7

Management of Working Capital

UNIT – I : MEANING, CONCEPT AND POLICIES OF WORKING CAPITAL

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
• Discuss in detail about working capital management, its meanings and its significance
to any business/firm.
• Understand the concept of operating cycle and the estimation of working capital needs.
• Understand the need for a business to invest in current assets.
• Know why it is important to manage efficiently the current assets and current liabilities?
• Discuss the financing of working capital.

1.1 Introduction
Working Capital Management involves managing the balance between firm’s short-term assets
and its short-term liabilities. The goal of working capital management is to ensure that the firm
is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient cash flow to satisfy both maturing
short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. The interaction between current assets
and current liabilities is, therefore, the main theme of the theory of working capital
management.
There are many aspects of working capital management which makes it important function of
financial management.
¾ Time: Working capital management requires much of the finance manager’s time.
¾ Investment: Working capital represents a large portion of the total investment in assets.
¾ Credibility: Working capital management has great significance for all firms but it is very
critical for small firms.
¾ Growth: The need for working capital is directly related to the firm’s growth.
1.2 Meaning and Concept of Working Capital
The concept of working capital can also be explained through two angles.

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 7.2 Financial Management

Working Capital
Management

OR
Value Time

Gross Working Net Working Permanent Temporary

Capital Capital

(a) Value
From the value point of view, Working Capital can be defined as Gross Working Capital or Net
Working Capital.
Gross working capital refers to the firm’s investment in current assets. Current assets are
those assets which can be converted into cash within an accounting year. Current Assets
include: Stocks of raw materials, Work-in-progress, Finished goods, Trade debtors,
Prepayments, Cash balances etc.
Net working capital refers to the difference between current assets and current liabilities.
Current liabilities are those claims of outsiders which are expected to mature for payment
within an accounting year. Current Liabilities include: Trade creditors, Accruals, Taxation
payable, Bills Payables, Outstanding expenses, Dividends payable, short term loans.
A positive working capital means that the company is able to payoff its short-term liabilities. A
negative working capital means that the company currently is unable to meet its short-term
liabilities.
(b) Time
From the point of view of time, the term working capital can be divided into two categories viz.,
Permanent and temporary.
Permanent working capital refers to the hard core working capital. It is that minimum level of
investment in the current assets that is carried by the business at all times to carry out
minimum level of its activities.
Temporary working capital refers to that part of total working capital, which is required by a
business over and above permanent working capital. It is also called variable working capital.
Since the volume of temporary working capital keeps on fluctuating from time to time
according to the business activities it may be financed from short-term sources.
The following diagrams shows Permanent and Temporary or Fluctuating or variable working
capital:

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 Management of Working Capital 7.3

Both kinds of working capital i.e. permanent and fluctuating (temporary) are necessary to
facilitate production and sales through the operating cycle.
1.2.1 Importance of Adequate Working Capital
Management of working capital is an essential task of the finance manager. He has to ensure
that the amount of working capital available with his concern is neither too large nor too small
for its requirements.
A large amount of working capital would mean that the company has idle funds. Since funds
have a cost, the company has to pay huge amount as interest on such funds.
If the firm has inadequate working capital, such firm runs the risk of insolvency. Paucity of
working capital may lead to a situation where the firm may not be able to meet its liabilities
The various studies conducted by the Bureau of Public Enterprises have shown that one of the
reason for the poor performance of public sector undertakings in our country has been the
large amount of funds locked up in working capital This results in over capitalization. Over
capitalization implies that a company has too large funds for its requirements, resulting in a
low rate of return a situation which implies a less than optimal use of resources. A firm has,
therefore, to be very careful in estimating its working capital requirements.
Maintaining adequate working capital is not just important in the short-term. Sufficient liquidity
must be maintained in order to ensure the survival of the business in the long-term as well.
When business make investment decisions they must not only consider the financial outlay
involved with acquiring the new machine or the new building, etc., but must also take account
of the additional current assets that are usually required with any expansion of activity. For
e.g.:-

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 7.4 Financial Management

¾ Increased production leads to hold additional stocks of raw materials and work in progress.
¾ An increased sale usually means that the level of debtors will increase.
¾ A general increase in the firm’s scale of operations tends to imply a need for greater
levels of working capital.
A question then arises what is an optimum amount of working capital for a firm? We can say
that a firm should neither have too high an amount of working capital nor should the same be
too low. It is the job of the finance manager to estimate the requirements of working capital
carefully and determine the optimum level of investment in working capital.
1.2.2 Optimum Working Capital
If a company’s current assets do not exceed its current liabilities, then it may run into trouble
with creditors that want their money quickly.
Current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) (along with acid test ratio to supplement it) has
traditionally been considered the best indicator of the working capital situation.
It is understood that a current ratio of 2 (two) for a manufacturing firm implies that the firm has
an optimum amount of working capital. This is supplemented by Acid Test Ratio (Quick
assets/Current liabilities) which should be at least 1 (one). Thus it is considered that there is a
comfortable liquidity position if liquid current assets are equal to current liabilities.
Bankers, financial institutions, financial analysts, investors and other people interested in
financial statements have, for years, considered the current ratio at, ‘two’ and the acid test
ratio at, ‘one’ as indicators of a good working capital situation. As a thumb rule, this may be
quite adequate.
However, it should be remembered that optimum working capital can be determined only with
reference to the particular circumstances of a specific situation. Thus, in a company where
the inventories are easily saleable and the sundry debtors are as good as liquid cash, the
current ratio may be lower than 2 and yet firm may be sound.
In nutshell, a firm should have adequate working capital to run its business operations. Both
excessive as well as inadequate working capital positions are dangerous.
1.3 Determinants of Working Capital
Working capital management is concerned with:-
a) Maintaining adequate working capital (management of the level of individual current
assets and the current liabilities) AND
b) Financing of the working capital.
For the point a) above, a Finance Manager needs to plan and compute the working capital
requirement for its business. And once the requirement has been computed he needs to
ensure that it is financed properly. This whole exercise is nothing but Working Capital
Management.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.5

Sound financial and statistical techniques, supported by judgment should be used to predict
the quantum of working capital required at different times. Some of the items/factors which
need to be considered while planning for working capital requirement are:-
¾ Cash – Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet day to day
expenses, but reduces cash holding costs.
¾ Inventory – Identify the level of inventory which allows for uninterrupted production but
reduces the investment in raw materials and hence increases cash flow; The techniques
like Just In Time (JIT) and Economic order quantity (EOQ) are used for this.
¾ Debtors – Identify the appropriate credit policy, i.e., credit terms which will attract
customers, such that any impact on cash flows and the cash conversion cycle will be
offset by increased revenue and hence Return on Capital (or vice versa). The tools like
Discounts and allowances are used for this.
¾ Short term financing options – Inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by the
supplier; dependent on the cash conversion cycle, it may however, be necessary to
utilize a bank loan (or overdraft), or to “convert debtors to cash” through “factoring” in
order to finance working capital requirements.
¾ Nature of Business - For e.g. in a business of restaurant, most of the sales are in Cash.
Therefore need for working capital is very less.
¾ Market and demand conditions - For e.g if an item demand far exceeds its production,
the working capital requirement would be less as investment in finished good inventory
would be very less.
¾ Technology and manufacturing Policies - For e.g. in some businesses the demand for
goods is seasonal, in that case a business may follow a policy for steady production
through out over the whole year or instead may choose policy of production only during
the demand season.
¾ Operating efficiency – A company can reduce the working capital requirement by
eliminating waste, improving coordination etc.
¾ Price Level Changes – For e.g. rising prices necessitate the use of more funds for
maintaining an existing level of activity. For the same level of current assets, higher cash
outlays are required. Therefore the effect of rising prices is that a higher amount of
working capital is required.
1.4 Issues in the Working Capital Management
Working capital management entails the control and monitoring of all components of working
capital i.e. cash, marketable securities, debtors (receivables) and stocks (inventories) and
creditors (payables).
Finance manager has to pay particular attention to the levels of current assets and their
financing. To decide the levels and financing of current assets, the risk return trade off must
be taken into account.

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 7.6 Financial Management

1.4.1 Current Assets to Fixed Assets Ratio

The finance manager is required to determine the optimum level of current assets so that the
shareholders value is maximized.
A firm needs fixed and current assets to support a particular level of output.
As the firm’s output and sales increases, the need for current assets also increases. Generally,
current assets do not increase in direct proportion to output, current assets may increase at a
decreasing rate with output. As the output increases, the firm starts using its current asset more
efficiently.
The level of the current assets can be measured by creating a relationship between current assets
and fixed assets. Dividing current assets by fixed assets gives current assets/fixed assets ratio.
Assuming a constant level of fixed assets, a higher current assets/fixed assets ratio indicates
a conservative current assets policy and a lower current assets/fixed assets ratio means an
aggressive current assets policy assuming all factors to be constant.
A conservative policy implies greater liquidity and lower risk whereas an aggressive policy
indicates higher risk and poor liquidity. Moderate current assets policy will fall in the middle of
conservative and aggressive policies. The current assets policy of most of the firms may fall
between these two extreme policies.
The following diagram shows alternative current assets policies:

1.4.2 Liquidity versus Profitability

Risk return trade off − A firm may follow a conservative, aggressive or moderate policy as
discussed above. However, these policies involve risk, return trade off.
A conservative policy means lower return and risk. While an aggressive policy produces
higher return and risk.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.7

The two important aims of the working capital management are profitability and solvency.
A liquid firm has less risk of insolvency that is, it will hardly experience a cash shortage or a
stock out situation. However, there is a cost associated with maintaining a sound liquidity
position. However, to have higher profitability the firm may have to sacrifice solvency and
maintain a relatively low level of current assets. This will improve firm’s profitability as fewer
funds will be tied up in idle current assets, but its solvency would be threatened and exposed
to greater risk of cash shortage and stock outs.
The following illustration explains the risk-return trade off of various working capital
management policies, viz., conservative, aggressive and moderate.
Illustration 1 : A firm has the following data for the year ending 31st March, 2011:
`
Sales (1,00,000 @ ` 20/-) 20,00,000
Earning before Interest and Taxes 2,00,000
Fixed Assets 5,00,000
The three possible current assets holdings of the firm are ` 5,00,000/-, ` 4,00,000/- and
` 3,00,000. It is assumed that fixed assets level is constant and profits do not vary with
current assets levels. The effect of the three alternative current assets policies is as follows:
Effect of Alternative Working Capital Policies
(Amount in ` )
Working Capital Policy Conservative Moderate Aggressive
Sales 20,00,000 20,00,000 20,00,000
Earnings before Interest and Taxes 2,00,000 2,00,000 2,00,000
(EBIT)
Current Assets 5,00,000 4,00,000 3,00,000
Fixed Assets 5,00,000 5,00,000 5,00,000
Total Assets 10,00,000 9,00,000 8,00,000
Return on Total Assets (EBIT/Total 20% 22.22% 25%
Assets)
Current Assets/Fixed Assets 1.00 0.80 0.60
The aforesaid calculations show that the conservative policy provides greater liquidity
(solvency) to the firm, but lower return on total assets. On the other hand, the aggressive
policy gives higher return, but low liquidity and thus is very risky. The moderate policy
generates return higher than Conservative policy but lower than aggressive policy. This is
less risky than Aggressive policy but more risky than conservative policy.

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 7.8 Financial Management

In determining the optimum level of current assets, the firm should balance the profitability –
Solvency tangle by minimizing total costs. Cost of liquidity and cost of illiquidity.
1.5 Estimating Working Capital Needs
Operating cycle is one of the most reliable methods of Computation of Working Capital.
However, other methods like ratio of sales and ratio of fixed investment may also be used to
determine the Working Capital requirements. These methods are briefly explained as follows:
(i) Current assets holding period: To estimate working capital needs based on the
average holding period of current assets and relating them to costs based on the
company’s experience in the previous year. This method is essentially based on the
Operating Cycle Concept.
(ii) Ratio of sales: To estimate working capital needs as a ratio of sales on the assumption
that current assets change with changes in sales.
(iii) Ratio of fixed investments: To estimate Working Capital requirements as a percentage
of fixed investments.
A number of factors will, however, be impacting the choice of method of estimating Working
Capital. Factors such as seasonal fluctuations, accurate sales forecast, investment cost and
variability in sales price would generally be considered. The production cycle and credit and
collection policies of the firm will have an impact on Working Capital requirements. Therefore,
they should be given due weightage in projecting Working Capital requirements.
1.6 Operating or Working Capital Cycle
A useful tool for managing working capital is the operating cycle.
The operating cycle analyzes the accounts receivable, inventory and accounts payable cycles
in terms of number of days. For example:
¾ Accounts receivable are analyzed by the average number of days it takes to collect an account.
¾ Inventory is analyzed by the average number of days it takes to turn over the sale of a
product (from the point it comes in the store to the point it is converted to cash or an account
receivable).
¾ Accounts payable are analyzed by the average number of days it takes to pay a supplier
invoice.
Operating/Working Capital Cycle Definition
Working Capital cycle indicates the length of time between a company’s paying for materials,
entering into stock and receiving the cash from sales of finished goods. It can be determined
by adding the number of days required for each stage in the cycle. For example, a company
holds raw materials on an average for 60 days, it gets credit from the supplier for 15 days,
production process needs 15 days, finished goods are held for 30 days and 30 days credit is

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 Management of Working Capital 7.9

extended to debtors. The total of all these, 120 days, i.e., 60 – 15 + 15 + 30 + 30 days is the
total working capital cycle.
Working Capital Cycle
CASH

DEBTORS RAW MATERIAL LABOUR

OVERHEAD

STOCK WIP

Most businesses cannot finance the operating cycle (accounts receivable days + inventory
days) with accounts payable financing alone. Consequently, working capital financing is
needed. This shortfall is typically covered by the net profits generated internally or by
externally borrowed funds or by a combination of the two.
The faster a business expands the more cash it will need for working capital and investment.
The cheapest and best sources of cash exist as working capital right within business. Good
management of working capital will generate cash which will help improve profits and reduce
risks. Bear in mind that the cost of providing credit to customers and holding stocks can
represent a substantial proportion of a firm’s total profits.
Each component of working capital (namely inventory, receivables and payables) has two
dimensions ……TIME ………and MONEY, when it comes to managing working capital then
time is money. If you can get money to move faster around the cycle (e.g. collect monies due
from debtors more quickly) or reduce the amount of money tied up (e.g. reduce inventory
levels relative to sales), the business will generate more cash or it will need to borrow less
money to fund working capital. Similarly, if you can negotiate improved terms with suppliers
e.g. get longer credit or an increased credit limit; you are effectively creating free finance to
help fund future sales.
If you……………… Then ………………….
Collect receivables (debtors) faster You release cash from the cycle
Collect receivables (debtors) slower Your receivables soak up cash.
Get better credit (in terms of duration or You increase your cash resources.
amount) from suppliers.
Shift inventory (stocks) faster You free up cash.
Move inventory (stocks) slower. You consume more cash.
The determination of operating capital cycle helps in the forecast, control and management of
working capital. The length of operating cycle is the indicator of performance of management.
The net operating cycle represents the time interval for which the firm has to negotiate for

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 7.10 Financial Management

Working Capital from its Bankers. It enables to determine accurately the amount of working
capital needed for the continuous operation of business activities.
The duration of working capital cycle may vary depending on the nature of the business.
In the form of an equation, the operating cycle process can be expressed as follows:
Operating Cycle = R+W+F+D–C
Where,
R = Raw material storage period
W= Work-in-progress holding period
F = Finished goods storage period
D= Debtors collection period.
C= Credit period availed.
The various components of operating cycle may be calculated as shown below:
Average stock of raw material
(1) Raw material storage period =
Average cost of raw material consumption per day
Average work - in - progress inventory
(2) Work - in - progress holding period =
Average cost of production per day
Average stock of finished goods
(3) Finished goods storage period =
Average cost of goods sold per day
Average book debts
(4) Debtors collection period =
Average Credit Sales per day
Average trade creditors
(5) Credit period availed =
Average credit purchases per day

1.6.1 Working Capital Based on Operating Cycle

One of the methods for forecasting working capital requirement is based on the concept of
operating cycle. The calculation of operating cycle and the formula for estimating working
capital on its basis has been demonstrated with the help of following illustration:
Illustration 2 : From the following information of XYZ Ltd., you are required to calculate :
(a) Net operating cycle period.
(b) Number of operating cycles in a year.
`
(i) Raw material inventory consumed during the year 6,00,000
(ii) Average stock of raw material 50,000

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 Management of Working Capital 7.11

(iii) Work-in-progress inventory 5,00,000

(iv) Average work-in-progress inventory 30,000
(v) Finished goods inventory 8,00,000
(vi) Average finished goods stock held 40,000
(vii) Average collection period from debtors 45 days
(viii) Average credit period availed 30 days
(ix) No. of days in a year 360 days
Solution
Calculation of Net Operating Cycle period of XYZ Ltd.
Days
Raw material storage period: (a) 30
⎛ Average stock of raw material ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Average cost of raw material consumption per day ⎠
(` 50,000 / 1667*)
*(` 6,00,000 / 360 days)
W.I.P. holding period : (b) 22
⎛ Average work − in − progress inventory ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Average cost of production per day ⎠
` 30,000 / 1,388)**
**(` 5,00,000 / 360 days)
Finished goods storage period : (c) 18
⎛ Average stock of finished goods ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Average cost of goods sold per day ⎠
(` 40,000 / 2,222)***
***(` 8,00,000 / 360 days)
Debtors collection period: (d) 45
Total operating cycle period: 115
[(a) + (b) + (c) + (d)]
Less: Average credit period availed 30
(i) Net operating cycle period 85
(ii) Number of operating cycles in a year 4.2
(360 days / 85 days)

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 7.12 Financial Management

1.6.2 Estimate of amount of different components of Current Assets and Current

Liabilities
The various constituents of current assets and current liabilities have a direct bearing on the
computation of working capital and the operating cycle. The holding period of various
constituents of Current Assets and Current Liabilities cycle may either contract or expand the
net operating cycle period.
Shorter the operating cycle period, lower will be the requirement of working capital and vice-versa.
Estimation of Current Assets
The estimates of various components of working capital may be made as follows:
(i) Raw materials inventory: The funds to be invested in raw materials inventory may be
estimated on the basis of production budget, the estimated cost per unit and average holding
period of raw material inventory by using the following formula:
⎧ Estimated production × Estimated cost of raw material ⎫
⎪⎪ (in units) per unit ⎪⎪ Average raw material holding period
⎨ ⎬×
⎪ 12 months / 360 days ⎪ (in months / in days)
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
Note: 360 days in a year are generally assumed to facilitate calculation.
(ii) Work-in-progress inventory: The funds to be invested in work-in-progress can be
estimated by the following formula:
⎧ Estimated production × Estimated work − in − process ⎫
⎪⎪ (in units) cost per unit ⎪⎪ Average holding period of
⎨ ⎬ ×
⎪ 12 months / 360 days ⎪ W.I.P. (months / days) )
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
(iii) Finished Goods: The funds to be invested in finished goods inventory can be estimated
with the help of following formula:
⎧ Estimated production × Cost of production (Per unit ⎫
⎪⎪ (in units) excluding depreciation ⎪⎪ Average holding period of finished
⎨ ⎬×
⎪ 12 months / 360 days ⎪ goods inventory (months / days)
⎩⎪ ⎭⎪
(iv) Debtors: Funds to be invested in trade debtors may be estimated with the help of
following formula:
⎧ Estimated credit sales × Cost of sales (Per unit ⎫
⎪⎪ ( in units) excluding depreciation ⎪⎪ Average debtors collection
⎨ ⎬×
⎪ 12 months/360 days ⎪ period (months/days)
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭

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 Management of Working Capital 7.13

(v) Minimum desired Cash and Bank balances to be maintained by the firm has to be added
in the current assets for the computation of working capital.
Estimation of Current Liabilities
Current liabilities generally affect computation of working capital. Hence, the amount of
working capital is lowered to the extent of current liabilities (other than bank credit) arising in
the normal course of business. The important current liabilities like trade creditors, wages and
overheads can be estimated as follows:
(i) Trade creditors:
⎧ Estimated yearly × Raw material requirements ⎫
⎪⎪ production (in units) per unit ⎪⎪ Credit period granted by
⎨ ⎬×
⎪ 12 months/360 days ⎪ suppliers (months/days)
⎩⎪ ⎭⎪
(ii) Direct Wages:
⎧ Estimated production × Direct labour cost ⎫
⎪⎪ (in units) per unit ⎪⎪ Average time lag in payment
⎨ ⎬x
⎪ 12 months/360 days ⎪ of wages (months/days)
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭

