2016-12-13

Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering
Institute of Roads and Bridges
Definition

• Traverse is a series of connected lines (legs), where

lengths of lines and angles between pairs of lines at
each station, have been measured.
Traversing
• Traversing is a surveying method (technique,
realization) of implementation (establishing) a
Lecture No. 10 control network.
Jerzy Durlej MSc.
j.durlej@il.pw.edu.pl

Warsaw 2016-2017 1 2

Types Of Traverse Types Of Traverse…con’t

1 1
B D B
•There are two types of traverses used in surveying. A C A C
1. open traverse; Open Traverse
D
2. closed traverse; 1
B
a) closed loop traverse (or polygon); A C Closed Loop
Traverse
b) closed tied (or connecting or link) traverse; Closed tied (or connecting or (Polygon
D Traverse)
link) Traverse
2
3 4

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 2016-12-13

Open Traverse Closed Traverse

•It starts and ends at the stations
of known coordinates.
•There are two types of closed
traverses:
•closed on the starting point-
polygon
•It provides no check on the accuracy of the starting control •closed on a second known
(point A) and the accuracy of the fieldwork ( i.e. observed point – link traverse
angles and lengths).
•It provides checks on fieldwork
•For this reason, traverse is never deliberately left open. and computations and provides a
•An open traverse is NOT recommended. basis for comparison to determine
5
the accuracy of the field work .6

Functions Of Traverse Functions Of Traverse…con’t

•Traverses are used during establishing (densification)
of low order control network (class III).

•Traverses provide the reference for so called survey lines

(base lines). e.g. a closed loop
traverse survey of an
•A closed loop traverse is suitable for carring out a survey of
urban housing block.
a land parcel, so that features on the surface or the
boundary dimensions can be determined.

•A closed tied traverse is suitable for many engineering

surveys, i.e. road, railway and pipeline projects.
7 8

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 2016-12-13

Functions Of Traverse…con’t Traverse Fieldwork

•Choice of stations (points)
A closed tied traverse used as a framework for •Planning – defining requirements for accuracy, density
mapping existing features. and location of control points.
•Reconnaissance - nature of terrain, access, location of
points.
•Station marking
Control Point = (X,Y)known
•Station marking - type of mark, monumentation,
Control Point = (X,Y)known reference etc.
•Topographic station description.
•Observations
•Angular and Distance Measurement procedures:
(X,Y)unknown •Angular- Targets, Reading and booking procedure.
(X,Y)unknown
•Linear - Standard, slope, temperature, booking
9 10
procedure.

Traverse Fieldwork…station marking Traverse Fieldwork…station description

STATION DESCRIPTIONATION DESCRIPTION
Station Identity: A-2367 SKETCH:

Date: November 12, 2008

MH cover
Project: City Control
Network Post
development
Contractor: WPG Warsaw
Depth of concrete and A-2367
A-2367

the length of pin vary

Coordinates: X = 5,346,730.15 m
according to ground Y = 6,671,138.63 m
conditions.
Type of Steel pin in concrete
monumentation:

Masonry nail Notes: Original survey Apr 2008

11 Station coords checked Nov 2008 12

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Traverse Fieldwork…con’t Traversing Equipment

•The stations being observed are fixed (monumented if • Traversing requires :

neccessary). Also, they are marked and targeted with ranging – An instrument to measure angles (theodolite or total
poles or traversing targets for the duration of the station).
measurement. – An instrument to measure distances (EDM or tape).
•If the traverse is being measured using a theodolite (which – Ranging poles or traversing targets.
normaly, is the case) then angles are observed to survey
stations on both faces for a given number of rounds (sets),
and booked and reduced accordingly.
•Whatever method is used for the measurement of distance
then all appropriate corrections should be made, and the
distances reduced to horizontal and then to reference surface
( coordinate system), if neccessary. 13 14

Traverse Computation Traverse Computation…con’t

Step 1: Azc - closing azimuth; Azs - starting azimuth;
A. Closed tied traverse - Calculation of starting and closing αl – left hand angle; αr – right hand angle;
azimuths, if coordinates of control (tie) points are given.
n – number of angles in traverse
B. Closed loop traverse – Calculation/Adopting a starting n

azimuth. 
hence: ( (α ) )  Az  Az  n  200 g (or 180 0 )
i 1
l i t c s

Step 2: Calculation of angular misclosure (fα ) by comparing n

the sum of the observed angles: (  (α r )i )t  Az s  Azc  n  200 g (or 180 0 )
i 1
A. Closed tied traverse - with the starting and closing n n
azimuths; fα  (  (α l/r )i )p  (  (α l/r )i )t
n i 1 i 1
Azc  Az s   (α l )i  n  200 g (or 180 0 ) n

i 1
(  (α l/r )i )p  practical sum of angles (observed angles)
n i 1

Azc  Az s   (α r )i  n  200 g (or 180 0 ) n

i 1 15
(  (α l/r )i )t  theoretical sum of angles 16
i 1

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Traverse Computation…con’t Traverse Computation…con’t

B. Closed loop traverse; Step 3: Adjusting (balancing) angles. If angular misclosure is
• with the theoretical sum of the angles within a given acceptable, calculate an angle adjustment (Vα ) and add it
poligon. to every angle in traverse.
m – root mean
if f  f  true  accepable 0
α α max . square error
n
(standard deviation)
(  (α int )i )t  (n  2 )  200 g (or 180 0 ) - for internal angles where: f
α max .
  3 m  n
0 of an observed
i 1
f angle;
n
V  α
(  (α ext )i )t  (n  2 )  200 g (or 180 0 ) - for external angles
then
α n
i 1
• m0 = +/- 60” (180 cc
n n
• m0 = +/- 30” (90 ) for
cc ) for traverses ≤
fα  (  (α int /ext )i )p  (  (α int /ext )i )t traverses > 1200 m (according 1200 m (according
i 1 i 1 to G-4 technical manual); to G-4 technical
17 18
Vα – angle adjustment; manual);

Traverse Computation…con’t Traverse Computation…con’t

Step 4: Azimuth calculation for each traverse leg;
Step 5: Reduction of slope distances to horizontal distances;
Step 6: Calculation of the coordinate increments (differences)

α v
adj obs i X and Y of each traverse leg;
α i i α ΔX (i  1 )  i  d (i  1 )  i  cos Az(i  1 )  i
ΔY(i  1 )  i  d (i  1 )  i  sin Az(i  1 )  i
So,
adjusted angle = observed angle + angle adjustment where:
Az(i-1)-i – azimuth of leg (i-1)-i;
19
d(i-1)-i – length of leg (i-1)-i; 20

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Traverse Computation…con’t Traverse Computation…con’t

Step 7: Calculation and assessment of linear misclosure.

A. Closed tied traverse the theoretical sum is as follow: n n
fX  (  ΔX (i  1 )  i )p  (  ΔX (i  1 )  i )t
n n i 1 i 1
(  ΔX )  X tie  X tie ; (  ΔY )  Y tie  Y tie
(i  1 )  i t close start (i  1 )  i t close start
i 1 i 1 n n
where: fY  (  ΔY(i  1 )  i )p  (  ΔY(i  1 )  i )t
tie tie
(X start , Ystart )  coordiante s of starting tie po int . i 1 i 1
tie , Y tie )  coordiante s of clo sin g tie po int .

fl  fX2  fY2  linear misclosure

(X close close

B. Closed loop traverse the theoretical sum is as follow:

n n
(  ΔX (i- 1 )-i )t  0 and (  ΔY(i- 1 )-i )t  0
i 1 i 1 21 22

Traverse Computation…con’t Traverse Computation…con’t

Max. allowed traverse linear misclosure (according to G-4 technical manual)

if fl  fl max .  true  accepable Total length of

traverse
L [m]
Max. Allowed
f l [m]
Total length of
traverse
L [m]
Max. Allowed
f l [m]

fl max .  3  md  n 300

400
0,15

0,16
1100

1200
0,26

0,27

500 0,17 1300 0,29

where: 600 0,19 1400 0,31

md – standard deviation of a measured leg of traverse; 700 0,20 1500 0,33

n – number of legs in traverse; 800 0,22 1600 0,34

900 0,23 1700 0,36

1000 0,24 1800 0,38

1100 0,26 1900 0,40

23 1200 0,27 2000 0,42 24

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Traverse Computation…con’t Traverse Computation…con’t

