty in enforcing abstinence among sexually
experienced and usually older people for societies that try to confine coitus in married couples.
A behavior may be interpreted by society or the individual as erotic (i.e., capable of
engendering sexual response) depending on the context in which the behavior occurs. For instance, a kiss
may be interpreted as a gesture of expression or intimacy between couples while others may interpret is
as a form of respect or reverence, like when kissing the hand of an elder or someone in authority.
Examination and touching someone’s genitalia is not interpreted as a sexual act especially when done for
medical purposes. Consequently, the apparent motivation of the behavior greatly determines its
interpretation.
Physiology of Human Sexual Response
Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when sexual activity is continued.

1. Excitement phase – it is caused by increase in pulse and blood pressure; a sudden rise in blood supply to
the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature, flushing, and swelling of all distensible
body parts (particularly noticeable in the male reproductive structure and female breasts), more rapid
breathing, the secretion of genital fluids, vaginal expansion, and a general increase in muscle tension.
These symptoms of arousal eventually increase to a near maximal physiological level that leads to the
next stage.
2. Plateau phase – it is generally of brief duration. If stimulation is continued, orgasm usually occurs.
3. Sexual climax – it is marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in pulse rate and
blood pressure, and spasm of the pelvic muscles causing contraction of the female reproductive organ
and ejaculation by the male. It is also characterized by involuntary vocalizations. Sexual climax may last
for a few seconds (normally not over ten), after which the individual enters the resolution phase.
4. Resolution phase – it is the stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal physiologic state.
Males and female are similar in their response sequence. Whereas males return to normal even if
stimulation continues, but continued stimulation can produce additional orgasm in females. Females are
physically capable of repeated orgasm without the intervening “rest period” required by males.

Nervous System Factors

The entire nervous system plays a significant role during sexual response. The autonomic system
is involved in controlling the involuntary responses. In the presence of a stimulus capable enough of initiating a
sexual response, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves transmit the sensory message to the brain. The brain will
interpret the sensory message and dictate what will be the immediate and appropriate response of the body.
After interpretation and integration of sensory input, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves receive commands from
the brain and send them to the muscles; and the spinal cord serves as a great transmission cable. The muscles
contract in response to the signal coming from the motor nerve fibers while glands secrete their respective
products. Hence, sexual response is dependent on the activity of the nervous system.
The hypothalamus and the limbic system are the parts of the brain believed to be responsible for
regulating the sexual response, but there is no specialized “sex center” that has been located in the human brain.
Animal experiments show that each individual has coded in its brain two sexual response patterns, one for
mounting (masculine) behavior and one for mounted (feminine) behavior. Sex hormones can intensify the
mounting behavior of individuals. Normally, one response pattern is dominant and the other latent can still be
initiated when suitable circumstances occur. The degree to which such innate pattering exist in humans is still
unknown.
Apart from brain-controlled sexual responses, there is some reflex (i.e., not brain-controlled)
sexual response. This reflex is mediated by the lower spinal cord and leads to erection and ejaculation for male,
vaginal discharges and lubrication for female when the genital and perineal areas are stimulated. But still, the
brain can overrule and suppress such reflex activity-as it does when an individual decides that a sexual response
is inappropriate.

Sexual Problem
Sexual problems may be classified as physiological, psychological, and social in origin. Any given
problem may involve all three categories.
Physiological problems are the least among the three categories. Only a small number of people
suffer from disease that are due to abnormal development of the genitalia or that part of the neurophysiology
controlling sexual response. Some common physiologic conditions that can sexual response include vaginal
infections, retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal tumors, diabetes, senile changes of the vagina, and
cardiovascular problems. Fortunately, the majority of physiological sexual problems can be resolved through
medication or surgery while problems of the nervous system that can affect sexual response are more difficult to
treat.
Psychological problems comprise by far the largest category. They are usually caused by socially
induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance, and sexual myths held by society. An example of the latter
is the belief that good, mature sex must involve rapid erection, prolonged coitus, and simultaneous orgasm.
Magazines, marriage books, and general sexual folklore often strengthen these demanding ideals, which are not
always achieved; therefore, can give rise to feelings of inadequacy anxiety and guilt. Such resulting negative
emotions can definitely affect the behavior of an individual.
Premature emission of semen is a common problem, especially for young males. Sometimes this
is not the consequence of any psychological problem but the natural result of excessive tension in a male who
has been sexually deprived. Erectile impotence is almost always of psychological origin in males under 40; in
order males, physical causes are more often involved. Fear of being impotent frequently causes impotence, and
in many cases, the afflicted male is simply caught up in a self-perpetuating problem that can be solved only by
achieving a successful act of coitus. In other cases, the impotence may be the result of disinterest in the sexual
partner, fatigue, and distraction because of nonsexual worries, intoxication, or other causes-such occasional
impotency is common and requires no therapy.
Ejaculatory impotence, which results from the inability to ejaculate in coitus, is uncommon and is
usually of psychogenic origin. It appears to be associated with ideas of contamination or with memories of
traumatic experiences. Occasional ejaculatory inability can be possibly expected in older men or in any male who
has exceeded his sexual capacity.
Vaginismus is a strong spasm of the pelvic musculature constricting the female reproductive
organ so that penetration is painful or impossible. It can be due to anti-sexual conditioning or psychological
trauma that serves as an unconscious defense against coitus. It can be treated by psychotherapy and by gradually
dilating the female reproductive organ with increasing cylinders.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections transmitted from an infected person to an
uninfected person through sexual contact. STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Examples include
gonorrhea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus infection, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), chlamydia, and syphilis (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease
of the National Institute of Health of the United States 2017).
STDs are a significant global health priority because of their overwhelming impact on women and
infants and their inter-relationships with HIV and AIDS. STDs and HIV are associated with biological interactions
because both infections may occur in the same populations. Infection with certain STDs can increase the risk of
getting and transmitting HIV as well as modify the way the disease develops. Moreover, STDs can lead to long-
term health problems, usually in women and infants. Among the health complications that arise from STDs are
pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, tubal or ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, and perinatal or congenital
infections in infants born to infected mothers. One of the leading STDs worldwide is AIDS, which is caused by HIV
or human Immunodeficiency Virus. The virus attacks the immune system making the individual more prone to
infections and other diseases. The virus usually targets the T-cells (CD4 cells) of the immune system, which serve
as the regulators of the immune system. The virus survives throughout the body but may be transmitted via body
fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk. AIDS occurs in the advanced stage of HIV infection.
Aside from HIV and AIDS, there are other sexually transmitted diseases in humans. The following
list of diseases is based on Sexually Transmitted Diseases Surveillance 2016 of the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
1. Chlamydia
In 2016, a total of 1,598,354 cases of Chlamydia Trachomatis infection were reported to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), making it the most common notifiable condition in the
United States. This case count corresponds to a rate of 497.3 cases per 100,000 populations, an increase
of 4.7% compared with the rate in 2015. During 2015 to 2016, rates of reported chlamydia increased in all
regions of the United States.
Rates of chlamydia are highest among adolescent and young adult females, the population
targeted for routine chlamydia screening. Among young women attending family planning clinics
participating in a sentinel surveillance program who were tested for chlamydia, 9.2% of 15 to 19 cases
among men are generally lower than rates among women.
2. Gonorrhea

In 2016, 468,514 gonorrhea cases were reported for a rate of 145.8 cases per 100,000 population, an increase of
18.5% from 2015. During 2015 to 2016, the rate pf reported gonorrhea increased 22.2% among men and 13.8%
among women. The magnitude of the increase among men suggests either increased transmission or increased
case ascertainment (e.g., through increased extra-genital screening) among MSM (men who have sex with men)
or both. The concurrent increases among cases reported among women suggest parallel increases in
heterosexual transmission, increased screening among women, or both. In 2016, the rate of reported cases of
gonorrhea remained highest among African American (481.2 cases per 100,000 population) and among American
Indians/Alaska Natives (242.9 cases per 100,000 population). During 2012 to 2016, rates increased among all
racial and ethnic groups. Antimicrobial resistance remains an important consideration in the treatment of
gonorrhea.
3. Syphilis
In 2016, 27 ,814 Primary and secondary (P&S) syphilis cases were reported, representing a
national rate of 8.7 cases per 100,000 population and a 17.6% increase from 2015 to 2016, the P&S
syphilis rate increase among both men and women in every region of the country; overall, the rate
increase 14.7% among men and 35.7% among women. During 2012 to 2016, P&S syphilis rates were
consistently highest among persons aged 20 to 29 years old, but rates increased in every 5-year age group
among those aged 15 to 64 years. In 2016, rates were highest among African Americans (13.9 per 100,000
population); however, rates increased among all racial and ethnic groups in 2012 to 2016.
4. Chancroid
 Chancroid is caused by infection with the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi. Clinical
manifestations include genital ulcers and inguinal lymphadenopathy or buboes. Reported cases of
chancroid declined steadily between 1987 and 2001. Since then, the number of reported cases has
fluctuated somewhat, while still appearing to decline overall. In 2016, a total of 7 cases of chancroid were
reported in the United States.
5. Human Papillomavirus
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common
sexually transmitted infection in the United States. Over 40
distinct HPV types can infect the genital tract; although
most infections are asymptomatic and appear to resolve
spontaneously within a few years, the prevalence of genital
infection with any HPV type was 42.5% among United
States adults aged 18 to 59 years during 2013 to 2014.
Persistent infection with some HPV types can cause cancer
and genital warts. HPV types 16 and 18 account for
approximately 66% of cervical cancer in the United States,
and approximately 25% of low-grade and 50% of high-
grade cervical intraepithelial lesions, or dysplasia. HPV
types 6 and 11 are responsible for approximately 90% of
genital warts.
6. Herpes Simplex virus

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is among the most prevalent of sexually transmitted infections.
Although most infections are subclinical, clinical manifestations are characterized by recurrent, painful
genital and/or anal lesions. Most genital HSV infection in the United States are caused by HSV type 2
(HSV-2), while HSV type 1 (HSV-1) infections are typically orolabial and acquired during childhood.

7. Trichomonas Vaginalis

Trichomonas vaginalis is a common sexually transmitted protozoal infection associated with

adverse health outcomes such as preterm birth and symptomatic vaginitis. It is not a nationally reportable
condition, and trend data are limited to estimates of initial physician office visits for this condition. Visits appear
to be fairly stable since the 1990s; the number of initial visits for Trichomonas vaginalis infection in 2015 was
139,000.

Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception

Natural Method
The natural family planning methods do not involve any chemical or foreign body introduction into the
human body. People who are very conscious of their religious beliefs are more inclined to use the natural way of
birth control and others follows such natural methods because they are more cost-effective
(www.nurseslabs.com 2016).
a. Abstinence
This natural method involves refraining from sexual intercourse and is the most effective natural
birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate. It is considered to be the most effective way to avoid
STIs (sexually Transmitted Infection). However, most people find it difficult to comply with abstinence,
so only a few this method.

b. Calendar Method

This method is also called as the rhythm method. It entails withholding from coitus during
the days that the woman is fertile. According to the menstrual cycle, the women is likely to conceive
three or four days before and three or four days after ovulation. The woman needs to record her
menstrual cycle for six months in order to calculate the woman’s safe days to prevent conception.
c. Basal Body Temperature
The basal body temperature (BBT) indicates the woman’s temperature at rest. Before the
day of ovulation and during ovulation, BBT fails at 0.5°F; it increases to a full degree because of
progesterone and maintains its level throughout the menstrual cycle. This serves as the basis for the
method. The woman must record her temperature every morning before any activity. A slight
decrease in the basal body temperature followed by a gradual increase in the basal body temperature
can be a sign that a woman has ovulated.
d. Cervical Mucus Method
The change in the cervical mucus during ovulation is the basis for this method. During
ovulation, the cervical mucus is copious, thin, and watery. It also exhibits the property of spinnbarkeit,
wherein it can be stretched up until at least 1 inch and slippery. The woman is said to be fertile as
long as the cervical mucus is copious and watery. Therefore, she must avoid coitus during those days
to prevent conception.
e. Symptothermal Method
The symptothermal method is basically a combination of the BBT method and the cervical
mucus method. The woman records her temperature every morning and also takes note of changes in
her cervical mucus. She should abstain from coitus three days after a rise in her temperature or on
the fourth day after the peak of a mucus change.
f. Ovulation Detection

The ovulation detection method uses an over-the-counter kit that requires the urine
sample of the woman. The kit can predict ovulation through the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH)
that happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation.
g. Coitus Interruptus
 Coitus Interruptus is one of the oldest methods that prevents conception. A couple still on
with coitus, but the man withdraws the moment he ejaculates to emit the spermatozoa outside of the
female reproductive organ. A disadvantage of this method is the pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a
few spermatozoa that may cause fertilization.
Artificial Methods
a. Oral Contraceptives
Also known as the pill, oral contraceptives
contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen
suppresses the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
LH to prevent ovulation. Moreover, progesterone
decreases the permeability of the cervical mucus to
limit the sperm’s access to the ova. It is suggested that
the woman takes the first pill on the first Sunday after
the beginning of a menstrual flow, or as soon as it is
prescribed by the doctor.
b. Transdermal Patch
The transdermal patch contains both
estrogen and progesterone. The woman should apply
one patch every week for three weeks on the following
areas: upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen, or
buttocks. At the fourth week, no patch is applied
because the menstrual flow would then occur. The area
where the patch is applied should be clean, dry, and
free of irritation.
c. Vaginal Ring
The vaginal ring releases a combination of
estrogen and progesterone and it surrounds the cervix.
This silicon ring is inserted into the female reproductive
organ and remains there weeks and then removed on
the fourth week, as menstrual flow would occur. The
woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.
d. Subdermal Implants

Subdermal implants are two rod-like implants inserted under the skin of the female during
her menses or on the seventh day of her menstruation to make sure that she will not get pregnant.
The implants are made with etonogestrel, desogestrel, and progestin and can be helpful for three to
five years.
e. Hormonal Injections

A hormonal injection contains medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone, and is usually given

 once every 12 weeks intramuscularly. The injection causes changes in the endometrium and cervical
mucus and can help prevent ovulation.
f. Intrauterine Device

(image)

An Intrauterine device (IUD) is a small, T-shaped object containing progesterone that is

inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive organ. It prevents fertilization by creating a local
sterile inflammatory condition to prevent implantation of the zygote. The IUD is fitted only by the
physician and inserted after woman’s menstrual flow. The device can be effective for five to seven
years.
g. Chemical Barriers

Chemical barriers such a spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin films are used
to cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix and to lower the pH level of the female
reproductive organ so it will not become barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infections.

h. Diaphragm
It is a circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix
and should be placed before coitus. Diaphragm works
by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the female
reproductive organ and it works better when used
together with a spermicide. The diaphragm should be
fitted only by the physician and should remain in place
for six hours after coitus.

i. Cervical Cap
The cervical cap is made of soft rubber and
fitted on the rim of the cervix. It is shaped like a
thimble with a thin rim and could stay in place for not
more than 48 hours.

j. Male Condoms
The male condom is a latex or synthetic rubber
sheath that is placed on the erect male reproductive organ
before penetration into the female reproductive organ to trap
the sperm during ejaculation. It can prevent STIs (Sexually
Transmitted Infections) and can be bought over-the-counter.
Male condoms have an ideal fail rate of 2% and a typical fail
rate of 15% due to a break in the sheath’s integrity or spilling of
semen.
 k. Female Condoms
Female condoms are made up of latex rubber
sheaths that are pre-lubricated with spermicide. They are
usually bound by two rings. The outer ring is first inserted
against the opening of the female reproductive organ and the
inner ring covers the cervix. It is used to prevent fertilization of
the egg by the sperm cells.
l. Surgical Methods

During vasectomy, a small incision is made on each side of the scrotum. The vas deferens
is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged to block the passage of the sperm. The patient is advised to
use a backup contraceptive method until two negative sperm count results are recorded because the
sperm could remain viable in the vas deferens for six months.
In woman, tubal ligation is performed after menstruation and before ovulation. The
procedure is done through a small incision under the woman’s umbilicus that targets the fallopian
tube for cutting, cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of both the sperm and the ova.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

1. Creative Work. Propose a program in school or community that will raise the awareness of the students
and to help eliminate sexually transmitted diseases especially among the youth.
2. Agree or Disagree. Are you in favor of legalizing marriage among homosexuals and transgenders? Why?