(iii) Overheads (other than depreciation and amortization):

⎧ Estimatd yearly × Overhead cost ⎫
⎪⎪ production (in units) per unit ⎪⎪ Average time lag in payment
⎨ ⎬×
⎪ 12 months / 360 days ⎪ of overheads (months / days)
⎩⎪ ⎭⎪
Note: The amount of overheads may be separately calculated for different types of overheads.
In the case of selling overheads, the relevant item would be sales volume instead of
production volume.
The following illustration shows the process of working capital estimation:
Illustration 3 : On 1st January, the Managing Director of Naureen Ltd. wishes to know the
amount of working capital that will be required during the year. From the following information
prepare the working capital requirements forecast. Production during the previous year was
60,000 units. It is planned that this level of activity would be maintained during the present
year. The expected ratios of the cost to selling prices are Raw materials 60%, Direct wages
10% and Overheads 20%. Raw materials are expected to remain in store for an average of 2
months before issue to production. Each unit is expected to be in process for one month, the
raw materials being fed into the pipeline immediately and the labour and overhead costs
accruing evenly during the month. Finished goods will stay in the warehouse awaiting

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 7.14 Financial Management

dispatch to customers for approximately 3 months. Credit allowed by creditors is 2 months

from the date of delivery of raw material. Credit allowed to debtors is 3 months from the date
of dispatch. Selling price is ` 5 per unit. There is a regular production and sales cycle.
Wages and overheads are paid on the 1st of each month for the previous month. The company
normally keeps cash in hand to the extent of ` 20,000.
Solution
Working Notes:
1. Raw material inventory: The cost of materials for the whole year is 60% of the Sales
value.
60
Hence it is 60,000 units x ` 5 x = ` 1,80,000 . The monthly consumption of raw
100
material would be ` 15,000. Raw material requirements would be for two months; hence
raw materials in stock would be ` 30,000.
2. Debtors: The average sales would be ` 25,000 p.m. Therefore, a sum of ` 75,000/-
would be the amount of sundry debtors.
3. Work in process: (Students may give special attention to this point). It is stated that
each unit of production is expected to be in process for one month).
`
(a) Raw materials in work-in-process (being one 15,000
month’s raw material requirements)
(b) Labour costs in work-in-process 1,250
(It is stated that it accrues evenly during the month.
Thus, on the first day of each month it would be zero
and on the last day of month the work-in-process
would include one month’s labour costs. On an
average therefore, it would be equivalent to ½ of the
month’s labour costs)
(c) Overheads _2,500
(For ½ month as explained above) Total work-in- 18,750
process
4. Finished goods inventory:
(3 month’s costs of production) 45,000
Raw materials 7,500
Labour 15,000
Overheads 67,500

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 Management of Working Capital 7.15

5. Creditors: Suppliers allow a two months’ credit period. Hence, the average amount of
creditors would be ` 30,000 being two months’ purchase of raw materials.
6. Direct Wages payable: The direct wages for the whole year is 60,000 units × ` 5 x
10% = ` 30,000. The monthly direct wages would be ` 2,500 (` 30,000 ÷12). Hence,
wages payable would be ` 2,500.
7. Overheads Payable: The overheads for the whole year is 60,000 units × ` 5 x 20% = `
60,000. The monthly overheads will be ` 5,000 (` 60,000 ÷ 12). Hence overheads
payable would be ` 5,000 p.m.
Statement of Working Capital required:
` `
Current Assets
Raw materials inventory (Refer to working note 1) 30,000
Debtors (Refer to working note 2) 75,000
Working–in-process (Refer to working note 3) 18,750
Finished goods inventory (Refer to working note 4) 67,500
Cash 20,000 2,11,250
Current Liabilities
Creditors (Refer to working note 5) 30,000
Direct wages payable (Refer to working note 6) 2,500
Overheads payable (Refer to working note 7) 5,000 37,500
Estimated working capital requirements 1,73,750

1.6.3 Working capital requirement estimation based on cash cost:

We have already seen that working capital is the difference between current assets and
current liabilities.
To estimate requirements of working capital, we have to forecast the amount required for each
item of current assets and current liabilities.
In practice another approach may also be useful in estimating working capital requirements.
This approach is based on the fact that in the case of current assets, like sundry debtors and
finished goods, etc., the exact amount of funds blocked is less than the amount of such
current assets. For example:
¾ If we have sundry debtors worth ` 1 lakh and our cost of production is ` 75,000, the
actual amount of funds blocked in sundry debtors is ` 75,000 the cost of sundry debtors,
the rest (` 25,000) is profit.

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 7.16 Financial Management

¾ Again some of the cost items also are non-cash costs; depreciation is a non-cash cost
item. Suppose out of ` 75,000, ` 5,000 is depreciation; then it is obvious that the actual
funds blocked in terms of sundry debtors totaling ` 1 lakh is only ` 70,000. In other
words, ` 70,000 is the amount of funds required to finance sundry debtors worth ` 1
lakh.
¾ Similarly, in the case of finished goods which are valued at cost, non-cash costs may be
excluded to work out the amount of funds blocked.
Many experts, therefore, calculate the working capital requirements by working out the cash
costs of finished goods and sundry debtors. Under this approach, the debtors are calculated
not as a percentage of sales value but as a percentage of cash costs. Similarly, finished
goods are valued according to cash costs.
Illustration 4 : The following annual figures relate to XYZ Co.,
`
Sales (at two months’ credit) 36,00,000
Materials consumed (suppliers extend two months’ credit) 9,00,000
Wages paid (monthly in arrear) 7,20,000
Manufacturing expenses outstanding at the end of the year 80,000
(Cash expenses are paid one month in arrear)
Total administrative expenses, paid as above 2,40,000
Sales promotion expenses, paid quarterly in advance 1,20,000
The company sells its products on gross profit of 25% counting depreciation as part of the cost
of production. It keeps one months’ stock each of raw materials and finished goods, and a
cash balance of ` 1,00,000.
Assuming a 20% safety margin, work out the working capital requirements of the company on
cash cost basis. Ignore work-in-process.
Solution
Statement of Working Capital requirements (cash cost basis)
A. Current Asset ` ` .
Materials (` 9,00,000 ÷12) 75,000
Finished Goods (` 25,80,000 ÷12) 2,15,000
Debtors (` 29,40,000÷6) 4,90,000
Cash 1,00,000
Prepaid expenses (Sales promotion) (` 1,20,000÷4) 30,000 9,10,000
B. Current Liabilities:
Creditors for materials (` 9,00,000÷6) 1,50,000
Wages outstanding (` 7,20,000÷ 12) 60,000

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 Management of Working Capital 7.17

Manufacturing expenses 80,000

Administrative expenses (` 2,40,000÷12) 20,000 3,10,000
Net working capital (A-B) 6,00,000
Add safety margin 20% 1,20,000
Total working capital requirements 7,20,000
Working Notes:
(i) Computation of Annual Cash cost of Production `
Material consumed 9,00,000
Wages 7,20,000
Manufacturing expenses (` 80,000 x 12) _9,60,000
Total cash cost of production 25,80,000
(ii) Computation of Annual Cash cost of sales: `
Cash cost of production as in (i) above 25,80,000
Administrative Expenses 2,40,000
Sales promotion expenses _1,20,000
Total cash cost of sales 29,40,000
Illustration 5 : PQ Ltd., a company newly commencing business in 2010 has the under-
mentioned projected Profit and Loss Account:
` `
Sales 2,10,000
Cost of goods sold 1,53,000
Gross Profit 57,000
Administrative Expenses 14,000
Selling Expenses 13,000 27,000
Profit before tax 30,000
Provision for taxation 10,000
Profit after tax 20,000
The cost of goods sold has been arrived at as under:
Materials used 84,000
Wages and manufacturing Expenses 62,500
Depreciation _23,500
1,70,000
Less: Stock of Finished goods
(10% of goods produced not yet sold) __17,000
1,53,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 7.18 Financial Management

The figure given above relate only to finished goods and not to work-in-progress. Goods
equal to 15% of the year’s production (in terms of physical units) will be in process on the
average requiring full materials but only 40% of the other expenses. The company believes in
keeping materials equal to two months’ consumption in stock.
Average time-lag in payment of all expenses is I month. Suppliers of materials will extend 1-
1/2 months credit. Sales will be 20% for cash and the rest at two months’ credit. 70% of the
Income tax will be paid in advance in quarterly instalments. The company wishes to keep `
8,000 in cash. 10% has to be added to the estimated figure for unforeseen contingencies.
Prepare an estimate of working capital.
Note: All workings should form part of the answer.
Solution

Net Working Capital Estimate of a Company

(A) Current assets:
(i) Raw material in stock = (` 84000 × 2/12) ` 14000
(ii) Work-in-progress:
(a) Raw material (` 84,000 × 15/100) 12600
(b) Wages and manufacturing expenses = (` 62500 × 0.4 × 15/100) 3750
(iii) Stock of finished goods: [` 17000 – ` 2350 (0.10 × ` 23500, depreciation)] 14650
(iv) Debtors
(a) Cost of goods sold ` 153,000
Less: Depreciation (` 2,35,000 × 0.9) 21150
131850
(b) Administrative expenses 14000
(c) Selling expenses 13000
Total 15,88,500
Credit sales (4/5 of ` 15,88,500) = ` 12,70,800 (12,70,800 × 2/12) 21180
(v) Cash required 8000
Total investment in current assets 74180
(B) Current liabilities:
(i) Average time-lag in payment of expenses:
(a) Wages and manufacturing expenses: 62500
(b) Administrative expenses 14000
(c) Selling expenses 13000
89500/12 7458
(ii) Creditors (` 84000 × 3/24) 10500
Total current liabilities 17958

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 Management of Working Capital 7.19

(C) Net working capital: Current assets – Current liabilities (A – B) 56222

Add: 10 per cent contingencies 5622
Net working capital required 61844
Assumptions and Working Notes
(ii) Depreciation is not a cash expense and, therefore, excluded from cost of goods sold
for the purpose of determining work-in-progress, finished goods and investment in
debtors.
(ii) Since profit is not taken into consideration in our calculation as a source of working
capital, income tax has been excluded as it is to be paid out of profits.
Illustration 6 : Shellcal Limited sells goods at a uniform rate of gross profit of 20% on sales
including depreciation as part of cost of production. Its annual figures are as under:
(` )
Sales (At 2 months’ credit) 24,00,000
Materials consumed (Suppliers credit 2 months) 6,00,000
Wages paid (Monthly at the beginning of the subsequent month) 4,80,000
Manufacturing expenses (Cash expenses are paid – one month in arrear) 6,00,000
Administration expenses (Cash expenses are paid – one month in arrear) 1,50,000
Sales promotion expenses (Paid quarterly in advance) 75,000
The company keeps one month stock each of raw materials and finished goods. A minimum
cash balance of ` 80,000 is always kept. The company wants to adopt a 10% safety margin
in the maintenance of working capital. The company has no work-in-progress.
Find out the requirements of working capital of the company on cash cost basis.
Solution
1. Total Manufacturing expenses
(` )
Sales 24,00,000
Less: Gross profit 20% 4,80,000
Manufacturing cost 19,20,000
Less: Material 6,00,000
Wages 4,80,000 10,80,000
Manufacturing expenses 8,40,000
2. Cash manufacturing expenses 6,00,000
3. Depreciation (` 8,40,000 – ` 6,00,000) 2,40,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 7.20 Financial Management

4. Cost of Sales (Cash Expenses)

(` )
Manufacturing Cost 19,20,000
Less: Depreciation 2,40,000
Cash cost of manufacture 16,80,000
Add: Administrative expenses 1,50,000
Sales promotion expenses 75,000
Total Cash Cost 19,05,000
5. Cash in Hand 80,000
Computation of Working Capital
(` )
Current Assets
Debtors (` 19,05,000/6) 3,17,500
Sales promotion expenses prepaid (` 75,000/4) 18,750
Raw materials (` 6,00,000/12) 50,000
Finished goods (` 16,80,000/12) 1,40,000
Cash in hand 80,000
Total (A) 6,06,250
Current liabilities
Sundry creditors (` 6,00,000/6) 1,00,000
Manufacturing expenses (` 6,00,000/12) 50,000
Administrative expenses (` 1,50,000/12) 12,500
Wages due (` 4,80,000/12) 40,000
Total (B) 2,02,500
Working Capital (A) - (B) 4,03,750
Add: 10% Safety margin 40,375
Working capital requirement on cash cost basis 4,44,125
Illustration 7: M.A. Limited is commencing a new project for manufacture of a plastic
component. The following cost information has been ascertained for annual production of
12,000 units which is the full capacity:
Costs per unit (` )
Materials 40
Direct labour and variable expenses 20
Fixed manufacturing expenses 6

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 Management of Working Capital 7.21

Depreciation 10
Fixed administration expenses _4
80
The selling price per unit is expected to be ` 96 and the selling expenses ` 5 per unit. 80%
of which is variable.
In the first two years of operations, production and sales are expected to be as follows:
Year Production Sales
(No. of units) (No.of units)
1 6,000 5,000
2. 9,000 8,500
To assess the working capital requirements, the following additional information is available:
(a) Stock of materials 2.25 months’ average consumption
(b) Work-in-process Nil
(c) Debtors 1 month’s average sales.
(d) Cash balance ` 10,000
(e) Creditors for supply of materials 1 month’s average purchase during the year.
(f) Creditors for expenses 1 month’s average of all expenses during the
year.
Prepare, for the two years:
(i) A projected statement of Profit/Loss (Ignoring taxation); and
(ii) A projected statement of working capital requirements.
Solution
(i) M.A. Limited
Projected Statement of Profit / Loss
(Ignoring Taxation)
Year 1 Year 2
Production (Units) 6,000 9,000
Sales (Units) 5,000 8,500
` `
Sales revenue @ ` 96 per unit: (A) 4,80,000 8,16,000
Cost of production:
Materials @ ` 40 per unit 2,40,000 3,60,000
Direct labour and variable expenses @ ` 20 per unit 1,20,000 1,80,000
Fixed manufacturing expenses

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 7.22 Financial Management

(Production Capacity: 12,000 units @ ` 6) 72,000 72,000

Depreciation
(Production Capacity : 12,000 units @ ` 10) 1,20,000 1,20,000
Fixed administration expenses
(Production Capacity : 12,000 units @ ` 4) 48,000 48,000
Total costs of production _6,00,000 7,80,000
Add: Opening stock of finished goods 1,00,000
(Year 1 : Nil; Year 2 : 1,000 units)
Cost of goods available 6,00,000 8,80,000
(Year 1: 6,000 units; Year 2: 10,000 units)
Less: Closing stock of finished goods at average cost 1,00,000 1,32,000
(year 1: 1000 units, year 2 : 1500 units)
Cost of goods sold 5,00,000 7,48,000
Add: Selling expenses – Variable @ 4 per unit 20,000 34,000
Fixed (12,000 × Re.1) 12,000 12,000
Cost of Sales : (B) 5,32,000 7,94,000
Profit (+) / Loss (-): (A-B) (-) 52,000 (+) 22,000
Working Notes:
1. Calculation of creditors for supply of materials: Year 1 Year 2
` `
Materials consumed during the year 2,40,000 3,60,000
Add: Closing stock (2.25 month’s average consumption) 45,000 67,500
2,85,000 4,27,500
Less: Opening Stock 45,000
Purchases during the year 2,85,000 3,82,500
Average purchases per month (Creditors) 23,750 31,875
2. Creditors for expenses: Year 1 Year 2
` `
Total direct labour, manufacturing, administration and
selling expenses for the year 2,72,000 3,46,000
Average per month 22,667 28,833
(ii) Projected statement of working capital requirements
Year 1 Year 2
` `
Current Assets:
Stock of materials (2.25 month’s average consumption) 45,000 67,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 Management of Working Capital 7.23

Finished goods 1,00,000 1,32,000

Debtors (1 month’s average sales) 40,000 68,000
Cash _10,000 _10,000
Total Current Assets (A) 1,95,000 2,77,500
Current Liabilities:
Creditors for supply of materials 23,750 31,875
Refer to working note 1)
Creditors for expenses 22,667 28,833
(Refer to working note 2)
Total Current Liabilities: (B) 46,417 60,708
Estimated Working Capital Requirements: (A-B) 1,48,583 2,16,792
Projected Statement of Working Capital Requirement (Cash Cost Basis)
Year 1 Year 2
(A) Current Assets
(i) Stock of RM
(6000 units × ` 40 × 2.25/12) 45,000 67,500
(9000 units × ` 40 × 2.25 /12)
(ii) Finished Goods : 80,000 1,11,000
Cash Cost of Production Year 1 Year 2
Materials @ ` 40 per unit 2,40,000 3,60,000
Labour & Variable Expenses
@ ` 20 per unit 1,20,000 1,80,000
Total Fixed & Adm. Expenses
(12,000 with @ ` 10) 1,20,000 1,20,000
Current Cost (Cash) 4,80,000 6,60,000
Add : Opening Stock at Average Cost — 80,000
⎛ ` 4,80,000 × 1,000 ⎞
⎜ 6,000 ⎟ for year 2 80,000
⎝ ⎠
Less : Closing Stock at Avg. Cost
⎛ ` 7,40,000 × 1,500 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 1,11,000
⎝ 10,000 ⎠
Cost of Good Sold (Cash)
4,00,000 6,29,000
(iii) Debtors (4,32,000 × 1/12)
(6,75,000 × 1/12)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 7.24 Financial Management

Cost of Goods Sold (Cash 4,00,000 6,29,000 36,000 56,250

Add : Variable Expenses @ ` 4) 20,000 34,000
Add : Total Fixed Selling expenses 12,000 12,000
(12,000 units ´ Re. 1) 4,32,000 6,75,000
(iv) Minimum Desired Cash 10,000 10,000
Total Investment in Current Assets 1,71,000 2,44,750
(B) Current Liabilities
Yr 1 Yr 2
(i) Creditors for supply of Year1 Year2
Material
(2,85,000 ´ 2/12) (3,82,500 ´ 2/12) 47,500 63,750
Material consumed 2,40,000 3,60,000
Add : Closing Stock
(3 months avg. consumption) 45,000 67,500
Less : Opening Stock — (45,000)
Purchases 2,85,000 3,82,500
(ii) Creditors for Expenses
(2,72,000 ´ 1/12; 3,46,000 ´ 1/12) 22,667 28,833
Labour & Variable 1,20,000 1,80,000
Fixed Manuf. & Adm. 1,20,000 1,20,000
Selling (fixed & variable) 32,000 46,000
Total Expenses 2,72,000 3,46,000
Total Current Liabilities 70,167 92,583
Net Working Capital 1,00,833 1,52,167
Illustration 8 : A newly formed company has applied for a loan to a commercial bank for
financing its working capital requirements. You are requested by the bank to prepare an
estimate of the requirements of the working capital for the company. Add 10 percent to your
estimated figure to cover unforeseen contingencies. The information about the projected profit
and loss account of this company is as under:
(` )
Sales 21,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 Management of Working Capital 7.25

Cost of goods sold 15,30,000

Gross Profit 5,70,000
Less: Administrative expenses 1,40,000
Selling expenses 1,30,000 2,70,000
Profit before tax 3,00,000
Provision for tax 1,00,000
Cost of goods sold has been derived as follows:
Material used 8,40,000
Wages and manufacturing expenses 6,25,000
Depreciation 2,35,000
17,00,000
Less: Stock of finished goods (10 percent not yet sold) 1,70,000
15,30,000
The figures given relate only to the goods that have been finished and not to work-in-progress;
goods equal to 15 percent of the year's production (in terms of physical units) are in progress
on an average, requiring full materials but only 40 percent of other expenses. The company
believes in keeping two months consumption of material in stock; Desired cash balance, `
40,000. Average time-lag in payment of all expenses is 1 month; suppliers of materials extend
1.5 months credit; sales are 20 percent cash; rests are at two months credit; 70 percent of the
income tax has to be paid in advance in quarterly installments.
Solution
Net Working Capital Estimate of the Company
(A) Current Assets: (` )
(i) Raw material in stock 1,40,000
⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ` 8,40,000 × ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
(ii) Work-in-progress
(a) Raw material (` 8,40,000×15/100) 1,26,000
(b) Wages and manufacturing 37,500
expenses (` 6,25,00×0.4×15/100)
(iii) Stock of finished goods
[` 1,70,000 − ` 23,500 (0.10×` 1,46,500
2,35,000; depreciation)]

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 7.26 Financial Management

(iv) Debtors
(a) Cost of goods sold ` 15,30,000
Less: Depreciation
(` 2,35,000×0.9) 2,11,500
13,18,500
(b) Administrative expenses 1,40,000
(c) Selling expenses 1,30,000
Total 15,88,500
Credit sales (4/5 of ` 15,88,500 = 2,11,800
⎛ 2⎞
12,70,800 ⎜ 12,70,800 × ⎟
⎝ 12 ⎠
(v) Cash required 40,000
Total Investment in Current Assets 7,01,800
(B) Current Liabilities:
(i) Average time-lag in payment of
expenses:
(a) Wages and manufacturing 6,25,000
expenses
(b) Administrative expenses 1,40,000
(c) Selling expenses 1,30,000
8,95,000÷12 74,583
(ii) Creditors (` 8,40,000×3/24) 1,05,000
Total Current Liabilities ,79,583
(C) Net Working Capital: Current 5,22,217
Assets − Current Liabilities
Add: 10 percent contingencies 52,222
5,74,439
Assumptions and Working Notes:
(a) Depreciation is not a cash expense and, therefore, excluded from cost of goods sold for
the purpose of determining work-in-progress, finished goods and investment in debtors.
(b) Since profit is not taken into consideration in the calculation as a source of working
capital, income tax has been excluded as it is to be paid out of profits.
Illustration 9 : On 1st April, 2010 the Board of Directors of Calci Limited wishes to know the
amount of working capital that will be required to meet the programme of activity they have
planned for the year. The following information is available:
(i) Issued and paid-up capital ` 2,00,000.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.27

(ii) 5% Debentures (secured on assets) – ` 50,000.