Step 8: Adjusting the traverse ∆X and ∆Y by adding the length Step 9: Computation of the final coordinates of each station
adjustments Vx(i-1)-i , Vy(i-1)-i . relative to the starting station, using the adjusted values
of ∆X, ∆Y per traverse leg.
X i  X i  1  ΔX (iAdj
d d 1 ) i

V(iX 1 )  i   fX  (i  1 )  i and V(iY 1 )  i   fY  (i  1 )  i Yi  Yi  1  ΔY(iAdj

L L 1 ) i

ΔX (i  1 )  i  ΔX (i  1 )  i  V(i  1 )  i ; ΔY(i  1 )  i  ΔY(i  1 )  i  V(iY 1 )  i

Adj cal X Adj cal
where:
X i , Yi - coordinates of the next station,
where: n

L – total length of traverse; L   d( i 1) i X i  1 , Yi  1 - coordinates of the previous station,

i 1
d (i-1)-i – length of (i-1)-i side of traverse; ΔX (iAdj , Δ (iAdj - adjusted coordinate increments
x y 1 ) i 1 ) i
V (i-1)-i , V (i-1)-i – adjustments for coordinate differences (∆X,
∆Y respectively). 25 between the previous and the next station. 26

Closed Loop Traverse Computation - Closed Loop Traverse Computation -

C Example Observations
X (Northing)
Observations have been made by theodolite Theo 020, in
the counter-clockwise polygon traverse A,B,C,D.
The azimuth of line A-B is assumed to be 0.g0000 and the
B
coordinates of station A are X = 1000.00m, Y = 1000.00m
Traverse Observed horizontal angle Leg Horizontal distance
- 318.57 -

station (left hand angles) [grads] [m]

A 115.2756 AB 318.57

B 140.2389 BC 376.23

C 77.4315 CD 687.61

A Y (Easting) D 67.0581 DA 506.50

X = 1000.00 m Σ 400.0041 1888.91

D 28
Y = 1000.00 m 27

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Closed Loop Traverse Computation – Closed Loop Traverse Computation –

Angular Misclosure Angular Misclosure…con’t
Angular misclosure of closed loop traverse Angular misclosure of closed loop traverse
The theoretical sum of angles of a polygon (traverse) is given
by the rule: fα = angular misclosure = Σ observed angles – Σ theoretical
Σ internal angles (left hand angles) = (n -2) * 200 grads angles
Σ external angles (right hand angles) = (n +2) * 200 grads
Where: f
- n is the number of angles of the traverse.
if f  f then v  α
α α max . α n
Any variation from this sum is known as the angular
misclosure and must be accounted for, either through f   3 m  n
adjustment (if it is an acceptable value) or elimination by α max . 0
repetition of the observations. 29 30

Closed Loop Traverse Computation – Closed Loop Traverse Computation –

Angular Misclosure…con’t Adjusted Horizontal Angles
Angular misclosure Observed Horizontal Adj.
Σ observed angles = 400g.0041 Station
Angle
α - left, β - right Adj. Horiz.
Σ internal angles should be (4 - 2) * 200g = 400g.0000 g
⁰
c
`
cc
"
Angle

The angular misclosure : 1 2

A

fα  400 g .0041  400 g .0000  0 g .0041 B 140.2389

-0.0010
140.2379

fα max .  3  0 g .0030  4  0 g .0180 OK! C 77.4315

-0.0010
77.4305
-0.0010
D 67.0581
67.0571
Therefore distribute misclosure A 115.2756
-0.0011
115.2745
g
0 .0041
The angle adjustment vα    0 g .0010 Σαp 400.0041
4 Σαt
fα
400.0000
0.0041
31 32
fαmax. 0.0180

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Closed Loop Traverse Computation – Closed Loop Traverse Computation –

Next Leg Azimuth Calculation Azimuth Calculation…con’t
X Observed Horizontal
Angle
Adj. Azimuth
A
X Station α - left, β - right Adj. Horiz.
Az1-2
g c cc Angle g c cc
αL ⁰ ` " ⁰ ` "
Az2-3 1 2 3
2
αR A
Az1-2
0.0000
-0.0010
B 140.2389
140.2379
1 3 -0.0010
340.2379
C 77.4315
77.4305
Direction of survey (computation) -0.0010
217.6684
D 67.0581

Az 2  3  Az1 2  αL  200 g
67.0571
84.7255
-0.0011
A 115.2756
115.2745
0.0000

or B

Σαp 400.0041

Az 2  3  Az1 2  αR  200 g
33
Σαt 400.0000
fα 0.0041 34
fαmax. 0.0180

Closed Loop Traverse Computation – Linear Closed Loop Traverse Computation – Linear
Misclosure Misclosure…con’t
Checking the distance component of the closed traverse is Azimuth Length of side
Coordinates Differences
called a linear misclosure check. A d

Basically, the coordinates differences for each leg of the g c cc [m] Adj. Adj.
traverse must be computed and then summed up. ⁰ ` " Δx = Latitude Δy = Departure
4 5 6 7

ΔX A-B  X B -X A  Latitude A-B  d A-B  cos Az A-B 0.0000 318.57

0.02
318.57
-0.01
0.00
0.02 -0.01
ΔYA-B  YB -YA  Departure A-B  d A-B  sin Az A-B
340.2379 376.23
222.28 -303.54
0.03 -0.02
217.6684 687.61
-661.30 -188.40
n 0.02 -0.01

(  ΔX i )p  ΔX A B  ΔX B  C  ΔX C  D  ΔX D  A
84.7255 506.50
120.36 491.99
0.0000
i 1
n
(  ΔYi )p  ΔYA B  ΔYB  C  ΔYC  D  ΔYD  A fx=, fy=
fl
-0.09
0.10
0.05

i 1 35 flmax. 0.40 36
Total 1888.91 -0.09 0.05

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Closed Loop Traverse Computation – Closed Loop Traverse Computation –

Check Of Coordinates Differences Final (Adjusted) Coordinates Of Traverse
ΔX i  j  S  C X Stations
ΔYi  j  S  C
where: X i  X i  1  ΔX (iAdj
1) i
d j
S  i  j  sin (Az i  j  50 g )
Yi  Yi  1  ΔY(iAdj
Azi-j
2
d 1) i
C  i  j  cos (Az i  j  50 g ) i
2

37 38

Closed Loop Traverse Computation –

Final Coordinates Of Traverse Stations
Observed Length of
Horizontal Adj. Azimuth side
Coordinates
Angle A d Coordinates Differences Check of differences
(Adjusted)
α - left,
Station β - right Adj. Horiz.

Angle [m] Adj. Adj. d S Δx= S + C

2
Δy = X Y

1 2 3
⁰
4 5
Δx = Latitude

6
Departure
7
A+50g
8
C

9
Δy= S – C

10 11 12
Thank you !
A 1000.00 1000.00
0.02 -0.01 225.263 159.29 318.57
0.0000 318.57
-0.0010 318.57 0.00 50.0000 159.29 0.00
B 140.2389 1318.59 999.99
140.2379 0.02 -0.01 266.031 -40.63 222.28
340.2379 376.23
-0.0010 222.28 -303.54 390.2379 262.91 -303.54
C 77.4315 1540.88 696.44
77.4305 0.03 -0.02 486.214 -424.85 -661.30
217.6684 687.61
-0.0010 -661.30 -188.40 267.6684 -236.45 -188.40
D 67.0581 879.61 508.02
67.0571 0.02 -0.01 358.150 306.18 120.36
84.7255 506.50
-0.0011 120.36 491.99 134.7254 -185.81 491.99
A 115.2756 1000.00 1000.00
115.2745
400.0000
B

Σαp 400.0041 fx=, fy= -0.09 0.05

Σαt 400.0000 fl 0.10 39 40
fα 0.0041 flmax. 0.40
fαmax. 0.0180 Total 1888.91 -0.09 0.05

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 12/20/2016

Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering Why do Errors occur in Surveying ?
Institute of Roads and Bridges

There is no way to obtain the true value of a

measured quantity, since:
•no observer can make a perfect observations in
Errors in Surveying all circumstances;
•no measuring system (i.e. instrument, method
etc.) is perfect;
•environmental conditions change during
Lecture No. 11 surveying process;
Jerzy Durlej MSc.
j.durlej@il.pw.edu.pl
•few calculations/computations can be made
without some rounding off process;
Warsaw 2016-2017 1 2