Lesson 2
 To Buy or Not to Buy? That is the Question!

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain the association of self and possessions:

2. Identify the role of consumer culture to self and identity; and
3. Appraise one’s self based on the description of material self.
INTRODUCTION
We are living in a world of safe and shopping spree. We are given a wide array of products to purchase
from a simple set of spoon and fork to owning a restaurant. Almost everywhere, including the digital space, we
can find promotions of product purchase. Product advertisements are suggestive of making us feel better or look
good. Part of us wants to have that product. What makes us want to have those products are connected with
who are we. What we want to have and already possess is related to our self.
Belk (1988) stated that “we regard our possessions as part of our selves. We are what we have and what
we possess.” There is a direct link between self-identity with what we have and possess. Our wanting to have and
possess has a connection with another aspect of the self, the material self.
Let us try to examine ourselves further in the lens of material self.

ACTIVITY
Debit Card Challenge

A very wealthy person gave a debit card and told you to use it as much as you want to make yourself
happy. What are you going to do with it? Make a list of what you want to have. Write as many as you want.

LIST

ANALYSIS

Answer the following questions:

 1. How do you feel as you do the Debit Card Challenge?

2. Which among the items in your list the most? Why?

3. If ever you were given the chance in real life to have one among the list, which would you choose?
Why?

4. Does your choice different from what you answer in question number 2? Why or why not?

5. Let your classmate read your list. Ask her/him to give or write a quick impression of yourself based on
the list you showed him/her.

6. Is the quick impression of your classmate has some truth about who you are?

ABSTRACTION

Materials Self

A Harvard psychologist in the late nineteenth century, William James wrote in his book, The Principles of
Psychology in 1890 that understanding the self can be examined through its different components. He described
these components as: (1) its constituents; (2) the feelings and emotions they arouse- self-feelings; (3) the actions
to which they prompt-self-seeking and self-preservation. The constituents of self are composed of the material
self, the social self, the spiritual self and the pure ego. (Trentmann 2016; Green 1997)
The material self, according to James primarily is about our bodies, clothes, immediate family, and home.
We are deeply affected by these things because we have put much investment of our self to them.

The innermost part of our material self is our body intentionally, we are investing in our body. We are
directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to make sure that this body
function well and good. Any ailment or disorder directly affects us. We do have certain preferential attachment or
intimate closeness to certain body parts because of its value to us.
There were people who get their certain body parts insured. Celebrities, like Mariah Carey who was
reported to have placed a huge amount for the insurance of her vocal cords and legs (Sukman 2016).
Next to our body are the clothes we use. Influenced by the “Philosophy of Dress” by Herman Lotze, James
believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. Lotze in his book, Microcosmus, stipulates that “any
time we bring an object into the surface of our body, we invest that object into the consciousness of our personal
existence taking in its contours to be our own and making it part of the self.” (Watson 2014) The fabric and style
of the clothes we wear bring sensations to the body to which directly affected our attitudes and behavior. Thus,
clothes are placed in the second hierarchy of material self. Clothing is a form of self-expression. We choose and
wear clothes that reflect our self (Watson 2014)
Third in the hierarchy is our immediate family. Our parents and siblings hold another great important part
of our self. What they do or become affects us. When an immediate family member dies, part of our self-dies,
too. When their lives are in success, we feel their victories as if we are the one holding the trophy. In their
failures, we are put to shame or guilt. When they are in disadvantage situation, there is an urgent urge to help
like a voluntary instinct of saving one’s self from danger. We place huge investment in our immediate family
when we see them as the nearest replica of our self.
The fourth component of material self is our home. Home is where our heart is. It is earliest nest of our
selfhood. Our experience inside the home were recorded and marked on particular parts and things in our home.
There was an old cliché about rooms; “if only walls can speak.” The home thus is an extension of self, because in
it, we can directly connect our self.
Having investment of self to things, made us attached to those things. The more investment of self-given
to the particular thing, the more we identify ourselves to it. We also tended to collect and possess properties.
The collections in different degree of investment of self, becomes part of the self. As James (1890) described self;
“a man’s self is the sum total of all what he CAN call his.” Possessions then become a part or an extension of the
self.
We Are What We Have
Russel Belk (1988) posits that” …we regard our possessions as part of ourselves. We are what we have
and what we possess.” The identification of the self to things started in our infancy stage when we make a
distinction among self and environment and others who may desire our possessions
As we grow older, putting importance to material possession decreases. However, material possession
gains higher value in our lifetime if we use material possession to find happiness, associate these things with
significant events, accomplishments, and people in our lives. There are even times when material possession of a
person that is closely identified to the person, gains acknowledgment with high regard even if the person already
passed away. Example of these are the chair in the dining room on which the person is always seated, the chair
will be the constant reminder of the person seated there; a well-loved and kept vehicle of the person, which
some of the bereaved family members have a difficulty to sell or let go of because that vehicle is very much
identified with the owner who passed away; the favorite pet or book, among others that the owner placed a high
value, these favorite things are symbols of the owner.
The possessions that we dearly have tell something about who we are, our self-concept, our past, and
even our future.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

Debit Card Challenge List

1. Go back to your Debit Card Challenge List. Put a mark on the left side of each item with the following
categories:
B – if the item is related with your body
C – if the item is related with your clothes
F – if the item is related or intended to your family
H – if the item is related with home
2. Answer the following question:
 Which among the categories you have the most in your list?
 What do you think these tell you about yourself?

3. Make a reflection paper about material self. You may use your answers from the above questions in
making your paper.

Collage Making
Create a collage of your treasured possessions including your current clothing style. You may
use symbols or pictures of your treasured possessions. Put a short note why you treasure each item.
Research Paper
Make a research on the role of Filipino consumer culture to Filipino self and identity.

Lesson 3
Supernaturals: Believe It or Not!

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. identify various religious practices and beliefs;
2. understand the self in relation with religious beliefs, and
3. explain ways of finding the meaning of life.

INTRODUCTION

Spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the "self’’ according to William James in his book,
The Principles of Psychology in 1890. The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of self. It is the
most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction experienced when thinking of one's ability to argue
and discriminate, of one's moral sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will (James 1890) is purer
than all other sentiments of satisfaction. (Green 1997)
The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen through the expressions of religion, its
beliefs and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and ceremonies are some manifestations what people
believe in. Moreover, seeking the meaning of life is a journey that the spiritual self is on

ACTIVITY

Art Recall

Recall:
When was the first time you realized that there is a higher being than yourself? How old were you then?
What made you believe that there is a higher being?

Draw:
Make a poster about the instance or situation that made you believe in the existence of higher being.

Show:
Have a classroom Gallery Walk showcasing the posters you and your classmates have made. Observe
similarities and differences in each other’s experiences, expressed in the artworks. Initiate discussions about
beliefs on higher being based on the showcased poster.

ANALYSIS

Buzz Group Sharing

In group of three or five, answer the following questions:
1. From the poster you see, what commonalities and differences did you observe.
2. How these experience affect your belief on higher being.

Big Group Sharing

1. Share the summary of your discussion from the buzz group.
2. Discuss the following questions:
a. How is the belief on higher being related to yourself?
b. Do you consider having a spiritual self? Why or Why not?

ABSTRACTION

Religion
Rebecca Stein (Stein 2011) works on the definition of religion "as a set of cultural beliefs and
practices that usually includes some or all of basic characteristics. These characteristics are:

1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods.

2. A focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe
3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as
physical beings and objects
4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object to
communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events
 5. The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a
community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of control for individuals.

An individual lives in a society where there are many practices of religion. The choice of religious
belief lies within the spiritual self. Although the choice maybe influenced by the society and its culture.

Ritual
Ritual is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law (Britannica
2017). Ritual is a specific, observable mode of behavior exhibited by all known societies. It is thus possible to view
ritual as a way of defining or describing humans.
There are three fundamental characteristics of rituals according to Penner (Britannica 2017).
Ritual has the characteristics of:
1. a feeling or emotion of respect, awe, fascination, or dread in relation to the sacred
2. dependence upon a belief system that is usually expressed in the language of myth
3. is symbolic in relation to its reference

The self can be described as a ritual being who exhibits a striking parallel between their ritual and
verbal behavior. Just as language is a system of symbols that is based upon arbitrary rules, ritual may be viewed
as a system of symbolic acts that is based upon arbitrary rules. Participation to rituals is expressions of religious
beliefs.

Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices

There are different religions with different beliefs and practices. Some of major world religions are
Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism. Excerpt of some religious beliefs and practices are found in
the University of London's Religion and Belief Guide 2017

Buddhism

Beliefs
Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there are suffering, pain and frustrations. When
people suffer, they want to experience the goodness of life and avoid disappointments. It becomes a habit known
as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating like and dislike, and craving and aversion. This reactive cycle can be
broken through the practice of mediation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper understanding, and acceptance of
things as they are

Customs and Practices

There are two types of meditation practices: samatha and vipassana
Samatha is practiced as mindfulness of breathing and development of loving kindness (Metta
Bhavana) Vipassana practices aim at developing insight into reality. Acquiring wisdom is by studying Buddha's
teaching, the Dharma. Through the reflection of Dharma, Buddhists can achieve a deeper understanding of life.
Buddhists believe in non-violence principle
 Samatha Meditation Dharma Wheel

Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are Parini rvana Day in February; Buddha Day (Wesak) in
May: Dharma Day in July: Padmasambhava Day in October, and Sangha Day in November

Parinirvana Day Wesak Day

Christianity

Portrait of Jesus Christ Protestant Church Catholic Church

Beliefs
Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas. God the Father (Creator), God the Son
(Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer), Eternal life after death will be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.
Jesus Christ is God the Son, who came into flesh, to spread the Good News of Salvation. He died on the Cross for
the sin of the humanity but resurrected from the death, so that anyone who believes in Him will be saved and
have eternal life. The Holy Bible is a selection of books, which is divided into two, the Old Testament and New
Testament
Customs and Practices
Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of Communion are practiced by Christian churches, The Sacrament
of Baptism symbolizes the birth in Christian World, while the Sacrament of Communion an act of remembrance
of Jesus Christ's sacrificial love Jesus Christ teaching in unconditional love that is expressed in loving the poor,
oppressed, and outcast of the society.

Holy Baptism Holy Communion Symbols

Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the Iwo major celebrations in Christianity Christmas, usually on
December 25, commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ while Resurrection Sunday (depends on the lunar
calendar, sometime in March or April) celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ from death.
 Easter Egg Hunting
Christmas Celebration
Easter Sunday Symbol

Hinduism

Portrait of Shri Radha-Krishna Mariamman Hindu

Portrait of Vishu
Beliefs
Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups, thus, there is no single founder
or leader. Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth, governed by Karma.
Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the past life was spent Hindus believe that
the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the
previous life was lived. Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus. Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other
important texts of the Hindus.

Customs and Practices

Diwali and Navratri are the most celebrated festivals of the
Hindus Diwali is the Festival of Lights while Navratri is the festival
of nine nights, which celebrate the triumph of good over evil
Hindus have set dates to honor particular manifestations of God.

Diwali Celebration
Islam

Mosque Mohammed

Beliefs
Muslims believe in Allah, who is their "One God." They believe in the unity and universality of
God. Muslims also have a strong sense of community or and an awareness of their solidarity with all Muslims
worldwide. Islam means willing submission to God."
Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and final prophet sent by God. Mohammed was born
in Mecca in 570 CE and received revelations from God through the Angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years. The
Holy Book of Islam is called the Quran, which was taught to be recited in Arabic because any translation is seen as
inadequate.
 Quran Haji, the Pilgrimage to Mecca

Customs and Practices

Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of

Muslim life:
1. Shahadah - statement of faith: There is no God but the one true God and Mohammed is his messenger.
2. Salat - the prayer that is practiced five times a day.
3. Zakat – the monetary offering for the benefit of the poor, It comprises the 2.5% of a Muslim's assets.
4. Hajj - the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca: Muslims who can afford are asked to do the pilgrimage at least
once in their lifetime.
5. Sawm - the fasting. Muslims do fasting, from food, drink, and sexual act, during the celebration of
Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. The fast is from dawn to sunset.

Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eid Ul-Fitr and Eidul-Adha. Eid Ul-Fitr is the celebration at the end
of Ramadan, while Idul-Adha is celebrated within the completion of the Pilgrimage, the Hajj.

Judaism

Abraham Jewish Temple Inside the Jewish Temple

Beliefs
The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves from Egypt to
Canaan, the Promised Land through the leadership of Moses and later, Joshua
The Jews believe in the coming of Messiah the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jews is called the Torah
or the Law. The Torah is the guide of the Jewish living The study and interpretation of Torah is part of the Jewish
culture.

Image of Mosses with the Ten Commandments in stone tablet Torah

Customs and Practices

There are five major festivals observed by the Jews.

1. Rosh Hashanah - the New Year

2. Yom Kippur - the Day of Atonement
3. Pesach – Passover
4. Shavuot – Pentecost
5. Sukkot - Tabernacles The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening at sunset and is an important time when
families gather for the Shabbat meal.
 Shabbat meal Rosh Hashanah Pesach

Religious beliefs, rituals, practices and customs are all part of the expression of the spiritual self.
What to believe and how to manifest the belief is entirely dependent on the individual, to the self. A person
might believe that there is a higher being, a supernatural being, usually termed as God, but not necessarily wants
to be affiliated or identified with a certain religious group. Others may have religious practices which are
perceived to be contrary to the practices of other groups Religious beliefs and practices, therefore, are formed
relative to its context and culture.

Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

Another extensive study of self can be found in the works of Dr.
Viktor E Frankl. The Viktor Frankl Institute in Vienna was created in 1992.
The Institute has a website where there is a synopsis of his life and works
and present programs (http://www.viktor frankl institute.org/Aboul Viktor
Frankl html) The following are the excerpts from the website:

The Psychiatrist
Dr Viktor E. Frankl was bom on March 26, 1905 in Vienna, Austria, where famous psychiatrists Sigmund
Freud and Alfred Adler uved. Al a young age, he wrote a short paper to Freud which was published after three
years. Dr Frank graduated with a medical degree from the University of Vienna in 1930 He was assigned in Vienna
Hospital suicide ward and headed the Rothschild Hospital, eight years later.
A survivor of the Holocaust, Dr. Frankl published a book about logotherapy In 1959, the book was
translated to English and was revised in 1963 as The Doctor, and the Soul An Introduction to Logotherapy. His
book, Man's Search for Meaning has been used as a textbook in high school and college courses. Dr. Frankl died
in 1997.

Logotherapy
Logotherapy is a psychotherapy introduced by Dr. Viktor Frankl, who is considered the Father of
Logotherapy. The main belief of logotherapy is that "man's primary motivational force is search for meaning.
Logotherapy aids individuals to find personal meaning of life, whatever life situation they may be.
In logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a deed, experiencing something or
encountering someone and the attitude toward unavoidable suffering. According to the Victor Frankl Institute of
Logotherapy (n.d.), it uses the philosophy of optimism in the face of tragedy. where people are capable of
"turning suffering into human achievement and accomplishment deriving from guilt the opportunity to change
oneself for the better, and deriving from life's transitoriness an incentive to take responsible action."

Basic Concepts of Franklian Psychology

The Franklian Psychology has the basic concepts. These are the following:
 Life has meaning under all circumstances.
 Main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.
 Freedom to find meaning.

Furthermore, Franklian Psychology aims to: (1) become aware of spiritual resources, (2) make conscious
spiritual resources, and (3) use defiant power of the human spirit and stand up against adversity.