(iii) Fixed assets valued at ` 1,25,000 on 31-12-2009.
(iv) Production during the previous year was 60,000 units; it is planned that this level of
activity should be maintained during the present year.
(v) The expected ratios of cost to selling price are – raw materials 60%, direct wages 10%,
and overheads 20%.
(vi) Raw materials are expected to remain in stores for an average of two months before
these are issued for production.
(vii) Each unit of production is expected to be in process for one month.
(viii) Finished goods will stay in warehouse for approximately three months.
(ix) Creditors allow credit for 2 months from the date of delivery of raw materials.
(x) Credit allowed to debtors is 3 months from the date of dispatch.
(xi) Selling price per unit is ` 5.
(xii) There is a regular production and sales cycle.
You are required to prepare:
(a) Working capital requirement forecast; and
(b) An estimated profit and loss account and balance sheet at the end of the year.
Solution
Working Notes:
Calculation of Cost and Sales
Particulars For 60,000 units ` Per unit `
Raw Materials 1,80,000 3.00
Direct Wages 30,000 0.50
Overheads 60,000 1.00
Cost of Sales 2,70,00 4.50
Profit (balancing figure) 30,000 0.50
Sales 3,00,000 5.00
Computation of Current Assets and Current Liabilities
1. Raw Material inventory – 2 months consumption
= ` 1,80,000×2/12= ` 30,000
2. Work-in-progress inventory – 1 month production
`

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 7.28 Financial Management

` 1,80,000 = 15,000
Raw material = (100%)
12
` 30,000 50 = 1,250
Direct Wages = × (50%)
12 100
` 60,000 50 = 2,500 = ` 18,750
Overheads = × (50%)
12 100
3. Finished goods inventory – 3 months production
= ` 2,70,000×3/12 = ` 67,500
4. Debtors – 3 months Cost of Sales
= ` 2,70,000×3/12 = ` 67,500
5. Creditors – 2 months raw material consumption
= ` 1,80,000×2/12 = ` 30,000
Statement of Working Capital Requirement Forecast
Particulars Holding period Amount `
months
Current Assets
Raw Materials 2 30,000
Work-in-Progress 1 18,750
Finished Goods 3 67,500
Debtors 3 67,500
Total 1,83,750
Less: Current Liabilities 2 30,000
Working Capital 1,53,750
Estimated Profit and Loss A/c of Calci Limited for the year ending 31-3-2009
`
Sales (60,000 units × ` 5) (A) 3,00,000
Cost of Sales
Raw Material (60% of ` 2,70,000) 1,80,000
Direct Wages (10% of ` 2,70,000) 30,000
Overheads (20% of ` 2,70,000) 60,000
Total (B) 2,70,000
Gross Profit (A) – (B) 30,000

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 Management of Working Capital 7.29

Less: Debenture Interest (` 50,000×5/100) 2,500

Net Profit 27,500
Estimated Balance Sheet of Calci Limited as at 31st March, 2009
Liabilities ` Assets `
Share Capital 2,00,000 Fixed Assets 1,25,000
Profit & Loss A/c balance 8,750 Current Assets:
(Balancing Figure) Raw Material 30,000
Profit for the year 27,500 Work-in-Progress 18,750
5% Debentures 50,000 Finished Goods 67,500
Creditors 30,000 Debtors (3 months sales) 75,000
3,16,250 3,16,250
Illustration 10 : Musa Limited has budgeted its sales to be ` 7,00,000 per annum. Its costs
as a percentage of sales are as follows:
%
Raw materials 20
Direct labour 35
Overheads 15
Raw materials are carried in stock for two weeks and finished goods are held in stock before
sale for three weeks. Production takes four weeks. Musa Limited takes four weeks’ credit
from suppliers and gives eight weeks’ credit to its customers. If both overheads and
production are incurred evenly throughout the year, what is Musa Limited’s total working
capital requirement?
Solution
Annual costs:
Raw materials: 7,00,000×0.20 = ` 1,40,000
Direct labour: 7,00,000×0.35 = ` 2,45,000
Overheads: 7,00,000×0.15 = ` 1,05,000
Working capital requirement:
` `
Stock of raw materials: 1,40,000×(2/52) 5,385
Work-in-progress:
Materials: 1,40,000×(4/52) 10,769
Labour: 2,45,000×(4/52)×½ 9,423

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 7.30 Financial Management

Overheads: 1,05,000×(4/52)× ½ 4,038

24,230
Finished goods: 4,90,000×(3/52) 28,269
Debtors: 7,00,000×(8/52) 1,07,692
Creditors: 1,40,000×(4/52) (10,769)
Working capital required 1,54,807
Note: Work-in-progress is assumed to be half complete as regards labour and overheads, but
fully complete as regards raw materials, i.e. all raw materials are added at the start of
production.
Illustration 11
Theta Limited
Balance Sheets as on
`
31st March, 2010 31st March, 2009
Assets
Cash 3,49,600 4,83,600
Trade investments 1,60,000 4,20,000
Debtors 3,05,400 3,08,600
Stock 2,35,200 1,84,600
Prepaid expenses 7,600 9,200
Investment in A Ltd. 3,00,000 −
Land 14,400 14,400
Buildings, net of depreciation 24,07,200 7,13,600
Machinery, net of depreciation 4,43,400 4,28,200
Total Assets 42,22,800 25,62,200
Liabilities
Creditors 1,15,200 1,08,400
Bank overdraft 30,000 25,000
Accrued expenses 17,400 18,400
Income-tax payable 1,93,000 1,67,400
Current installment due on long-term loans 40,000 −
Long term loans 1,60,000 2,00,000
Debentures, net of discount 9,60,000 −

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 Management of Working Capital 7.31

Share capital, ` 10 per value 6,70,000 6,00,000

Share premium 13,40,000 9,50,000
Reserves and Surplus 6,97,200 4,93,000
Total Liabilities 42,22,800 25,62,200
Theta Limited
Income Statement
for the year ended 31st March, 2010
(` )
Sales 16,92,400
Cost of goods sold and operating expenses including depreciation on
buildings of ` 26,400 and depreciation on machinery of ` 45,600 11,91,200
Operating profit 5,01,200
Gain on sale of trade investments 25,600
Gain on sale of machinery 7,400
Profit before taxes 5,34,200
Income taxes 2,09,400
Net Profit 3,24,800

Additional information:
(i) Machinery with a net book value of ` 36,600 was sold during the year.
(ii) The shares of A Ltd. were acquired upon a payment of ` 1,20,000 in cash and the
issuance of 3,000 shares of Theta Limited. The share of Theta Limited was selling for `
60 a share at that time.
(iii) A new building was purchased at a cost of ` 17,20,000.
(iv) Debentures having a face value of ` 100 each were issued in January 2010, at 96.
(v) The cost of trade investments sold was ` 2,60,000.
(vi) The company issued 4,000 shares for ` 2,80,000.
(vii) Cash dividends of ` 1.80 a share were paid on 67,000 outstanding shares.
Prepare a statement of changes in financial position on working capital basis as well as cash
basis of Theta Limited for the year ended 31st March, 2010.

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 7.32 Financial Management

Solution
Theta Limited
Statement of Changes in Financial Position (Working Capital Basis)
for the year ended 31st March, 2010
`
Sources
Working capital from operations:
Net income after tax 3,24,800
Add: Depreciation 72,000
3,96,800
Less: Gain on sale of machinery 7,400
3,89,400
Sale of machinery (` 36,600 + ` 7,400) 44,000
Debentures issued 9,60,000
Share capital issued for cash (including share premium) 2,80,000
Financial transaction not affecting working capital
Shares issued in partial payment for investments in A Ltd. 1,80,000
Financial Resources Provided 18,53,400
Uses
Purchase of buildings 17,20,000
Purchase of machinery 97,400
Instalment currently due on long-term loans 40,000
Payment of cash dividends 1,20,600
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. for cash 1,20,000
Financial transaction not affecting working capital
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. in exchange of issue of 3,000
shares @ ` 60 each 1,80,000
Financial Resources Applied 22,78,000
Net decrease in working capital 4,24,600
The amount of machinery sold is found out as follows:
Machinery
` `
Opening Balance (given) 4,28,200 Sale of machinery (given) 36,000
Purchases (plugs) 97,400 Depreciation (given) 45,600
_______ Closing balance (given) 4,43,400
5,25,600 5,25,600

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 Management of Working Capital 7.33

Theta Limited
Statement of Changes in Financial Position (Cash Basis)
for the year ended 31st March, 2010
`
Sources
Cash from operations:
Net income after tax 3,24,800
Add: Depreciation 72,000
Decrease in debtors 3,200
Decrease in prepaid expenses 1,600
Increase in creditors 6,800
Increase in income tax payable 25,600 4,34,000
Less: Gain on sale of machinery 7,400
Increase in stock 50,600
Decrease in accrued expenses 1,000 59,000
3,75,000
Sale of trade investment 2,60,000
Increase in bank overdraft 5,000
Sale of machinery 44,000
Debentures issued 9,60,000
Shares issued 2,80,000
Financial transaction not affecting cash
Share issued in partial payment for investment in A Ltd. 1,80,000
Instalment currently due on long-term loans 40,000
Financial Resources Provided 21,44,000
Uses
Purchase of buildings 17,20,000
Purchase of machinery 97,400
Payment of cash dividend 1,20,600
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. for cash 1,20,000
Financial transaction not affecting cash
Purchase of investments in A Ltd. in exchange of issue of 3,000
shares @ ` 60 each 1,80,000
Instalment currently due on long-term loans 40,000
22,78,000
Net decrease in cash 1,34,000

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 7.34 Financial Management

Notes:
1. Funds from operations are shown net of taxes. Alternatively, payment of tax may be
separately treated as use of funds. In that case, tax would be added to net profit.
2. If tax shown in Profit and Loss Account is assumed to be a provision, then the amount of
cash paid for tax has to be calculated. In the present problem if this procedure is
followed, then cash paid for tax is: ` 1,67,400 + ` 2,09,400 – ` 1,93,000 = ` 1,83,800.
Illustration 12 : Aneja Limited, a newly formed company, has applied to the commercial bank
for the first time for financing its working capital requirements. The following information is
available about the projections for the current year:
Estimated level of activity: 1,04,000 completed units of production plus 4,000 units of work-in-
progress. Based on the above activity, estimated cost per unit is:
Raw material ` 80 per unit
Direct wages ` 30 per unit
Overheads (exclusive of depreciation) ` 60 per unit
Total cost ` 170 per unit
Selling price ` 200 per unit
Raw materials in stock: Average 4 weeks consumption, work-in-progress (assume 50% completion
stage in respect of conversion cost) (materials issued at the start of the processing).
Finished goods in stock 8,000 units
Credit allowed by suppliers Average 4 weeks
Credit allowed to debtors/receivables Average 8 weeks
Lag in payment of wages 1
Average 1 weeks
2
Cash at banks (for smooth operation) is expected to be ` 25,000.
Assume that production is carried on evenly throughout the year (52 weeks) and wages and
overheads accrue similarly. All sales are on credit basis only.
You are required to calculate the net working capital required.
Solution
Estimate of the Requirement of Working Capital
` `
A. Current Assets:
Raw material stock 6,64,615
(Refer to Working note 3)
Work in progress stock 5,00,000
(Refer to Working note 2)
Finished goods stock 13,60,000

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 Management of Working Capital 7.35

(Refer to Working note 4)

Debtors 29,53,846
(Refer to Working note 5)
Cash and Bank balance 25,000 55,03,461
B. Current Liabilities:
Creditors for raw materials 7,15,740
(Refer to Working note 6)
Creditors for wages 91,731 8,07,471
(Refer to Working note 7) ________
Net Working Capital (A-B) 46,95,990
Working Notes:
1. Annual cost of production
`
Raw material requirements (1,04,000 units × ` 80) 83,20,000
Direct wages (1,04,000 units × ` 30) 31,20,000
Overheads (exclusive of depreciation)(1,04,000 × ` 60) 62,40,000
1,76,80,000
2. Work in progress stock
`
Raw material requirements (4,000 units × ` 80) 3,20,000
Direct wages (50% × 4,000 units × ` 30) 60,000
Overheads (50% × 4,000 units × ` 60) 1,20,000
5,00,000
3. Raw material stock
It is given that raw material in stock is average 4 weeks consumption. Since, the company is
newly formed, the raw material requirement for production and work in progress will be issued
and consumed during the year.
Hence, the raw material consumption for the year (52 weeks) is as follows:
`
For Finished goods 83,20,000
For Work in progress 3,20,000
86,40,000
` 86,40,000
Raw material stock × 4 weeks i.e. ` 6,64,615
52 weeks

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 7.36 Financial Management

4. Finished goods stock

8,000 units @ ` 170 per unit = ` 13,60,000
5. Debtors for sale
Credit allowed to debtors Average 8 weeks
Credit sales for year (52 weeks) i.e. (1,04,000 units- 96,000 units
8,000 units)
Selling price per unit ` 200
Credit sales for the year (96,000 units ` 200) ` 1,92,00,000
Debtors ` 1,92,00,000
× 8 weeks
52 weeks
i.e ` 29,53,846
6. Creditors for raw material:
Credit allowed by suppliers Average 4 weeks
Purchases during the year (52 weeks) i.e. ` 93,04,615
(` 83,20,000 + ` 3,20,000 + ` 6,64,615)
(Refer to Working notes 1,2 and 3 above)
Creditors ` 93.04.615
× 4 weeks
52 weeks
i.e ` 7,15,740

7. Creditors for wages

Lag in payment of wages 1
Average 1 2 weeks
Direct wages for the year (52 weeks) i.e. ` 31,80,000
(` 31,20,000 + ` 60,000)
(Refer to Working notes 1 and 2 above)
Creditors ` 31,80,000 1
× 1 weeks
52 weeks 2
i.e. ` 91,731
1.6.4 Effect of Double Shift Working on Working Capital Requirements
The greatest economy in introducing double shift is the greater use of fixed assets. Though
production increases but little or very marginal funds may be required for additional assets.
But increase in the number of hours of production has an effect on the working capital
requirements. Let’s see the impact of double shift on some of the components of working capital:-

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 Management of Working Capital 7.37

¾ It is obvious that in double shift working, an increase in stocks will be required as the
production rises. However, it is quite possible that the increase may not be proportionate
to the rise in production since the minimum level of stocks may not be very much higher.
Thus, it is quite likely that the level of stocks may not be required to be doubled as the
production goes up two-fold.
¾ The amount of materials in process will not change due to double shift working since work
started in the first shift will be completed in the second; hence, capital tied up in materials in
process will be the same as with single shift working. As such the cost of work-in-process will
not change unless the second shift’s workers are paid at a higher rate.
However, in examinations the students may increase the amount of stocks of raw materials
proportionately unless instructions are to the contrary.
Illustration 13 : Samreen Enterprises has been operating its manufacturing facilities till
31.3.2010 on a single shift working with the following cost structure:
Per Unit
`
Cost of Materials 6.00
Wages (out of which 40% fixed) 5.00
Overheads (out of which 80% fixed) 5.00
Profit 2.00
Selling Price 18.00
Sales during 2009-10 – ` 4,32,000. As at 31.3.2010 the company held:
`
Stock of raw materials (at cost) 36,000
Work-in-progress (valued at prime cost) 22,000
Finished goods (valued at total cost) 72,000
Sundry debtors 1,08,000
In view of increased market demand, it is proposed to double production by working an extra shift. It
is expected that a 10% discount will be available from suppliers of raw materials in view of increased
volume of business. Selling price will remain the same. The credit period allowed to customers will
remain unaltered. Credit availed of from suppliers will continue to remain at the present level i.e., 2
months. Lag in payment of wages and expenses will continue to remain half a month.
You are required to assess the additional working capital requirements, if the policy to
increase output is implemented.

