FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.

Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

THERMODYNAMICS IN FOOD ENGINEERING

J. Welti-Chanes, F. Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos
Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Alimentos, Universidad de las América, Puebla,
México

H. Mújica-Paz and A. Valdez-Fragoso

Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, México

Keywords: Thermodynamics, food, enthalpy, entropy, heat capacity, free energy,

activity, phase equilibrium, fugacity, chemical potential, specific heat.

Contents

1. Introduction

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2. Thermophysics
2.1. Thermodynamic Concepts

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2.1.1. System
2.1.2. System Variables
2.1.3. State Equations for Ideal Gases
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2.1.4. Thermodynamic Variables
2.1.5. Thermodynamic Transformations
2.2. Zero Law of Thermodynamics
2.3. Thermodynamic Equilibrium
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2.4. First Law of Thermodynamics

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2.5. Enthalpy
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2.6. Heat Capacity

2.6.1. Heat Capacity at Constant Volume
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2.6.2. Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

2.6.3. Specific Heat Relationships of Gases
2.6.4. P-V-T Relationships for Ideal Gases, in Thermodynamic Processes.
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2.7. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

2.8. Third Law of Thermodynamics
2.8.1. Dependence of Entropy on Temperature
2.8.2. Dependence of Entropy on Pressure
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3. Chemical Thermodynamics
3.1. Helmholtz Free Energy
3.2. Gibbs Free Energy
3.2.1. Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure
3.2.2. Dependence of Free Energy on Temperature
3.3. Phase Equilibrium
3.3.1. Clapeyron Equation
3.3.2 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
3.3.3. Thermodynamic Equilibrium, Chemical Potential and Activity Coefficients
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

Summary

In many situations where manufacturing processes are present, as in those frequently

found in food processing, or in everyday life situations, a series of energy exchanges
occur between systems that entail thermal effects. These exchanges tend to alter the
components involved, causing the cooling or heating of such, or generating or stopping
of any reaction. These alterations or changes can be described in macroscopic form
through the basic concepts of thermodynamics, defined as the area of science
concerning energy exchanges among the components of a system or between a system
and its surroundings. However, it is important to distinguish two sub-areas within the
traditional concept of thermodynamics: thermophysics and chemical thermodynamics.
The former area studies the modification of situations in which no changes exist in the
chemical structure of the participants during energy exchanges, whereas chemical
thermodynamics studies processes presenting structural changes due to chemical
reactions. Knowledge of concepts, such as enthalpy, entropy, free energy, equilibrium,

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etc., is required in describing the thermal treatment and cooling processes in foods,

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functioning of equipment employed in such processes, characteristics of deterioration or
preservation reactions presented in foods, and many other factors that appear in food
engineering. These concepts form part of the basis of thermodynamics and will be
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presented next.

1. Introduction

The Industrial Revolution resulted in the development of a series of devices and

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machines, for example, the steam engine, internal combustion engine, and electrical
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engine. However, for many years the principles on which their functioning was based
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were not recognized. Thermodynamics surged in the middle of a search for solutions to
problems present in the design of thermal machines. It is a branch of science related to
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energy exchange among the components of a system or between a system and its
surroundings.
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Thermodynamics can be treated purely from the macroscopic point of view through
established laws described in terms of system properties that can be macroscopically
measured. This has been traditionally called classical thermodynamics. Another view of
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thermodynamics is based on the derivation of macroscopic behavior of the material

through statistical analysis of the properties of atoms and molecules, generating what is
known as statistical thermodynamics.

When the thermal effects of an energy exchange between a system and its surroundings
are studied, there is a possibility no changes will be generated in the chemical structure
of the system. It is here the concepts of the thermodynamics branch, denominated as
physical thermodynamics or thermophysics, are applied. On the other hand, when the
above mentioned changes do appear, processes are described by chemical
thermodynamics.

Nevertheless, thermodynamics can be studied according to some fundamental laws. For

example, the first law of thermodynamics allows the determination of how much energy
exists in carbon, wood, steam, food, etc. The second law of thermodynamics deals with

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

the determination of how efficiently one form of energy can be transformed into
another. It also determines which changes are possible or not. The combination of these
laws leads to relationships that state how much work can be obtained under a given
condition.

Additionally, the so-called zero law and third law are useful, the former, to understand
temperature measurement concepts, and the latter, to make thermodynamics participate
in the analysis of reactions.

Thermodynamics is the most powerful tool available to study natural phenomena. Many
of the devices and systems used and controlled today by man base their functioning on
the concepts contained in this science.