Why do surveyors need to understand the Why do surveyors need to understand the
Theory of Errors? Theory of Errors?...con’t

A knowledge and understanding of errors incurred in

• assess whether the survey meets the required
surveying allow the surveyor to:
• reduce or minimize the effects of errors in survey accuracy;
measurements;
• determine the most probable value from • determine which observations and errors, if any,
repeated measurements of the same quantity; can be disregarded;
• assess the accuracy of the field measurements;
• obtain a measure of precision and performance • produce one set of values for quantities.
of an instrument;
3 4

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What is Error ? What is Error ?...con’t

”Error is the difference between a measured quantity  Instrumental errors –
and its true value”
• instruments are not perfectly manufactured;
• That is due to:
• they get worn with time causing errors;
 Personal (human) errors – arise from human
 Natural (environmental) errors –
senses imperfection
• caused by environment, i.e. its temperature
• e.g. the crosshair not aligned perfectly on
variations, wind, moisture, magnetic
the target;
variations, gravity, refraction and so on.
• e.g. estimating (interpolating) the fraction of
• e.g. a steel tape’s length varies with
the least unit of a scale;
temperature.
5 6

What is Error ?...con’t Types of Errors

ε  XT  X O • There are three types of errors:
where: ε - the true error in measurement;
XT - the true value of a quantity; 1. Gross Errors (also known as Blunders or
XO – the measured (observed) value of that Mistakes);
quantity;
It can be stated that: 2. Systematic Errors;
• no measurement is exact;
• every measurement contains errors; 3. Random Errors;
• the true value of a measurement is never known,
therefore, the exact error is always unknown. 7 8

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1. Gross Errors 1. Gross Errors…con’t

• They are preventable if :
• Caused by Human being:
– follow standard procedures;
– carelessness or inexperience or lack of – know how to use the equipment;
knowledge; – always check your work - use independent checking
– they can happen at any time; means of your work, if available;
– they can be of any size; • Observing errors:
– reading wrong crosshair when reading the staff;
– they can be of any sign ( + or -);
– sighting (targeting) the wrong target;
– losing a full steel tape put down while measuring a
Note: they can be very costly if not detected and distance;
eliminated. – reading a staff that has been placed on the wrong
9 peg or change point; 10

1. Gross Errors…con’t 1. Gross Errors…con’t

• Booking errors:
– transposing figures while booking;
– booking a reading in wrong place in fieldbook;
– incorrectly labeling target or observation;

11 12

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2. Systematic Errors 2. Systematic Errors…con’t

They occur in all measurements in accordance with • e.g. collimation error in theodolite not accounted
surveying equipment and procedure applied. for;
A. Constant Errors •will get a wrong angle unless theodolite is
• Systematic errors with constant size and sign;
• accumulate if not accounted for;
calibrated or standard procedure is followed, i.e.
• can be detected and measured by calibration or a full round (FL&FR) of angle observation is
standardization; done.
• hence the corrections can be determined and B. Periodic Errors:
applied to measurements or observations; • Systematic errors that vary in size and sign,
• e.g. standardization correction of steel tape not according to some law;
accounted for; • e.g. a steel tape that is of correct length at
• will get constant error in distance;
13
20°C and is used in a survey at 30°C. 14

2. Systematic Errors…con’t 3. Random Errors

These are the remaining errors once both the blunders and
• They follow some law: systematic errors have been removed.
• law may or may not be known; • they occur randomly and are present in every
• they can be of any size and sign; measurement;
• they are the same under the same conditions; • unlike blunders and systematic errors they cannot be
entirely determined or eliminated;
• they are a result of small reading errors, small
• If the law is known they can be corrected or at least changes in conditions while measuring;
reduced; • they obey 3 rules:
• They cannot be entirely eliminated but can be • very large errors do not occur;
minimized by: calibrating survey equipment, using • small errors occur more frequently than large
standard field procedure, calculating the errors;
correction factors. • positive or negative errors of the same size happen
15 with the same frequency/probability; 16

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3. Random Errors…con’t 3. Random Errors…con’t

Random errors are usually caused by either: The value of random errors can be partialy reduced
• human inability - throughout :
to align marks and make readings with • increasing of the number of observations;
exactness; • applying better equipment;
• applying more efficient method of measurements;
• natural factors -
• reducing of observation time;
such as wind or temperature; • chosing more favorable periods of day or year or
weather conditions;
e.g.: when an observer reads an angle with
a theodolite, he cannot read it perfectly. The reductions of effect of random errors on the
One time the value will be too large and the next measurement results are achieved throughout
time too small. adjustments.
17 18

Precision vs. Accuracy Precision vs. Accuracy…con’t

• Precision: • Accuracy:
• is a measure of repeatability or consistency; – is a measure of reliability;
• precise observations are not necessarily – accurate measurements are closer to the true
accurate; value;
• the range of a set of observations indicates the – the true value is never known;
precision; – the mean value is used as the best estimate of
• Standard Error (Root Mean Square Error) of a the true value;
set of observations is a measure of precision; – there is absolute and relative accuracy;

19 20

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Precision vs. Accuracy…con’t Probability

This theory can be used in surveying to study the
High - ACCURACY - Low behavior of random errors.
High - PRECISION - Low It can be defined as:
”the ratio of the number of times a result should
occur over its total number of possibilities”
General laws of probability:
• small errors occur more often than large ones -
more probable;
• large errors occur rarely – less probable;
• positive and negative errors of the same size
occur with the same frequency – equally probable;
21 22

Probability…con’t Probability Curve (Gauss Curve)

• In measurements, the true value is never known. The statistical analysis
• The most probable value can be calculated if redundant of survey observations
(extra) observations have been made. has indicated that the
• The most probable value is the Arithmetic Mean survey measurements
(the Average). follow normal
• Two types of errors: distribution (Gaussian
1. ”true error” = true value – observation ε  X T  X O distribution).

2. ”apparent error (residual)” = most probable value –

observation _
v  X  XO
The Probability Curve is a curve formed by the plotting of
The residuals express the variations or deviations in the
residuals and their frequency.
measurements. 23 24

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Probability Curve…con’t Gauss Curve – Standard Deviation

There are points of
n

 (v
inflection on each side
of the curve, i.e. points i  vi )
where the slope of σ i 1
curve changes from n1
concave to convex.
The residuals at these n

 (v  v )  the sum of the squares of residuals.

0.683 area
underneath
curve red shaded points are referred to i i

-p +p
v as Standard Deviations i 1

-σ +σ
or Root Mean Square n - is the number of observations
Error (RMSE). (n-1)  is the number of redundant (extra) observations
n

Probable error  (v i  vi )
made to determine a value.
– black shaded σ i 1
n1 25 26

Standard Deviation, Probable Error, Limit Error Direct Equally Accurate Observations

In this case the most probable value is the arithmetic mean.

Limit error (max. error) _ x

i 1
i
X
99.7 % of area
Limit error (max. error)
95.0 % of area n
_
X  arithmetic mean
x i  i th observation
v n  number of observations
27 28

7
 12/20/2016

Direct Equally Accurate Observations…con’t Direct Equally Accurate Observations…con’t

Properties of residuals:
Standard Deviation also called the Root Mean Square
Residual = Most Probable Value – Observation Error (RMSE):
_ It can be defined as a ‘statistical measure of precision’.
vi  X  X i
n
• In other words the amount of deviation of a single
1.  v i  0
i 1
observation from their mean.
n • In surveying, it’s used:
2.  (v i  v i )  min . ;i.e. first derivative  0 • to analize random errors;
i 1
• to establish measurements standards;
The Gauss’s least squares method of adjustment is based on • to adjust survey data;
the 2nd property. 29 30

Standard Deviation of the Arithmetic Mean Direct Not Equally Accurate Observations
Observations are vary in accuracy when factors influencing
their errors change (i.e. measuring equipment, observer,
n external environment etc.)