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 7.38 Financial Management

Solution
Statement of cost at single shift and double shift working
24,000 units 48,000 Units
Per Unit Total Per unit Total
` ` ` `
Raw materials 6 1,44,000 5.40 2,59,200
Wages - Variable 3 72,000 3.00 1,44,000
Fixed 2 48,000 1.00 48,000
Overheads - Variable 1 24,000 1.00 48,000
Fixed 4 96,000 2.00 96,000
Total cost 16 3,84,000 12.40 5,95,200
Profit 2 48,000 5.60 2,68,800
18 4,32,000 18.00 8,64,000
Sales ` 4,32,000
Sales in units 2005-06 = = = 24,000 units
Unit selling price ` 18
Value of stock ` 36,000
Stock of Raw Materials in units on 31.3.2006 = = = 6,000 units
Cost per unit 6
Stock of work-in-progress in units on 31.3.2006
Value of work − in − progress ` 22,000
= = = 2,000units
Cost per unit (` 6 + ` 5)
Value of stock ` 72,000
Stock of finished goods in units 2005-06 = = = 4,500 units.
Cost per unit ` 16
Comparative Statement of Working Capital Requirement
Single Shift Double Shift
Unit Rate Amount Unit Rate Amount
` ` ` `
Current Assets
Inventories -
Raw Materials 6000 6 36,00 12000 5.40 64,800
Work-in-Progress 2000 11 22,000 2000 9.40 18,800
Finished Goods 4500 16 72,000 9000 12.40 1,11,600
Sundry Debtors 6000 18 1,08,000 12000 18.00 2,16,000
Total Current Assets: (A) 2,38,000 4,11,200
Current Liabilities

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 Management of Working Capital 7.39

Creditors for Materials 4000 6 24,000 8000 5.40 43,200

Creditors for Wages 1000 5 5,000 2000 4.00 8,000
Creditors for Expenses 1000 5 5,000 2000 3.00 _6,000
Total Current Liabilities: (B) 34,000 57,200
Working Capital: (A) – (B) 2,04,000 3,54,000
Less: Profit included in Debtors 6000 2 _12,000 12,000 5.60 _67,200
1,92,000 2,86,800
Increase in Working Capital requirement is (` 2,86,800 – ` 1,92,000) or ` 94,800
Notes:
(i) The quantity of material in process will not change due to double shift working since work
started in the first shift will be completed in the second shift.
(ii) The valuation of work-in-progress based on prime cost as per the policy of the company
is as under.
Single shift Double shift
` `
Materials 6.00 5.40
Wages – Variable 3.00 3.00
Fixed _2.00 1.00
11.00 9.40

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 7.40 Financial Management

UNIT – II : TREASURY AND CASH MANAGEMENT

2.1 Treasury Management: Meaning

In the wake of the competitive business environment resulting from the liberalization of the
economy, there is a pressure to manage cash scientifically. The demand for funds for
expansions coupled with high interest rates, foreign exchange volatility and the growing
volume of financial transactions have necessitated efficient management of money.
Treasury management is defined as ‘the corporate handling of all financial matters, the
generation of external and internal funds for business, the management of currencies and
cash flows and the complex, strategies, policies and procedures of corporate finance.’
The treasury management mainly deals with:-
¾ Working capital management; and
¾ Financial risk management (It includes forex and interest rate management).
The key goals of treasury management are:-
¾ Maximize the return on the available cash;
¾ Minimize interest cost on borrowings;
¾ Mobilise as much cash as possible for corporate ventures (in case of need); and
¾ Effective dealing in forex, money and commodity markets to reduce risks arising because
of fluctuating exchange rates, interest rates and prices which can affect the profitability of
the organization.
2.2 Functions of Treasury Department
1. Cash Management: It involves efficient cash collection process and managing payment
of cash both inside the organisation and to third parties.
There may be complete centralization within a group treasury or the treasury may simply
advise subsidiaries and divisions on policy matter viz., collection/payment periods,
discounts, etc.
Treasury will also manage surplus funds in an investment portfolio. Investment policy will
consider future needs for liquid funds and acceptable levels of risk as determined by
company policy.
2. Currency Management: The treasury department manages the foreign currency risk
exposure of the company. In a large multinational company (MNC) the first step will
usually be to set off intra-group indebtedness. The use of matching receipts and
payments in the same currency will save transaction costs. Treasury might advise on the
currency to be used when invoicing overseas sales.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.41

The treasury will manage any net exchange exposures in accordance with company
policy. If risks are to be minimized then forward contracts can be used either to buy or
sell currency forward.
3. Funding Management: Treasury department is responsible for planning and sourcing
the company’s short, medium and long-term cash needs. Treasury department will also
participate in the decision on capital structure and forecast future interest and foreign
currency rates.
4. Banking: It is important that a company maintains a good relationship with its bankers.
Treasury department carry out negotiations with bankers and act as the initial point of
contact with them. Short-term finance can come in the form of bank loans or through the
sale of commercial paper in the money market.
5. Corporate Finance: Treasury department is involved with both acquisition and divestment
activities within the group. In addition it will often have responsibility for investor relations.
The latter activity has assumed increased importance in markets where share-price
performance is regarded as crucial and may affect the company’s ability to undertake
acquisition activity or, if the price falls drastically, render it vulnerable to a hostile bid.
2.3 Management of Cash
Management of cash is an important function of the finance manager. It is concerned with the
managing of:-
(i) Cash flows into and out of the firm;
(ii) Cash flows within the firm; and
(iii) Cash balances held by the firm at a point of time by financing deficit or investing surplus
cash.
The main objectives of cash management for a business are:-
¾ Provide adequate cash to each of its units;
¾ No funds are blocked in idle cash; and
¾ The surplus cash (if any) should be invested in order to maximize returns for the
business.
A cash management scheme therefore, is a delicate balance between the twin objectives of
liquidity and costs.
2.3.1 The Need for Cash
The following are three basic considerations in determining the amount of cash or liquidity as
have been outlined by Lord Keynes:
¾ Transaction need: Cash facilitates the meeting of the day-to-day expenses and other
debt payments. Normally, inflows of cash from operations should be sufficient for this
purpose. But sometimes this inflow may be temporarily blocked. In such cases, it is only

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 7.42 Financial Management

the reserve cash balance that can enable the firm to make its payments in time.
¾ Speculative needs: Cash may be held in order to take advantage of profitable
opportunities that may present themselves and which may be lost for want of ready
cash/settlement.
¾ Precautionary needs: Cash may be held to act as for providing safety against
unexpected events. Safety as is explained by the saying that a man has only three
friends an old wife, an old dog and money at bank.
2.3.2 Cash Planning
Cash Planning is a technique to plan and control the use of cash. This protects the financial
conditions of the firm by developing a projected cash statement from a forecast of expected
cash inflows and outflows for a given period. This may be done periodically either on daily,
weekly or monthly basis. The period and frequency of cash planning generally depends upon
the size of the firm and philosophy of management. As firms grows and business operations
become complex, cash planning becomes inevitable for continuing success.
The very first step in this direction is to estimate the requirement of cash. For this purpose
cash flow statements and cash budget are required to be prepared. The technique of
preparing cash flow and funds flow statements have been discussed in this book. The
preparation of cash budget has however, been demonstrated here.
2.3.3 Cash Budget
Cash Budget is the most significant device to plan for and control cash receipts and payments.
This represents cash requirements of business during the budget period.
The various purposes of cash budgets are:-
¾ Coordinate the timings of cash needs. It identifies the period(s) when thre might either be
a shortage of cash or an abnormally large cash requirement;
¾ It also helps to pinpoint period(s) when there is likely to be excess cash;
¾ It enables firm which has sufficient cash to take advantage like cash discounts on its
accounts payable;
¾ Lastly it helps to plan/arrange adequately needed funds (avoiding excess/shortage of
cash) on favorable terms.
On the basis of cash budget, the firm can decide to invest surplus cash in marketable
securities and earn profits.
Main Components of Cash Budget
Preparation of cash budget involves the following steps:-
(a) Selection of the period of time to be covered by the budget. It is also defining the planning
horizon.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.43

(b) Selection of factors that have a bearing on cash flows. The factors that generate cash
flows are generally divided into following two categories:-
i. Operating (cash flows generated by operations of the firm); and
ii. Financial (cash flows generated by financial activities of the firm).
The following figure highlights the cash surplus and cash shortage position over the period of
cash budget for preplanning to take corrective and necessary steps.

2.4 Methods of Cash Flow Budgeting

A cash budget can be prepared in the following ways:
1. Receipts and Payments Method: In this method all the expected receipts and
payments for budget period are considered. All the cash inflow and outflow of all
functional budgets including capital expenditure budgets are considered. Accruals and
adjustments in accounts will not affect the cash flow budget. Anticipated cash inflow is
added to the opening balance of cash and all cash payments are deducted from this to
arrive at the closing balance of cash. This method is commonly used in business
organizations.
2. Adjusted Income Method: In this method the annual cash flows are calculated by
adjusting the sales revenues and cost figures for delays in receipts and payments
(change in debtors and creditors) and eliminating non-cash items such as depreciation.
3. Adjusted Balance Sheet Method: In this method, the budgeted balance sheet is
predicted by expressing each type of asset and short-term liabilities as percentage of the

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 7.44 Financial Management

expected sales. The profit is also calculated as a percentage of sales, so that the
increase in owner’s equity can be forecasted. Known adjustments, may be made to long-
term liabilities and the balance sheet will then show if additional finance is needed.
It is important to note that the capital budget will also be considered in the preparation of cash
flow budget because the annual budget may disclose a need for new capital investments and
also, the costs and revenues of any new projects coming on stream will need to be
incorporated in the short-term budgets.
The Cash Budget can be prepared for short period or for long period.
2.4.1 Cash budget for short period
Preparation of cash budget month by month would require the following estimates:
(a) As regards receipts:
1. Receipts from debtors;
2. Cash Sales; and
3. Any other source of receipts of cash (say, dividend from a subsidiary company)
(b) As regards payments:
1. Payments to be made for purchases;
2. Payments to be made for expenses;
3. Payments that are made periodically but not every month;
(i) debenture interest;
(ii) income tax paid in advance;
(iii) sales tax etc.
4. Special payments to be made in a particular month, for example, dividends to
shareholders, redemption of debentures, repayments of loan, payment of assets
acquired, etc.
Format of Cash Budget
Co. Ltd.
Cash Budget
Period………………
Month Month Month Month
1 2 3 12
Receipts:
1. Opening balance
2. Collection from debtors

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 Management of Working Capital 7.45

3. Cash sales
4. Loans from banks
5. Share capital
6. Miscellaneous receipts
7. Other items
Total
Payments:
1. Payments to creditors
2. Wages
3. Overheads
(a)
(b)
(c)
4. Interest
5. Dividend
6. Corporate tax
7. Capital expenditure
8. Other items
Total
Closing balance
[Surplus (+)/Shortfall (-)]
Students are required to do good practice in preparing the cash budgets. The following
illustration will show how short term cash budgets can be prepared.
Illustration 1 : Prepare monthly cash budget for six months beginning from April 2010 on the
basis of the following information:-
(i) Estimated monthly sales are as follows:-
` `
January 1,00,000 June 80,000
February 1,20,000 July 1,00,000
March 1,40,000 August 80,000
April 80,000 September 60,000
May 60,000 October 1,00,000

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 7.46 Financial Management

(ii) Wages and salaries are estimated to be payable as follows:-

` `
April 9,000 July 10,000
May 8,000 August 9,000
June 10,000 September 9,000
(iii) Of the sales, 80% is on credit and 20% for cash. 75% of the credit sales are collected
within one month and the balance in two months. There are no bad debt losses.
(iv) Purchases amount to 80% of sales and are made and paid for in the month preceding the
sales.
(v) The firm has 10% debentures of ` 1,20,000. Interest on these has to be paid quarterly in
January, April and so on.
(vi) The firm is to make an advance payment of tax of ` 5,000 in July, 2010.
(vii) The firm had a cash balance of ` 20,000 on April 1, 2010, which is the minimum desired
level of cash balance. Any cash surplus/deficit above/below this level is made up by
temporary investments/liquidation of temporary investments or temporary borrowings at
the end of each month (interest on these to be ignored).
Solution
Workings:
Collection from debtors:
(Amount in ` )
February March April May June July August September
Total sales 1,20,000 1,40,000 80,000 60,000 80,000 1,00,000 80,000 60,000
Credit sales
(80% of total
sales) 96,000 1,12,000 64,000 48,000 64,000 80,000 64,000 48,000
Collections:
One month 72,000 84,000 48,000 36,000 48,000 60,000 48,000
Two months 24,000 28,000 16,000 12,000 16,000 20,000
Total
collections 1,08,000 76,000 52,000 60,000 76,000 68,000

Monthly Cash Budget for Six months, April to September, 2010

(Amount in ` )
Receipts:
April May June July August September
Opening balance 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000

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 Management of Working Capital 7.47

Cash sales 16,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 16,000 12,000

Collection from debtors 1,08,000 76,000 52,000 60,000 76,000 68,000
Total cash available (A) 1,44,000 1,08,000 88,000 1,00,000 1,12,000 1,00,000
Payments:
Purchases 48,000 64,000 80,000 64,000 48,000 80,000
Wages & salaries 9,000 8,000 10,000 10,000 9,000 9,000
Interest on debentures 3,000 --- ---- 3,000 --- ----
Tax payment --- --- ---- 5,000 ---- ----
Total payments (B) 60,000 72,000 90,000 82,000 57,000 89,000
Minimum cash balance
desired 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000
Total cash needed (C) 80,000 92,000 1,10,000 1,02,000 77,000 1,09,000
Surplus deficit (A-C) 64,000 16,000 (22,000) (2,000) 35,000 (9,000)
Investment/financing
Temporary Investments (64,000) (16,000) ---- (35,000) -----
Liquidation of temporary
investments or temporary
borrowings ---- ---- 22,000 2,000 ---- 9,000
Total effect of
investment/financing (D) (64,000) (16,000) 22,000 2,000 (35,000) 9,000
Closing cash balance (A+D-
B) 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000

Illustration 2 : From the following information relating to a departmental store, you are
required to prepare for the three months ending 31st March, 2010:-
(a) Month-wise cash budget on receipts and payments basis; and
(b) Statement of Sources and uses of funds for the three months period.
It is anticipated that the working capital at 1st January, 2010 will be as follows:-
` in ‘000’s
Cash in hand and at bank 545
Short term investments 300
Debtors 2,570
Stock 1,300
Trade creditors 2,110

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 7.48 Financial Management

Other creditors 200

Dividends payable 485
Tax due 320
Plant 800
Budgeted Profit Statement: ` in ‘000’s
January February March
Sales 2,100 1,800 1,700
Cost of sales 1,635 1,405 1,330
Gross Profit 465 395 370
Administrative, Selling and Distribution
Expenses 315 270 255
Net Profit before tax 150 125 115
Budgeted balances at the end of each months: ` in ‘000’s
31st Jan. 29th Feb. 31st March
Short term investments 700 --- 200
Debtors 2,600 2,500 2,350
Stock 1,200 1,100 1,000
Trade creditors 2,000 1,950 1,900
Other creditors 200 200 200
Dividends payable 485 -- --
Tax due 320 320 320
Plant (depreciation ignored) 800 1,600 1,550
Depreciation amount to ` 60,000 is included in the budgeted expenditure for each month.
Solution
Workings: ` in ‘000’
(1) Payments to creditors: Jan. 2010 Feb.2010 March, 2010
Cost of Sales 1,635 1,405 1,330
Add Closing Stocks 1,200 1,100 1,000
2,835 2,505 2,330
Less: Opening Stocks 1,300 1,200 1,100
Purchases 1,535 1,305 1,230
Add: Trade Creditors, Opening balance 2,110 2,000 1,950

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 Management of Working Capital 7.49

3,645 3,305 3,180

Less: Trade Creditors, closing balance 2,000 1,950 1,900
Payment 1,645 1,355 1,280
(2) Receipts from debtors:
Debtors, Opening balances 2,570 2,600 2,500
Add Sales 2,100 1,800 1,700
4,670 4,400 4,200
Less Debtors, closing balance 2,600 2,500 2,350
Receipt 2,070 1,900 1,850
CASH BUDGET
(a) 3 months ending 31st March, 2010
(`, in 000’s)
January, 2010 Feb. 2010 March, 2010
Opening cash balances 545 315 65
Add Receipts:
From Debtors 2,070 1,900 1,850
Sale of Investments --- 700 ----
Sale of Plant --- --- 50
Total (A) 2,615 2,915 1,965
Deduct Payments
Creditors 1,645 1,355 1,280
Expenses 255 210 195
Capital Expenditure --- 800 ---
Payment of dividend --- 485 ---
Purchase of investments 400 --- 200
Total payments (B) 2,300 2,850 1,675
Closing cash balance (A - B) 315 65 290
(b) Statement of Sources and uses of Funds for the Three Month Period Ending 31st March, 2010
Sources: ` ’000 ` ’000
Funds from operation:
Net profit 390

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 7.50 Financial Management

Add Depreciation 180 570

Sale of plant 50
620
Decrease in Working Capital 665
Total 1,285
Uses:
Purchase of plant 800
Payment by dividends 485
Total 1,285
Statement of Changes in Working Capital
January,10 March, 10 Increase Decrease
` 000 ` 000 ` 000 ` 000
Current Assets
Cash in hand and at Bank 545 290 255
Short term Investments 300 200 100
Debtors 2,570 2,350 220
Stock 1,300 1,000 300
4,715 3,840
Current Liabilities
Trade Creditors 2,110 1,900 210 ---
Other Creditors 200 200 --- ---
Tax Due 320 320 --- ---
2,630 2,420
Working Capital 2,085 1,420
Decrease 665 665
2,085 2,085 875 875
Illustration 3 : The following information relates to Zeta Limited, a publishing company:
The selling price of a book is ` 15, and sales are made on credit through a book club and
invoiced on the last day of the month.
Variable costs of production per book are materials (` 5), labour (` 4), and overhead (` 2)
The sales manager has forecasted the following volumes:
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
No. of Books 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,250 1,500 2,000 1,900 2,200 2,200 2,300

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 Management of Working Capital 7.51

Customers are expected to pay as follows:

One month after the sale 40%
Two months after the sale 60%
The company produces the books two months before they are sold and the creditors for
materials are paid two months after production.
Variable overheads are paid in the month following production and are expected to increase
by 25% in April; 75% of wages are paid in the month of production and 25% in the following
month. A wage increase of 12.5% will take place on 1st March.
The company is going through a restructuring and will sell one of its freehold properties in May
for ` 25,000, but it is also planning to buy a new printing press in May for ` 10,000.
Depreciation is currently ` 1,000 per month, and will rise to ` 1,500 after the purchase of the
new machine.
The company’s corporation tax (of ` 10,000) is due for payment in March.
The company presently has a cash balance at bank on 31 December 2010, of ` 1,500.
You are required to prepare a cash budget for the six months from January to June.
Solution
Workings:
1. Sale receipts
Month Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Forecast sales (S) 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,250 1,500 2,000 1,900 2,200
` ` ` ` ` ` ` `
S×15 15,000 15,000 15,000 18,750 22,500 30,000 28,500 33,000
Debtors pay:
1 month 40% 6,000 6,000 6,000 7,500 9,000 12,000 11,400
2 month 60% - 9,000 9,000 9,000 11,250 13,500 18,000
- - 15,000 15,000 16,500 20,250 25,500 29,400

2. Payment for materials – books produced two months before sale

Month Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Qty produced (Q) 1,000 1,250 1,500 2,000 1,900 2,200 2,200 2,300
` ` ` ` ` ` ` `
Materials (Q×5) 5,000 6,250 7,500 10,000 9,500 11,000 11,000 11,500
Paid (2 months - - 5,000 6,250 7,500 10,000 9,500 11,000
after)

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 7.52 Financial Management

3. Variable overheads
Month Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Qty produced (Q) 1,000 1,250 1,500 2,000 1,900 2,200 2,200 2,300
` ` ` ` ` ` ` `
Var. overhead (Q×2) 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 3,800
Var. overhead (Q×2.50) 5,500 5,500 5,750
Paid one month later 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 3,800 5,500 5,500

4. Wages payments
Month Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Qty produced (Q) 1,250 1,500 2,000 1,900 2,200 2,200 2,300
` ` ` ` ` ` `
Wages (Q × 4) 5,000 6,000 8,000
Wages (Q × 4.50) 8,550 9,900 9,900 10,350
75% this month 3,750 4,500 6,000 6,412 7,425 7,425 7,762
25% this month 1,250 1,500 2,000 2,137 2,475 2,475
5,750 7,500 8,412 9,562 9,900 10,237

Cash budget – six months ended June

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
` ` ` ` ` `
Receipts:
Credit sales 15,000 15,000 16,500 20,250 25,500 29,400
Premises disposal - - - - 25,000 -
15,000 15,000 16,500 20,250 50,500 29,400
Payments:
Materials 5,000 6,250 7,500 10,000 9,500 11,000
Var. overheads 2,500 3,000 4,000 3,800 5,500 5,500
Wages 5,750 7,500 8,412 9,562 9,900 10,237
Fixed assets - - - - 10,000 -
Corporation tax - - 10,000 - - -
13,250 16,750 29,912 23,362 34,900 26,737

Net cash flow 1,750 (1,750) (13,412) (3,112) 15,600 2,663

Balance b/f 1,500 3,250 1,500 (11,912) (15,024) 576
Cumulative cash flow 3,250 1,500 (11,912) (15,024) 576 3,239

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 Management of Working Capital 7.53

2.4.2 Cash Budget for long period

Long-range cash forecast often resemble the projected sources and application of funds
statement. The following procedure may be adopted to prepare long-range cash forecasts:
(i) Take the cash at bank and in the beginning of the year:
(ii) Add:
(a) Trading profit (before tax) expected to be earned;
(b) Depreciation and other development expenses incurred to be written off;
(c) Sale proceeds of assets’;
(d) Proceeds of fresh issue of shares or debentures; and
(e) Reduction in working capital that is current assets (except cash) less current
liabilities.
(iii) Deduct:
(a) Dividends to be paid.
(b) Cost of assets to be purchased.
(c) Taxes to be paid.
(d) Debentures or shares to be redeemed.
(e) Increase in working capital.
Illustration 4 : You are given below the Profit & Loss Accounts for two years for a company:
Profit and Loss Account
Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 Year 2
` ` ` `
To Opening stock 80,00,000 1,00,00,000 By Sales 8,00,00,000 10,00,00,000
To Raw materials 3,00,00,000 4,00,00,000 By Closing stock 1,00,00,000 1,50,00,000
To Stores 1,00,00,000 1,20,00,000 By Misc. Income 10,00,000 10,00,000
To Manufacturing Expenses 1,00,00,000 1,60,00,000
To Other Expenses 1,00,00,000 1,00,00,000
To Depreciation 1,00,00,000 1,00,00,000
To Net Profit 1,30,00,000 1,80,00,000
9,10,00,000 11,60,00,000 9,10,00,000 11,60,00,000

Sales are expected to be ` 12,00,00,000 in year 3.