Logotherapy Assumptions
All psychotherapies make philosophical assumptions about the human persons that cannot be proved
with certainty. Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy in d.) states the assumptions of logotherapy, which include
the following

1. The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit. This first assumption deals with the
body (soma), mind (psyche), and spirit (noos) According to Frankl the body and mind are what we have
and the spirit is what we are
2. Life has meaning under all circumstances; even the most miserable Assumption two is 'ultimate meaning.
This is difficult to grasp but it is something everyone experiences and it represents an order in a world
with laws that go beyond human laws.
 3. People have a will to meaning. The third assumption is seen as our main motivation for living and acting.
When we see meaning, we are ready for any type of suffering. This is considered to be different than our
will to achieve power and pleasure.
4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning. Assumption four is that
we are free to activate our will to find meaning, and this can be done under any circumstances. This deal
with change of attitudes about unavoidable fate: Frankl was able to test the first four assumptions when
he was confined in the concentration camps.
5. Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be meaningful. The fifth
assumption, the meaning of the moment, is more practical in daily living than ultimate meaning. Unlike
ultimate meaning this meaning can be found and fulfilled. This can be done by following the values of
society or by following the voice of our conscience
6. The individual is unique The sixth assumption deals with one's sense of meaning. This is enhanced by the
realization that we are irreplaceable

In essence, all humans are unique with an entity of body mind, and spirit We all go through unique
situations and are constantly looking to find meaning Wo are free to do these at all times in response to certain
demands.

Frankl's Sources of Meaning

Popova (2017) discussed Viktor Frankl's work. There are three possible sources of the meaning of life:
purposeful work, courage in the face of difficulty and love.

1. Purposeful Work. To find the meaning of life starts with holding a future goal. Each individual has each
own future goal to achieve or a task to perform. That task or goal to fulfil becomes the meaning of their
life. Therefore, meaning of life is unique to every individual.
2. Courage in the Face of Difficulty A Meaningful life is life with suffering. Suffering is inevitable part of life.
To find meaning of life is to recognize suffering, pain, and death as part of life and to have the courage to
face these life difficulties
3. Love Popova (2017) quoted Dr. Frankl's notes about in the Nazi Camp: "For hours I stood hacking at the
icy ground The guard passed by, insulting me, and once again I communed with my beloved More and
more I felt that she was present that she was with me: I had the feeling that I was able to touch her, able
to stretch out my hand and grasp hers. The feeling was very strong: she was there. Then at that very
moment, a bird flew down silently and perched just in front of me, on the heap and looked steadily at me
of soil which I had dug up from the ditch, and looked steadily at me

Dr. Frankl's wife, parents, and some relatives were victims of gas chambers. His love for his wife
kept him fight for his life Popova (2017) also quoted Dr. Frankl's definition of love: "Love to way to grasp
another human being in the innermost core of his personality. No one can become fully aware of the very
essence of another human being unless he loves him. By his love, he is enabled to see the essential traits and
features in the beloved person; and even more, he sees that which is potential in him. Furthermore, by loving
person enables the beloved person to actualize his love, these potentialities. By making him aware of what he
can be and of what he should become, he makes these potentialities come true." Costello (2015) captured
Viktor Frankl's message "The ultimate secret on the spiritual foundation of life is that love is salvation and joy
eternity." The ultimate factor to find the meaning of life is love.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

1. Video Clip. Make a video clip with reflection on any of the following topics

a. Filipino rituals and ceremonies covering all regions of the Philippines

b. Filipino indigenous religious practices featuring five tribes from Luzon, Visayas, or Mindanao
c. Modern day expression of spiritual being

Make sure to showcase the origin, meaning of each ritual and ceremony and your personal reflection

2. Documentary. Make a documentary about a World War II Filipino survivor.

Feature the following:

 Life story during the war

  How he/she survived the war
 Description of histher meaning of life
 Compare to Viktor Frankl's sources of meaning
 Test logotherapy assumptions

3. Reflection Paper. Reflect on Viktor Frankl's sources of the meaning of life.

Lesson 4
The Political Self and Being a Filipino
 Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Develop a Filipino identity;
2. Identify different Filipino values and traits; and
3. Reflect in your selfhood in relation to your national identity.

ACTIVITY
Who is a Filipino?
Cut out pictures or illustrations from magazines and newspapers that show what being a Filipino is about.
Paste them below.

ANALYSIS
Answer the questions below in relation to what you have posted in the previous activity.

1. How do the pictures remind you of being a Filipino?

2. Are you proud of being a Filipino? Why and why not?

3. Imagine that you were of a different nationality. What would change in you aside from your citizenship
and origin?

4. How extensive are the effects of being Filipino in your selfhood?

ABSTRACTION

What makes a Filipino a genuine Filipino? Do physical characteristics such as having dark hair, flat nose,
and dark complexion make one a Filipino? Or is it a person’s language, birthplace, and ethnicity? If you were to
introduce yourself as a Filipino to a person of another nationality and he or she asks, “Who are Filipinos?”, what
will you reply?
The Philippines as we know it today has only emerged in the 1890s after over three centuries of
colonization of the Spaniards. Meanwhile, liberation from the last colonizers, the Japanese, only occurred in
1946. Foreign culture, beliefs, language, and religion have made a huge dent on our own by setting a foundation
to the contemporary Filipino identity and culture. To date, colonial mentality remains an issue. Given the wide
discrepancy between the liberation period and today’s time, would it be safe to say that Filipinos have truly
developed an identity of their own? Or are we still living in the
shadow of our colonial friends?
In this chapter, you will learn that an individual’s race,
ethnicity, and physical characteristics are not the only factors
that make a person’s national identity. Values and traits are
also important indicators that set apart one nationality from
the other. These values and traits may not always be a positive
thing, but being able to identify one’s self apart from other
nationalities and point out weaknesses and mistakes, paired
with unity and commitment, make progress a possibility. Through common goals, principles, and values of its
people, a nation empowers itself.

Who is a Filipino?
Filipinos are often referenced to globally renowned personalities like Manny Pacquiao, Lea Salonga, and
Michael Cinco who have made Filipinos recognized around the world through their expertise. However, being a
Filipino is far more than just being related to these notable figures. Independence Day and Buwang ng Wika
celebrating prompt us to go back to our roots and reflect on the question: Who is a Filipino?
Technically, according to the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Filipino citizens are “. . . those whose fathers
and mothers are citizen of the Philippines, thise born before January 17,1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect
Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority, and those who are naturalized in accordance with law.”
However, citizenship is not the only marker of being a Filipino. Culture and history have greatly influenced the
manner Filipinos learn, live, and behave to date. People who were born and grew up in the same culture develop
and share common personality and values. Generations after generations, common traits and values have been
passed on that Filipinos of today still embody.

Filipino Values and Traits

The Philippines is a lush island paradise famous for its grandiose mountain views, pristine beaches, and
rich and diverse culture changing from province to province. While the Philippines may be well known for its
awe-inspiring beauty, perhaps the Filipinos’ unique traits, reputable values, and laudable talents make the
country a place to be.
Tourists who have visited the Philippines can never forget the big and bright smiles that greeted them,
the colorful and loud jeepneys, the common Filipino phrases such as “Mabuhay!” and “Salamat!” and habits such
as saying “po” and “opo” to the elders, leaving shoes or slippers at the front door before entering a house, and
the importunate asking of “Kumain ka na ba?” meaning “Have you eaten yet?” Indeed, it is a marvel to
experience these unique traits of the Filipinos firsthand. Few of these traits are as follows.

The Filipino Hospitality

A Filipino trait that is known everywhere is the Filipino’s brand of hospitality. Filipinos welcome their
guests and tourists as if they are their own brothers and sisters; they always make their guest feel at home,
offering them something to eat, or even a place to stay. They will bring out their best sets of plates ad chinaware
for their honored guests and would even go as far as spending a lot of money and gong into debt just so they can
satisfy them. In most local shops, Filipino salesperson will greet their customers with warm welcome and say
thank you when they leave even without buying anything. Filipinos anticipate giving tours to friends who will visit
their hometown and treating them to the best restaurants and delicacies for free. During festivals or fiestas,
Filipinos serve heaps of festive food and invite the whole barangay over. They are also fond of giving pasalubong
or tokens from their travels and pabaon or farewell gifts to their visitors.
Respect for Elders
Filipinos greet their elders by kissing their hand while
saying “Mano po!” and constantly using “po” and “opo” in
conversations. Forgetting to address older people properly
will regard them as rude and impolite. There is also a wide
array of references to elder people such as ate for older sister;
kuya for older brother; Tito and Tita for uncle and aunt; Lolo
and Lola for grandfather and grandmother; and Manong and
Aling for older people outside the family.

Close Family Ties

Filipinos maintain a tight relationship with their families
regardless if the children are old enough and already have
families of their own. They are also fond of family reunions
during birthdays, holidays, or fiestas year-round. Some Filipino
families even opt to live in a big house where everyone can stay
together. Nursing homes are almost always not an option for
family members and choose to take care of their elders them-
selves.

Cheerful Personality
Filipinos have a habit of smiling and laughing a lot. They smile when they are happy, or sometimes even
when they are sad or angry. Smiling has been a coping strategy for many Filipinos especially during trying times
and calamities. For instance, Filipinos smile and wave at the camera while being interviewed even after a fire or
flooding incident. They always try to maintain positive outlook in life which makes them resilient and able to
manage almost everything with a simple smile.

Self-sacrifice
The self-sacrificing attitude of Filipinos can be seen as an extension of the Filipino hospitality. Filipinos go
out of their way to extend help to their friends, families, and loved ones. They wish comfort and better lives for
their loved ones and would even go to the extent of working abroad hundreds of miles away to earn more money
and save up for them. Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) sacrifice a lot; that is why they are regarded as the
modern day Filipino heroes. There are also times when the eldest among the children of the family would give up
school to work and provide for the rest of the family and educate his or her siblings.

Bayanihan
Bayanihan is the spirit of communal unity and cooperation of Filipinos. It is also about giving without
expecting something in return. Filipinos are always ready to share and help their friends and loved ones who are
in need. It may not always be in monetary form, but the time and effort they give also count as a form of help for
them. This trait is particularly manifested in how Filipinos rally themselves to send aid to those who are severely
affected by natural calamities.

“Bahala Na” Attitude

”Bahala na” is the Filipino version of the famous line “Hakuna Matata,” meaning no worries. The phrase
is said to have originated from “Bathala na,” where Bathala means God, and the phrase meaning leaving
everything from God’s hands. It can also be viewed as something similar to the cheerful and positive attitude of
Filipinos and allowing situations take care of themselves instead of worrying about them.

Colonial Mentality
Colonial mentality is regarded as the lack of patriotism and the attitude where Filipinos favor foreign
products more than their own. This does not only concern goods, but also the desire to look more foreign than
local and keep up with foreign beauty trends. It is attributed to the centuries of colonization Filipinos had
experienced under the Spanish, American, and Japanese rule.

“Manana” Habit
 This is the Filipino term for procrastination. It was derived from a longer Filipino phrase called “Mamaya
na” meaning dawdling things, which could have been done at an earlier time. It is a poor habit of laziness that
results in heavier workloads.

“Ningas Kugon”
“Ningas” is a Filipino term for flame and “kugon” is a Filipino term for Cogon grass that easily burns out
after it is put into flames. Ningas kugon refers to the attitude of eagerly starting things bit quickly losing
eagerness soon after experiencing difficulty, just like how fast fore of Cogon grass burns out moments after being
ignited. Laziness is a common problem among Filipinos; that is why Filipinos are regarded as “Juan Tamad” or
Lazy Juan.

Pride
Most Filipinos hold on to their pride as if they are more precious than keeping a good relationship with
family and loved ones. When two parties are not in good terms, they find it so hard to apologize and wait until
the other party asks for an apology first.

Crab Mentality
This is a toxic trait among Filipinos where one resents the achievements of another; instead of feeling
happy for that person. Just like crabs in a container, they pull up each other down and ruin each other’s
reputation rather than bringing them up, resulting to no progress. Filipinos should change this troublesome
attitude and focus more on their own inadequacies to improve one’s self.

Filipino Time
Filipinos have this common attitude of arriving late at commitments, dinner, or parties especially if they
are meeting someone close to them. They tend to not observe punctuality altogether. The 7:00 pm call time
becomes adjusted to 7:30 pm, and almost everyone arrives at the same time because everyone is using Filipino
time.

Filipino Markers
What then are the hallmarks of our being a Filipino? What makes us truly relish in our being a Filipino?
The following are constant reminders of our nationality.

1. Proverbs or Salawikain
Filipino proverbs, just like any other proverbs, are sayings that convey lessons and reflections on Filipino
practices, beliefs, and traditions. Damiana Eugenio, regarded as the Mother of the Philippine Folklore, classified
proverbs into six categories (Eugenio, 2000):
a. proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and the laws that govern life;
b. ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices;
c. proverbs expressing a system of values;
d. proverbs expressing general truths and observations about life and human nature;
e. humorous proverbs; and
f. miscellaneous proverbs

An example of a Filipino proverb is the saying “Kung may tiyaga, may nilaga” which means that hard work
will be rewarded if one is persistent.

2. Superstitions
Filipinos also subscribe to their own set of superstitions passed down from generation to generation.
Some of these may be influenced by beliefs from other cultures, but Filipinos have retold these superstitions
according to their own experiences and they sometimes end up even more interesting.
According to a Filipino superstition, a woman singing while cooking will end up a spinster so parents
remind their daughters to avoid singing while preparing their meals. Filipinos also avoid taking picture in threes
as that one in the center is said to die, according to another superstition.
3. Myths and Legends
Due to the Philippines’s rich culture and history, numerous myths and
legends have sprung about things that are beyond one’s imagination. These
stories are aimed to explain the origin of things, at the same time, teach a
valuable lesson. Some of these stories stemmed in pre-Christianity period,
but have evolved to the stories we know today.
A famous Filipino legend is about the origin of the pineapple fruit.
It is about a story of a young and lazy girl named Pina who always asked
where her mother kept the things she needed without looking for them
first. When Pina’s mother got tired of being asked where she hid her things, her mother wished that eyes be
planted on Pina’s face so she would start using them. To her mother’s surprise the next morning, Pina was gone
and a fruit sprung in the yard, implanted with “eyes” all around its body which was later called “pinya”, the
Filipino term for “pineapple”.

4. Heroes and Icons

Heroes serve as a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as they have sacrificed their lives, for the
sake of their country’s freedom and progress. Every year, we lend a whole day to celebrate our heroes, usually
the last Monday of August, to remember their greatness, bravery, and resilience that has led to the freedom we
know today.
Famous Filipino icons such as Lea Salonga, Manny Pacquiao, and our very own national hero, Jose Rizal,
also serve as important Filipino markers as they have made the Filipino name more pronounced worldwide
through their own experience.

How To Be A Good Filipino

Now you know that your traits and values are important indicators of being a Filipino. The problem now is
how to truly become one and how you can be useful to the development and progress of our country. The
following are a few ways on how to be a good Filipino:

1. Be an active Filipino citizen

A good Filipino citizen is aware of the current events and participates in government programs
that aim for the country’s progression and development. By simply exercising your right to vote, you
also become an active citizen. When it comes to voting, the rich and the poor have equal voting rights
– every Filipino citizen of legal age have a chance in choosing the right leaders for the Philippines who
are genuine in helping and caring for the Filipino people.
2. Study the Philippine history
The road of the Philippine history is long and bloody, and by learning and fully understanding the
events of the Philippine history, you will learn so much as to why it is so important for you to love
your country with your life, extend help to your fellow Filipinos in need, and recognize abuse of
political power.
3. Support local products
When you buy local products, you do not only support local manufacturers and businessmen, but
also help strengthen the local economy. How is this so? There will be more demand of local products,
thus, local businesses will be in need for more employees, which will open new job opportunities. The
business owners will also invest within the country and are less likely to leave. Supporting our local
products also displays our creativity, innovativeness, and resourcefulness.
4. Speak the Filipino language
The history of the Filipino language was as long as hard as the Philippine history. Jose Rizal
highlighted the importance of speaking a national language as a way of displaying the love for one’s
country. Speaking Filipino also serves as a unique identifier of being a Filipino. It has been decade-long
debate whether to use Filipino as the instructional language in school and to translate textbooks into
Filipino; however, this is still not strictly imposed.
5. Do not spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent
This period in the history of the Philippines has seen how the internet has spawned tons of
possibilities for people, both good and bad. For instance, it is easier for Filipinos working abroad to
communicate with their loved ones left in the Philippines through the Internet. Despite this, the
 Internet has also made the spread of fake news very common. Likewise, the Internet has also made us
engage in intense arguments with people across the globe about our political positions, for example.
It is part of being a good Filipino to understand and verify what you read online, especially in social
media, before actually believing in it and spreading it like wildfire. It is also the responsibility of every
Filipino to recognize disagreement in political views, be tolerant, and argue intelligently without
having to resort into name-calling people.

APPPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

1. Make an acrostic below which will describe you, in relation to your being a Filipino:

2. Discuss how being a Filipino affects your “self.” How can becoming a better Filipino influence your duty to
becoming a better version of yourself?

Lesson 5
Who Am I in the Cyberworld? (Digital Self)

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. define online identity;
2. compare real identity versus online identity;
3. describe the influence of Internet on sexuality and gender; and
4. discuss the proper way of demonstrating values and attitudes online.

INTRODUCTION

These days, more people are becoming active in using the Internet for research, pleasure, business
communication, and other purposes. Indeed, the Internet is of great help for everyone. On the other hand,
people assume different identities while in the cyberspace. People act differently when they are online and
offline. We have our real identity and online identity.

ACTIVITY

Three Facts, One Fiction

Construct four sentences that should start with "I am ___________. Three of the four sentences should
be true about yourself. You can talk about your characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, accomplishments,
personalities, and behavior. One statement should be a lie-something that you just made up about yourself.
Make the activity more fun by making your classmates believe that the statement is true.

1. I am _____________________________________

2. I am _____________________________________

3. I am _____________________________________

4. I am _____________________________________

ANALYSIS

What have you learned from the activity? Did you learn something from your classmates that you did not
know before? What were the clues that helped you figure out which statements were facts and fiction? Were
your classmates able to discern easily the facts and fiction about you? Why?
Applying the same activity in the virtual world or cyberworld, how do people portray themselves online?
What are the things that you would want to post/share online? What are the things you want others to share
online?

ABSTRACTION
The number of people who are becoming more active online continues to increase worldwide. More than
half of the population worldwide now uses the Internet. It has only been 25 years since Tim Berners-Lee made
the World Wide Web available to the public, but in that time, the Internet has already become an integral part of
everyday life for most of the world's population. The Philippines is among one of the countries with the most
active Internet users (We are Social and Hoot suite n.d.).

 Almost two-thirds of the world's population now has a mobile phone.

 More than half of the world's web traffic now comes from mobile phones.
 More than half of all mobile connections around the world are now "broadband."
 More than one in five of the world's population shopped online in the past 30 days

Media users in the Philippines grew by 12 million or 25% while the number of mobile social users
increased by 13 million or 32%. Those growth figures are still higher compared to the previous year. More than
half the world now uses a smartphone.
 Figure 1. Growth of world digital users in 2016 compared to 2015.

Based on Figure 1, the number of digital users worldwide increases. More people are becoming
interested and devoted in using internet for various activities. In the Philippines, adolescents are among the most
avid users of the internet.

Figure 2. Percentage of mobile internet users from different age groups in the Philippines.

0nline identity is actually the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions while partial identity is a
subset of characteristics that make up our identity. Meanwhile, persona is the partial identity we create that
represents ourselves in a specific situation.

Selective Self-presentation and Impression Management

 According to Goffman (1959) and Leary (1995), self-presentation is the process of controlling how one is
perceived by other people and is the key to relationship inception and development. To construct positive
images, individuals selectively provide information about them and carefully cater this information in response to
other's feedback.
Anything posted online should be considered "public" no matter what our "privacy" settings are. Let us
say, a student wrote online about how much he hated another student in school, and started bullying him online.
Does it matter if the student said, "Well, this is my personal account"? Even if the student wrote it in a "private
account, it can become public with a quick screen capture and shared with the world. Personal identity is the
interpersonal level of self which differentiates the individual as unique from others, while social identity is the
level of self whereby the individual is identified by his or her group memberships.
Belk (2013) explained that sharing ourselves is no longer new and has been practiced as soon as human
beings were formed. Digital devices help us share information broadly, more than ever before. For those who are
avid users of Facebook, it is possible that their social media friends are more updated about their daily activities,
connections, and thoughts than their immediate families. Diaries that were once private or shared only with close
friends are now posted as blogs which can be viewed by anyone. In websites like Flickr or Photobucket, the use of
arm's-length self-photography indicates a major change. In older family albums, the photographer was not often
represented in the album (Mendelson and Papacharissi 2011), whereas with arm's-length photos, they are
necessarily included (e.g., selfies and groupies). In addition, the family album of an earlier era has become more
of an individual photo gallery in the digital age. As Schwarz (2010) mentioned, we have entered an extraordinary
era of self-portraiture. Blogs and web pages have been continuously used for greater self-reflection and self-
presentation. Facebook and other social media applications are now a key part of self-presentation for one sixth
of humanity. As a result, researchers and participants become concerned with actively managing identity and
reputation and to warn against the phenomenon of "oversharing" (Labrecque, Markos, and Milne 2011:
Shepherd 2005; Suler 2002: Zimmer and Hoffman 2011). Sometimes people become unaware of the extent of
information they share online. They forget to delineate what can be shared online and what should not.
Furthermore, it provides a more complete narration of self and gives people an idealized view of how they would
like to be remembered by others (van Dijck 2008). Many teenagers, as well as some adults, share even more
intimate details with their partners like their passwords (Gershon 2010). This could be an ultimate act of intimacy
and trust or the ultimate expression of paranoia and distrust with the partner.
Because of the conversion of private diaries into public revelations of inner secrets, the lack of privacy in
many aspects of social media make the users more vulnerable, leading to compulsively checking newsfeeds and
continually adding tweets and postings in order to appear active and interesting. This condition has been called
"Year of missing out. People would like to remain updated and they keep on sharing themselves online because it
adds a sense of confidence at their end especially if others like and share their posts. One of the reasons for so
much sharing and self-disclosure online is the so-called "disinhibition effect" (Ridley 2012, Suler 2004). The lack of
face-to-face gaze-meeting, together with feelings of anonymity and invisibility, gives people the freedom for self-
disclosure but can also "flame others and may cause conflict sometimes. The resulting disinhibition causes people
to believe that they are able to express their "true self" better online than they ever could in face-to-face
contexts (Taylor 2002). However, it does not mean that there is a fixed "true self. The self is still a work in
progress and we keep on improving and developing ourselves every single day. Seemingly self-revelation can be
therapeutic to others especially if it goes together with self-reflection (Morris et al. 2010). But it does appear that
we now do a large amount of our identity work online. When the Internet constantly asks us: "Who are you?"
and "What do you have to share?", it is up to us if we are going to provide answers to such queries every time we
use the Internet and to what extent are going to share details of ourselves to others.
In addition to sharing the good things we experience, many of us also share the bad, embarrassing, and
"sinful things we experience. We also react and comment on negative experiences of others. Sometimes, we
empathize with people. We also argue with others online. Relationships may be made stronger or broken
through posts online. Blogs and social media are the primary digital for a on which such confessions occur, but
they can also be found in photo and video-sharing sites where blunders and bad moments are also preserved and
shared (Strangelove 2011). Why confess to unseen and anonymous others online? In Foucault's (1978, 1998)
view, confessing our secret truths feels freeing, even as it binds us in a guilt-motivated self-governance born of a
long history of Christian and pre-Christian philosophies and power structures.
According to Foucault (1998), confession, along with contemplation, self-examination, learning, reading,
and writing self-critical letters to friends, are a part of the "technologies of the self" through which we seek to
purge and cleanse ourselves.
Despite the veil of invisibility, writers on the Internet write for an unseen audience (Serfaty 2004). Both
the number and feedback of readers provide self-validation for the writer and a certain celebrity (O'Regan 2009).
Confessional blogs may also be therapeutic for the audience to read, allowing both sincere empathy and the
voyeuristic appeal of witnessing a public confession (Kitzmann 2003).
Consequently, we should have a filtering system to whatever information we share online, as well as to
what information we believe in, which are being shared or posted by others online. We should look at online
information carefully whether they are valid and true before believing and promoting them. In the same way, we
should also think well before we post or share anything online in order to prevent conflict, arguments, and cyber-
bullying, and to preserve our relationships with others.

Gender and Sexuality Online

According to Marwick (2013), while the terms "sex" "gender," and "sexuality" are often thought of as
synonymous, they are actually quite distinct. The differences between the common understandings of these
terms and how researchers think about them yield key insights about the social functioning of gender. Sex is the
biological state that corresponds to what we might call a "man" or a "woman." This might seem to be a simple
distinction, but the biology of sex is actually very complicated. While "sex" is often explained as biological, fixed,
and immutable, it is actually socially constructed (West and Zimmerman 1987). Gender then, is the social
understanding of how sex should be experienced and how sex manifests in behavior, personality, preferences,
capabilities, and so forth. A person with male sex organs is expected to embody a masculine gender. While sex
and gender are presumed to be biologically connected, we can understand gender as a socio-culturally specific
set of norms that are mapped onto a category of "sex" (Kessler and McKenna 1978; Lorber 1994). Gender is
historical. It is produced by media and popular culture (Gauntlett 2008; van Zoonen 1994). It is taught by families,
schools, peer groups, and nation states (Goffman 1977). It is reinforced through songs, sayings, admonition,
slang, language, fashion, and discourse (Cameron 1998; Cameron and Kulick 2003), and it is deeply ingrained.
Gender is a system of classification that values male-gendered things more than female related things. This
system plays out on the bodies of men and women, and in constructing hierarchies of everything from colors
(e.g., pink vs. blue) to academic departments (e.g., English vs. Math) to electronic gadgets and websites. Given
this inequality, the universalized “male” body and experiences is often constructed as average or normal, while
female-gendered experiences are conceptualized as variations from the norm (Goffman 1977).
Sexuality is an individual expression and understanding of desire. While like gender, this is often viewed
as binary (homosexual and heterosexual), in reality, sexuality is often experienced as fluid.

Performing Gender Online

Theorist Judith Butler (1990) conceptualized gender as a performance. She explained that popular
understandings of gender and sexuality came to be through discourse and social processes She argued that
gender is performative, in that it is produced through millions of individual actions, rather than something at
comes naturally to men and women, Performances that adhere to normative understandings of gender and
sexuality are allowed, while those that do not are admonished (for example, a boy "throwing like a girl) (Lorber
1994). In the 1990s many Internet scholars drew from Butler and other queer theorists to understand online
identity. According to the disembodiment hypothesis, Internet users are free to actively choose which gender or
sexuality they are going to portray with the possibility of creating alternate identities (Wynn and Katz 1997). The
ability of users to self-consciously adapt and play with different gender identities would reveal the choices
involved in the production of gender, breaking down binaries and encouraging fluidity in sexuality and gender
expression.
Recently, social media has been celebrated for facilitating greater cultural participation and creativity.
Social media sites like Twitter and YouTube have led to the emergence of a “free culture” where individuals are
empowered to engage in cultural production using raw materials, ranging from homemade videos to mainstream
television characters to create new culture, memes, and humor. At its best, this culture of memes, mash-ups, and
creative political activism allows for civic engagement and fun creative acts. While Digg, 4chan, and Reddit are
used mostly by men, most social networks site users are women; this is true in Facebook, Flickr, LiveJournal,
Tumblr, Twitter, and YouTUbe (Chappell 2011; Lenhart 20019, Lenhart et al. 2010). But mere equality of use does
not indicate equality of participation. While both men and women use Wikipedia, 87% of Wikipedia contributors
were identified as male (Lavallee 2009). Male students are more likely to create, edit and distribute digital video
over YouTube or Facebook than female students. However, the Pew Internet and American Life Project found no
discernible differences in user-generated content by gender except remixing, which was most likely among teen
girls (Lenhart et al. 2010). One explanation for these differences is that user-generated content is often clustered
by gender Researchers have consistently shown that similar numbers of men and women maintain a blog-about
14% of Internet users (Lennart et al. 2010). While the number of male and female bloggers is roughly equivalent.
they tend to blog about different things. Overwhelmingly, certain types of blogs are written and read by women
(eg, food, fashion, parenting), while others (eg technology, politics) are written and run by men (Chittenden 2010.
Hindman 2009: Meraz 2008). Although the technologies are the same, the norms and mores of the people using
them differ.

Setting Boundaries To Your Online Self: Smart Sharing

The following guidelines will help you share information online in a smart way that will protect yourself
and not harm others. Before posting or sharing anything online, consider the following:

 Is this post/story necessary?

 Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny warm-hearted, teachable-or am I just making noise online
without purpose?
 Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this issue? An issue that is still being worked out at home, or
one that is either vulnerable or highly emotional, should not be made public.
 Is it appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries of our family values?
 Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, or 15 years? Or is this post better suited for sharing with a small group of
family members? Or maybe not at all?

Rules to Follow
Here are additional guidelines for proper sharing of information and ethical use of the Internet according
to New (2014):

 Stick to safer sites.

 Guard your passwords
 Limit what you share
 Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there forever, even if you try to delete it.
 Do not be mean or embarrass other people online
 Always tell if you see strange or bad behavior online.
 Be choosy about your online friends.
 Be patient

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

1. Creative work. Form groups with three to four members. In an illustration board, make a slogan or a
poster about becoming a responsible Internet user. Use coloring materials to improve your output. Share
your output in class and record the comments/reactions of your classmates.

2. Research work. Search from the library (books, journals, or websites) for the guidelines used in
identifying fake news. Share in class the result of your research work and your own insights about fake
news.

Module III
Contents:
Lesson 1: Learning To Be a Better Learner
Lesson 2: Do Not Just Dream, Make It Happen
Lesson 3: Less Stress, More Care

Lesson 1
Learning To Be a Better Learner

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain how learning occurs;
2. Enumerate various metacognition and studying techniques; and
3. Identify the metacognitive techniques that you find most appropriate for yourself.

INTRODUCTION
Knowing the “self” is not enough. Since “who you are” is partly made up of your choice, you must have
the ability to choose especially to be better “you.” In the school setting, your knowledge of yourself should at
least enable you to become a better student.
This lesson will present several techniques that you can adapt depending on your situation and
preference to make you a better learner. Learning should not just mean studying for your quizzes and exams in
school. Learning could also occur outside the confines of a book or classroom, like when you want to acquire a
new move in your favorite sport, or the skills for a certain hobby, among others. Furthermore, the techniques
here are not the only techniques available and months or years from now, new ways on how to study better will
be discovered or rediscovered. What is important at this moment is that you learn how to learn these things.

ACTIVITY
How Do You Think About Thinking?
Answer the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and evaluate yourself as a learner. A copy
of the MAI can also be downloaded from the following link:
https://www2.viu.ca/studentsuccessservices/learningstrategist/documents/MetacognitiveAwarenessInventory.p
df (accessed October 1, 2017).

ANALYSIS
Answer the following questions, then write your answers in the space provided.
1. Do you agree with the results of your MAI? Why or why not?
2. Make a list of your “Top 5 Tips/Secrets for Studying” based on your personal
experience/preferences. Share your answer in class.
3. Does you MAI result consistent with your personal Top 5 Tips/Secrets for Studying?