σ  (v i  vi ) In order to compensate for these differences surveyors apply

σ_   i 1 weights to observations.
X n n  (n  1) Weights of observations are:
I. positive numbers inversely proportional to the
squared RMSE of these observations;
II. Integer numbers directly proportional to the number
of repetitions/rounds.
31 32

8
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Direct Not Equally Accurate Observations…con’t Direct Not Equally Accurate Observations…con’t
I def:
RMSE of typical observation, i.e. p0 = 1:
1 of ith observation:
Weight
pi 
σ i2 n

1 1 1
 (p i  vi  vi )
p1:p2:...:pn  2 : 2 :...: 2 σ0   i 1

σ1 σ2 σn (n  1)

RMSE of ith observation with weight of pi :

II def:
n
pi  ni
σ  (p i  vi  vi )
p1:p2:...:pn  n1:n2:...:nn σi   0   i 1
pi pi  (n  1)
33 34

Direct Not Equally Accurate Observations…con’t Direct Not Equally Accurate Observations…con’t

General (weighted) arithmetic mean of ‘n’ observations:

RMSE of general ( weighted) arithmetic mean:
n
where:
 (p  xi ) n

 (p  v  v )
i
_ xi – ith observation;
Xp  i 1
n pi – weight of ith observation;
p
i i i
σ0
σ_   i 1
i
i 1
n n
(  pi )  (n  1)
_

p
vi  X p  xi Xp
n Properties of i
1.  (pi  v i )  0 the weighted i 1 i 1
i 1
n residuals:
2.  (pi  v i  v i )  min . ;i.e. first derivative  0
i 1 35 36

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 12/20/2016

Propagation of Errors Propagation of Errors…con’t

if ……….. y = f (x1, x2, … , xn) , then the Gaussian formula is
Because all measurements contain errors,
as follows:
so any computed quantities based on them will
likewise contain errors.
δf δf δf
σy   (  σ x1 ) 2  (  σ x 2 ) 2  ...  (  σ xn ) 2
The process of assessing errors in δx1 δx 2 δx n
computed/calculated quantities, that are based on
observations containing errors is referred to as where: σy , σx1, σx2 ,…, σxn
Error Propagation. are standard deviations of y, x1, x2,..., xn respectively.
δf
- partial derivative of the function ”f” with respect
37
δx i to variable xi 38

Propagation of Errors…con’t Absolute and Relative Error

Example: Area = Length * Width
L σL A=L*W Absolute Error : is the amount of physical error in
L = 100 m +/- 0.03 m measurement of quantity.
W = 50 m +/- 0.02 m e.g.
W absolute error = ±1 mm (± 0.001 m)
δA δ
σ A2  ( σ L ) 2  ( A  σW ) 2
σW δL δW Relative Error : is the ratio of the absolute error of
δA δ measurement of quantity over value of quantity.
W ; A  L ;
δL δW
absolute error
σ A2  (W  σ L ) 2  (L  σW ) 2 relative error = value of measured quantity
σ a2  ( 50  0.03 ) 2  ( 100  0.02 ) 2  6.25 m2 e.g. relative error of tape measurement is 1/2000
σ a  2.5 m ; a  5000 m  2.5 m
2 2 2 i.e ± 1 cm per 20 m 40

10
 12/20/2016

Accuracy Assessment Accuracy Assessment…con’t

There are three types of factors effecting the accuracy
It is the process of comparing the accuracy of the
being assessed:
measured or calculated values with that acceptable.
• human
• instrumental
Depending on your needs, there can be an
• enviromental
approximate or rigorous (least squares method)
accuracy assessment.
The accuracy of the calculated quantities depends on:
• the accuracy of the measured data (its errors)
Assessment of the accuracy should be preceded by
• the accuracy of the calculation itself (number
careful analysis of the factors effecting it.
of significant figures or number of decimals)

41 42

Thank you !

43

11
 1/4/2017

Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering
Institute of Roads and Bridges
Levelling
• Levelling – is a process of measuring vertical distances,
either directly or indirectly, to determine difference in
elevation.
• Relief features are important for:
Levelling – Agriculture;
– Land managment;
– Engineering projects: canal digging, railways, roads and
buildings constructions etc.
Lecture No. 12 & 13 • For relief features to be represented on maps, plans and
Jerzy Durlej MSc.
j.durlej@il.pw.edu.pl
profiles, the elevations of points of the terrain should be
known.
Warsaw 2016-2017
1 • To determine all of these is the purpose of levelling. 2

Definitions Definitions…con’t
The elevation/height of a
point on the surface of the • Vertical Datum - is an arbitrary level surface to
Earth is its vertical distance which the heights of all points are referred to (e.g.
above or below the
arbitrarily assumed level Geoid or Ellipsoid).
surface (e.g. Geoid), that
every element of which is • Poland’s vertical datum is the mean sea level (MSL)
normal (perpendicular) to in Bay of Finland, determined by zero of
the plumb line (i.e. the mareograph in Kronstad near St. Petersburg
direction of gravity ).
• The separation (undulation) between Ellipsoid and
A horizontal surface - will form a tangent to the level surface Geoid must be known to make Ellipsoidal heights
at a point. For most practical purposes using sights of less (e.g. from GPS survey) useful to the engineering and
than 150 m the horizontal line approximates very closely to
the level line, both being on their respective surfaces. scientific communities.
3 4

1
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Types Of Levelling Types Of Levelling…con’t

Types of levelling (depending on the method and the
instruments used); – Hydrostatic Levelling – based on the communicating
• Direct (also called Geometric or Differential) Levelling – vessels principle, the system uses the free surface of a
carried out by means of horizontal collimation line. liquid as an absolute measurement reference.
• Trigonometric Levelling – carried out by means of vertical – Stereo Photogrammetric Levelling – elevations are
angles and distances. obtained by measurement where stereo pairs of aerial
• Barometric Levelling - carried out by means of barometers or satellite images are involved.
exploiting correlation between the atmospheric pressure – Satellite Levelling – e.g. GPS.
and the heights above sea level. At sea level the rate of
decrease of pressure with height is about 1 mm of mercury
The most accurate and popular in engineering surveying is
per 10 m. At altitude around 2000 m that rate is as many as
Direct Levelling.
14 m per 1 mm of mercury.
5 6

Hydrostatic Levelling Trigonometric Levelling – Over Short

Distance

Accuracy
+/- 0.03mm
over 40m

7 8

2
 1/4/2017

Trigonometric Levelling – Over Short Trigonometric Levelling – Over Long

Distance…con’t Distance
• Equations:
– If (S) and the vertical angle (α) or zenith angle (z) are
determined:
Δh  S  sin α or Δh  S  cos z
– If (D) and the vertical angle (α) or zenith angle (z) are
determined:
Δh  D  tan α or Δh  D  cot z
– The change in elevation between points A and B is:
ΔHAB

ΔH  i  Δh  r
• where: -D-

– i - instrument height above point A

– r - target height where vertical angle is read 9 10

Trigonometric Levelling – Over Long Definitions…con’t

Distance…con’t
• Reduced Level (RL)
ΔH AB  i  GF  Δh  DE  r
– The height of a point relative to (i.e. above or
D2 below) a datum
GF  ; Earth Curvature effect
2R • Benchmark (BM)
Δh  D  tan α – A stable, permanent reference point of known RL
– Usually used as the starting and finishing point
D2 when run levelling
DE  k  ; Re fraction effect ; k  0.13
2R • Temporary Bench Mark (TBM)
2
D – A point placed (e.g. peg, nail, spike) to provide a
ΔH AB  i  D  tan α  ( 1  k)  r temporary reference point
2R 11 12

3
 1/4/2017

Wall Benchmark Wall Benchmark…con’t

13 14

Ground Benchmark More Definitions

• Backsight (BS)
– Always the first reading of levelling rod (staff) from
first instrument station while run levelling.

• Foresight (FS)
– Always the last reading of levelling rod from last
instrument station while run levelling.

• Intermediate sight (IS)

– Any sighting that is not backsight or foresight.
15 16

4
 1/4/2017

More Definitions…con’t Change Plate

• Change point (CP)
If levelling over soft ground:
– Location of the staff (neither starting nor finishing
BM) while the level is moved from one station to use ground plate (change
another. plate):

– Change points should be: •Triangular metal plate,

• Stable
corners folded down, spherical-
ended tip raised at center.
• Well defined
• Recoverable
•Stamped firm on ground with
tip head providing a stable
 e.g. Sharp rock, nail, change plate, etc.
17
point. 18

Direct Levelling - Principle Direct Levelling – Principle…con’t

• A level is set up on a tripod and levelled so that the line of
sight (collimation line) is horizontal.

• A graduated staff is held vertically at the first point and a

reading made of the intersection of the crosshair with the
image of the staff (BackSight = BS). The same or an
identical staff is then held vertically at the second point and
a further reading made (ForeSight = FS).