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 7.54 Financial Management

As a result, other expenses will increase by ` 50,00,000 besides other charges. Only raw
materials are in stock. Assume sales and purchases are in cash terms and the closing stock is
expected to go up by the same amount as between year 1 and 2. You may assume that no
dividend is being paid. The Company can use 75% of the cash generated to service a loan.
How much cash from operations will be available in year 3 for the purpose? Ignore income tax.
Solution
Projected Profit and Loss Account for the year 3
Year 2 Year 3 Year 2 Year 3
Actual Projected Actual Projected
(` in (` in (` in (` in
lakhs) lakhs) lakhs) lakhs)
To Materials consumed 350 420 By Sales 1,000 1,200
To Stores 120 144 By Misc. Income 10 10
To Mfg. Expenses 160 192
To Other expenses 100 150
To Depreciation 100 100
To Net profit 180 204
1,010 1,210 1,010 1,210
Cash Flow:
(` in lakhs)
Profit 204
Add: Depreciation 100
304
Less: Cash required for increase in stock 50
Net cash inflow 254
Available for servicing the loan: 75% of ` 2,54,00,000 or ` 1,90,50,000
Working Notes:
(i) Material consumed in year 2: 35% of sales.
35
Likely consumption in year 3 : ` 1200 × or ` 420(lakhs)
100
(ii) Stores are 12% of sales, as in year 2.
(iii) Manufacturing expenses are 16% of sales.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.55

Note: The above also shows how a projected profit and loss account is prepared.
Illustration 5 : From the information and the assumption that the cash balance in hand on 1st
January 2010 is ` 72,500 prepare a cash budget.
Assume that 50 per cent of total sales are cash sales. Assets are to be acquired in the months
of February and April. Therefore, provisions should be made for the payment of ` 8,000 and
` 25,000 for the same. An application has been made to the bank for the grant of a loan of `
30,000 and it is hoped that the loan amount will be received in the month of May.
It is anticipated that a dividend of ` 35,000 will be paid in June. Debtors are allowed one
month’s credit. Creditors for materials purchased and overheads grant one month’s credit.
Sales commission at 3 per cent on sales is paid to the salesman each month.
Month Sales Materials Salaries & Production Office and
Purchases Wages Overheads Selling
Overheads
(` ) (` ) (` ) (` ) (` )
January 72,000 25,000 10,000 6,000 5,500
February 97,000 31,000 12,100 6,300 6,700
March 86,000 25,500 10,600 6,000 7,500
April 88,600 30,600 25,000 6,500 8,900
May 1,02,500 37,000 22,000 8,000 11,000
June 1,08,700 38,800 23,000 8,200 11,500
Solution
Cash Budget
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Total
` ` ` ` ` ` `
Receipts
Cash sales 36,000 48,500 43,000 44,300 51,250 54,350 2,77,400
Collections from debtors - 36,000 48,500 43,000 44,300 51,250 2,23,050
Bank loan - - - - 30,000 - 30,000
Total 36,000 84,500 91,500 87,300 1,25,550 1,05,600 5,30,450
Payments
Materials - 25,000 31,000 25,500 30,600 37,000 1,49,100
Salaries and wages 10,000 12,100 10,600 25,000 22,000 23,000 1,02,700
Production overheads - 6,000 6,300 6,000 6,500 8,000 32,800
Office & selling overheads - 5,500 6,700 7,500 8,900 11,000 39,600
Sales commission 2,160 2,910 2,580 2,658 3,075 3,261 16,644
Capital expenditure - 8,000 - 25,000 - - 33,000

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 7.56 Financial Management

Dividend - - - - - 35,000 35,000

Total 12,160 59,510 57,180 91,658 71,075 1,17,261 4,08,844
Net cash flow 23,840 24,990 34,320 (4,358) 54,475 (11,661) 1,21,606
Balance, beginning of month 72,500 96,340 1,21,330 1,55,650 1,51,292 2,05,767 1,94,106
Balance, end of month 96,340 1,21,330 1,55,650 1,51,292 2,05,767 1,94,106 3,15,712

Illustration 6 : Consider the balance sheet of Maya Limited at December 31 (in thousands).
The company has received a large order and anticipates the need to go to its bank to increase
its borrowings. As a result, it has to forecast its cash requirements for January, February and
March. Typically, the company collects 20 per cent of its sales in the month of sale, 70 per
cent in the subsequent month, and 10 per cent in the second month after the sale. All sales
are credit sales.
` `
Cash 50 Accounts payable 360
Accounts receivable 530 Bank loan 400
Inventories 545 Accruals 212
Current assets 1,125 Current liabilities 972
Net fixed assets 1,836 Long-term debt 450
Common stock 100
_____ Retained earnings 1,439
Total assets 2,961 Total liabilities and equity 2,961
Purchases of raw materials are made in the month prior to the sale and amount to 60 per cent of
sales in the subsequent month. Payments for these purchases occur in the month after the
purchase. Labour costs, including overtime, are expected to be ` 1,50,000 in January, ` 2,00,000
in February, and ` 1,60,000 in March. Selling, administrative, taxes, and other cash expenses are
expected to be ` 1,00,000 per month for January through March. Actual sales in November and
December and projected sales for January through April are as follows (in thousands):
` ` `
November 500 January 600 March 650
December 600 February 1,000 April 750
On the basis of this information:
(a) Prepare a cash budget for the months of January, February, and March.
(b) Determine the amount of additional bank borrowings necessary to maintain a cash
balance of ` 50,000 at all times.
(c) Prepare a pro forma balance sheet for March 31.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.57

Solution
(a) Cash Budget (in thousands)
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
` ` ` ` ` `
Sales 500 600 600 1,000 650 750
Collections, current month’s sales 120 200 130
Collections, previous month’s sales 420 420 700
Collections, previous 2 month’s 50 60 60
sales
Total cash receipts 590 680 890
Purchases 360 600 390 450
Payment for purchases 360 600 390
Labour costs 150 200 160
Other expenses 100 100 100
Total cash disbursements 610 900 650
Receipts less disbursements (20) (220 240
(b)
Jan. Feb. Mar.
` ` `
Additional borrowings 20 220 (240)
Cumulative borrowings 420 640 400
The amount of financing peaks in February owing to the need to pay for purchases made
the previous month and higher labour costs. In March, substantial collections are made
on the prior month’s billings, causing large net cash inflow sufficient to pay off the
additional borrowings.
(c) Pro forma Balance Sheet, March 31 (in thousands):
` `
Cash 50Accounts payable 450
Accounts receivable 620Bank loan 400
Inventories 635Accruals 212
Current assets 1,305 Current liabilities 1,062
Net fixed assets 1,836Long-term debt 450
Common stock 100
_____ Retained earnings 1,529
Total assets 3,141 Total liabilities and equity 3,141

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 7.58 Financial Management

Accounts receivable = Sales in March × .8 + Sales in February × .1

Inventories = ` 545 + Total purchases January through March − Total
sales January through March × .6
Accounts payable = Purchases in March
Retained earnings = ` 1,439 + Sales – Payment for purchases – Labour costs
and – Other expenses, all for January through March
2.4.3 Managing Cash Collection and Disbursements
Having prepared the cash budget, the finance manager should ensure that there does not
exist a significant deviation between projected cash flows and actual cash flows.
To achieve this cash management efficiency will have to be improved through a proper control
of cash collection and disbursement.
The twin objectives in managing the cash flows should be:-
¾ Accelerate cash collections as much as possible; and
¾ Decelerate or delay cash disbursements.
Let’s discuss each of the two objectives individually.
2.4.4 Accelerating Cash Collections
A firm can conserve cash and reduce its requirements for cash balances if it can speed up its
cash collections by issuing invoices quickly or by reducing the time lag between a customer
pays bill and the cheque is collected and funds become available for the firm’s use.
A firm can use decentralized collection system known as concentration banking and lock box
system to speed up cash collection and reduce float time.
(i) Concentration Banking: In concentration banking the company establishes a number
of strategic collection centres in different regions instead of a single collection centre at
the head office. This system reduces the period between the time a customer mails in
his remittances and the time when they become spendable funds with the company.
Payments received by the different collection centers are deposited with their respective
local banks which in turn transfer all surplus funds to the concentration bank of head
office. The concentration bank with which the company has its major bank account is
generally located at the headquarters. Concentration banking is one important and
popular way of reducing the size of the float.
(ii) Lock Box System: Another means to accelerate the flow of funds is a lock box system.
While concentration banking, remittances are received by a collection centre and
deposited in the bank after processing. The purpose of lock box system is to eliminate
the time between the receipts of remittances by the company and deposited in the bank.
A lock box arrangement usually is on regional basis which a company chooses according
to its billing patterns.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.59

Under this arrangement, the company rents the local post-office box and authorizes its bank at
each of the locations to pick up remittances in the boxes. Customers are billed with
instructions to mail their remittances to the lock boxes. The bank picks up the mail several
times a day and deposits the cheques in the company’s account. The cheques may be micro-
filmed for record purposes and cleared for collection. The company receives a deposit slip
and lists all payments together with any other material in the envelope. This procedure frees
the company from handling and depositing the cheques.
The main advantage of lock box system is that cheques are deposited with the banks sooner
and become collected funds sooner than if they were processed by the company prior to
deposit. In other words lag between the time cheques are received by the company and the
time they are actually deposited in the bank is eliminated.
The main drawback of lock box system is the cost of its operation. The bank provides a
number of services in addition to usual clearing of cheques and requires compensation for
them. Since the cost is almost directly proportional to the number of cheques deposited. Lock
box arrangements are usually not profitable if the average remittance is small. The
appropriate rule for deciding whether or not to use a lock box system or for that matter,
concentration banking, is simply to compare the added cost of the most efficient system with
the marginal income that can be generated from the released funds. If costs are less than
income, the system is profitable, if the system is not profitable, it is not worth undertaking.
Different Kinds of Float with reference to Management of Cash: The term float is used to
refer to the periods that affect cash as it moves through the different stages of the collection
process. Four kinds of float with reference to management of cash are:
¾ Billing float: An invoice is the formal document that a seller prepares and sends to the
purchaser as the payment request for goods sold or services provided. The time
between the sale and the mailing of the invoice is the billing float.
¾ Mail float: This is the time when a cheque is being processed by post office, messenger
service or other means of delivery.
¾ Cheque processing float: This is the time required for the seller to sort, record and
deposit the cheque after it has been received by the company.
¾ Banking processing float: This is the time from the deposit of the cheque to the crediting
of funds in the sellers account.
2.4.5 Controlling Payments
An effective control over payments can also cause faster turnover of cash. This is possible
only by making payments on the due date, making excessive use of draft (bill of exchange)
instead of cheques.
Availability of cash can be maximized by playing the float. In this, a firm estimates accurately
the time when the cheques issued will be presented for encashment and thus utilizes the float
period to its advantage by issuing more cheques but having in the bank account only so much

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 7.60 Financial Management

cash balance as will be sufficient to honour those cheques which are actually expected to be
presented on a particular date.
Also company may make payment to its outstation suppliers by a cheque and send it through
mail. The delay in transit and collection of the cheque, will be used to increase the float.
Illustration 7 : Parachi Ltd is a manufacturing company producing and selling a range of
cleaning products to wholesale customers. It has three suppliers and two customers. Parachi
Ltd relies on its cleared funds forecast to manage its cash.
You are an accounting technician for the company and have been asked to prepare a cleared
funds forecast for the period Monday 7 January to Friday 11 January 2010 inclusive. You have
been provided with the following information:
(1) Receipts from customers
Customer name Credit Payment 7 Jan 2010 7 Dec 2009 sales
terms method sales
W Ltd 1 calendar month BACS ` 150,000 ` 130,000
X Ltd None Cheque ` 180,000 ` 160,000
(a) Receipt of money by BACS (Bankers' Automated Clearing Services) is instantaneous.
(b) X Ltd’s cheque will be paid into Parachi Ltd’s bank account on the same day as the
sale is made and will clear on the third day following this (excluding day of
payment).
(2) Payments to suppliers
Supplier Credit Payment 7 Jan 2010 7 Dec 2009 7 Nov 2009
name terms method purchases purchases purchases
A Ltd 1 calendar month Standing order ` 65,000 ` 55,000 ` 45,000
B Ltd 2 calendar months Cheque ` 85,000 ` 80,000 ` 75,000
C Ltd None Cheque ` 95,000 ` 90,000 ` 85,000
(a) Parachi Ltd has set up a standing order for ` 45,000 a month to pay for supplies
from A Ltd. This will leave Parachi’s bank account on 7 January. Every few months,
an adjustment is made to reflect the actual cost of supplies purchased (you do NOT
need to make this adjustment).
(b) Parachi Ltd will send out, by post, cheques to B Ltd and C Ltd on 7 January. The
amounts will leave its bank account on the second day following this (excluding the
day of posting).
(3) Wages and salaries
December 2009 January 2010
Weekly wages ` 12,000 ` 13,000

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 Management of Working Capital 7.61

Monthly salaries ` 56,000 ` 59,000

(a) Factory workers are paid cash wages (weekly). They will be paid one week’s wages, on
11 January, for the last week’s work done in December (i.e. they work a week in hand).
(b) All the office workers are paid salaries (monthly) by BACS. Salaries for December
will be paid on 7 January.
(4) Other miscellaneous payments
(a) Every Monday morning, the petty cashier withdraws ` 200 from the company bank
account for the petty cash. The money leaves Parachi’s bank account straight away.
(b) The room cleaner is paid ` 30 from petty cash every Wednesday morning.
(c) Office stationery will be ordered by telephone on Tuesday 8 January to the value of
` 300. This is paid for by company debit card. Such payments are generally seen to
leave the company account on the next working day.
(d) Five new softwares will be ordered over the Internet on 10 January at a total cost of
` 6,500. A cheque will be sent out on the same day. The amount will leave Parachi
Ltd’s bank account on the second day following this (excluding the day of posting).
(5) Other information
The balance on Parachi’s bank account will be ` 200,000 on 7 January 2010. This
represents both the book balance and the cleared funds.
Required:
Prepare a cleared funds forecast for the period Monday 7 January to Friday 7 January 2010
inclusive using the information provided. Show clearly the uncleared funds float each day.
Solution:
Cleared Funds Forecast
7 Jan 10 8 Jan 10 9 Jan 10 10 Jan 10 11 Jan 10
(Monday) (Tuesday) (Wednesday) (Thursday) (Friday)
` ` ` ` `
Receipts
W Ltd 130,000 0 0 0 0
X Ltd 0 0 0 180,000 0
(a) 130,000 0 0 180,000 0
Payments
A Ltd 45,000 0 0 0 0
B Ltd 0 0 75,000 0 0
C Ltd 0 0 95,000 0 0
Wages 0 0 0 0 12,000
Salaries 56,000 0 0 0 0
Petty Cash 200 0 0 0 0

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 7.62 Financial Management

Stationery 0 0 300 0 0
(b) 101,200 0 170,300 0 12,000
Cleared excess Receipts
over payments (a) – (b) 28,800 0 (170,300) 80,000 (12,000)
Cleared balance b/f 200,000 228,800 228,800 58,500 238,500
Cleared balance c/f (c) 228,800 228,800 58,500 238,500 226,500
Uncleared funds float
Receipts 180,000 180,000 180,000 0 0
Payments (170,000) (170,300) 0 (6,500) (6,500)
(d) 10,000 9,700 180,000 (6,500) (6,500)
Total book balance c/f 238,800 238,500 238,500 232,000 220,000
(c) + (d)
2.4.6 Determining the Optimum Cash Balance
A firm should maintain optimum cash balance to cater to the day-to-day operations. It may
also carry additional cash as a buffer or safety stock. The amount of cash balance will depend
on the risk-return trade off. The firm should maintain an optimum level i.e. just enough,
neither too much nor too little cash balance. This, however, poses a question. How to
determine the optimum cash balance if cash flows are predictable and if they are not
predictable?
2.5 Cash Management Models
In recent years several types of mathematical models have been developed which helps to
determine the optimum cash balance to be carried by a business organization.
The purpose of all these models is to ensure that cash does not remain idle unnecessarily and
at the same time the firm is not confronted with a situation of cash shortage.
All these models can be put in two categories:-
¾ Inventory type models; and
¾ Stochastic models.
Inventory type models have been constructed to aid the finance manager to determine
optimum cash balance of his firm. William J. Baumol’s economic order quantity model applies
equally to cash management problems under conditions of certainty or where the cash flows
are predictable.
However, in a situation where the EOQ Model is not applicable, stochastic model of cash
management helps in determining the optimum level of cash balance. It happens when the
demand for cash is stochastic and not known in advance.
2.5.1 William J. Baumol’s Economic Order Quantity Model, (1952)
According to this model, optimum cash level is that level of cash where the carrying costs and
transactions costs are the minimum.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.63

The carrying costs refer to the cost of holding cash, namely, the interest foregone on
marketable securities. The transaction costs refer to the cost involved in getting the
marketable securities converted into cash. This happens when the firm falls short of cash and
has to sell the securities resulting in clerical, brokerage, registration and other costs.
The optimum cash balance according to this model will be that point where these two costs
are minimum. The formula for determining optimum cash balance is:
2U × P
C=
S
Where, C = Optimum cash balance
U = Annual (or monthly) cash disbursement
P = Fixed cost per transaction.
S = Opportunity cost of one rupee p.a. (or p.m.)
This can be explained with the following diagram:
Total Cost

Holding Cost
Cost
(Rs.)

Transaction Cost

Optimum Cash Balance

The model is based on the following assumptions:
(i) Cash needs of the firm are known with certainty.
(ii) The cash is used uniformly over a period of time and it is also known with certainty.
(iii) The holding cost is known and it is constant.
(iv) The transaction cost also remains constant.
Illustration 8 : A firm maintains a separate account for cash disbursement. Total
disbursement are ` 1,05,000 per month or ` 12,60,000 per year. Administrative and
transaction cost of transferring cash to disbursement account is ` 20 per transfer. Marketable
securities yield is 8% per annum.
Determine the optimum cash balance according to William J. Baumol model.

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 7.64 Financial Management

Solution
2 × ` 12,60,000 × ` 20
The optimum cash balance C = = ` 25,100
0.08

The limitation of the Baumol’s model is that it does not allow the cash flows to fluctuate. Firms
in practice do not use their cash balance uniformly nor they are able to predict daily cash
inflows and outflows. The Miller-Orr (MO) model overcomes this shortcoming and allows for
daily cash flow variation.
2.5.2 Miller-Orr Cash Management Model (1966)
According to this model the net cash flow is completely stochastic.
When changes in cash balance occur randomly the application of control theory serves a
useful purpose. The Miller-Orr model is one of such control limit models.
This model is designed to determine the time and size of transfers between an investment
account and cash account. In this model control limits are set for cash balances. These limits
may consist of h as upper limit, z as the return point; and zero as the lower limit.
¾ When the cash balance reaches the upper limit, the transfer of cash equal to h – z is
invested in marketable securities account.
¾ When it touches the lower limit, a transfer from marketable securities account to cash
account is made.
¾ During the period when cash balance stays between (h, z) and (z, 0) i.e. high and low
limits no transactions between cash and marketable securities account is made.
The high and low limits of cash balance are set up on the basis of fixed cost associated with
the securities transactions, the opportunity cost of holding cash and the degree of likely
fluctuations in cash balances. These limits satisfy the demands for cash at the lowest
possible total costs. The following diagram illustrates the Miller-Orr model.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.65

h
Upper control limit

Z
Return point
Cash Balance (Rs.)

0
Time Lower control limit

The MO Model is more realistic since it allows variations in cash balance within lower and
upper limits. The finance manager can set the limits according to the firm’s liquidity
requirements i.e., maintaining minimum and maximum cash balance.
2.6 Recent Developments in Cash Management
It is important to understand the latest developments in the field of cash management, since it
has a great impact on how we manage our cash. Both technological advancement and desire
to reduce cost of operations has led to some innovative techniques in managing cash. Some
of them are:-
2.6.1 Electronic Fund Transfer
With the developments which took place in the Information technology, the present banking
system is switching over to the computerisation of banks branches to offer efficient banking
services and cash management services to their customers. The network will be linked to the
different branches, banks. This will help the customers in the following ways:
¾ Instant updation of accounts.
¾ The quick transfer of funds.
¾ Instant information about foreign exchange rates.
2.6.2 Zero Balance Account
For efficient cash management some firms employ an extensive policy of substituting
marketable securities for cash by the use of zero balance accounts. Every day the firm totals
the cheques presented for payment against the account. The firm transfers the balance
amount of cash in the account if any, for buying marketable securities. In case of shortage of
cash the firm sells the marketable securities.