ABSTRACTION
We are Homo sapiens or the “wise man.” We think in a more complex level than our ancestors and most,
if not all, of the other beings. But being called wise, not only do we think, but we are also capable to think about
thinking, like how we think of things and why we think in a certain way about things. It is like your brain thinks
about itself, then thinks about how it thinks about itself.
In the context of learning, studies show that when you are able to think about how you think, how you
process information, and how you utilize techniques while you are studying, you have a higher chance of
improving your learning process than those who do not reflect on their methods.
This idea falls under the concept of metacognition. Metacognition is commonly defined as “thinking
about thinking” (Livingston 1997; Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). It is the awareness of the scope and limitations of
your current knowledge and skills (Meichenbaum 1985 in American Institutes for Research 2010). Due to this
awareness, metacognition enables the person to adapt their existing knowledge and skills to approach a learning
task, seeking for the optimum result of the learning experience American Institutes for Research 2010).
Metacognition is also not limited to the thinking process of the individual. It also includes keeping one’s
emotions and motivations while learning in check (Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Some people learn better when
they like the subject, some when they are challenged by the topic; and others if they have a reward system each
time they finish a task. The emotional state and the motivation of a person then should also be in the preferred
ideal state for that person in order to further facilitate his or her learning.
As seen from the abovementioned definitions, metacognition basically has two aspects: (1) self-appraisal
and (2) self-management of cognition (Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Self-appraisal is
your personal reflection on your knowledge and capabilities while self-management is the mental process you
employ using what you have in planning and adapting to successfully learn or accomplish a certain task (Paris and
Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Similar concepts, usually called elements of metacognition, are
metacognitive knowledge or what you know about how you think, and metacognition regulation or how you
adjust your thinking processes to help you learn better (American Institutes for Research 2010).
Under metacognitive knowledge, there are several variables that affect how you know or assess yourself
as a thinker. First is the personal variable, which is your evaluation of your strengths and weaknesses in learning.
Second is the task variable, which is what you know or what you think about the nature of the task, as well as
what strategies the task requires. Lastly, strategy variable refers to what strategies and skills you already have in
dealing with certain tasks 9 American Institutes for Research 2010).
However, it must be noted that in order to make self-appraisal and self-management work, you must
have an accurate self-assessment – you must be honest about what you know and capable of in order to find
ways to utilize your strengths and improve on your weaknesses (Schoenfield 1987 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003).
Going back to the activity, review your MAI and your answers during the analysis. Do you feel that the
results do not represent you? Rather than dismissing the test or the results if you feel any incongruence to your
perception, try to analyze if your answers were accurate and think of the specific instances when you were
learning something. Think also of the various factors that make that learning experience successful and enjoyable
for you, including your emotions and motivations at that certain period.
By doing the above reflection, you are actually utilizing metacognitive skills. According to Waterloo
Student Success Office (n.d.), the following are other skills that can help you in exercising metacognition:

1. Know your limits. As mentioned earlier, one cannot really make any significance advancement is using
metacognitive skills without having an honest and accurate evaluation of what you know and what
you do not know. Knowing your limits also looks at the scope and limitations of your resources so that
you can work with what you have at the moment and look for ways to cope with other necessities.
2. Modifying your approach. It begins with the recognition that your strategy is not appropriate with the
task and/or that you do not comprehend the learning experience successfully. Recognizing, for
example, that you are not understanding what you are reading, you should learn to modify your
strategy in comprehending your material. You might want to read and reread a page in five-minute
intervals instead of trying to finish the material in one sitting. You may want to make a summary or
code for yourself instead of using keywords or highlighting sections of what you are reading.
3. Skimming. This is basically browsing over a material and keeping an eye on keywords, phrases, or
sentences. It is also about knowing where to search for such key terms. For example, you might want
to look at the Introduction first or the Abstract. The Table of Contents can also provide you with a
quick guide to the contents of the book. Introductory paragraphs, headings or subheadings, and
conclusions can also provide you with an overview of the whole material. This technique works best
when you want to get an idea about the contents of a reading material, when you are trying to read
 through several materials in a limited time frame, or when you want to focus on certain details,
among others.
4. Rehearsing. This is not just about repeatedly talking, writing, and/ or doing what you have learned,
but also trying to make a personal interpretation or summary of the learning experience. One of the
fun ways to do this is by i9magining yourself being interviewed about your task. As you try to convey
what you have learned from the resources, you also insert your opinions or other personal take on
the matter. Just be sure that the key concepts are well understood and are still in-line with the source
material even with multiple rehearsals.
5. Self-Test. As the name implies, this is trying to test your comprehension of your learning experience
or the skills you have acquired during learning. While some materials already come with tests like this
book, you can still create tests for yourself. You can make essay questions or definition of terms test
while you are reading or watching a material. You can challenge yourself in completing a task
successfully, maybe in a given period of time – example doing 50 free throws with at least 90%
success rate. Self-test does not only focus on what you have learned but also on how you learned it.
After the experience, you should also ask questions like, “What strategies did I use?” “How successful
were my learning strategies?” “How can I further improve my learning skills?”

Other strategies that you need to develop include asking questions about your methods, self-reflection,
finding a mentor or support group if necessary, thinking out loud (though you have to be considerate of others
also when doing this), and welcoming errors as learning experiences. For clarification, “welcoming errors” does
not mean seeking them or unconsciously making them as much as possible. It means that when you commit a
mistake, you do not dismiss it as insignificant or you do not try to avoid responsibility of the results. You must
process them to learn every lesson that you can take about yourself, about the topic, and other people or things.
By having a more positive attitude towards mistakes, you will also have the courage to venture into new and
unknown learning experiences that may one day interest you.
Using these strategies, you can at least identify four types of metacognitive learners (Perkins 1992 in
Cambridge International Examinations 2015). First, the “tacit” learners are unaware of their metacognitive
processes although they know the extent of their knowledge. Second, the “aware” learners know some of their
metacognitive strategies but they do not plan on how to use these techniques. Third, “strategic” learners, as the
name implies, strategize and plan their course of action toward a learning experience. Lastly, the “reflective”
learners reflect on their thinking while they are using the strategies and adapt metacognitive skills depending on
their situation.
As you may have noticed already, the goal of metacognition is for the student to be a self-regulated
learner. Education should not be limited by the capabilities of the teacher, the content of school textbooks, the
four corners of the classroom, and the duration of the academic year or courses. You should have the capability
to study things on your own as well as accurately evaluate your progress.
This is one of the benefits of using metacognitive techniques and strategies. Another benefit is the
compensation and development of cognitive limitations of the learner because the student is now aware of
his/her capabilities. Various researches also showed significant improvement in academic performance in any
subject and across age range. The student is also enabled to transfer knowledge from one context into another
(Cambridge International Examinations 2015).

Other tips that you can use in studying are the following (Queensland University of Technology Library
n.d.):

1. Make an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are reading or doing, and/or the
things you remember.
2. Break down the task in smaller and more manageable details.
3. Integrate variation in your schedule and learning experience. Change reading material every hour and
do not put similar topics together (e.g., try studying English then Mathematics instead of English then
Filipino together). Also include physical activities in your planning.
4. Try to include your ideas. First, write your draft without doing much editing. Let the ideas flow. Then
leave your draft as least overnight or around 24 hours – some even do not look at it for a week – and
do something else. After a given period, go back to your draft or prototype and you might find a fresh
perspective about it. Sometimes, during incubation, you suddenly have ideas coming to you. Write
 them down in a notebook first and do not integrate them into the draft yet. Review what you have
written when the incubation period is done.
5. Revise, summarize, and take down notes, then reread them to help you minimize cramming in the last
minute, especially when you have a weakness in memorizing facts and data. Some people are
motivated when the deadline us very close – tomorrow, for instance – and they just review the day
before some evaluation or exercise. If you are that kind of person, you may still motivate yourself and
have that feeling of urgency at the last minute but using the aforementioned techniques, your
“cramming” need not be a desperate attempt to learn but only as a way to energize your brain as you
make a final review of the things you have already been studying for a week or so before.
6. Engage what you have learned. Do something about it. On a reading material for example, highlight
keywords and phrases, write your opinions about the matter on a separate notebook, or create a
diagram or concept map. Some people also learn best by copying the key paragraphs word for word.
You may want to look for other definitions and compare or contrast materials. Use your new
knowledge during discussions – just do something about it.

As you were reading this topic, were you aware of your metacognitive processes? What changes
did you feel as you try to use the metacognitive strategies and skills? We encourage you to utilize and
adapt the aforementioned techniques in whatever learning experiences you are about to accomplish and
find enjoyment and success in learning.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

Scenario: You are about to study for your final examinations and it is as if the universe conspired for a heavy
finals week, all your subjects provided at least three new reading materials and topics one week (7 days) before
the examination period. Create a diagram or schedule using at least five of the metacognitive strategies, skills,
and studying techniques mentioned in this lesson on how you would prepare for the next seven days before your
final examination.

Lesson 2
Do Not Just Dream, Make It Happen

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Use Bandura’s self-efficacy theory for self-assessment;
 2. Different growth and fixed mindset by Dweck; and
3. Design personal goals adapting Locke’s goal setting theory.

INTRODUCTION

Jack Canfield is an epitome of success. He has authored seven books listed in the Guinness Book of World
Records as New York Times Bestseller, beating Stephen King (Macmillan 2017). These books are: Chicken Soup for
the Soul Series; The success Principles; How to Get from Where You Are to Where You Want to Be; The Power of
Focus; The Aladdin Factor; Dare to Win; You’ve Got to Read This Book; and The Key to Living the Law of
Attraction. Jack Canfield is the chairman and founder of the Canfield Training Group; founder and former
chairman of the Chicken Soup for the Soul Enterprises; and was invited to a thousand radio and television
programs worldwide (Canfield 2017).
One of Canfield’s feature quotes about success is: “By taking the time to stop and appreciate who you are
and what you have achieve-and perhaps learned through a few mistakes, stumbles and losses-you actually can
enhance everything about you. Self-acknowledgement and appreciation are what give you the insights and
awareness to move forward toward higher goals and accomplishments” (Brown 2016).
We will learn more about Canfield’s quote through Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. Dweck’s
mindsets theory and Locke’s goal setting theory.

ACTIVITY

5-10-20 Selfie

On each designated box, draw your envisioned “Future Self.” Who would you be:
1. Five years from now

2. Ten years from now

3. Twenty years from now
ANALYSIS

Envisioned Self Plan

Answer the following questions.
1. Who are you or what would you become:
a. In five years

b. In ten years

c. In twenty years

2. What are your motivations for your envisioned self?

a. In five years

b. In ten years

c. In twenty years

3. Outline your plans on how you will make your envisioned self into reality:
a. In five years

b. In ten years

c. In twenty years

4. How do you feel after doing this exercise?

5. What is your perception on goal setting?

ABSTRACTION

Albert E. Bandura’s Self-efficacy

Biography

The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Albert Bandura in an article entitled “Self-efficacy: Toward
a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change” published in Psychological Review in 1977. The article also became an
instant classic in psychology (Kendra 2017).
Albert E. Bandura was born in Mundare, Alberta on December 4, 1925. He was the youngest of six
children. He grew up with parents who put great emphasis on the value of family, life, and education.
Bandura took a summer job in Alaska after high school graduation. He then took an introductory
psychology course at the University of British Columbia as a working student. In three years’, time, he graduated
with The Bolocan Award in Psychology in 1949.
He earned his master’s degree from the University of lowa in 1951 and his PhD in Clinical Psychology in
1952. He had a postdoctoral position at the Wichita Guidance Center before accepting a position as a faculty
member at Stanford University in 1953, where he still works at present.

The Bobo Doll Experiment

In the 1950s, Dr. Bandura had a study known as the Bobo Doll Experiment. In this experiment, the sample
children were presented with new social models of violent and nonviolent behavior toward an inflatable
redounding Bobo doll. The result was: the group of children who saw the violent behavior model became violent
to the doll, while the control group who was presented with the nonviolent behavior model was rarely violent to
the doll. This experiment has proven right the hypothesis that social modeling is a very effective way of learning.
Dr. Bandura introduced the social learning theory that focus on what people learn from observing and interacting
with other people. Bandura’s social cognitive theory states that people are active participants in their
environmental and are not simply shaped by that environment.
To date, as an active member of Stanford University, Dr. Bandura continues to do research such as self-
efficacy, stress reactions, and effects of modeling on human behavior, emotion, and thought. He has received
many awards and honorary degree due to his works (The Great Canadian Psychology Website 2008).
Dr. Bandura was named the most influential psychologist of all time. His theories gave major contribution
to the field of psychology, psychotherapy, and education. He was elected president of the American Psychology
Association (APA) in 1974. He was awarded by APA for his distinguished scientific contributions in 1980 and again
in 2004 for his outstanding lifetime contributions to psychology. In 2015, Dr. Bandura was awarded the National
Medal of Science by President Barack Obama (Kendra 2017).

Summary of Self-efficacy Theory

Weibell (2011) summarized Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory:
“Self-efficacy theory is based on the assumption that psychological procedures serve as a means of
creating and strengthening expectations of personal efficacy.”
“Self-efficacy theory distinguishes between expectations of efficacy and response-outcome expectancies.
According to Weibell (2011), outcome expectancy is “a person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to
certain outcomes.” An efficacy expectation is the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior
required to produce the outcomes.” Although a person may expect a certain activity to lead to a particular
outcome, they may lack the motivation to perform the action, doubling their ability to do so. Outcome and
efficacy expectations are differentiated because individuals can believe that a particular course of action will
produce certain outcomes. However, if they entertain serious doubts about whether they can perform the
necessary activities with such information, it does not influence their behavior.
Self-efficacy typically comes into play when there is an actual or perceived threat to one’s personal safety,
or one’s ability to deal with potentially aversive events. Increasing a person’s self-efficacy increase their ability to
deal with a potentially adverse situation. For example, experimental studies on the treatment of adults with
ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) have demonstrated that raising levels of self-efficacy mediates anxiety arousal.
Weibell (2011) stated that Dr. Bandura defined self-efficacy as “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to
produce designated levels to performance that exercises influence over events that affect their lives.” He
identified acts of people with “high assurance in their capabilities,” such as:
1. approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered;
2. set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them;
3. heighten or sustain efforts in the face of failures or setbacks;
4. attribute failure to insufficient effect or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable; and
5. approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them.
In contrast, people “who doubt their capabilities”;
1. shy away from tasks they view as personal threats;
2. have low aspiration and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue;
3. dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes,
rather than concentrating on how to perform successfully;
4. slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties;
5. are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks;
6. fail easy victim to stress and depression.
Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a person’s self-efficacy is developed and
maintained. These are;
1. performance accomplishments or mastery experiences;
2. vicarious experiences;
3. verbal or social persuasion; and
4. physiological (somatic and emotional) states.
Dr. Bandura identified that “mastery experiences” or “personal performance accomplishments” are the
most effective ways to create a strong sense of efficacy. “Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy
is firmly establishes.” Vicarious experience through observance of social models also influences one’s perception
of self-efficacy. The most important factor that determines the strength of influence of an observed success or
failure on one’s own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the observer and the model.
 Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observer’s belief that they, too,
possess the capabilities to succeed, given the comparable activities. By the same token, observing others who fail
despite high efforts lowers observer’s judgments of their own efficacy and undermines their efforts. The impact
of modeling on perceived self-efficacy is strongly influenced by perceived similarity to the models. The greater
the assumed similarity, the more persuasive is the model’s successes and failures. If people see the models as
very different from themselves, their perceived self-efficacy is not much influence by the model’s behavior and
the results it produces.
Verbal or social persuasion also affects one’s perception of self-efficacy. It is “a way of strengthening
people’s beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed. “Verbal or social persuasion can provide a temporary
boost in perceived ability. When it is effective in mobilizing a person to action, and their actions lead to success,
the enhanced self-efficacy may become more permanent. People who are persuaded verbality, that they possess
the capabilities to master given activities, are likely to mobilize greater effort and sustain it than if they harbor
self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies when problems arise,” this increases their chances of success.
Unfortunately, “it is more difficult to instill high beliefs of personal efficacy by social persuasion alone than to
undermine it since unrealistic boosts in efficacy are quickly disconfirmed by disappointing results of one’s efforts”
(Weibell 2011).
People also rely on their somatic or emotional states when judging their capabilities. Stress and tension
are interpreted as “sign of vulnerability to poor performance.” Fatigue, aches and pains, and mood also effect
perception of ability. Dr. Bandura notes, however, that it is not the intensity of the emotional or physical reaction
that is important, but rather, how it is perceived and interpreted. People with a high sense of self-efficacy may
perceive affective arousal as “an energizing facilitator of performance, whereas those who are beset by sel-
doubts regard their arousal as a debilitator” (Weibell 2011).
Since “most human motivation is cognitively generated,” self-belief of efficacy is an important factor in
human motivation. Belief of self-efficacy work in coordination with component skill and incentive to act.
Inasmuch as a person has both the component skills needed to succeed and the incentive to engage, self-efficacy
plays an important role in determining what activities a person will choose sustained when things get tough
(Weibell 2011).
Expectation alone will not produce desired performance if the component capabilities are lacking.
Moreover, there are many things that people can do with certainly of success, but they do not perform because
they have no incentives to do so (Weilbell 2011).
Dr. Albert Bandura’s quotes about self-efficacy (Kendra 2017) ae as follows:
 “Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the source of action
required to manage prospective situations,” From Social Foundation of Though and Action: A
Social Cognitive Theory, 1986.
 “If efficacy beliefs always reflected only what people can do routinely, they would rarely fail but
they would not set aspirations beyond their ordinary performances.” From Encyclopedia of
Human Behavior, 1994.
 “Self-belief does not necessarily ensure success, but self-disbelief assuredly spawns failure.” From
Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, 1997.
 “By sticking it out through tough times, people emerge from adversity with a stronger sense of
efficacy.” From Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 1994.
 “People’s beliefs about their abilities have a profound effect on those abilities. Ability is not fixed
property; there is a huge variability in how you perform. People who have a sense of self-efficacy
bounce back from failure; they approach things in terms of how to handle them rather than
worrying about what can go wrong.” From Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, 1996.