• The difference between the two readings is the difference

in height between the two points:
Δh = BS - FS
• If BS is greater than FS , so Δh is positive, i.e. there is a rise
in elevation, moving from the first to the second point.
19
• If BS is smaller than FS , so Δh is negative, i.e. there is a fall
20
in elevation.

5
 1/4/2017

Direct Levelling - Applications Direct Levelling – The Level

The Level
Levels can be used for: • A telescope which can be
extremely accurately set, so it is
horizontal, has a set of crosshair,
•Determining the height of a particular point; and can be turned through 360
•Determining differences in height between points; horizontally.
•Determining the contours of a land profile;
•Providing data for road cross-sections;
•Providing data to calculate volumes for earthworks;
•Setting out level surfaces for construction;
•Setting out inclined (slope) surfaces for construction.

21 22

The Level The Level…con’t

Eyepiece Focus adjuster
Objective
1. Gun sight/peep
view/collimator
2. Circular bubble level/pond
Automatic/ bubble level/bull’s eye bubble
Self-Levelling Levels level
3. Levelling Screw
4. Base Plate
Baseplate 5. Objective Lens
Rotation adjuster
6. Focusing Knob
Bull’s eye bubble 7. Horizontal fine motion screw
Foot screw 8. Horizontal circle window
9. Horizontal circle setting ring
10.Reticle adjusting screws cover
23 11.Eyepiece 24

6
 1/4/2017

The Level…con’t Dumpy Level

Tubular bubble
Tubular bubble axis

Crosshair
Collimation axis

Circular bubble
Objective lens

Levelling screw
There are three basic types of level:
Vertical axis • Dumpy Levels - A tubular bubble is rigidly attached to the
Tripod leg
telescope and the assembly is levelled by foot screws
which are levelled first in one direction (parallel to two
levelling srews), then at 90° direction with respect to the
25 previous direction. 26

Tilting Level Tilting Level…con’t

1 – telescope
2 – vertical axis
3 – spirit bubble/main
bubble/tubular bubble
4 – crosshair/reticle
5 – tilting screw
6 – circular/pond bubble
Tilting Levels - This type of level is fitted with a circular 7 – pivot
bubble for preliminary, approximate levelling and a main
8 – tribrach with
bubble which is attached to the telescope. For each
observation the main bubble is brought to its center point by levelling/foot screws
27 28
a slow motion screw.

7
 1/4/2017

Tilting Level……..con’t Automatic Levels

Automatic/Self-
Levelling Levels
It has a compensator
which consists of an
arrangement of three
prisms. The two outer
ones are attached to
the barrel of the
telescope.
The instrument is first levelled The middle prism is
approximately with a circular bubble; suspended by fine
the compensator will then deviate the wiring and reacts to
line of sight by the amount that the gravity.
29
telescope is out of level. 30

Automatic Levels..con’t Automatic Levels…con’t

Automatic/Self-Levelling Levels
31 32

8
 1/4/2017

Electronic Digital Levels Laser Levels

They are widely used to create
They are automatic, since a reference elevation/point
the levelling process is from which any construction
done by the compensator measurements can be carried
once their pond bubble out.
level is roughly centered. They fall into general classes,
i.e. single-beam lasers and
The reading can be done rotating-beam lasers.
automaticaly too, as soon
as the instrument is sighted A rotating-beam lasers are self-
on the levelling rod/staff, leveling and self-plumbing, thus
i.e. a bar-coded levelling provide both horizontal and
Bar-coded levelling staff staff. vertical reference planes.
33 A rotating-beam laser level 34

Direct Levelling - Tripod Direct Levelling – Staff

The Tripod -
A fully adjustable 3-leg stand
on which the level sits, so
that the level is roughly
horizontal, prior to fine Rod/Staff
adjustment.
It is at a height that the user
can see through it easily.
Bar-coded levelling rod
The Staff (Levelling Rod):
A rod, usually 4 m tall, and clearly marked in divisions of 10 mm,
which is held vertically.
35
It allows readings to be taken with precision of 1 mm by 36
interpolation.

9
 1/4/2017

Staff Reading Checking the Level’s Accuracy

Collimation Error – occurs when the line of sight (line of
collimation) is not truly horizontal that results in
an error of staff reading.
horizontal
cross-hair
1.932 However if backsight and foresight are exactly
1.920 equidistant from the instrument, the errors in each
sighting will cancel each other out when calculating
1.910 height difference.
vertical
1.900 This feature can be used to check the geometry of a level
cross-hair (i.e. if bubble level axis is parallel to collimation axis).
37 38

Collimation Error Collimation Error Field Check

Staff / Levelling rod When to execute a collimation error check?...

Line of Collimation • at the beginning of each day’s observations
S1
x • at least once a day
S 1’ • any time the instrument sustains a severe shock
Horizontal Line • any time the instrument seems to function
abnormally
• whenever the outer temperature changes
dramatically during the course of levelling

Leads to an incorrect staff reading and it should be carried out on uniformly flat ground.
39 40

10
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Collimation Error Check – Two Peg Test S2 Staff Staff S1

Staff Direction of travel
Line of Collimation Staff
S2 S1
x x
S 2’ S 1’ Direction of travel A
L/2 L/2
B
Horizontal Line L ≈ 50 m up 70 m
Staff
A S4 Staff
B S3
L/2 L/2
L
ΔhT  S1' – S2' ; the TRUE height difference
A
ΔhA  S1 – S2 ; the APPARENT height difference B
3m - 4m
S1  S  x ; S2  S  x
'
1
'
2
Col lim ation Error:
ΔhA  S1' – S2'  ΔhT 41 x  (S1 - S2 ) - (S3 - S4 ) (mm / L m) 42

Summary : Two Peg Test Collimation Error Check-Kukkamaki Method

”A-s-B-s”
•Place two pegs about L = 50 m (to 70 m) apart.
Staff B
•Set up level midway between the two pegs. Staff A

•Read staff at each peg, and calculate true height difference. Instrument Instrument
Station 1 Station 2
•Move level about 3 m/4 m beyond one of the pegs.
•Read staff at each peg again, and calculate height difference.
•Collimation Error = a difference between two height
differences obtained during the above procedure and is
expressed as a number of mm per L m. 10 m 10 m 20 m
•Acceptable errors: ≤ |± 2 - 3| mm per 70 m
If the Collimation Error > acceptable value, level has to be Direction of travel

rectified. Rectification procedure depends on level type. 43 44

11
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Collimation Error Check-Kukkamaki Method Collimation Error Check-Kukkamaki Method

”A-s-B-s” ”A-s-B-s”

Staff A Staff B Staff A Staff B

Instrument Instrument
Station 1 Station 1
S1 S2

10 m
10 m

Direction of travel Direction of travel

45 46

Collimation Error Check-Kukkamaki Method Collimation Error Check-Kukkamaki Method

”A-s-B-s” ”A-s-B-s”

Staff A Staff B Staff A Staff B

Instrument Instrument
Station 2 Station 2
S3 S4

40 m 20 m
48

Direction of travel Direction of travel

47

12
 1/4/2017

Collimation Error Check-Kukkamaki Method Collimation Error Check-Förstner Method

”A-s-B-s” ”A-s-s-B”

S1'  S1-x ; S'2  S2 -x Staff A Staff B

S3'  S3 - 4  x ; S'4  S4 - 2  x Instrument

Station 1
Instrument
Station 2

ΔhT1  ΔhT2
S1'  S '2  S 3'  S '4
S1  x  S 2  x  S 3  4  x  S 4  2  x 15 m 15 m 15 m

(S1  S 2 )  (S 3  S 4 )  2  x
(S  S4 ) (S1  S2 ) Direction of travel
x 3 2 49

Collimation Error Check-Förstner Method Collimation Error Check-Förstner Method

”A-s-s-B” ”A-s-s-B”

Staff A Staff B Staff A Staff B

Instrument Instrument
S1 Station 1 Station 1 S2

15 m 30 m

Direction of travel Direction of travel

51 52

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Collimation Error Check-Förstner Method Collimation Error Check-Förstner Method

”A-s-s-B” ”A-s-s-B”

Staff A Staff B Staff A Staff B

Instrument Instrument
S3 Station 2 Station 2 S4

30 m 15 m

Direction of travel Direction of travel

53 54

Collimation Error Check-Förstner Method Direct Levelling Principles

”A-s-s-B”
1. Backsight and foresight distances must be
S1'  S1-x ; S'2  S2 - 2  x approximately equal to avoid any errors due to
S3'  S3 - 2  x ; S'4  S4 -x collimation, refraction or earth curvature.