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 7.66 Financial Management

2.6.3 Money Market Operations

One of the tasks of ‘treasury function’ of larger companies is the investment of surplus funds in the
money market. The chief characteristic of money market banking is one of size. Banks obtain
funds by competing in the money market for the deposits by the companies, public authorities,
High Networth Investors (HNI), and other banks. Deposits are made for specific periods ranging
from overnight to one year; highly competitive rates which reflect supply and demand on a daily,
even hourly basis are quoted. Consequently, the rates can fluctuate quite dramatically, especially
for the shorter-term deposits. Surplus funds can thus be invested in money market easily.
2.6.4 Petty Cash Imprest System
For better control on cash, generally the companies use petty cash imprest system wherein
the day-to-day petty expenses are estimated taking into account past experience and future
needs and generally a week’s requirement of cash will be kept separate for making petty
expenses. Again, the next week will commence with the pre-determined balance. This will
reduce the strain of the management in managing petty cash expenses and help in the
managing cash efficiently.
2.6.5 Management of Temporary Cash Surplus
Temporary cash surpluses can be profitably invested in the following:
¾ Short-term deposits in Banks and financial institutions.
¾ Short-term debt market instruments.
¾ Long-term debt instruments.
¾ Shares of Blue chip listed companies.
2.6.6 Electronic Cash Management System
Most of the cash management systems now-a-days are electronically based, since ‘speed’ is
the essence of any cash management system. Electronically, transfer of data as well as funds
play a key role in any cash management system. Various elements in the process of cash
management are linked through a satellite. Various places that are interlinked may be the
place where the instrument is collected, the place where cash is to be transferred in
company’s account, the place where the payment is to be transferred etc.
Certain networked cash management system may also provide a very limited access to third
parties like parties having very regular dealings of receipts and payments with the company
etc. A finance company accepting deposits from public through sub-brokers may give a
limited access to sub-brokers to verify the collections made through him for determination of
his commission among other things.
Electronic-scientific cash management results in:
¾ Significant saving in time.
¾ Decrease in interest costs.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.67

¾ Less paper work.

¾ Greater accounting accuracy.
¾ More control over time and funds.
¾ Supports electronic payments.
¾ Faster transfer of funds from one location to another, where required.
¾ Speedy conversion of various instruments into cash.
¾ Making available funds wherever required, whenever required.
¾ Reduction in the amount of ‘idle float’ to the maximum possible extent.
¾ Ensures no idle funds are placed at any place in the organization.
¾ It makes inter-bank balancing of funds much easier.
¾ It is a true form of centralised ‘Cash Management’.
¾ Produces faster electronic reconciliation.
¾ Allows for detection of book-keeping errors.
¾ Reduces the number of cheques issued.
¾ Earns interest income or reduce interest expense.
2.6.7 Virtual Banking
The practice of banking has undergone a significant change in the nineties. While banks are
striving to strengthen customer base and relationship and move towards relationship banking,
customers are increasingly moving away from the confines of traditional branch banking and
are seeking the convenience of remote electronic banking services. And even within the
broad spectrum of electronic banking the virtual banking has gained prominence
Broadly virtual banking denotes the provision of banking and related services through
extensive use of information technology without direct recourse to the bank by the customer.
The origin of virtual banking in the developed countries can be traced back to the seventies
with the installation of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs). Subsequently, driven by the
competitive market environment as well as various technological and customer pressures,
other types of virtual banking services have grown in prominence throughout the world.
The Reserve Bank of India has been taking a number of initiatives, which will facilitate the
active involvement of commercial banks in the sophisticated cash management system. One
of the pre-requisites to ensure faster and reliable mobility of funds in a country is to have an
efficient payment system. Considering the importance of speed in payment system to the
economy, the RBI has taken numerous measures since mid Eighties to strengthen the
payments mechanism in the country.
Introduction of computerized settlement of clearing transactions, use of Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR) technology, provision of inter-city clearing facilities and high
value clearing facilities, Electronic Clearing Service Scheme (ECSS), Electronic Funds

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 7.68 Financial Management

Transfer (EFT) scheme, Delivery vs. Payment (DVP) for Government securities transactions,
setting up of Indian Financial Network (INFINET) are some of the significant developments.
Introduction of Centralised Funds Management System (CFMS), Securities Services System
(SSS), Real Time Gross Settlement System (RTGS) and Structured Financial Messaging
System (SFMS) are the other top priority items on the agenda to transform the existing system
into a state of the art payment infrastructure in India.
The current vision envisaged for the payment systems reforms is one, which contemplates
linking up of at least all important bank branches with the domestic payment systems network
thereby facilitating cross border connectivity. With the help of the systems already put in
place in India and which are coming into being, both banks and corporates can exercise
effective control over the cash management.
Advantages
The advantages of virtual banking services are as follows:
¾ Lower cost of handling a transaction.
¾ The increased speed of response to customer requirements.
¾ The lower cost of operating branch network along with reduced staff costs leads to cost
efficiency.
¾ Virtual banking allows the possibility of improved and a range of services being made
available to the customer rapidly, accurately and at his convenience.
The popularity which virtual banking services have won among customers, is due to the
speed, convenience and round the clock access they offer.
2.7 Management of Marketable Securities
Management of marketable securities is an integral part of investment of cash as this may
serve both the purposes of liquidity and cash, provided choice of investment is made correctly.
As the working capital needs are fluctuating, it is possible to park excess funds in some short
term securities, which can be liquidated when need for cash is felt. The selection of securities
should be guided by three principles.
¾ Safety: Return and risks go hand in hand. As the objective in this investment is ensuring
liquidity, minimum risk is the criterion of selection.
¾ Maturity: Matching of maturity and forecasted cash needs is essential. Prices of long term
securities fluctuate more with changes in interest rates and are therefore, more risky.
¾ Marketability: It refers to the convenience, speed and cost at which a security can be
converted into cash. If the security can be sold quickly without loss of time and price it is
highly liquid or marketable.
The choice of marketable securities is mainly limited to Government treasury bills, Deposits
with banks and Intercorporate deposits. Units of Unit Trust of India and commercial papers of

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 Management of Working Capital 7.69

corporates are other attractive means of parking surplus funds for companies along with
deposits with sister concerns or associate companies.
Besides this Money Market Mutual Funds (MMMFs) have also emerged as one of the avenues
of short-term investment. They focus on short-term marketable securities such as Treasury
bills, commercial papers certificate of deposits or call money market. There is a lock in period
of 30 days after which the investment may be converted into cash. They offer attractive
yields, and are popular with institutional investors and some big companies.
Illustration 9 : The following information is available in respect of Saitrading company:
(i) On an average, debtors are collected after 45 days; inventories have an average holding
period of 75 days and creditor’s payment period on an average is 30 days.
(ii) The firm spends a total of ` 120 lakhs annually at a constant rate.
(iii) It can earn 10 per cent on investments.
From the above information, you are required to calculate:
(a) The cash cycle and cash turnover,
(b) Minimum amounts of cash to be maintained to meet payments as they become due,
(c) Savings by reducing the average inventory holding period by 30 days.
Solution
(a) Cash cycle = 45 days + 75 days – 30 days = 90 days (3 months)
Cash turnover = 12 months (360 days)/3 months (90 days) = 4.
(b) Minimum operating cash = Total operating annual outlay/cash turnover, that is, ` 120
lakhs/4 = ` 30 lakhs.
(c) Cash cycle = 45 days + 45 days – 30 days = 60 days (2 months).
Cash turnover = 12 months (360 days)/2 months (60 days) = 6.
Minimum operating cash = ` 120 lakhs/6 = ` 20 lakhs.
Reduction in investments = ` 30 lakhs – ` 20 lakhs = ` 10 lakhs.
Savings = 0.10 × ` 10 lakhs = ` 1 lakh.

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 7.70 Financial Management

UNIT – III : MANAGEMENT OF INVENTORY

3.1 Inventory Management

Inventories constitute a major element of working capital. It is, therefore, important that
investment in inventory is property controlled. The objectives of inventory management are, to
a great extent, similar to the objectives of cash management. Inventory management covers a
large number of problems including fixation of minimum and maximum levels, determining the
size of inventory to be carried, deciding about the issues, receipts and inspection procedures,
determining the economic order quantity, proper storage facilities, keeping check over
obsolescence and ensuring control over movement of inventories.
The aspects concerning control over inventories have been discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 of
Paper 3 : Part 1 - Cost Accounting.
Some illustrations are given for your practice.
Illustration 1 : A company’s requirements for ten days are 6,300 units. The ordering cost per
order is ` 10 and the carrying cost per unit is ` 0.26. The following is the discount schedule
applicable to the company.
Lot size Discount per unit (` )
1 -999 0
1,000 - 1,499 0.010
1,500 – 2,499 0.015
2,500 – 4,999 0.030
5,000 – and above 0.050
You are required to calculate the economic order quantity.
Solution
The economic order quantity without considering the discount is:
2 × 6,300 × 10
EOQ =
0.26
1,26,000
= = 700 units (approx).
0.26
The following table is constructed to take account of the discount.
When the quantity discounts are available, the company should place four orders of 1,575
units each, as the total cost is minimum ` 150.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.71

No. of orders 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Order size 6,300 3,150 2,100 1,575 1,260 1,050 900 787.5 700 630

Average inventory 3,150 1,575 1,050 787.5 630 525 450 393.7 350 315

Carrying cost (` ) 819 410 273 205 164 137 117 102 91 82

Order Cost (` ) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Total Cost (` ) 829 430 303 245 214 297 187 182 181 182

Less: Discount 315 189 95 95 63 63 - - - -

Total Cost after 514 241 208 150 151 234 187 182 181 182
discount (` )
Note : Discount will be available on the total quantity, 6,300 units. However, discount per unit
increases as order size increases.
Illustration 2 : Marvel Limited uses a large quantity of salt in its production process. Annual
consumption is 60,000 tonnes over a 50-week working year. It costs ` 100 to initiate and
process an order and delivery follow two weeks later. Storage costs for the salt are estimated
at 10 paise per tonne per annum. The current practice is to order twice a year when the stock
falls to 10,000 tonnes. Recommend an appropriate ordering policy for Marvel Limited, and
contrast it with the cost of the current policy.
Solution
The recommended policy should be based on the EOQ model.
F = ` 100 per order
S = 60,000 tonnes per year
H = ` 0.10 per tonne per year
Substituting : Q = (2×100×60,000/0.10)1/2 = 10,954 tonnes per order
Number of orders per year = 60,000/10,954 = 5.5 orders
Re-order level = 2×60,000/50 = 2,400 tonnes
Total cost of optima policy = holding costs + ordering costs
= (0.1×10954)/2 + (100×60,000)/10,954
= 547.70 + 547.74 = ` 1,095
To compare the optimum policy with the current policy, the average level of stock under the
current policy must be found. An order is placed when stock falls to 10,000 tonnes, but the
lead time is two weeks. The stock used in that time is (60,000×2)/50 = 2,400 tonnes. Before
delivery, inventory has fallen to (10,000 – 2,400) = 7,600 tonnes. Orders are made twice per
year, and so the order size = 60,000/2 = 30,000 tonnes. The order will increase stock level to

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 7.72 Financial Management

30,000 + 7,600 = 37,600 tonnes. Hence the average stock level = 7,600 + (30,000/2) =
22,600 tonnes. Total costs of current policy = (0.1×22,600) + (100×2) = ` 2,460 per year.
The recommended policy, then, costs ` 1,365 per year less than the current policy.
Illustration 3 : Pureair Company is a distributor of air filters to retail stores. It buys its filters
from several manufacturers. Filters are ordered in lot sizes of 1,000 and each order costs `
40 to place. Demand from retail stores is 20,000 filters per month, and carrying cost is ` 0.10
a filter per month.
(a) What is the optimal order quantity with respect to so many lot sizes?
(b) What would be the optimal order quantity if the carrying cost were ` 0.05 a filter per
month?
(c) What would be the optimal order quantity if ordering costs were ` 10?
Solution
2(20) (40)
(a) Q*= =4
100
Carrying costs = ` 0.10 × 1,000 = ` 100. The optimal order size would be 4,000 filters,
which represents five orders a month.
2(20) (40)
(b) Q*= = 5.66
50
Since the lot size is 1,000 filters, the company would order 6,000 filters each time. The
lower the carrying cost, the more important ordering costs become relatively, and the
larger the optimal order size.
2(20) (10)
(c) Q*= =2
100
The lower the order cost, the more important carrying costs become relatively and the
smaller the optimal order size.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.73

UNIT – IV : MANAGEMENT OF RECEIVABLES

4.1 Introduction
The basic objective of management of sundry debtors is to optimise the return on investment
on these assets known as receivables.
Large amounts are tied up in sundry debtors, there are chances of bad debts and there will be cost
of collection of debts. On the contrary, if the investment in sundry debtors is low, the sales may be
restricted, since the competitors may offer more liberal terms. Therefore, management of sundry
debtors is an important issue and requires proper policies and their implementation.
4.2 Aspects of Management of Debtors
There are basically three aspects of management of sundry debtors:
1. Credit policy: The credit policy is to be determined. It involves a trade off between the
profits on additional sales that arise due to credit being extended on the one hand and
the cost of carrying those debtors and bad debt losses on the other. This seeks to
decide credit period, cash discount and other relevant matters. The credit period is
generally stated in terms of net days. For example if the firm’s credit terms are “net 50”.
It is expected that customers will repay credit obligations not later than 50 days.
Further, the cash discount policy of the firm specifies:
(a) The rate of cash discount.
(b) The cash discount period; and
(c) The net credit period.
For example, the credit terms may be expressed as “3/15 net 60”. This means that
a 3% discount will be granted if the customer pays within 15 days; if he does not
avail the offer he must make payment within 60 days.
2. Credit Analysis: This requires the finance manager to determine as to how risky it is to
advance credit to a particular party.
3. Control of receivable: This requires finance manager to follow up debtors and decide
about a suitable credit collection policy. It involves both laying down of credit policies
and execution of such policies.
There is always cost of maintaining receivables which comprises of following costs:
(i) The company requires additional funds as resources are blocked in receivables
which involves a cost in the form of interest (loan funds) or opportunity cost (own
funds)
(ii) Administrative costs which include record keeping, investigation of credit worthiness
etc.

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 7.74 Financial Management

(iii) Collection costs.

(iv) Defaulting costs.
4.3 Factors Determining Credit Policy
The credit policy is an important factor determining both the quantity and the quality of
accounts receivables. Various factors determine the size of the investment a company makes
in accounts receivables. They are, for instance:
(i) The effect of credit on the volume of sales;
(ii) Credit terms;
(iii) Cash discount;
(iv) Policies and practices of the firm for selecting credit customers.
(v) Paying practices and habits of the customers.
(vi) The firm’s policy and practice of collection.
(vii) The degree of operating efficiency in the billing, record keeping and adjustment function,
other costs such as interest, collection costs and bad debts etc., would also have an
impact on the size of the investment in receivables. The rising trend in these costs would
depress the size of investment in receivables.
The firm may follow a lenient or a stringent credit policy. The firm which follows a lenient
credit policy sells on credit to customers on very liberal terms and standards. On the contrary
a firm following a stringent credit policy sells on credit on a highly selective basis only to those
customers who have proper credit worthiness and who are financially sound.
Any increase in accounts receivables that is, additional extension of trade credit not only
results in higher sales but also requires additional financing to support the increased
investment in accounts receivables. The costs of credit investigations and collection efforts
and the chances of bad debts are also increased.
4.4 Factors under the Control of the Finance Manager
The finance manager has operating responsibility for the management of the investment in
receivables. His involvement include:-
(a) Supervising the administration of credit;
(b) Contribute to top management decisions relating to the best credit policies of the firm;
(c ) Deciding the criteria for selection of credit applications; and
(d) Speed up the conversion of receivables into cash by aggressive collection policy.
In summary the finance manager has to strike a balance between the cost of increased
investment in receivables and profits from the higher levels of sales.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.75

Illustration 1 : A trader whose current sales are in the region of ` 6 lakhs per annum and an
average collection period of 30 days wants to pursue a more liberal policy to improve sales. A
study made by a management consultant reveals the following information:-
Credit Policy Increase in collection Increase in sales Present default
period anticipated
A 10 days ` 30,000 1.5%
B 20 days ` 48,000 2%
C 30 days ` 75,000 3%
D 45 days ` 90,000 4%
The selling price per unit is ` 3. Average cost per unit is ` 2.25 and variable costs per unit are `
2.
The current bad debt loss is 1%. Required return on additional investment is 20%. Assume a
360 days year.
Which of the above policies would you recommend for adoption?
Solution
Evaluation of Credit Policies
Part I
Credit
Policy
Existing A B C D
Credit Period (Days) 30 40 50 60 75
Expected additional sales (` ) 30,000 48,000 75,000 90,000
Contribution of additional sales 10,000 16,000 25,000 30,000
(one-third of selling price)
Bad debs (Expected Sales × 6,000 9,450 12,960 20,250 27,600
Default percentage)
Additional bad debts -- 3,450 6,960 14,250 21,600
Contribution of additional sales __ 6,550 9,040 10,750 8,400
less additional bad debts (A)
Part II
Expected sales (` ) 6,00,000 6,30,000 6,48,000 6,75,000 6,90,000
Receivables turnover ratio 12 9 7.2 6 4.8
Average receivables 50,000 70,000 90,000 1,12,500 1,43,750
Investment in receivables

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 7.76 Financial Management

(Receivables × Variable cost i.e,

two-thirds of sales price i.e. `
50,000 × 2/3 = ` 33,333 and so
on) 33,333 46,667 60,000 75,000 95,833
Additional investment in
receivables __ 13,334 26,667 41,667 62,500
Required return on additional
investment at 20% (B) __ 2,667 5,333 8,333 12,500
Excess of additional contribution
over required return on
additional investment in
receivables (A)-(B)
__ 3,883 3,707 2,417 (4,100)
The additional contribution over required return on additional investment in receivables is the
maximum under Credit Policy A. Hence, Policy A is recommended for adoption followed by B and
C. Policy D cannot be adopted because it would result in the reduction of the existing profits.
Illustration 2 : XYZ Corporation is considering relaxing its present credit policy and is in the
process of evaluating two proposed policies. Currently, the firm has annual credit sales of `
50 lakhs and accounts receivable turnover ratio of 4 times a year. The current level of loss
due to bad debts is ` 1,50,000. The firm is required to give a return of 25% on the investment
in new accounts receivables. The company’s variable costs are 70% of the selling price.
Given the following information, which is the better option?
(Amount in ` )
Present Policy Policy
Policy Option I Option I
Annual credit sales 50,00,000 60,00,000 67,50,000
Accounts receivable turnover ratio 4 times 3 times 2.4 times
Bad debt losses 1,50,000 3,00,000 4,50,000
Solution
XYZ CORPORATION
Evaluation of Credit Policies
(Amount in ` )
Present Policy Policy Option
Policy Option I II
Annual credit sales 50,00,000 60,00,000 67,50,000
Accounts receivable turnover 4 times 3 times 2.4 times

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 Management of Working Capital 7.77

Average collection period 3 months 4 months 5 months

Average level of accounts receivable 12,50,000 20,00,000 28,12,500
Marginal increase in investment in receivable
less profit margin ___ 5,25,000 5,68,750
Marginal increase in sales ___ 10,00,000 7,50,000
Profit on marginal increase in sales (30%) ___ 3,00,000 2,25,000
Marginal increase in bad debt losses ___ 1,50,000 1,50,000
Profit on marginal increase in sales less
marginal bad debts loss ___ 1,50,000 75,000
___
Required return on marginal investment @ 25% ___ 1,31,250 1,42,188
Surplus (loss) after required rate of return ___ 18,750 (67,188)
It is clear from the above that the policy option I has a surplus of ` 18,750/- whereas option II
shows a deficit of ` 67,188/- on the basis of 25% return. Hence policy option I is better.
Illustration 3 : As a part of the strategy to increase sales and profits, the sales manager of a
company proposes to sell goods to a group of new customers with 10% risk of non-payment.
This group would require one and a half months credit and is likely to increase sales by `
1,00,000 p.a. Production and Selling expenses amount to 80% of sales and the income-tax
rate is 50%. The company’s minimum required rate of return (after tax) is 25%.
Should the sales manager’s proposal be accepted?
Also find the degree of risk of non-payment that the company should be willing to assume if
the required rate of return (after tax) were (i) 30%, (ii) 40% and (iii) 60%.
Solution
Extension of credit to a group of new customers:
Profitability of additional sales: `
Increase in sales per annum 1,00,000
Less Bad debt losses (10%) of sales 10,000
Net sales revenue 90,000
Less Production and selling expenses (80% of sales) 80,000
Profit before tax 10,000
Less Income tax (50%) 5,000
Profit after tax 5,000