Carol S. Dweck’s Fixed and Growth Mindset Theory

Biography
Carol S. Dweck is the author or Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. She was born on October 17,
1946. She graduated from Bernard Collage in 1967 and earned her PhD from Yale university in 1972. She thought
at Columbia University, Harvard University, and University of Illinois before joining Stanford University in 2004
(Upclosed 2017).
She is one of the leading researchers in the field of motivation and is a Lewis and Virginia Eaton Professor
of Psychology at Stanford University. Her research focused on why people succeed and how to foster success.
She has been elected as one of the outstanding scholars in Social Sciences at the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences. Her works has been featured in different publications like. The New Yorker, Time, The New York Times,
The Washington Post, and The Boston (Mindset 2006-2010).
 Book Award for Self-Theories, World Education Federation (an organization of the United Nations
and UNICEF) (2004)
 Donald Campbell Career Achievement award in Social Psychology, Society for Personality and
Social Psychology (2008)
 Ward of Innovative Program of the Year, “Brainology” (2008)
 Ann L. Brown Award for Research in Developmental Psychology, University of Illinois (2009)
 Klingenstein Award of Leadership in Education, Klingenstein Center, Columbia University (2010)
 Thorndike Career Achievement Award in Educational Psychology, American Psychological
Association (2010)
 Beckman Mentoring Award, Columbia University (2011)
 Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, American Psychological Association (2011)
 Gallery of Scientists, Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences (2011)
 James McKeen Cattell Lifetime Achievement Award, Association for Psychological Science (2013)
 Distinguished Scholar Award, Society for Personality and Social Psychology (2013).

Fixed and Growth Mindset

Dr Dweck’s contribution to social psychology relates to implicit theories of intelligence with her book,
Mindset: The New Psychology of Success published in 2006. Dr. Dweck described people with two types of
mindset. People who believe that success is based on their innate abilities have a “fixed” theory of intelligence,
and goes under fixed mindset. On the other hand, people who believe that success is based on hardwork,
learning, training, and perseverance have growth theory of intelligence, which goes under growth mindset.
According to Dr. Dweck, individuals may not necessarily be aware of their own mindset, but their mindset can still
be discerned based on their behavior. It is especially evident in their reaction to failure. Fixed-mindset individuals
dread failure because it is a negative statement on their basic abilities, while growth-mindset individuals do not
mind or fear failure as much because they realize their performance can be improved and learning comes from
failure. These two mindsets play an important role in all aspects of a person’s life. Dr. Dweck argues that the
growth mindset will allow a person to live a less stressful and more successful life (Upclosed 2017).
In an interview with Dr. Dweck in 2012, she described the fixed and growth mindset as:
“In a fixed mindset, students believe their basic abilities, their intelligence; their talents are just fixed
traits. They have a certain amount and that’s that, and their goal becomes to look smart all the time and never
look dumb. In the growth mindset, students understand that their talents and abilities can be developed through
effort, good teaching and persistence. They don’t necessarily think everyone’s the same or anyone can be
Einstein, but they believe everyone can get smarter of they work for it.” (Upclosed 2017)
Individuals with growth mindset are more likely to continue working hard despite setbacks whole
individuals with fixed mindset can be affected by subtle environmental cues. For examples, children given praise
such as “good job, you are smart” are more likely to develop a fixed mindset, whereas, if given compliments like
“good job, you worked very hard” are likely to develop a growth mindset. In other words, it is possible to
encourage students to persist despite failure by encouraging the, to think about learning in a certain way
(Upclosed 2017).
Edwin A. Locke’s Goal Setting Theory
Biography
Edwin A. Locke is internationally known for his research on goal setting. He was born on January 5, 1398.
He is a Dean’s Professor (Emeritus) of Leadership and Motivation at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the
University of Maryland, College Park. He received his BA from Harvard in 1960 and his PHD in Industrial
Psychology from Cornell University in 1964 (Locke 2017).
He has published more than 300 chapters, notes, and articles in professional journals on such subjects as
work motivation, job satisfaction, incentives, and the philosophy of science. He is also the author/editor of 12
books, including The Selfish Path to Romance: How to Love with Passion and Reason (platform Press); Study
Methods and Study Motivation (Ayn Rand Bookstore 2008); Goal Setting: A Motivational Technique That Works
(Prentice Hall 1984, with G. Latham); A theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Prentice Hall 1990, with G.
Latham); New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance (2013, with G. Latham); Handbook of
Principles of Organizational Behavior (Blackwell 2000; Second Edition, Wiley 2009); The Prime Movers: Traits of
the Great Wealth Creators (Second Edition, Ayn Rand Bookstore 2008); and Postmodernism and Management:
Pros, Cons, and the Alternative (JAI Elsevier 2003). A recent survey found that Locke’s goal setting theory
(developed with G. Latham) was ranked number one in importance among 73 management theories. His work
has been supported by numerous research grants, and he has served as consultant to research firms and private
businesses (Locke 2017).
Dr. Locke has been elected a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, the American
Psychological Society, the Academy of Management, and has been a consulting editor for leading journals. He
was a winner of the Outstanding Contribution Award of the University of Maryland, the Distinguished Scientific
Contribution Award of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the Career Contribution Award of
the Academy of Management (Human Resource Division), the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Academy of
Management (Organizational Behavior Division), and the James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award from the American
Psychological Society. He is also a writer and lecturer for the Ayn Rand Institute and is interested in the
application of the philosophy of objectivism to behavioral sciences (Locke 2017).
Goal Setting Theory
The goal setting theory was first studied by Dr. Locke in the middle of 1960s. He continued to do more
studies in relation to his theory. In 1996, he published another article entitled “Motivation Through Conscious
Goal Setting”. The article is about his 30 years of research findings on the relationship between conscious
performance goals and performance on work tasks. The basic contents of goal setting theory are summarized in
terms of 14 categories of finding discussed in the article (Locke 1996).
Locke (1996) first described that the approach of goal setting theory is based on what Aristotle called final
causality; that is, action caused by a purpose. It accepts the axiomatic status of consciousness and volition. It also
assumes that introspective reports provide useful and valid data for formulating psychological concepts and
measuring psychological phenomena (e.g., purpose, goal commitment, self-efficacy. He then discussed the
attributes of goals and his 14 research findings.
Goal Attributes
` Goals have both an internal and external aspect. Internally, they are ideas (desired ends); externally, they
refer to the object or condition sought (e.g., a job, a sale, a certain performance level). The idea guides action to
attain the object. Two broad attributes of goals are context (the actual object sought) and intensity (the scope,
focus, and complexity, among others of the choice process). Qualitatively, the content of a goal is whatever the
person is seeking. Quantitatively, two attributes of content, difficulty, and specifity, have been studied (Locke
2017).
14 Research Findings
A research was made by Locke (2017) under the article “Motivation Through Conscious Goal Setting.” The
research has the following findings:
1. The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievement.
The linear function assumes, however, that the individual is committed to the goal and
possesses the requisite ability and knowledge to achieve it. Without these, performance does drop
at high goal levels.
2. The more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance is regulated.
High goal specificity is achieved mainly through quantification (e.g., increase sales by 10%) or
enumeration (e.g., a list of tasks to be accomplished). Thus, it reduces variance in performance,
provided that the individual can control his or her performance. This is not to say that specificity is
always desirable (it may not be in some creative innovation situations), but only that it has certain
effects.
3. Goals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance especially relevant here
are the many studies that compared the effect of specific hard goals such as "do your best." People do

NOT actually do their best when they try to do their best because, as a vague goal, it is compatible with
many different outcomes, including those lower than one's best. The aspect of intensity that has been
most studied in goal setting research is that of goal commitment-the degree to which the person is
genuinely attached to and determined to reach the goals.
4. Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and difficult.
When goals are easy or vague, it is not hard be committed to it because it does not require much
dedication to reach easy goals and vague goals can be easily redefined to accommodate low
performance. However, when goals are specific and hard, the higher the commitment is being required,
which results to better performance.
 5. High commitment to goals is attained when:
a. the individual is convinced that the goal is important
b. the individual is convinced that the goal is attainable (or that, at least, progress can be made
toward it)
These are the same factors that influence goal choice. There are many ways to convince a person
that a goal is important:
 In most laboratory settings, it is quite sufficient to simply ask for compliance after providing a plausible
rationale for the study
 In work situations, the supervisor or leader can use legitimate authority to get initial commitment
 Continued commitment might require additional incentives such as supportiveness, recognition, and
rewards
Financial incentives may facilitate commitment and performance, except when rewards are
offered for attaining impossible goals. Here, performance actually drops.
Participation by subordinates in setting goals (.e.. joint goal setting by supervisor and subordinate)

leads to higher commitment than curtly telling people what to do with no explanation, but it does not
lead to practically significant) higher commitment than providing a convincing rationale for an assigned
goal.
Self-set goals can be highly effective in gaining commitment, although they may not always be set
as high as another person would assign.
Commitment can be enhanced by effective leadership. Relevant leadership techniques include:
 providing and communicating an inspiring vision,
 acting as role model for the employees:
 expecting outstanding performance
 promoting employees who embrace the vision and dismissing those who reject it
 delegating responsibility ("ownership") for key tasks:
 goal setting itself can be delegated for capable, responsible employees
 expressing (genuine) confidence in employee capabilities;
 enhancing capabilities through training; and
 asking for commitment in public.
Self-efficacy refers to task-specific confidence and is a key component of Bandura's (1986) social
cognitive theory. Bandura showed that self-efficacy can be raised by enactive mastery, persuasion, and role
modeling-all referred to above. In organizational settings, enactive mastery can be assured by providing
people with needed experience and training and also by selecting people based on their skills and abilities.
Persuasion may include not only verbal expressions of confidence but also giving people information
regarding what task strategies to use. The effectiveness of role modeling depends on the attributes of the
model and on the person observing the model.

6. In addition to having a direct effect on performance, self-efficacy influences:

a. the difficulty level of the goal chosen or accepted:
b. commitment to goals
c. the response to negative feedback or failure, and
d. the choice of task strategies.

People with high self-efficacy are more likely to set high goals or to accept difficult, assigned
goals, to commit themselves to difficult goals, to respond with renewed efforts to setbacks, and to
discover successful task strategies. Thus, the effects of self-efficacy on performance are both direct and
indirect (through various goal processes). Additionally, goal choice and commitment can be influenced
through role modeling.
Feedback. For people to pursue goals effectively, they need some means of checking or tracking
their progress toward their goal. Sometimes this is self-evident to perception, as when a person walks
down a road toward a distant but visible town in such cases deviations from the path to the goal are
easily seen and corrected. However, take note that this is in contrast with a sales goal, whose attainment
requires scores of sales over a period of many months. Here, some formal means of keeping score is
needed so that people can get a clear indication if they are moving fast enough and in the right direction.
7. Goal setting is most effective when there is feedback that shows progress in relation to the goal.
When provided with feedback on their own performance or that of others, people often
spontaneously set goals to improve their previous best or beat the performance of others simply as a way

of challenging themselves, but this is not inevitable. The goal set may be higher or lower than the
performance level previously achieved. The effect of performance feedback (knowledge of score)
depends on the goals set in response to it.

8. Goal setting (along with self-efficacy) mediates the effect of knowledge of past performance on
subsequent performance.
When people receive negative performance feedback, they are typically unhappy and may also
experience doubts about their ability. Those who can sustain their self-efficacy under such pressure tend
to maintain or even raise their subsequent goals, retain their commitment intensify their search for
better strategies, and thereby improve their subsequent performance. Those who lose confidence will
tend to lower their goals, decrease their efforts, and lessen the intensity and effectiveness of their
strategy search. According to Bandura, changes in self-efficacy after experiencing failure may be affected
by the types of causal affirmative statements people make.

9. Goals affect performance by affecting the direction of action, the degree of effort exerted, and the
persistence of action over time.
The directive aspect is fairly obvious. A person who has a goal to maximize quality of performance

will focus more attention and action on quality than on, for example, quantity or speed. When there is
conflict between two or more goals, performance with respect to each goal may be undermined. Effort is
roughly proportional to the judged difficulty of the goal-which is why difficult goals ordinarily lead to
higher performance than easy goals Persistence refers to directed effort extended over time. Harder
goals typically lead to more persistence than easy goals, because, given the commitment they take longer

to reach and may require overcoming more obstacle These mechanisms operate almost automatically, or
at least routine once a goal is committed to, because most people have learned (by about the age of 6)
that if they want to achieve something they be to pay attention to it to the exclusion of other things,
exert the need effort, and persist until it is achieved.
There is another more indirect goal mechanism that of task strategies or plans. Most goals require

the application of task-specific procedures in addition to attention and effort if they are to be
attained For example, a student who wants to get an A in a psychology course needs to know how to
study in general, how to study psychology in particular, how to identify what is needed for an A in this
course, and how to implement this knowledge. There are several things we have learned about the
relationship of goals and plans.

10. Goals stimulate planning in general. Often, the planning quality is higher than that which occurs
without goals. When people possess task or goal-relevant plans as a result of experience or training, they
activate them automatically when confronted with a performance goal. Newly learned plans or strategies
are most likely to be utilized under the stimulus of a specific, difficult goal.
People recognize that goals require plans and seek either to use what they already know or to
make new plans when they want to reach goals. Sometimes such plans are quite pedestrian. For example,

to attain difficult quantity goals, people may simply sacrifice quality-a common trade-off which everyone
is familiar with. When people are given training in a new strategy, they do not always use it consistently
unless they must in order to attain goals that cannot otherwise be attained. When tasks are complex, a
number of new issues arise. Direct goal mechanisms are less adequate than in the case of simple tasks for

attaining the goal. (Compare, for example, the efficacy of effort alone in leading to high performance
when doing push-up versus playing chess.) The path to the goal is less clear, and there may be no relevant

prior experience or training which they can fall back on. In such cases, people are forced discover new
strategies sometimes they do this poorly especially if the goals are specific and difficult. The reason
appears to be that under this type of pressure, tunnel vision inhibits effective search procedures.

11. When people strive for goals on complex tasks, they are least effective in discovering suitable task
strategies if:
a. they have no prior experience or training on the task
b. there is high pressure to perform well; and
c. there is high time pressure (to perform well immediately).
Goals as mediators. Goals, along with self-efficacy might mediate the effects of values and
personality on performance. There is a firm support for goals and self-efficacy as mediators of feedback.
Feedback is most effective in motivating improved performance when it is used to set goals. Feedback
alone is just information. To act based information, people need to know or decide what it means that is
what significance it has. In a goal-setting context, this means knowing what a good or desirable score is
from a bad or undesirable score. If no such judgment is made, the feedback will probably be ignored
similarly, participation seems to motivate performance to the extent that it leads to higher goals, higher
self-efficacy or higher commitment. More recent studies have shown evidence for goals or goals plus self
efficacy as a mediator of personality and charismatic leadership. In other words, these variables affect
performance through their effects on goals and self-efficacy.