ΔhT1  ΔhT2 2. Distances (BS, FS distances) must not be so great

as not to be able to read the staff accurately.
S1'  S '2  S 3'  S '4
S1  x  S 2  2  x  S 3  2  x  S 4  x 3. The points to be observed must be below the level
(S1  S 2 )  x  (S 3  S 4 )  x of the instrument, but not lower than the height of
the staff.
(S  S 4 )  (S1  S 2 )
x 3
2 55 56

14
 1/4/2017

Direct Levelling Principles…con’t Errors In Levelling

• Collimation
4. Use stable, well defined change points.
• Parallax
5. Always start levelling run with backsight at BM
• Change point instability
and finish it with foresight at BM too.
• Instrument instability
6. Do not take a staff reading lower than 0.5m
• Staff instability
(due to refraction).
• Benchmark instability
• Refraction
57 58

Errors In Levelling….con’t Parallax

• Staff reading and interpolation errors; • Move your eye up and down (or from left to
right) over the eyepiece of the telescope.
• Staff verticality;
• If the crosshair moves relative to the target being
• Instrument shading; observed then parallax exists and the focussing is
• Temperature effect on staff; not satisfactory.
• It is eliminated by focusing the telescope on
• Booking errors (e.g. using just 1 benchmark); infinity and then adjusting the eyepiece until the
• Earth curvature; crosshair appears in sharp focus.
• Magnetic field effects on auto level. • The setting will remain constant for a particular
observer's eye.
59 60

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 1/4/2017

Parallax…con’t Methods - Midway Levelling

HA = HBM + (BS – FS) = HBM + ΔH1,2

BS FS

ΔH1,2

BM

L/2 L/2
L
61 L < 150m 62

Methods - Foresight Levelling Computation of Elevations

HA = HBM + (i – FS) = HBM + ΔH1,2

BS=3.222 FS=0.768
TBM

El= 104.519 m
FS BS=2.280 FS=0.825

BS=1.264 FS=0.654 CP2

HC = i A
CP1
BM
ΔH1,2 El=100.000 m
BM
Point BS IH FS Elevation
L
BM 1.264 101.264 100.000
HC - height of collimation/instrument height CP1 2.280 102.890 0.654 100.610
L < 100 m due to earth curvature and refraction errors CP2 3.222 105.287 0.825 102.065
63 0.768 104.519 64
TBM

16
 1/4/2017

Setting Out TBM - Example Grading of Constructions

Example: Fixing of TBM at
the bottom of the • It needs to be executed when, for instance
BS TR1 excavation for building
BM drains and sewers are to be laid.
foundation.
There are two level stations: • The grading/slope of the proposed construction
1. At the top – readings BS will be expressed as 1 in X , i.e. 1 vertical to X
(staff) and TR1 (steel horizontal.
tape)
2. At the bottom – readings
• e.g. 1 in 50 = 2% grading.
TR2 (steel tape) and FS • The reduced formation level is then computed
FS TR2
(staff) from the reduced level of a point on the formation
TBM
0.00m of steel tape
and the proposed gradient.
HTBM = HBM + BS – (TR1 - TR2 ) – FS 65 66

Grading of Constructions…con’t Grading of Constructions - Example

gradient 5%

• By comparing the existing reduced levels with the Points BS IS FS

Height of
Collimation
Reduced
Level
Formation
Level
Cut Fill
Hor.
distance
proposed reduced levels the amount of BM 3121 34.981 31.860
1 1411 33.570 32.00 1.57 0
excavation work ( i.e. cut and fill) is obtained. 2 0448 34.533 33.50 1.03 30

• If formation > existing, then fill is required. 3

4
2597
1594
0125 37.453 34.856
35.859
35.00
36.50
0.14
0.64
60
90

• If formation < existing, then cut is required. 5

6
3853 1027
1789
40.279 36.426
38.490
38.00
39.50
1.57
1.01
120
150
∑ 9.571 3.453 2.941
∑B.S.-
∑F.S. 6.630

67 68

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Grading Of Constructions - Example

Proposed formation gradient 5%
38.00

36.50

35.00
Thank you !
33.50

32.00
0 30 60 90 120 150

0 30 60 90 120 150 Distance

33.57 34.53 34.86 35.86 36.43 38.49 Existing level

32.00 33.50 35.00 36.50 38.00 39.50 Formation level

1.57 1.03 Cut

0.14 0.64 1.57 1.01 Fill

69 70

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 12/1/2016

Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering ”Small Area” - Definition
Institute of Roads and Bridges

When may the Earth surface be considered flat ?

Basic Surveying Answer:

ΔD = 0 A - D₀ - B” -ΔD- B’

Calculations

-Δh-
or
C B
they are meaningless

-R-
Lecture No.8
with respect to the
Jerzy Durlej MSc. required accuracy.
j.durlej@il.pw.edu.pl
α
Warsaw 2016-2017 O
1 O 2

”Small Area” …con’t ”Small Area”…con’t

ΔD  D  D0 ; D  R  α ; D0  R  sin α
α3 α5
sin α  α    ... • Small area < 573 km2 (or approx. radius equals ≈
3! 5!
α3 α3 13.5 km).
ΔD  R  α  R  (α  ...)  R  α  R  α  R 
3! 6
R3  α3 D3 • This area can be considered plane.
 
6  R2 6  R2
Effect of earth curvature on distance measurements • The effect of earth curvature on measurements of
angles and distances can be neglected.
D [km] 1 5 10 13.5 20

ΔD [mm] 0.004 0.5 4.1 10.0 32.8 3 4

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Rectangular (Grid) Coordinate Systems Surveying Grid Coordinate System

X = Northing
X • A Cartesian coordinate
Origin IV I system specifies each
Y = Easting P (XP, YP) point location uniquely
III II XP
on a plane by a pair of
Origin coordinates (X, Y), which
Surveying Y are the distances from
In order to locate (0, 0) YP the point to two fixed,
Y mutually perpendicular
points on plane we lines, i.e. coordinate axes,
Origin II I use two dimensional measured in the same
X (2D), rectangular, unit of length.
III IV cartesian coordinate XP - ordinate
system. YP - abscissa
Mathematical 5 6

Radial vs. Grid Coordinates Azimuth (Az) ≡ Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)
Location of P by (X P , YP )
X = Northing
X P  f ( s, α ) ; YP  f ( s, α ) P1
X P  s  cos α
YP  s  sin α
(XP,YP)
W Y = Easting
Location of P by (s, α ) O
XP s  f ( X P , YP ) ;   f ( X P , YP ) P2 Azimuth O-P1
YP Azimuth O-P2
tan α  S
YP XP
YP •An angle measured clockwise from a reference direction,
Pythagorean Theorem α  arctan ( ) usually north direction, to the direction of interest.
X P
s2 = Xp2 + Yp2 •Measured: 0° – 360° or 0g – 400g
s  (X P2  YP2 ) 7 8

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Grid North, Magnetic North & True North Bearing

TN Grid North: the direction of a grid •An angle of 900 or less

MN GN line which is parallel to the central IV Quadrant I Quadrant from either North or
CONVERGENCE meridian on the National Grid. South (towards east or
ANGLE
west) that falls in one of
True North: the direction of a the quadrants.
meridian of longitude which
GRID MAGNETIC converges at the North Pole. •Specifies initial direction
ANGLE
(N or S), reads angle in
MAGNETIC
Magnetic North: the direction degrees (between 0 and
VARIATION or indicated by a magnetic compass. 90o) and then specifies
DECLINATION.
Magnetic North moves slowly with a III Quadrant II Quadrant the direction (E or W)
variable rate. It is an indicator of
9 direction. 10

Azimuth (WCB) vs. Bearing Azimuth vs. Bearing…con’t

X = Northing
N 35° W N 65° E
P
AZIMUTH = 360° - BEARING AZIMUTH = BEARING
IV I
AZIMUTH = 325° P AZIMUTH = 65°

Y = Easting

P
AZIMUTH = 180° + BEARING III II AZIMUTH = 180° - BEARING
AZIMUTH = 235° AZIMUTH = 150°
P
S 55° W S 30° E
11 12

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Forward Azimuth vs. Backward Azimuth Forward Azimuth vs. Backward Azimuth
N=X