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 7.78 Financial Management

Average investment in additional receivables

Period of credit: 1 1 2 months
12
Receivables turnover: =8
1 12
`1,00,000
Average amount of receivables: = ` 12,500
8
Average investment in receivables: ` 12,500 × 80% = ` 10,000
` 5,000
The available rate of return: × 100 = 50%
`10,000
Since the available rate of return is 50%, which is higher than the required rate of return of
25%, the Sales Manager’s proposal should be accepted.
(i) Acceptable degree of risk of non-payment if the required rate of return (after tax is 30%)
Required amount of profit after tax on investment:
` 10,000 × 30% = ` 3,000
Required amount of profit before tax at this level:
` 3,000 ×100
= ` 6,000
50
Net sales revenue required:
` 80,000 + ` 6,000 = ` 86,000
Acceptable amount of bad debt losses:
` 1,00,000 – ` 86,000 = ` 14,000
Acceptable degree of risk of non-payment:
` 14,000
x100 = 14%
`1,00,000
(ii) Acceptable degree of risk of non-payment if the required rate of return (after tax) is 40%:
Required amount of profit after tax on investment:
` 10,000 × 40% = ` 4,000
Required amount of profit before tax
` 4,000 x100
= ` 8,000
50

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 Management of Working Capital 7.79

Net sales revenue required:

` 80,000 + ` 8,000 = ` 88,000
Acceptable amount of bad debt losses:
` 1,00,000 – ` 88,000 = ` 12,000
Acceptable degree of risk of non-payment:
` 12,000
×100 = 12%
1,00,000
(iii) Acceptable degree of risk of non-payment of the required rate of return (after tax) is 60%:
Required amount of profit after tax on investment:
` 10,000 × 60% = ` 6,000
Required amount of profit before tax:
` 6,000 ×100
= ` 12,000
50
Net sales revenue required:
` 80,000 + ` 12,000 = ` 92,000
Acceptable amount of bad debt losses:
` 1,00,000 – ` 92,000 = ` 8,000
Acceptable degree of risk of non-payment:
` 8,000
×100 = 8%
` 1,00,000
Illustration 4 : Slow Payers are regular customers of Goods Dealers Ltd., Calcutta and have
approached the sellers for extension of a credit facility for enabling them to purchase goods
from Goods Dealers Ltd. On an analysis of past performance and on the basis of information
supplied, the following pattern of payment schedule emerges in regard to Slow Payers:
u Pattern
At the end of 30 days 15% of the bill
At the end of 60 days 34% of the bill.
At the end of 90 days 30% of the bill.
At the end of 100 days 20% of the bill.
Non-recovery 1% of the bill.
Slow Payers want to enter into a firm commitment for purchase of goods of ` 15 lakhs in
2005, deliveries to be made in equal quantities on the first day of each quarter in the calendar

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 7.80 Financial Management

year. The price per unit of commodity is ` 150 on which a profit of ` 5 per unit is expected to
be made. It is anticipated by Goods Dealers Ltd., that taking up of this contract would mean
an extra recurring expenditure of ` 5,000 per annum. If the opportunity cost of funds in the
hands of Goods Dealers is 24% per annum, would you as the finance manager of the seller
recommend the grant of credit to Slow Payers? Workings should form part of your answer.
Assume year of 360 days.
Solution
Evaluation of Extension of Credit Facility to Slow Payers:
(i) Anticipated Return on the Contract `
(ii) ⎛ ` 15,00,000 ⎞
Margin return: ⎜ ×5⎟ 50,000
⎝ 150 ⎠
Less: Recurring annual costs 5,000
______
Net anticipated return 45,000
(ii) Quarterly sales value of the goods to be delivered on 1st January,
⎛ `15,00,000 ⎞
1st April, 1st July nd 1st October: ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ 3,75,000
(iii) Opportunity Cost (Interest Cost) of Funds to be Locked up:
Amount due for each quarter Period Products for
(Days) each quarter
` 56,250 (15% of ` 3,75,000) 30 days 16,87,500
` 1,27,500 (34% of ` 3,75,000). 60 days 76,50,000
` 1,12,500 (30% of ` 3,75,000) 90 days 1,01,25,000
` 75,000 (20% of ` 3,75,000) 100 days 75,00,000
` 3,750 (1% of ` 3,75,000) Non recovery
(See Note 1)
Total Products 2,69,62,500
Amount of interest cost for the year @ 24% 71,900
p.a.:
⎛ 2,69,62,500 24 ⎞
⎜ × ×4⎟
⎝ 360 100 ⎠
(iv) Total Non-recovery of Bad Debts for the 15,000
year:
(` 3,750 × 4)

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 Management of Working Capital 7.81

(v) Profitability of Proposed Grant of Credit

Facility:
Net anticipated return from sales 45,000
Less: Interest cost on funds
:Locked up 71,900 86,900
…….. Bad debts 15,000 (41,900)
Profits (Loss)
In the light of the above the finance manager will not recommend the grant of credit facility to
Slow Payers as it is not profitable.
Note:(i) Interest cost could be calculated on the amount of bad debts also.
(ii) Interest cost could be calculated on the amount of cost of sales instead of sales value.
4.5 Financing Receivables
Pledging of accounts receivables and Factoring have emerged as the important sources of
financing of accounts receivables now-a-days.
(i) Pledging: This refers to the use of a firm’s receivable to secure a short term loan. A
firm’s receivables can be termed as its most liquid assets and this serve as prime
collateral for a secured loan. The lender scrutinizes the quality of the accounts
receivables, selects acceptable accounts, creates a lien on the collateral and fixes the
percentage of financing receivables which ranges around 50 to 90%. The major
advantage of pledging accounts receivables is the ease and flexibility it provides to the
borrower. Moreover, financing is done regularly. This, however, suffers on account of
high cost of financing.
(ii) Factoring: Factoring is a new concept in financing of accounts receivables. This refers
to out right sale of accounts receivables to a factor or a financial agency. A factor is a
firm that acquires the receivables of other firms. The factoring lays down the conditions
of the sale in a factoring agreement. The factoring agency bears the right of collection
and services the accounts for a fee.
The factor pays an agreed-upon
Customers send percentage of the accounts
payment to the factor Factor
receivable to the firm.

Customer
Firm
Goods

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 7.82 Financial Management

Normally, factoring is the arrangement on a non-recourse basis where in the event of default
the loss is borne by this factor. However, in a factoring arrangement with recourse, in such
situation, the accounts receivables will be turned back to the firm by the factor for resolution.
There are a number of financial distributors providing factoring services in India. Some
commercial banks and other financial agencies provide this service. The biggest advantages
of factoring are the immediate conversion of receivables into cash and predicted pattern of
cash flows. Financing receivables with the help of factoring can help a company having
liquidity without creating a net liability on its financial condition. Besides, factoring is a flexible
financial tool providing timely funds, efficient record keepings and effective management of the
collection process. This is not considered to be as a loan. There is no debt repayment, no
compromise to balance sheet, no long term agreements or delays associated with other
methods of raising capital. Factoring allows the firm to use cash for the growth needs of
business.
Illustration 5 : A Factoring firm has credit sales of ` 360 lakhs and its average collection
period is 30 days. The financial controller estimates, bad debt losses are around 2% of credit
sales. The firm spends ` 1,40,000 annually on debtors administration. This cost comprises of
telephonic and fax bills along with salaries of staff members. These are the avoidable costs.
A Factoring firm has offered to buy the firm’s receivables. The factor will charge 1%
commission and will pay an advance against receivables on an interest @15% p.a. after
withholding 10% as reserve. What should the firm do?
Assume 360 days in a year.
Solution
30
Average level of receivables = ` 360 lakhs × = 30 lakhs
360
Factoring Commission = 1% of ` 30,00,000 = ` 30,000
Reserve = 10% of ` 30,00,000 = ` 3,00,000
Total (i) = ` 3,30,000
Thus, the amount available for advance is
Average level of receivables ` 30,00,000
Less: Total (i) from above ` 3,30,000
(ii) ` 26,70,000
Less: Interest @ 15% p.a. for 30 days ` 33,375
Net Amount of Advance available. ` 26,36,625
Evaluation of Factoring Proposal
Cost to the Firm
360
Factoring Commission = ` 30,00,000 × = ` 3,60,000
30

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 Management of Working Capital 7.83

360 ` 4,00,500
Interest charges = ` 33,375 × =
30 ` 7,60,500
Savings to the firm
`
Cost of credit administration 1,40,000
Cost of bad-debt losses, 0.02 × 360 lakhs 7,20,000
8,60,000
∴ The Net benefit to the firm
`
Savings to the firm 8,60,000
- Cost to the firm 7,60,500
Net Savings 99,500
Conclusion: Since the savings to the firm exceeds the cost to the firm on account of
factoring, therefore, the proposal is acceptable.
4.6 Innovations in Receivable Management
During the recent years, a number of tools, techniques, practices and measures have been
invented to increase effectiveness in accounts receivable management.
Following are the major determinants for significant innovations in accounts receivable
management and process efficiency.
1. Re-engineering Receivable Process: In some of the organizations real cost reductions
and performance improvements have been achieved by re-engineering in accounts
receivable process. Re-engineering is a fundamental re-think and re-design of business
processes by incorporating modern business approaches. The nature of accounts
receivables is such that decisions made elsewhere in the organization are likely to affect
the level of resources that are expended on the management of accounts receivables.
The following aspects provide an opportunity to improve the management of accounts
receivables:
(a) Centralisation: Centralisation of high nature transactions of accounts receivables
and payable is one of the practice for better efficiency. This focuses attention on
specialized groups for speedy recovery.
(b) Alternative Payment Strategies: Alternative payment strategies in addition to
traditional practices result into efficiencies in the management of accounts
receivables. It is observed that payment of accounts outstanding is likely to be
quicker where a number of payment alternatives are made available to customers.
Besides, this convenient payment method is a marketing tool that is of benefit in
attracting and retaining customers. The following alternative modes of payment

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 7.84 Financial Management

may also be used alongwith traditional methods like Cheque Book etc., for making
timely payment, added customer service, reducing remittance processing costs and
improved cash flows and better debtor turnover.
(i) Direct debit: I.e., authorization for the transfer of funds from the purchaser’s
bank account.
(ii) Integrated Voice Response: This system uses human operators and a
computer based system to allow customers to make payment over phone,
generally by credit card. This system has proved to be beneficial in the
orgnisations processing a large number of payments regularly.
(iii) Collection by a third party: The payment can be collected by an authorized
external firm. The payments can be made by cash, cheque, credit card or
Electronic fund transfer. Banks may also be acting as collecting agents of their
customers and directly depositing the collections in customers’ bank accounts.
(iv) Lock Box Processing: Under this system an outsourced partner captures
cheques and invoice data and transmits the file to the client firm for processing
in that firm’s systems.
(v) Payments via Internet.
(c) Customer Orientation: Where individual customers or a group of customers have
some strategic importance to the firm a case study approach may be followed to
develop good customer relations. A critical study of this group may lead to
formation of a strategy for prompt settlement of debt.
2. Evaluation of Risk: Risk evaluation is a major component in the establishment of an
effective control mechanism. Once risks have been properly assessed controls can be
introduced to either contain the risk to an acceptable level or to eliminate them entirely.
This also provides an opportunity for removing inefficient practices. This involves a re-
think of processes and questioning the way that tasks are performed. This also opens
the way for efficiency and effectiveness benefits in the management of accounts
receivables.
3. Use of Latest Technology: Technological developments now-a-days provides an
opportunity for improvement in accounts receivables process. The major innovations
available are the integration of systems used in the management of accounts
receivables, the automation and the use of e-commerce.
(a) E-commerce refers to the use of computer and electronic telecommunication
technologies, particularly on an inter-organisational level, to support trading in
goods and services. It uses technologies such as Electronic Data Inter-change
(EDI), Electronic Mail, Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) and Electronic Catalogue
Systems to allow the buyer and seller to transact business by exchange of
information between computer application systems.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.85

(b) Automated Accounts Receivable Management Systems: Now-a-days all the big
companies develop and maintain automated receivable management systems.
Manual systems of recording the transactions and managing receivables are not
only cumbersome but ultimately costly also. These integrated systems
automatically update all the accounting records affected by a transaction. For
example, if a transaction of credit sale is to be recorded, the system increases the
amount the customer owes to the firm, reduces the inventory for the item
purchased, and records the sale. This system of a company allows the application
and tracking of receivables and collections, using the automated receivables system
allows the company to store important information for an unlimited number of
customers and transactions, and accommodate efficient processing of customer
payments and adjustments.
4. Receivable Collection Practices: The aim of debtors’ collection should be to reduce,
monitor and control the accounts receivable at the same time maintain customer
goodwill. The fundamental rule of sound receivable management should be to reduce
the time lag between the sale and collection. Any delays that lengthen this span causes
receivables to unnecessary build up and increase the risk of bad debts. This is equally
true for the delays caused by billing and collection procedures as it is for delays caused
by the customer.
The following are major receivable collection procedures and practices:
(i) Issue of Invoice.
(ii) Open account or open-end credit.
(iii) Credit terms or time limits.
(iv) Periodic statements.
(v) Use of payment incentives and penalties.
(vi) Record keeping and Continuous Audit.
(vii) Export Factoring: Factors provide comprehensive credit management, loss
protection collection services and provision of working capital to the firms exporting
internationally.
(viii) Business Process Outsourcing: This refers to a strategic business tool whereby an
outside agency takes over the entire responsibility for managing a business process.
5. Use of Financial tools/techniques: The finance manager while managing accounts
receivables uses a number of financial tools and techniques. Some of them have been
described hereby as follows:
(i) Credit analysis: While determining the credit terms, the firm has to evaluate
individual customers in respect of their credit worthiness and the possibility of bad
debts. For this purpose, the firm has to ascertain credit rating of prospective
customers.

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 7.86 Financial Management

Credit rating: An important task for the finance manager is to rate the various
debtors who seek credit facility. This involves decisions regarding individual parties
so as to ascertain how much credit can be extended and for how long. In foreign
countries specialized agencies are engaged in the task of providing rating
information regarding individual parties. Dun and Broadstreet is one such source.
The finance manager has to look into the credit-worthiness of a party and sanction
credit limit only after he is convinced that the party is sound. This would involve an
analysis of the financial status of the party, its reputation and previous record of
meeting commitments.
The credit manager here has to employ a number of sources to obtain credit
information. The following are the important sources:
Trade references; Bank references; Credit bureau reports; Past experience;
Published financial statements; and Salesman’s interview and reports.
Once the credit-worthiness of a client is ascertained, the next question is to set a
limit of the credit. In all such enquiries, the credit manager must be discreet and
should always have the interest of high sales in view.
(ii) Decision tree analysis of granting credit: The decision whether to grant credit or
not is a decision involving costs and benefits. When a customer pays, the seller
makes profit but when he fails to pay the amount of cost going into the product is
also gone. If the relative chances of recovering the dues can be decided it can
form a probability distribution of payment or non-payment. If the chances of
recovery are 9 out of 10 then probability of recovery is 0.9 and that of default is 0.1.
Credit evaluation of a customer shows that the probability of recovery is 0.9 and
that of default is 0.1. the revenue from the order is ` 5 lakhs and cost is ` 4 lakhs.
The decision is whether credit should be granted or not.
The analysis is presented in the following diagram.
Rs.1,00,000.00

Grant

Rs.4,00,000.00

Do not grant

The weighted net benefit is ` [1,00,000 × 0.9 i.e. 90,000 – 0.1 × 4,00,000 i.e. 40,000]
= 50,000. So credit should be granted.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.87

(iii) Control of receivables: Another aspect of management of debtors is the control of

receivables. Merely setting of standards and framing a credit policy is not sufficient; it is,
equally important to control receivables.
(iv) Collection policy: Efficient and timely collection of debtors ensures that the bad debt
losses are reduced to the minimum and the average collection period is shorter. If a firm
spends more resources on collection of debts, it is likely to have smaller bad debts.
Thus, a firm must work out the optimum amount that it should spend on collection of
debtors. This involves a trade off between the level of expenditure on the one hand and
decrease in bad debt losses and investment in debtors on the other.
The collection cell of a firm has to work in a manner that it does not create too much
resentment amongst the customers. On the other hand, it has to keep the amount of the
outstanding in check. Hence, it has to work in a very smoothen manner and diplomatically.
It is important that clear-cut procedures regarding credit collection are set up. Such
procedures must answer questions like the following:
(a) How long should a debtor balance be allowed to exist before collection process is
started?
(b) What should be the procedure of follow up with defaulting customer? How
reminders are to be sent and how should each successive reminder be drafted?
(c) Should there be collection machinery whereby personal calls by company’s
representatives are made?
(d) What should be the procedure for dealing with doubtful accounts? Is legal action to
be instituted? How should account be handled?
4.7 Monitoring of Receivables
(i) Computation of average age of receivables: It involves computation of average
collection period.
(ii) Ageing Schedule: When receivables are analysed according to their age, the process is
known as preparing the ageing schedules of receivables. The computation of average
age of receivables is a quick and effective method of comparing the liquidity of
receivables with the liquidity of receivables in the past and also comparing liquidity of one
firm with the liquidity of the other competitive firm. It also helps the firm to predict
collection pattern of receivables in future. This comparison can be made periodically.
The purpose of classifying receivables by age groups is to have a closer control over the
quality of individual accounts. It requires going back to the receivables ledger where the
dates of each customer’s purchases and payments are available. The ageing schedule,
by indicating a tendency for old accounts to accumulate, provides a useful supplement to
average collection period of receivables/sales analysis. Because an analysis of receivables
in terms of associated dates of sales enables the firm to recognise the recent increases, and
slumps in sales. To ascertain the condition of receivables for control purposes, it may be
considered desirable to compare the current ageing schedule with an earlier ageing schedule

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 7.88 Financial Management

in the same firm and also to compare this information with the experience of other firms. The
following is an illustration of the ageing schedule of receivables:-
Ageing Schedule
Age Classes As on 30th June, 2010 As on 30th September, 2010
(Days)
Month Balance of Percentage Month of Balance of Percentage
of Sale Receivables to total Sale Receivables to total
(` ) (` )
1-30 June 41,500 11.9 September 1,00,000 22.7
31-60 May 74,200 21.4 August 2,50,000 56.8
61-90 April 1,85,600 53.4 July 48,000 10.9
91-120 March 35,300 10.2 June 40,000 9.1
121 and more Earlier 10,800 3.1 Earlier 2,000 0.5
3,47,400 100 4,40,000 100
The above ageing schedule shows a substantial improvement in the liquidity of
receivables for the quarter ending September, 2010 as compared with the liquidity of
receivables for the quarter ending June, 2010. It could be possible due to greater
collection efforts of the firm.
(iii) Collection Programme:
(a) Monitoring the state of receivables.
(b) Intimation to customers when due date approaches.
(c) Telegraphic and telephonic advice to customers on the due date.
(d) Threat of legal action on overdue A/cs.
(e) Legal action on overdue A/cs.
The following diagram shows the relationship between collection expenses and bad debt
losses which have to be established as initial increase in collection expenses may have
only a small impact on bad debt losses.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.89

Illustration 6 : Mosaic Limited has current sales of ` 1.5 lakh per year. Cost of sales is 75
per cent of sales and bad debts are one per cent of sales. Cost of sales comprises 80 per
cent variable costs and 20 per cent fixed costs, while the company’s required rate of return is
12 per cent. Mosaic Limited currently allows customers 30 days’ credit, but is considering
increasing this to 60 days’ credit in order to increase sales.
It has been estimated that this change in policy will increase sales by 15 per cent, while bad
debts will increase from one per cent to four per cent. It is not expected that the policy change
will result in an increase in fixed costs and creditors and stock will be unchanged.
Should Mosaic Limited introduce the proposed policy?
Solution
New level of sales will be 15,00,000×1.15 = ` 17,25,000
Variable costs are 80% ×75% = 60% of sales
Contribution from sales is therefore 40% of sales
` `
Proposed investment in debtors = 17,25,000×60/365 = 2,83,562
Current investment in debtors = 15,00,000×30/365 1,23,288
Increase in investment in debtors 1,60,274
Increase in contribution = 15% ×15,00,000×40% = 90,000
New level of bad debts = 17,25,000×4% = 69,000
Current level of bad debts 15,000
Increase in bad debts (54,000)
Additional financing costs = 1,60,274×12% = (19,233)
Savings by introducing change in policy 16,767
Advise: The financing policy is financially acceptable, although the savings are not great.
Illustration 7 : Misha Limited presently gives terms of net 30 days. It has ` 6 crores in sales,
and its average collection period is 45 days. To stimulate demand, the company may give
terms of net 60 days. If it does instigate these terms, sales are expected to increase by 15
per cent. After the change, the average collection period is expected to be 75 days, with no
difference in payment habits between old and new customers. Variable costs are ` 0.80 for
every ` 1.00 of sales, and the company’s required rate of return on investment in receivables
is 20 per cent. Should the company extend its credit period? (Assume a 360 days year).
Solution
360
Receivable turnover = = 4.8
75

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 7.90 Financial Management

Profitability of additional sales = ` 90,00,000 × .2 = ` 18,00,000.