12. Goals (Including goal commitment), in combination with self-efficacy mediate or partially mediate
the effects of several personality traits and incentives on performance.
The logic behind this model is that goals and self-efficacy are the immediate regulators of much
human action, and these goals and self-efficacy, therefore, reflect the Individual's assessment of the value

of incentives and of the applicability of values and traits to specific situations Self-management. Goal-
directed actions and choices are not necessarily imposed" or even encouraged by environments (eg.
organizational demands). People have the choice to manage their own lives by setting their own purposes

and working to achieve them.

13. Goal-setting and goal-related mechanisms can be trained and/or adopted in the absence of training

for the purpose of self-regulation.

Affect. Emotion is a type of automatic, partly subconscious psychological estimate-an estimate of
the relationship of things to oneself More precisely, emotions are the form in which one experiences
automatized value judgments-judgments of objects events, and situations (as consciously and/or
subconsciously perceived and understood) according to the standard of one's values events and
situations seen as threatening to one's values give rise to negative emotions (eg, fear, anxiety,
dissatisfaction), whereas events and situations seen as furthering one's values produce positive emotions
(eg, happiness, satisfaction, love). In goal-setting contexts, the immediate value standard is one's goal:
that is the level of performance desired or sought. Goal achievement leads to satisfaction, while goal
failure leads to dissatisfaction. At first glance, there is an interesting and non-intuitive finding that
pertains to the relation of goals to satisfaction. High goals lead to less performance satisfaction, on the
average, than easy goals.
This seems paradoxical in the sense that higher goals are more motivating than lower goals in
terms of effort and performance. The explanation is that high goals require higher standards of
attainment compared to low goals, making self-satisfaction harder to achieve. This is why, if people could
set their own goals without penalty, they would set them lower rather than higher. However, in the real
world, more rewards accrue to people who set high goals for themselves than those who set low goals
(e.g, personal pride, better jobs, higher income, more options), thus inducing people not to set their goals
 too low. At the same time, higher goals require more effort ability, and risk than lower goals, thus limiting

the number of people who set their goals high. As noted earlier, people choose goals based both on what
is important to them and what they think they are capable of.

14. Goals serve as standards of self-satisfaction, with harder goals demanding higher accomplishment
in order to attain self-satisfaction than easy goals. Goals can also be used to enhance task interest
reduce boredom, and promote goal clarity. When used to punish or intimidate people, however, goals
increase stress and anxiety.
Goal-setting dilemmas. If hard or difficult goals lead to higher performance and lower satisfaction
than easy goals, there is obviously a problem of how to get people (or oneself) to be both happy and
productive. There are obvious benefits and penalties of trying for too little in life as well as for trying for
too much. Obviously, the key principle here is personal context. Life goals must be based on what you
really want out of life (not on what other people want for you) and on your true capabilities. If you want
to pursue challenging goals these goals do not have to be attained all at once, but can be pursued over an

extended time period. Lower sub-goals can be set as steps to a longer term and higher goal. Partial
success can be credited by others and oneself. Failure can be treated or framed as a learning experience,
not as proof of incompetence. New skills can be acquired as needed, and jobs can be chosen, when
possible, to match your aspirations and abilities.
Another dilemma is how to structure reward systems in organizations. If incentives were offered
for goals that could not be reached, lower motivation and performance resulted as compared to hourly
payment or piece-rate pay. This might suggest that moderate goals would be ideal, however, moderate
goals in work situations do not stay moderate for long because people improve their strategies and skills
over time. Thus, a difficult juggling act would be required to maintain an effective system. Another
possibility would be to set goals to motivate people but pay for performance, regardless of goal level. This
would be similar to a piece-rate system. Alternatively, multiple goal levels could be set from moderately
easy to almost impossible, and pay could be proportional to the highest level attained. This would
quarantine some reward even for moderate attainments but would stimulate higher attainments as well.
Incentives can be dangerous If they encourage tunnel vision and thereby the neglect of important non-
goal activities.
People with growth mindset where there is room for improvement of performance, with a
positive perceived self-efficacy, where he or she has high confidence on his or her capabilities, and has set
specific achievable goals, high possibility to attain success in life.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

a. Jack Canfield Quote Hunt. Using Cardiold's quote on success at the beginning of this lesson, identify the
elements of Bandura, Dweck, and Locke's Theories. Give explanation to your answer.

b. Self-efficacy Collage. Make a collage of your own perceived self-efficacy using Dr Albert Bandura's four
sources of influence for the development and maintenance of self-efficacy.

c. Graphic Organizer. Make an artistic graphic organizer to differentiate fixed mindset from growth mindset of Dr
Carol Dweck Highlight the definition description characteristics, examples of situations where each mindset
are developed, and their advantages and disadvantages.

d. Goal Setting Plan. Make a goal setting plan (short term for one semester only) based on what you learned
from Locke's goal setting theory.

e. Dream Board. Make your dream board, five years after college graduation.
 Lesson 3
Less Stress, More Care

Lesson Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the effects of stress to one’s health;
2. Examine cultural dimension of stress and coping; and
3. Design a self-care plan

INTRODUCTION
The American Psychological Association (2017) has these statements about stress: “Stress is often
described as a feeling of being overwhelmed, worried, or run-down. Stress can affect people of all ages, genders,
and circumstances and can lead to both physical and psychological health issues. By definition, stress is any
uncomfortable ‘emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical, physiological, and behavioural
changes.’ Some stress can be beneficial at times, producing a boost that provides the drive and energy to help
people get through situations like exams or work deadlines. However, an extreme amount of stress can have
health consequences and adversely affect the immune, cardiovascular, neuroendocrine and central nervous
systems.”
Since stress is inevitable to life, we have to learn how to handle and cope up with it. More so, we have
to be familiar with other approach to a healthy lifestyle, which is self-care.

ACTIVITY
To handle life stress is to identify sources of life stress. Arizona State University adopted “The Social
Readjustment Scale” of T.H. Holmes and R.H. Rahe to come up with the “College Student’s Stressful Event
Checklist.” Use the Event Checklist to assess your stress level as college student. Follow these instructions for
your guidance:

1. Get a copy of the “College Student’s Stressful Event Checklist” from the Arizona State University
available through Research Gate. Use the link provided:
(https://www.researchgate.net/file.PostFileLoader.html?
id=57361005f7b67ee8fb041dcc2&assetKey=AS%3A361336895754242%401463160837813).
2. Answer the questionnaire honestly. To put the checklist in our context, change the third item
about “Divorce between parents,” to “Separation between parents”.
3. Write your score and its interpretation inside the box:
 4. Circle all events you identified.
5. During class session, pair with a classmate and share two to three life events you circled. Observe
confidentiality after sharing.

ANALYSIS
Have a discussion in the class with the following questions:
1. How do you feel while you were doing the checklist?
2. Is the result near to your present perceived stress level? How do you feel with the result?
3. How do these identified life events affect your life now?
4. What is your reflection after sharing your answers with a classmate?
5. What is your perception about stress and self-care?

ABSTRACTION

Stress and Human Response

The American Institute of Stress (AIS) has distinguished different types of stress and the human
response to it.
Hans Selye defined stress as the body’s nonspecific response to any demand, whether it is caused by
or results in pleasant or unpleasant stimuli. It is essential to differentiate between the unpleasant or harmful
variety of stress termed distress, which often connotes disease, and eustress, which often connotes euphoria.
Eustress is stress in daily life that has positive connotations, such as marriage, promotion, baby, winning money,
new friends, and graduation. On the other hand, distress is stress in daily life that has negative connotations such
as divorce, punishment, injury, negative feelings, financial problems, and work difficulties (AIS 2017).
During both eustress and distress, the body undergoes virtually the same nonspecific responses to the
various positive or negative stimuli acting upon it. However, eustress causes much less damage than distress. This
demonstrates whether the person can adapt successfully to change (AIS 2017).
Selye hypothesized a general adaptation or stress syndrome. This general stress syndrome affects the
whole body. Stress always manifests itself by a syndrome, a sum of changes, and not simply one change (AIS
2017).
The general stress syndrome has three components:
1. The alarm stage – represents a mobilization of the body’s defensive forces. The body is preparing for

the “fight or flight” syndrome. This involves a number of hormones and chemicals excreted at high

levels, as well as an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and respiration rate,
among others.
2. The stage of resistance – the body becomes adaptive to the challenge and even begins to resist it.
The length of this stage of resistance is dependent upon the body’s innate and stored adaptation
energy reserves and upon the intensity of the stressor. Just as any machine wears out even if it has
been properly maintained, the same thing happens with living organisms – sooner or later they
become the victim of this constant wear and tear process. The acquired adaptation is lost if the
individual is subject to still greater exposure to the stressor. The organism then enters into the third

and final stage.

3. The exhaustion stage – the body dies because it has used up its resources of adaptation energy.
Thankfully, few people ever experience this last stage.
 Stress diseases are maladies caused principally by errors in the body’s general adaptation process.
They will not occur when all the body’s regulatory processes are properly checked and balanced. They will not
develop when adaptation is facilitated by improved perception and interpretation. The biggest problems with
derailing the general stress syndrome and causing disease is an absolute excess, deficiency, or disequilibrium in
the amount of adaptive hormones. For example, corticoids, Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), and growth
hormones are produced during stress. Unfortunately, if stress is induced chronically, our defense response lowers
it resistance since fewer antibodies are produced and an inflammatory response dwindles (AIS 2017).
In the article “Understanding Stress Response” of the Health Harvard Journal (2017), it further
discussed chronic stress and human body response:
“Chronic stress is unpleasant, even when it is transient. A stressful situation – whether something
environmental, such as a looming work deadline, or psychological, such as persistent worry about losing a job –
can trigger a cascade of stress hormones that produce well-orchestrated physiological changes. A stressful
incident can make the heart pound and breathing quicken. Muscles tense and beads of sweat appear”.
This combination of reactions to stress is also known as the “fight-or-flight” response because it
evolved as a survival mechanism, enabling people and other mammals to react quickly to life-threatening
situations. The carefully orchestrated yet near-instantaneous sequence of hormonal changes and physiological
responses helps someone to fight the threat off or flee to safety. Unfortunately, the body can also overreact to
stressors that are not life-threatening, such as traffic jams, work pressure, and family difficulties. Over time,
repeated activation of the stress response takes a toll on the body. Research suggests that chronic stress
contributes to high blood pressure, promotes the formation of artery-clogging deposits, and causes brain changes
that may contribute to anxiety, depression, and addiction. More preliminary research suggests that chronic stress
may also contribute to obesity, both through direct mechanisms (causing people to eat more) or indirectly
(decreasing sleep and exercise) (Health Harvard 2017).
The stress response begins in the brain. When someone confronts an oncoming car or other danger,
the eyes or ears (or both) send the information to the amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to
emotional processing. The amygdala interprets the images and sounds. When it perceives danger, it instantly
sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus (Health Harvard 2017).

When someone experiences a stressful event, the amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to
emotional processing, sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus. This area of the brain functions like a
command center, communicating with the rest of the body through the nervous system so that the person has
the energy to fight or flee. (Health Harvard 2017)
The hypothalamus is a bit like a command center. This area of the brain communicates with the rest of
the body through the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary body functions like breathing, blood
pressure, heartbeat, and the dilation or constriction of key blood vessels and small airways in the lungs called
bronchioles. The autonomic nervous system has two components the sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system functions like a gas pedal in a car. It triggers
the fight-or-light response, providing the body with a burst of energy so that it can respond to perceived dangers.
The parasympathetic nervous system acts like a brake. It promotes the “rest and digest” response that calms the
body down after the danger has passed (Health Harvard 2017).
After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous
system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to adrenal glands. These glands respond by pumping the
hormone epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) into the bloodstream. As epinephrine circulates through the
body, it brings on a number of physiological changes. The heart beats faster than normal, pushing blood to the
muscles, heart, and other vital organs. Pulse rate and blood pressure go up. The person undergoing these
changes also starts to breathe more rapidly. Small airways in the lungs open wide. This way, the lungs can take in
as much as oxygen as possible with each breath. Extra oxygen is sent to the brain, increasing alertness. Sight,
hearing, and other senses become sharper. Meanwhile, epinephrine triggers the release of blood sugar (glucose)
and fats from temporary storage sites in the body. These nutrients flood into the bloodstream, supplying energy
to all parts of the body (Health Harvard 2017).
All of these changes happen so quickly that people are not aware of them. In fact, the wiring is so
efficient that the amygdala and hypothalamus start this cascade even before the brain’s visual centers have had a
chance to fully process what is happening. That is why people are able to jump out of the path of an incoming car
even before they think about what they are doing. As the initial surge of epinephrine subsides, the hypothalamus
activates the second component of the stress response system known as the hypothalamic pituitary gland (HPA)
axis. This network consists of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands. The HPA axis relies
on a series of hormonal signals to keep the sympathetic nervous system – the “gas pedal” – pressed down. If the
brain continue to perceive something as dangerous, the hypothalamus releases corticotrophin releasing hormone
(CRH), which travels to the adrenal glands, prompting them to release ACTH. This hormone travels to the adrenal
glands, prompting them to release cortisol. The body thus stays revved up and on high alert. When the threat
passes, cortisol levels fall. The parasympathetic nervous system – the “brake” – then dampens the stress
response (Health Harvard 2017).
Persistent epinephrine surges can damage blood vessels and arteries. Increasing blood pressure and
raising risk of heart attacks or strokes. Elevated cortisol levels create psychological changes that help to replenish
the body’s energy stores that are depleted during the stress response. But they inadvertently increases appetite,
so the people will want to eat more to obtain extra energy. It also increases storage of unused nutrients as fat.
Chronic low-level stress keeps the HPA axis activated, much like a motor that is idling too high for too long. After
a while, this has an effect on the body that contributes to the health problems associated with chronic stress
(Health Harvard 2017).

Techniques to Counter Chronic Stress

Several techniques to counter chronic stress were presented in the same article (Health Harvard 2017):

1. Relaxation response. Dr. Herbert Benson, director emeritus of the Benson- Henry Institute for Mind
and Body Medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital, has devoted much of his career to learning
how people can counter the stress response by using a combination of approaches that elicit the
relaxation response. These include deep abdominal breathing, focus on a soothing word (such as
peace, or calm), and visualization of tranquil scenes, repetitive prayer, yoga, and tai chi.

Most of the research using objective measures to evaluate how effective the relaxation response
is at countering chronic stress have been conducted in people with hypertension and other forms of
heart disease. Those results suggest the technique may be worth trying, although for most people it is
not a cure at all. For example researchers at the Massachusetts General Hospital conducted a double-
blind, randomized controlled trial of 122 patients with hypertension, ages 55 and older, in which half
were assigned to relaxation response training and the other half were assigned to ma control group
that received information about blood pressure control. After eight weeks, 34 of the people who
practiced the relaxation process – a little more than half – had achieved a systolic blood pressure
reduction of more than 5 mm Hg, and were therefore eligible for the next phase of the study, in which
they could reduce levels of blood pressure medication they were taking. During the second phase, 50%

were able to eliminate at least one blood pressure medication – significantly more than in the control
group, where only 19% eliminated their medication.

2. Physical Activity. People can use exercise to stifle the build-up of stress in several ways. Exercise,
such as taking a brisk walk shortly after feeling stressed, not only deepens breathing but also helps
relieve muscle tension. Movement therapies such as yoga, tai chi, and qi gong combined with fluid
movements, with deep breathing, and mental focus, all of which can induce calm.
 3. Social Support. Confidants, friends, acquaintances, co-workers, relatives, spouses and companions all
provide a life-enhancing social net, and may increase longevity. It is not clear why, but the buffering
theory holds that people who enjoy close relationships with family and friends receive emotional
support that indirectly helps to sustain them at times of chronic stress and crisis.