Az1-2 •If forward azimuth is < 1800 (or 200g)

N=X E=Y e.g. forward azimuth = 450, then backward azimuth =

2
Az1-2
Az2-1 450+1800 = 2250 or 450-1800 = -1350 + 3600 = 2250
E=Y
1 • Forward Azimuth: • If forward azimuth is > 1800 (or 200g)
Az1-2 = Az2-1 ± 180o (or 200g)
e.g. forward azimuth = 3000, then backward azimuth
• Backward (Reverse) Azimuth: = 3000-1800 = 1200 or 3000+1800 = 4800 - 3600 = 1200
Az2-1 = Az1-2 ± 180o (or 200g) 13 14

Azimuth by Coordinates Azimuth by Coordinates…con’t

 ΔYAB 
known: unknown: b  arctan 
 ΔX AB 
XA, YA, XB, YB AzAB ?
AzAB • I Quadrant where ΔXAB > 0 and ΔYAB > 0
 ΔY  AzAB = b
1.) b  arctan AB 
 ΔΧ AB 
b
Az AB  180  b
0
• II Quadrant where ΔXAB < 0 and ΔYAB > 0
ΔY AzAB = 180⁰ + b
2.) b  arctan AB
XA

ΔΧ AB
Az AB  180 0  b • III Quadrant where ΔXAB < 0 and ΔYAB < 0
XB
when: AzAB = 180⁰ + b
YA b – bearing of line AB
YB ΔΧ AB  X B - X A • IV Quadrant where ΔXAB > 0 and ΔYAB < 0
ΔYAB  YB -YA 15 AzAB = 360⁰ + b 16

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Azimuth by Coordinates…con’t Azimuth by Coordinates…con’t

ΔYAB X +ΔY X X
X -ΔY
b  arctan
ΔX AB Az +ΔX Az
+ΔX
Az
• I Quadrant where ΔXAB > 0 and ΔYAB > 0 Y Y Y Y

AzAB = b -ΔX
-ΔX Az
-ΔY
+ΔY
• II Quadrant where ΔXAB < 0 and ΔYAB > 0
AzAB = 180⁰ - b I Quadrant II Quadrant III Quadrant IV Quadrant
Azimuths 0 0  90 0 Azimuths 90 0  180 0 Azimuths 180 0  270 0 Azimuths 270 0  360 0
 ΔY   ΔY   ΔY   ΔY 
• III Quadrant where ΔXAB < 0 and ΔYAB < 0 Az  arctan 
 ΔX 
Az  180 0  arctan 
 ΔX 
Az  180 0  arctan 
 ΔX 
Az  360 0  arctan 
 ΔX 
AzAB = 180⁰ + b

• IV Quadrant where ΔXAB > 0 and ΔYAB < 0

AzAB = 360⁰ - b 17

Length by Coordinates Forward Coordinates

known:
known:
XA, YA, XB, YB
AzAB
XA, YA, AzAB, dAB
unknown: unknown:
AzAB b
dAB ? XB, YB ?
b

XA
d AB  Δx AB
2
 Δy AB
2

XB or x B  x A  Δx AB  x A  d AB  cos Az AB
Δy AB Δx AB
YA
d AB   y B  y A  Δy AB  y A  d AB  sin Az AB
YB sin Az AB cos Az AB
19 20

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Angle By Coordinates X Lateral Offset Coordinates

X (Northing)
known: known:
2 PL
X1, Y1, X2, Y2, X3, Y3 2 X1, Y1, X2, Y2, bL, dL
XP L Az12

unknown: bL – in-line offset

 ? dL – lateral offset
 3
Az12 unknown:
Az12
Az13 XPL, YPL ?
1 Y (Easting)
1 Y PL Y
0
X PL  X 1  bL  cos Az12  d L  sin Az12
β  Az13  Az12
21
YPL  Y1  bL  sin Az12  d L  cos Az12 22

X Lateral Offset Coordinates…con’t Intersection by Angles

known:
Law of sin es known:
2
X1, Y1, X2, Y2, bR, dR d AB d
 AP
XA, YA, XB, YB,  A,  B
X sin ( 180  (β A  βB )) sin βB
unknown:
bR – in-line offset
P XP , YP ?
dR – lateral offset AzAB
AzAP
unknown: Az AP  Az AB  β A
XP L Az12 A A
XPR , YPR ?
Az12
PR d AB  (X B  X A ) 2  (YB  YA ) 2
B
1 YPL Y d AB  sin βB
d AP 
0 B sin( β A  βB )
X PR  X 1  bR  cos Az12  d R  sin Az12
Y X P  X A  d AP  cos Az AP
YPR  Y1  bR  sin Az12  d R  cos Az12 23 YP  YA  d AP  sin Az AP 24

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Intersection by Distances Resection by Angles

known: unknown: known: unknown:
XA, YA, XB, YB, dAP, dBP XP , YP ? X1, Y1, X2, Y2, X3, Y3,  1 ,  2 XS , YS ?
X Az1S

Law of cos ines

X Az12 d 12  (X 2  X 1 ) 2  (Y2  Y1 ) 2
AzAB 1
P σ ψ  ( 360 0  δ  β2 )  σ  X  σ
AzAP 2
d BP  d AB
2
 d AP
2
 2  d AB  d AP  cos β A sin σ sin( X  σ )
d S 2  d 12  ; d S 2  d 23 
sin( β2  β1 )
ψ
 2 sin β1
A A
Az AP  Az AB  β A 1
sin σ sin( X  σ )
2 d 12   d 23 
B
d AB  (X B  X A )  (YB  YA )
2 2
 sin β1 sin( β2  β1 )
S 3 sin( X  σ ) d 12 sin( β2  β1 )
B 2
d AB  d AP
2
 d BP
2 Y   K
cos β A  Az1S  Az12  σ sin σ d 23 sin β1
Y 2  d AB  d AP sin( 180 0  σ  β1 ) sin( X  σ )
K;
sin X  cos σ  cos X  sin σ
K
d 1S  d 12  sin σ sin σ
X P  X A  d AP  cos Az AP sin β1
K  cos X
X S  X 1  d 1S  cos Az1S sin X  cot σ  cos X  K ; cot σ 
YP  YA  d AP  sin Az AP 25
YS  X 1  d 1S  sin Az1S sin X 26

Area by Coordinates Area by Coordinates..con’t

known: X
X1, Y1, X2, Y2,…, Xi , Yi ,…, Xn , Yn Example: Polygon, n = 4
2
unknown: x1 1
1 3 2
Area ? x2
n
n Area ? 2  Area   ( X i  1  X i )  (Yi  1  Yi )
4 i 1 x3 3
n
5  2  Area   (Yi  1  Yi )  ( X i  1  X i )
n-1 i 1
x4
Gauss formula 4
n Y
2  Area   X i  (Yi  1  Yi  1 ) O y1 y4 y2 y3
i 1
n ( X 2  X 1 )  (Y2  Y1 )
 2  Area   Yi  ( X i  1  X i  1 ) Area   ...
i 1
27 2 28

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Area by Coordinates..con’t Area by Coordinates..con’t

X X

1 1
x1 2
x1 2
x2 x2

x3 3 x3 3

x4 x4
4 4
Y Y
O y1 y4 y2 y3 O y1 y4 y2 y3

( X 2  X 1 )  (Y2  Y1 ) ( X 3  X 2 )  (Y3  Y2 ) ( X 2  X 1 )  (Y2  Y1 ) ( X 3  X 2 )  (Y3  Y2 ) ( X 4  X 3 )  (Y4  Y3 )

Area   29 ... Area    30  ...
2 2 2 2 2

Area by Coordinates..con’t
X

1
x1 2
x2
Thank you !
x3 3

x4
4
Y
O y1 y4 y2 y3

( X 2  X 1 )  (Y2  Y1 ) ( X 3  X 2 )  (Y3  Y2 ) ( X 4  X 3 )  (Y4  Y3 ) ( X 1  X 4 )  (Y1  Y4 )

Area     31 32
2 2 2 2

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 1/11/2017

Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering
Definitions
Institute of Roads and Bridges
Surveying Control Network is a systematic set of permanently
fixed (monumented ) points for which their relative positions
have been mathematically determined (e.g. X, Y coordinates).