` 90,00,000
Additional receivables associated with the new sales = = ` 18,75,000
4.8
Additional investment in receivables associated with the new sales
= ` 18,75,000 × .8 = ` 15,00,000
New level of receivables associated with the original sales
` 6,00,00,000
= = ` 1,25,00,000
4.8
Old level of receivables associated with the original sales
` 6,00,00,000
= = ` 75,00,000
8
Incremental receivable investment, original sales = ` 50,00,000.
Total increase in receivable investment = ` 15,00,000 + ` 50,00,000= ` 65,00,000.
Carrying cost of additional investment = .20 × ` 65,00,000 = ` 13,00,000.
Advise : As the incremental carrying cost is less than the incremental profitability, the
company should lengthen its credit period from 30 to 60 days.
Illustration 8 : The Megatherm Corporation has just acquired a large account. As a result, it
needs an additional ` 75,000 in working capital immediately. It has been determined that
there are three feasible sources of funds:
(a) Trade credit: The company buys about ` 50,000 of materials per month on terms of 3/30,
net 90. Discounts are taken.
(b) Bank loan: The firm’s bank will lend ` 1,00,000 at 13 per cent. A 10 per cent compensating
balance will be required, which otherwise would not be maintained by the company.
(c) A factor will buy the company’s receivables (` 1,00,000 per month), which have a collection
period of 60 days. The factor will advance up to 75 per cent of the face value of the
receivables at 12 per cent on an annual basis. The factor will also charge a 2 per cent fee on
all receivables purchased. It has been estimated that the factor’s services will save the
company a credit department expense and bad-debt expenses of ` 1,500 per month.
On the basis of annual percentage cost, which alternative should the company select?
Solution
(a) Cost of trade credit: If discounts are not taken, upto ` 97,000 can be raised after the
second month. The cost would be

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 Management of Working Capital 7.91

3 365
× = 18.81%
97 60
(b) Cost of bank loan: Assuming the compensating balance would not otherwise be
maintained, the cost would be
13
= 14.44%
90
(c) Cost of factoring: The factor fee for the year would be
2% × ` 12,00,000 = ` 24,000
The savings effected, however, would be ` 18,000, giving a net factoring cost of ` 6,000.
Borrowing ` 75,000 on the receivables would thus cost
(12% ) ( ` 75,000 ) + ` 6,000
=
` 9,000 + ` 6,000
= 20.00%
` 75,000 ` 75,000
Advise: Bank borrowing would be the cheapest source of funds.
Illustration 9 : The Dolce Company purchases raw materials on terms of 2/10, net 30. A
review of the company’s records by the owner, Mr. Gupta, revealed that payments are usually
made 15 days after purchases are received. When asked why the firm did not take advantage
of its discounts, the accountant, Mr. Ram, replied that it cost only 2 per cent for these funds,
whereas a bank loan would cost the company 12 per cent.
(a) What mistake is Ram making?
(b) What is the real cost of not taking advantage of the discount?
(c) If the firm could not borrow from the bank and was forced to resort to the use of trade
credit funds, what suggestion might be made to Ram that would reduce the annual
interest cost?
Solution
(a) Ram is confusing the percentage cost of using funds for 5 days with the cost of using
funds for a year. These costs are clearly not comparable. One must be converted to the
time scale of the other.
2 365
(b) × = 149.0%
98 5
(c) Assuming that the firm has made the decision not to take the cash discount, it makes no
sense to pay before the due date. In this case, payment 30 days after purchases are
received rather than 15 would reduce the annual interest cost to 37.2 per cent.

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 7.92 Financial Management

UNIT – V : MANAGEMENT OF PAYABLES (CREDITORS)

5.1 Introduction
There is an old age saying in business that if you can buy well then you can sell well. Management
of your creditors and suppliers is just as important as the management of your debtors.
Trade creditor is a spontaneous source of finance in the sense that it arises from ordinary
business transaction. But it is also important to look after your creditors - slow payment by you
may create ill-feeling and your supplies could be disrupted and also create a bad image for
your company.
Creditors are a vital part of effective cash management and should be managed carefully to
enhance the cash position.
5.2 Cost and Benefits of Trade Credit
(a) Cost of Availing Trade Credit
Normally it is considered that the trade credit does not carry any cost. However, it carries
following costs:
(i) Price: There is often a discount on the price that the firm undergoes when it uses
trade credit, since it can take advantage of the discount only if it pays immediately.
This discount can translate into a high implicit cost.
(ii) Loss of goodwill: If the credit is overstepped, suppliers may discriminate against
delinquent customers if supplies become short. As with the effect of any loss of
goodwill, it depends very much on the relative market strengths of the parties
involved.
(iii) Cost of managing: Management of creditors involves administrative and
accounting costs that would otherwise be incurred.
(iv) Conditions: Sometimes most of the suppliers insist that for availing the credit
facility the order should be of some minimum size or even on regular basis.
(b) Cost of not taking Trade Credit
On the other hand the costs of not availing credit facilities are as under:
(i) Impact of inflation: If inflation persists then the borrowers are favoured over the
lenders with the levels of interest rates not seeming totally to redress the balance.
(ii) Interest: Trade credit is a type of interest free loan, therefore failure to avail this
facility has an interest cost. This cost is further increased if interest rates are higher.
(iii) Inconvenience: Sometimes it may also cause inconvenience to the supplier if the
supplier is geared to the deferred payment.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.93

5.3 Computation of Cost of Payables

By using the trade credit judiciously, a firm can reduce the effect of growth or burden on
investments in Working Capital.
Now question arises how to calculate the cost of not taking the discount.
The following equation can be used to calculate nominal cost, on an annual basis of not taking
the discount:
d 365 days
×
100 − d t
However the above formula does not take into account the compounding effect and therefore
the cost of credit shall be even higher. The cost of lost cash discount can be estimated by the
formula:
365
⎛ 100 ⎞ t
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝ 100 − d ⎠
Where,
d= Size of discount i.e. for 6% discount, d=6
t = The reduction in the payment period in days, necessary to obtain the early
discount or Days Credit Outstanding – Discount Period.
Illustration: Suppose ABC Ltd. has been offered credit terms from its major supplier of 2/10,
net 45. Hence the company has the choice of paying ` 10 per ` 100 or to invest the ` 98 for
an additional 35 days and eventually pay the supplier ` 100 per ` 100. The decision as to
whether the discount should be accepted depends on the opportunity cost of investing ` 98
for 35 days. What should the company do?
Solution
If the company does not avail the cash discount and pays the amount after 45 days, the
implied cost of interest per annum would be approximately:
365
⎛ 100 ⎞ 35
⎜ ⎟ − 1 = 23.5%
⎝ 100 − 2 ⎠

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 7.94 Financial Management

Now let us assume that ABC Ltd. can invest the additional cash and can obtain an annual
return of 25% and if the amount of invoice is ` 10,000. The alternatives are as follows:
Refuse Accept
discount discount
` `
Payment to supplier 10,000 9,800
Return from investing ` 9,800 between day 10 and day 45:
35 (235)
× ` 9,800 × 25%
365
Net Cost 9,765 9,800
Advise : Thus it is better for the company to refuse the discount, as return on cash retained is
more than the saving on account of discount.

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 Management of Working Capital 7.95

UNIT – VI: FINANCING OF WORKING CAPITAL

6.1 Introduction
After determining the amount of working capital required, the next step to be taken by the
finance manager is to arrange the funds.
As discussed earlier, it is advisable that the finance manager bifurcates the working capital
requirements between the permanent working capital and temporary working capital.
The permanent working capital is always needed irrespective of sales fluctuations, hence
should be financed by the long-term sources such as debt and equity. On the contrary the
temporary working capital may be financed by the short-term sources of finance.
Broadly speaking, the working capital finance may be classified between the two categories:
(i) Spontaneous sources.
(ii) Negotiable sources.
Spontaneous Sources: Spontaneous sources of finance are those which naturally arise in
the course of business operations. Trade credit, credit from employees, credit from suppliers
of services, etc. are some of the examples which may be quoted in this respect.
Negotiated Sources: On the other hand the negotiated sources, as the name implies, are
those which have to be specifically negotiated with lenders say, commercial banks, financial
institutions, general public etc.
The finance manager has to be very careful while selecting a particular source, or a
combination thereof for financing of working capital. Generally, the following parameters will
guide his decisions in this respect:
(i) Cost factor
(ii) Impact on credit rating
(iii) Feasibility
(iv) Reliability
(v) Restrictions
(vi) Hedging approach or matching approach i.e., Financing of assets with the same
maturity as of assets.
6.2 Sources of Finance
6.2.1 Spontaneous Sources of Finance
(a) Trade Credit: As outlined above trade credit is a spontaneous source of finance which is
normally extended to the purchaser organization by the sellers or services providers. This source
of financing working capital is more important since it contributes to about one-third of the total
short-term requirements. The dependence on this source is higher due to lesser cost of finance as

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 7.96 Financial Management

compared with other sources. Trade credit is guaranteed when a company acquires supplies,
merchandise or materials and does not pay immediately. If a buyer is able to get the credit without
completing much formality, it is termed as ‘open account trade credit.’
(b) Bills Payable: On the other hand in the case of “Bills Payable” the purchaser will have to
give a written promise to pay the amount of the bill/invoice either on demand or at a fixed
future date to the seller or the bearer of the note.
Due to its simplicity, easy availability and lesser explicit cost, the dependence on this source is
much more in all small or big organizations. Especially, for small enterprises this form of
credit is more helpful to small and medium enterprises. The amount of such financing
depends on the volume of purchases and the payment timing.
Accrued Expenses: Another spontaneous source of short-term financing is the accrued
expenses or the outstanding expenses liabilities. The accrued expenses refer to the services
availed by the firm, but the payment for which has yet to be made. It is a built in and an
automatic source of finance as most of the services like wages, salaries, taxes, duties etc., are
paid at the end of the period. The accrued expenses represent an interest free source of
finance. There is no explicit or implicit cost associated with the accrued expenses and the firm
can ensure liquidity by accruing these expenses.
6.2.2 Inter-corporate Loans and Deposits
Sometime, organizations having surplus funds invest for shot-term period with other
organizations. The rate of interest will be higher than the bank rate of interest and depending
on the financial soundness of the borrower company. This source of finance reduces
dependence on bank financing.
6.2.3 Commercial Papers
Commercial Paper (CP) is an unsecured promissory note issued by a firm to raise funds for a
short period. This is an instrument that enables highly rated corporate borrowers for short-
term borrowings and provides an additional financial instrument to investors with a freely
negotiable interest rate. The maturity period ranges from minimum 7 days to less than 1 year.
Advantages of CP: From the point of the issuing company, CP provides the following benefits:
(a) CP is sold on an unsecured basis and does not contain any restrictive conditions.
(b) Maturing CP can be repaid by selling new CP and thus can provide a continuous source
of funds.
(c) Maturity of CP can be tailored to suit the requirement of the issuing firm.
(d) CP can be issued as a source of fund even when money market is tight.
(e) Generally, the cost of CP to the issuing firm is lower than the cost of commercial bank loans.
However, CP as a source of financing has its own limitations:

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(i) Only highly credit rating firms can use it. New and moderately rated firm generally are
not in a position to issue CP.
(ii) CP can neither be redeemed before maturity nor can be extended beyond maturity.
6.2.4 Funds Generated from Operations
Funds generated from operations, during an accounting period, increase working capital by an
equivalent amount. The two main components of funds generated from operations are profit
and depreciation. Working capital will increase by the extent of funds generated from
operations. Students may refer to funds flow statement given earlier in this chapter.
6.2.5 Public Deposits
Deposits from the public are one of the important sources of finance particularly for well
established big companies with huge capital base for short and medium-term.
6.2.6 Bills Discounting
Bill discounting is recognized as an important short term Financial Instrument and it is widely
used method of short term financing. In a process of bill discounting, the supplier of goods
draws a bill of exchange with direction to the buyer to pay a certain amount of money after a
certain period, and gets its acceptance from the buyer or drawee of the bill.
6.2.7 Bill Rediscounting Scheme
The bill rediscounting Scheme was introduced by Reserve Bank of India with effect from 1st
November, 1970 in order to extend the use of the bill of exchange as an instrument for
providing credit and the creation of a bill market in India with a facility for the rediscounting of
eligible bills by banks. Under the bills rediscounting scheme, all licensed scheduled banks are
eligible to offer bills of exchange to the Reserve Bank for rediscount.
6.2.8 Factoring
Students may refer to the unit on Receivable Management wherein the concept of factoring
has been discussed. Factoring is a method of financing whereby a firm sells its trade debts at
a discount to a financial institution. In other words, factoring is a continuous arrangement
between a financial institution, (namely the factor) and a firm (namely the client) which sells
goods and services to trade customers on credit. As per this arrangement, the factor
purchases the client’s trade debts including accounts receivables either with or without
recourse to the client, and thus, exercises control over the credit extended to the customers
and administers the sales ledger of his client. To put it in a layman’s language, a factor is an
agent who collects the dues of his client for a certain fee.
The differences between Factoring and Bills discounting are as follows:
(i) Factoring is called as ‘Invoice factoring’ whereas bills discounting is known as “Invoice
discounting”.
(ii) In factoring the parties are known as client, factor and debtor whereas in bills discounting
they are known as Drawer, Drawee and Payee.

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 7.98 Financial Management

(iii) Factoring is a sort of management of book debts whereas bills discounting is a sort of
borrowing from commercial banks.
(iv) For factoring there is no specific Act; whereas in the case of bills discounting, the
Negotiable Instrument Act is applicable.
6.3 Working Capital Finance from Banks
Banks in India today constitute the major suppliers of working capital credit to any business
activity. Recently, some term lending financial institutions have also announced schemes for
working capital financing. The two committees viz., Tandon Committee and Chore Committee
have evolved definite guidelines and parameters in working capital financing, which have laid
the foundations for development and innovation in the area.
6.3.1 Instructions on Working Capital Finance by Banks
Assessment of Working Capital
¾ Reserve Bank of India has withdrawn the prescription, in regard to assessment of
working capital needs, based on the concept of Maximum Permissible Bank Finance, in
April 1997. Banks are now free to evolve, with the approval of their Boards, methods for
assessing the working capital requirements of borrowers, within the prudential guidelines
and exposure norms prescribed. Banks, however, have to take into account Reserve
Bank’s instructions relating to directed credit (such as priority sector, export, etc.), and
prohibition of credit (such as bridge finance, rediscounting of bills earlier discounted by
NBFCs) while formulating their lending policies.
¾ With the above liberalizations, all the instructions relating to MPBF issued by RBI from
time to time stand withdrawn. Further, various instructions/guidelines issued to banks
with objective of ensuring lending discipline in appraisal, sanction, monitoring and
utilization of bank finance cease to be mandatory. However, banks have the option of
incorporating such of the instructions/guidelines as are considered necessary in their
lending policies/procedures.
6.4 Forms of Bank Credit
The bank credit will generally be in the following forms:
¾ Cash Credit: This facility will be given by the banker to the customers by giving certain
amount of credit facility on continuous basis. The borrower will not be allowed to exceed
the limits sanctioned by the bank.
¾ Bank Overdraft: It is a short-term borrowing facility made available to the companies in
case of urgent need of funds. The banks will impose limits on the amount they can lend.
When the borrowed funds are no longer required they can quickly and easily be repaid.
The banks issue overdrafts with a right to call them in at short notice.
¾ Bills Discounting: The company which sells goods on credit, will normally draw a bill on
the buyer who will accept it and sends it to the seller of goods. The seller, in turn

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 Management of Working Capital 7.99

discounts the bill with his banker. The banker will generally earmarks the discounting bill
limit.
¾ Bills Acceptance: To obtain finance under this type of arrangement a company draws a
bill of exchange on bank. The bank accepts the bill thereby promising to pay out the
amount of the bill at some specified future date.
¾ Line of Credit: Line of Credit is a commitment by a bank to lend a certain amount of
funds on demand specifying the maximum amount.
¾ Letter of Credit: It is an arrangement by which the issuing bank on the instructions of a
customer or on its own behalf undertakes to pay or accept or negotiate or authorizes
another bank to do so against stipulated documents subject to compliance with specified
terms and conditions.
¾ Bank Guarantees: Bank guarantee is one of the facilities that the commercial banks
extend on behalf of their clients in favour of third parties who will be the beneficiaries of
the guarantees.
SUMMARY
¾ Working Capital Management involves managing the balance between firm’s short-term
assets and its short-term liabilities.
¾ From the value point of view, Working Capital can be defined as Gross Working Capital
or Net Working Capital.
¾ From the point of view of time, the term working capital can be divided into two
categories viz., Permanent and temporary.
¾ A large amount of working capital would mean that the company has idle funds. Since
funds have a cost, the company has to pay huge amount as interest on such funds. If
the firm has inadequate working capital, such firm runs the risk of insolvency.
¾ Some of the items/factors which need to be considered while planning for working capital
requirement are nature of business, market and demand conditions, operating efficiency,
credit policy etc.
¾ Finance manager has to pay particular attention to the levels of current assets and their
financing. To decide the levels and financing of current assets, the risk return trade off
must be taken into account.
¾ In determining the optimum level of current assets, the firm should balance the
profitability – Solvency tangle by minimizing total costs.
¾ Working Capital cycle indicates the length of time between a company’s paying for
materials, entering into stock and receiving the cash from sales of finished goods. It can
be determined by adding the number of days required for each stage in the cycle.

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 7.100 Financial Management

¾ Treasury management is defined as ‘the corporate handling of all financial matters, the
generation of external and internal funds for business, the management of currencies and
cash flows and the complex, strategies, policies and procedures of corporate finance
¾ The main objectives of cash management for a business are:-
i. Provide adequate cash to each of its units;
ii. No funds are blocked in idle cash; and
iii. The surplus cash (if any) should be invested in order to maximize returns for the
business.
¾ Cash Budget is the most significant device to plan for and control cash receipts and
payments.
This represents cash requirements of business during the budget period. The various
purposes of cash budgets are:-
i. Coordinate the timings of cash needs. It identifies the period(s) when there might
either be shortage of cash or an abnormally large cash requirement;
ii. It also helps to pinpoint period(s) when there is likely to be excess cash;
iii. It enables firm which has sufficient cash to take advantage like cash discounts on its
accounts payable;
iv. Lastly it helps to plan/arrange adequately needed funds (avoiding excess/ shortage of
cash) on favorable terms.
¾ Large amounts are tied up in sundry debtors, there are chances of bad debts and there will
be cost of collection of debts. On the contrary, if the investment in sundry debtors is low, the
sales may be restricted, since the competitors may offer more liberal terms. Therefore,
management of sundry debtors is an important issue and requires proper policies and their
implementation.
¾ There are basically three aspects of management of sundry debtors: Credit policy, Credit
Analysis and Control of receivable
¾ Trade creditor is a spontaneous source of finance in the sense that it arises from ordinary
business transaction. But it is also important to look after your creditors - slow payment by
you may create ill-feeling and your supplies could be disrupted and also create a bad image
for your company.
¾ Creditors are a vital part of effective cash management and should be managed carefully to
enhance the cash position.
¾ As discussed earlier, it is advisable that the finance manager bifurcates the working capital
requirements between the permanent working capital and temporary working capital.
¾ The permanent working capital is always needed irrespective of sales fluctuations, hence
should be financed by the long-term sources such as debt and equity. On the contrary
the temporary working capital may be financed by the short-term sources of finance.

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