The Cultural Dimensions of Stress and Coping

Ben Kuo (2010) reviews studies on cultural dimensions of stress and coping. His study, “Culture’s
Consequences on Coping: Theories, Evidences, and Dimensionalities,” published in the Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology had the following findings:
Stress and coping research constitutes one of the most intensively studied areas within health, social,
and psychological research because of its broad implications for understanding human well-being and
adaptation. Early thesis on stress and coping, the interwoven relationship of culture and stress responses was
implicated, conceptually. The thesis postulated that a person’s internalized cultural values, beliefs, and norms
affect the appraisal process of stressors and perceived appropriateness of coping responses. Accordingly, these
cultural factors delimit the coping options available to an individual in the face of stress. As follows, stress and
coping are universal experiences faced by individuals regardless of culture, ethnicity, and race, but members of
different cultures might consider and respond to stressors differently with respect to coping goals, strategies, and
outcomes.
Kuo’s study identified and revealed compelling evidence for cultural variations and specificities n
coping based in theoretical and empirical findings generated over the last two decades’ cultural coping research.
Based on the broad problem-versus-emotion-focused coping nomenclature, repeated studies have pointed to the
prevalence of “emotion-focused,” “indirect,” “passive,” or “covert,” “internally target,” or “secondary control”
coping among individuals of Asian backgrounds, as well as, to a lesser extent, among individuals of African and
Latino backgrounds. Specifically, the avoidance, withdrawal, and forbearance coping methods are common
among Asians, while spiritual, religious, and ritual-based coping are common among African-Americans and
African-Canadians. Additionally, spiritual and religious coping and coping through family support are common
among individuals of Latino/Latina backgrounds (Kuo 2010).
Furthermore, emotion-focused coping has been shown to be beneficial (e.g., reducing distress) for
Asian0Americans and Asian-Canadians in dealing with various stressors, including family conflicts and racial
discrimination. Problem-focused coping has also been found to be effective for Asian-Americans and Asian-
Canadians in responding to make gender conflicts, racial discriminations, and cross-cultural adjustment. For non-
Asians, emotion-focused coping was shown to be negative in increasing stress for African-American adult
caregivers but problem-focused coping was shown to be negative in exacerbating stress for Hispanic-American
college students in facing family conflicts. As evident, the existing knowledge on the adaptive quality of different
coping strategies is currently incomplete and inconclusive and necessitates further research (Kuo 2010).
The current review also highlighted the salience of “collective coping” approaches among culturally
diverse individuals, including Asians, African-Americans, And Latino- Americans, based on more recent research.
This distinctive domain of coping represents the collective and interdependent characteristics of many ethnic
minorities which is a critical aspect of coping, overlooked by both the extant coping and the cultural coping
literature until recently. As has already been demonstrated in a number of recent published studies, to fully
represent and account for the coping system of ethnic minority individuals, an integrated approach incorporating
conventional and culture-based collective coping measures is imperative (Kuo 2010).
Finally, this review also points to coping’s link to: (a) social climate, such as collectivism-individualism
and independent-interdependent cultural norms; (b) individuals’ acculturation and ethnic identity; (c)
primary/internally versus secondary/externally controlled orientations; (d) accessibility and attitudes toward
seeking social and family support; and (e) degrees of religious/spiritual beliefs and identifications. Together,
these findings further underscore the significance of person-cultural environment interaction in the coping
process and provide corroborating evidence in support of the contextual and transactional theories of coping
(Kuo 2010).
However, the said syntheses need to be interpreted with caution in view of several limitations. First, it
should be noted that the way in which types of coping were defined, categorized, and measured varied quite
significantly from study to study and would likely have skewed the findings and the conclusions drawn and
reduced the comparability across studies.
Second, the relationship between coping methods and coping outcomes is not straightforward but is
moderated by a constellation of contextual and personal factors as suggested by the theoretical models reviewed
earlier. Empirical data, in fact, have evidenced the effect of a person’s perceived “intensity” and “controllability”
of the stressor and cultural orientations (e.g., acculturation and self-construals) on coping. Lastly, it should be
recognized that an individual’s coping system often compromises a complex and diverse range of coping
behaviors. For instance, Chinese-Canadian adolescents were found to engage in collectivistically based coping, in
conjunction with individualistically based coping when dealing with interpersonal conflict, adjustment stress, and
gender-role related stress. Those qualitatively and functionally opposite coping strategies should not
automatically be consulted as mutually exclusive within culturally diverse individuals (Kuo 2010).

Self-care Therapy
A positive way to counter stress is self-care therapy. Nancy Apperson (2008) of Northern Illinois
University has provided steps to health care:

1. Stop, breathe, and tell yourself: “This is hard and I will bet through this one step at a time.” During an
unexpected event or crisis, we are faced with dealing with new reality and it takes time to incorporate what
happened into our everyday lives. Identify the steps you need to take first, write them down, and focus on each
step one at a time. If you look at everything you have to do, you will be overwhelmed. Remember you can only
do one thing at a time and focus exclusively on that one thing.

2. Acknowledge to yourself what you are feeling. All feelings are normal so accept whether you are
feeling. Once you recognize, name, and accept your feelings, you feel less out of control. You can then find a
comfortable place to express your feelings. During periods of extreme stress and grief, it is very hard to hold back
you feelings, particularly your tears and anger. This is normal so describe this as grieving or angry or sad. You are
not falling apart. You are grieving or feeling angry or sad. It is important during this time of intense feelings to
own your feelings and NOT hurt yourself or lash out at someone else.

3. Find someone who listens and is accepting. You do not need advice. You need to be heard. Sharing
our story is how we begin to accept whatever happened and integrate it into our new reality. It may be that you
just need to let go if your expectations of how things should be and talking about your feelings and beliefs is the
beginning of that process.

4. Maintain your normal routine as much as possible. Making everyday decisions – deciding to get
dressed, doing the dishes, or going to work – gives you a sense of control and feels comforting as it is a familiar
activity. Be realistic with what you can do and remember everything right now will take you longer to do. Avoid
making decisions based on the stress you feel right now.

5. Allow plenty of time for a task. You will not be as productive as you normally are. Accept how much
you are able to do right now and recognize it will not be this way forever. During periods of extreme stress,
prolonged stress, or after crisis, your ability to concentrate and focus on tasks is diminished and it will take time
for your concentration to return so give yourself extra time and be gentle and accepting if yourself and what you
can do.

6. Take good care of yourself. Remember to:

a. Get enough rest and sleep. Sleep at least six hours and not more than nine hours. If you are
having difficulty sleeping, listen to peaceful or slow music and/or do progressive relaxation before you go to
sleep. Sleep helps our body heals and strengthen our immune system,
b. Eat regularly and make healthy choices. Skipping meals, particularly breakfast, contributes to
fatigue, mood swings and poor concentration. Healthy food choices maintain blood sugar level, energy, and
concentration of the body.
c. Know your limits and when you need to let go. Some problems are beyond our control. If
something cannot be changed, work at accepting it for what it is. Resist the urge to fix the unfixable or try to
control the uncontrollable. Sometimes a mantra helps: “It is what it is, I just need to accept it.” For things within
your control, remember that change takes time. If you are holding on, and need to let go, journal about it.
d. Identify or create a nurturing place in your home. A rocking chair, a nice view, and a soothing
music are important components to a nurturing place. Twenty minutes spending in a rocking chair reduces both
your physical pain and anxiety. It is like giving yourself a hug. Music and nature sounds nurture our being and lifts
our spirits.
e. Practice relaxation or meditation. Go to your nurturing place and listen to guided relaxation tapes.
Time spent in meditation or prayer allows your mind to and body to slow down and let go of the stress. Take a
mental vacation, in the midst of stress by relaxing your body, shutting your eyes, and visualizing yourself in your
favourite vacation spot or quiet haven.
f. Escape for a while through meditation, reading a book, watching a movie, or taking a short trip.

Self-compassion Therapy
Self-compassion is another way to counter stress, Kristin Neff (2012) has discussed self-compassion on
her article. “The Science of Self-Compassion.”
“Self-compassion entails being warm and understanding toward ourselves when we suffer, fail, or feel
inadequate, rather than flagellating ourselves with self-criticism. It recognizes that being imperfect and
experiencing life difficulties is inevitable, so we soothe and nurture ourselves when confronting our pain rather
than getting angry when life falls short of our ideals. We clearly acknowledge our problems and short comings
without judgment, so we can do what is necessary to help ourselves. We cannot always get what we want. We
cannot always be who we want to be. When this reality is denied or resisted, suffering arises in the form of stress,
frustration, and self-criticism. When this reality is accepted with benevolence, however, we generate positive
emotions of kindness and care that help us cope. Self-compassion recognizes that life challenges and personal
failures are part of being human, an experience we all share. In this way, it helps us to feel less desolate and
isolated when we are in pain.”

Self-compassion Phrases
Neff provided self-compassion phrases when feeling stress or emotional pain, perhaps when you are
caught in a traffic jam, arguing with a loved one, or feeling inadequate in some way. It is helpful to be more
compassionate to yourself in the moment. You can take a deep breath, put your hand over your heart, or gently
hug yourself (if you feel comfortable doing so), and repeat the following phrases:

 This is a moment of suffering.

 Suffering is a part of life.
 May I be kind to myself.
 May I give myself the compassion I need.

These phrases capture the essence of three components of self-compassion. The first phrase helps to
mindfully open to the sting of emotional pain. (You can also just simply say “This is really hard right
now” or “This hurts.”) The second phrase reminds us that suffering unites all living beings and reduces
the tendency to feel ashamed and isolated when things go wrong in our lives. The third phrase begins
the process of responding with self-kindness rather than self-criticism. The final phrase reinforces the
idea that you both need and deserve compassion in difficult moments. Be experimental with the
phrases. Other phrases that may feel more authentic in a given situation are: “May I accept myself as I
am,” “May I forgive myself,” or “May I learn to accept what I cannot change.” (Neff 2012)

Self-compassion and Emotional Well-being

One of the most consistent findings in the research literature is that greater self-compassion is linked to
less anxiety and depression. Of course, a key feature of self-compassion is the lack of self-criticism, and self-
criticism is known to be an important predictor of anxiety and depression. However, self-compassion still offers
protection against anxiety and depression when controlling for self-criticism and negative effect. Thus, self-
compassion is not merely a matter of looking on the right side of the things or avoiding negative feelings. Self-
compassionate people recognize when they are suffering, but are kind toward themselves in these moments,
acknowledging their connectedness with the rest of humanity. Self-compassion is associated with greater wisdom
and emotional intelligence, suggesting that self-compassion represents a wise way of dealing with difficult
emotions. For instance, self-compassionate people engage in rumination and think suppression less often than
those low in self-compassion. They also report greater emotional coping skills, including more clarity about their
feelings and greater ability to repair negative emotional states. Self-compassion appears to bolster positive states
of being as well. By wrapping one’s pain in the warm embrace of self-compassion, positive feelings are generated
that help balance the negative ones (Neff 2012).

Self-compassion, Motivation, and Health

Research supports the idea that self-compassion enhances motivation rather than self-indulgence. For
instance, while self-compassion is negatively related to perfectionism, it has no association with the level of
performance standards adapted for the self. Self-compassionate people aim just as high, but also recognize and
accept that they cannot always reach their goals. Self-compassion is also linked to greater personal initiative – the
desire to reach one’s full potential. Self-compassionate people have been found to have less motivational anxiety
and engage in fewer self-handicapping behaviors such as procrastination than those who lack self-compassion. In
addition, self-compassion was positively associated with mastery goals (the intrinsic motivation to learn and
grow) and negatively associated with performance goals (the desire to enhance one’s self-image) found on the
study of Deck in 1986. This relationship was mediated by the lesser fear of failure and perceived self-efficacy of
self-compassionate individuals. Thus, self-compassionate people are motivated to achieve, but for intrinsic
reasons, not because they want to garner social approval (Neff 2012).

Self-compassion versus Self-esteem

Research indicates that self-compassion is moderately associated with trait levels of self-esteem as one
would expect, given that both represent positive attitudes toward the self. However, self-compassion still
predicts greater happiness and optimism as well as less depression and anxiety when controlling for self-esteem.
Moreover, the two constructs differ in terms of their impact on well-being. Also, self-esteem had a robust
association with narcissism while self-compassion had no association with narcissism. In contrast to those with
high self-esteem, self-compassionate people are less focused on evaluating themselves, feeling superior to the
others, worrying about whether or not others are evaluating them, defending their viewpoints, or angrily reacting
against those who disagree with them. Self-esteem is thought to be an evaluation of superior/inferiority that
helps to establish social rank stability and is related to alerting, energizing impulses and dopamine activation.
While self-esteem positions the self in competition with others and amplifies feelings of distinctness and
separation, self-compassion enhances feelings of safety and interconnectedness (Neff 2012).

Self-compassion Letter
An example of a self-compassion exercise is the self-compassion letter. This exercise has been used in
therapeutic programs. Below are the steps in doing the self-compassionate letter exercise as provided by Neff
(2012):
1. Candidly describe a problem that tends to make you feel bad about yourself, such as a physical flaw, a
relationship problem, or failure at work or school. Note what emotions come up – shame, anger, sadness, fear –
as you write.
2. Next, think of an imaginary friend who is unconditionally accepting and compassionate; someone who
knows all your strengths and weaknesses, understands tour life story, your current circumstances, and
understands the limits of human nature.
3. Finally, write a letter to yourself from that perspective. What would your friend say about your
perceived problem? What words would he or she use to convey deep compassion? How would your friend
remind you that you are only human? If your friend were to make any suggestions, how would they reflect
unconditional understanding?
4. When you are done writing, put the letter down for a while and come back to it later. Then read the
letter again, letting the words sink in, allowing yourself to be soothed and comforted.

Less Stress, Care More

We should be in control of the stress that confronts us every day. Otherwise, when we are overwhelmed
by stress, it can be detrimental to our health. Self-care and self-compassion are two ways to positively confront
stress. We should love and care for our self more and more each day.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

1. Reaction Paper. Make a reaction paper about the article, “Stress and Filipino” by Michael L. Tan from the
Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism (2006). The article is available through this link:
http://pcij.org/stories/stress-and -the-filipino/. Use the lesson on the social and cultural dimension of stress in
making your reaction paper.
2. Self-care Plan. Design for your self-care plan for the whole school year.
3. Reflection Paper. Make a self-compassionate letter and make a reflection paper about it.

Suggested Readings and References:

Alata, Eden Joy P., et al., Understanding the Self (2018)

Rex Bookstore, Manila Philippines

Ardales, Venancio B., Introductory Text to Philosophy (1987)

Greatbooks Trading, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines

Artigas, Mariano, Introduction to Philosophy (1984)

Sinag-tala Publishers, Metro Manila, Philippines

Babor, Eddie R., The Human Person Not Real, But Existing (Second Edition- 2007)
C & E Publishing, Inc.

Bustos, Alicia S. & Espiritu, Socorro C., Psychological, Anthropological, Sociological

Foundations of Education (1996)
Katha Publishing Co. Inc., Quezon City

Evangelista, Lourdes L., Developmental Psychology (2001)

Booklore Publishing Corporation

Kapunan, Rocio R., Educational Psychology (1974)

Rex Bookstore, Manila Philippines

Montemayor, Felix M., Introduction to Philosophy (1995)

National Bookstore, Mandaluyong, Philippines

Ronquillo, Adelaida A., et al., General Sociology: with Introduction to Anthropology (1989)
JMC Press Inc., Quezon City, Philippines

Santos, Ricardo R., Personal Development (2017)

Rex Bookstore, Manila, Philippines
Tulio, Doris D., Foundations of Education: Psychological, Anthropological, Sociological (2010)
National Bookstore, Manila Philippines

Vega, Violeta A. Ph.D., et al., Social Dimensions of Education (2009)

Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Manila Philippines

MODULE I

IN

GE 1
 Understanding The Self

Prepared By:

VENERANDO M. AGUIPO
Noted: Instructor

DR. FILIPINA L. PAGARAN

Coordinator – General Education
Submitted To:

DR. SABINA B. CON-UI

Dean

MODULE II

IN
 GE 1

Understanding The Self

Prepared By:

VENERANDO M. AGUIPO
Noted: Instructor

DR. FILIPINA L. PAGARAN

Coordinator – General Education
Submitted To:

DR. SABINA B. CON-UI

Dean

MODULE III
 IN

GE 1

Understanding The Self

Prepared By:

VENERANDO M. AGUIPO
Noted: Instructor

DR. FILIPINA L. PAGARAN

Coordinator – General Education
Submitted To:

DR. SABINA B. CON-UI

Dean