Surveying Control Networks 0.95

0.90

in Poland 0.20
0.10
0.00

Lecture No. 9
Due to the way their positions are depicted, networks are
Jerzy Durlej MSc. broken down into:
j.durlej@il.pw.edu.pl
• Horizontal Control Networks (X,Y) – positions of the
points are defined within an adopted system of
Warsaw 2016-2017 1 2
coordinates, ( e.g. ”1965” and ”2000” coordinate systems);

Definitions…con’t Definitions…con’t

• Vertical Control Networks (H) – heights of the points are Poland’s vertical datums are:
defined with relation to an adopted reference level surface • the mean level of Baltic Sea in Bay
(datum), e.g. MSL. of Finland, determined by zero of
mareograph in Kronstadt near St.
≈ 8 cm - 10 cm
Petersburg,

• and also the mean level of North

Sea, determined by zero of
mareograph in Amsterdam
(Amsterdams Peil Normaal), The
Netherlands.

3 4

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National Spatial Reference System Ref:1 - National Spatial Reference System

&
National Control Networks

The Regulation of Council of Ministry on 15

1. National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) October 2012 (Journal of Laws 2012, dated 14
November 2012, the item 1247) on the National
2. National Control Networks (NCN) Spatial Reference System.

5 6

National Spatial Reference System…con’t National Spatial Reference System…con’t

3. Coordinate systems:
§ 3. 1. …consits of: • Cartesian geocentric, marked as XYZ
1. Geodetic reference systems, marked as, • Geodetic geocentric, marked as GRS80h
• PL-ETRF2000 ; • Geodetic , marked as GRS80H
• PL-ETRF89 - which are mathematical and physical 4. Grid coordinate systems, marked as:
implementation of the European Terrestrial • PL-LAEA - (to be used for the purposes of spatial analysis
Reference System (ETRS89); and reporting at the European level)
2. Vertical reference systems, marked as, • PL-LCC - (to be used for the purposes of issuing maps at the scale
• PL-KRON86-NH ; of 1: 500 000 and smaller scales)
• PL-EVRF2007-NH - which are mathematical and • PL-UTM - (to be used for the purposes of issuing maps at the
physical implementation of the European Vertical scales of 1: 10 000 through 1: 250 000 and other military purposes)
Reference System (EVRS); • PL-2000 – (to be used for the purposes of issuing maps at the
scales of 1: 10 000 and bigger scales, cadastral and principal maps in
particular)
7
• PL-1992 – (to be used for non-standard purposes) 8

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National Spatial Reference System…con’t National Spatial Reference System…con’t

§ 6.1. Geodetic vertical system PL-EVRF2007-NH is formed
§ 4. 2. Tying and maintenance of geodetic reference system
by the normal heights related to the mean level of North Sea,
PL-ETRF2000 is executed throughout network of permanent
determined by zero of mareograph in Amsterdam
stations of ASG-EUPOS (Active Geodetic Network EUPOS).
(Amsterdams Peil Normaal), The Netherlands.
Tied into 18 permanent EPN stations.
6.2. Ellipsoid of normal gravity field is the GRS80 reference
§ 5. Tying and maintenance of geodetic reference system
ellipsoid.
PL-ETRF89 is based on points of primary control network by
means of satellite observations of GNSS (Global Navigation
§ 7. Geodetic vertical system PL-KRON86-NH is formed by the
Satellite Systems). Tied into 11 EUREF-POL stations.
normal heights related to the mean level of Baltic Sea,
determined by zero of mareograph in Kronstadt near St.
Petersburg, Russia.
9 10

Usage of National Spatial Reference System Use of National Spatial Reference System

§ 15. 1. National spatial reference system used in the 3. PL-UTM coordinate system is used for the issuing:
surveying and mapping works, and the creation of spatial • standard maps from 1:10,000 to 1:250,000;
data by public authorities, wherein: • marine maps;
• and other maps for security and defense purposes.
1. PL-LAEA coordinate system is used for spatial analysis and
reporting at European level. 4. PL-2000 coordinate system is used for mapping at scales
larger than 1:10,000 - for cadastral maps and principal
2. PL-LCC coordinate system is used for the issuing of maps maps in particular.
at scale 1:500,000 and smaller.
5. PL-1992 is used in non-standard studies.

11 12

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Ref: 2 - National Control Networks National Control Networks…con’t

…are classified, due to their accuracy and the way they
are set up, as:
 Primary fundamental control network (class I);
The Regulation of Minister of Administration and • σp ≤ ± 0.01 m ; 1 point/20,000 km2
Digitization on 14 February 2012 (Journal of Laws,  Primary base control network (class II);
dated 30 March 2012, the item 352) on Geodetic, • σp ≤ ± 0.01 m ; 1 point/50 km2
Gravimetric and Magnetic Control Networks.  Low order control network (class III)
• σp ≤ ± 0.07 m ; for new control points
• σp ≤ ± 0.05 m ; for old class II control points
• σp ≤ ± 0.10 m ; for old class III control points
 Minor order control network
• σp ≤ ± 0.10 m
13 14

National Horizontal Control Networks National Horizontal Control Networks…con’t

 Primary fundamental horizontal control network (class I):  Primary base horizontal
• ASG-EUPOS reference stations that belong to the EPN, control network (class II):
wherein: • EUREF-POL - (11 points tied
• Horizontal accuracy; σp ≤ ± 0.01 m into ETRF89, GPS surveyed
• Vertical accuracy; σp ≤ ± 0.02 m in 1992);
• research of the • POLREF – (348 points tied
shape and size of the into EUREF-POL, GPS
earth; surveyed in 1994-1995);
• tying of lower order
control networks
AF 1234
• ASG–EUPOS - stations not belonging to EPN;
PT 247
• Old astronomical-geodetic network and densification
15
network. 16

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National Horizontal Control Networks…con’t Low Order Horizontal Control Network

 Low order horizontal
 Low order horizontal control network consists of points
control network – a set
being a development of primary horizontal control
of geodetic points
networks, such as:
created for the purpose
• previous class II – standard deviation; σp ≤ ± 0.05 m ;
of:
• previous class III – standard deviation; σp ≤ ± 0.10 m ;
• newly set up points that their standard deviation;
• tying and adjustment of
σp ≤ ± 0.07 m 1234
minor control networks;
Set up is done by static GNSS, observations within ASG-
EUPOS and conventional methods such as, intersections or 1234
• tying and adjustment of
traversing.
photogrametric images
• They, in turn, are the tie points for minor horizontal
and digital terrain models
control network .
17
(DTM); 18

Horizontal Control Network…con’t National Vertical Control Networks

 Primary fundamental vertical control network- (class 1):
• principal stations of the national EUVN (62 points tied
 Minor horizontal control networks are used for:
into european EUVN (EUVS07), GPS surveyed in 1997-
1999);
• referencing situation (detail) survey;
 Primary base vertical control network- (class 2):
• setting out of projects;
• points of development (densification) of the national
• implementation survey during service of investments;
EUVN;
• research and determination of shifts and
• points of levelling network (benchmarks), surveyed by
deformations of engineering structures as well as their
precise direct levelling technique with accuracy
ground basis.
≤ ± 1.5 mm/1 km
 Low order vertical control network- (class 3):
• ≤ ± 4 mm/1 km ; σh ≤ ± 0.01 m
 Minor order vertical control network:
19
• ≤ ± 20 mm/1 km ; σh ≤ ± 0.02 m 20

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Class I & II Horizontal Control Networks Class I, II & III Horizontal Control Networks
primary control point

low order control point

• Low order control point

• Primary control point

Angular-distance network - developed by triangulation

method.
Class I - 1 control point per 20,000 km2 Angular-distance network and traversing
Class II - 1 control point per 50 km2 Class III – 1 control point per 20 ha (urban areas)
21 1 control point per 120 ha (rural and forest areas)
22

Traverse Method Survey Line Method

Traverse side
Survey line
Traverse point

Auxilary point

It can be used when establishing minor control network, but:

• max. length of survey line:
Used during establishing low order control network as well as • 400 m - urban areas;
futher densification of them. • 600 m - rural and forest areas;
23 24

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Control Network - Example Control Network - Example

32 km

Control Network for

Munich Airport (courtesy
Primary Control Network for English Channel Tunnel.
Leica Geosystems). 25 26

Thank you !

27