Thermodynamics is directly related to the field of transport of phenomena disciplines,

as in heat and material transfer. Thermodynamics plays a very important role in food

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engineering, for example, in the selection of the type of refrigerant used in a cooling

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system, in the humidity control of air, or in the final moisture content of a product.
Many phase changes that appear during the processing or storage of food can be
described through the principles of thermodynamics. Also, the heat requisites of a heat
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exchanger employed in pasteurization processes or the equilibrium composition of a
multicomponent mixture being separated can be determined through thermodynamic
analysis. Furthermore, it is possible to determine the degradation rate of a nutrient with
the aid of chemical kinetics. These are some of the examples highlighting the
importance of thermodynamics in food processing.
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The purpose of this discussion is to present, in a concise form, thermodynamic concepts

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and functions that serve as background for the study and comprehension of food
engineering processes.
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2. Thermophysics
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2.1. Thermodynamic Concepts

2.1.1. System
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A thermodynamic system is that part of the physical universe under consideration. A

system is separated from the rest of the universe by limits or boundaries that can be
physical or imaginary. Any region outside the system's limits is called surroundings.
Thermodynamic systems are subjected to processes that imply material and/or energy
exchanges with its surroundings. An open system exchanges mass and energy with its
surroundings, as in food dehydration in a hot air dryer. In this process a clear heat flow
moves from air to food and a mass flow (mainly water vapor) from food to air. On the
other hand, a closed system only exchanges energy, keeping its mass constant, which in
food engineering can be exemplified by a hermetically packed food subjected to
sterilization or a cooling process. A system that does not exchange material or energy
with its surroundings constitutes an isolated system, which from a practical point of
view is rarely useful. A special case involving open systems is one in which there is a
permanent or steady state flow. In this case, mass enters and leaves the system at the

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

same rate, such that the mass contained within the limits is constant at all times. A
system is considered homogeneous if all of its properties are uniform at any point.
Usually this is a one-phase system. A system with more than one phase is called
heterogeneous. Practically all foods, whether subjected or not to a preservation process,
are included within the last category.

2.1.2. System Variables

A system's thermodynamic variable or property is one of its defining characteristics.

The properties are extensive if their magnitude is directly proportional to the system
size, as are mass, volume, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc. On the other hand, the
properties are intensive when their magnitude is independent of size, as are temperature
and pressure. The relationship between two extensive variables yields an intensive
variable. For example, density is the relationship between the mass and volume of the
system. The state of a system describes its condition. The values of the properties are

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used to characterize the system’s state, and it is important to note that those properties

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only depending on the system’s state, not on the way in which the system reached such
a state, are denominated as state variables or state properties. Pressure (P), volume (V),
and temperature (T) of a system, and many expressions of its energetic content are state
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variables. However, heat and work are not state variables, since they depend specifically
on the way in which change from one state to another occurs. Any equation that relates
state variables is a state equation, and it is important to note that few state variables are
enough to define other variables. The most common variables present in a state equation
are P, V, and T.
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2.1.3. State Equations for Ideal Gases

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In the case of gaseous systems, volume noticeably changes as a function of temperature

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and pressure. However, this variation is almost independent of the gas. Thus, to describe
the relationship of the mentioned variables, an approximate state equation that describes
the behavior of all gases has been proposed. This equation is known as the ideal or
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perfect gas equation, and is expressed as

PV = nRT (1)
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In this equation, R is the general constant of gases and n the number of moles of gas.

When a determined quantity (n moles) of gas that behaves according to Equation (1), is
subjected to a process where volume, temperature, or pressure change is present, and
because the product nR is a constant, it follows that

PV
= constant (2)
T

Therefore, when the initial conditions of a gas ( T1 , P1 , and V1 ) are known, the gas
properties under other conditions are as follows:

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

PV P1V1
= (3)
T T1

The ideal conditions presented in Equations (1) and (3) are used to describe the behavior
of gases at conditions near those of the environment, which occurs in many food
preservation processes or during its packaging. For this reason, such expressions can be
very useful to Food Engineers.

However, when temperature and pressure conditions deviate from environmental

conditions, the gases tend to deviate from the ideal, thus they are called real gases. A
state equation used to describe this behavior is one by Van der Waal, and is expressed
as

⎡ ⎛ n 2 a ⎞⎤
+ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎥ (V − nb ) = nRT

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⎢ P (4)
⎣ ⎝ V ⎠⎦

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In this equation, a and b are constants that characterize each gas. Equations (1) and (4)
are applied only to systems containing one component. For gas mixtures, the state
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equation depends on the concentration of each component. For perfect gases, the
mixture equations are simple; thus, if gases do not react chemically in the mixture, the
partial pressure of a component (i) becomes
n RT
Pi = i (5)
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V
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The total pressure of the mixture is the sum of partial pressures, so

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ntotal RT
Ptotal = ∑ Pi = (6)
V
The partial pressure can be obtained from the total pressure and the molar fraction ( X i )
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of each component as follows:

Pi = X i Ptotal (7)
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ni
Xi = (8)
∑ ni

In some food preservation processes (humidification, controlled atmospheres, etc.) the

partial pressure is useful, since it is interesting to know the individual behavior of each
component in a mixture.

2.1.4. Thermodynamic Variables

The energy participating in thermodynamic transformations is expressed in terms of

heat (Q) and work (W). Q is the energy passing across the limits of a system due to a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings, and W is the energy

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

transfer associated with a force that is applied to the system along a distance. Internal
energy (U) is a concept used to define the system energy not associated with work or
heat, and is usually defined as an addition to all microscopic energy forms in the
system. This type of energy is related to the structure and degree of molecular activity,
and can be seen as the sum of kinetics and potential energies of the molecules. Entropy
(S) is a variable that measures the number of possibilities or options for the system. The
mathematical relationship between these thermodynamic variables allows the
expression of the first and second law of thermodynamics.

2.1.5. Thermodynamic Transformations

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Figure 1: Two thermodynamics cycles.

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

Whenever a system changes from one thermodynamic state to another, a process occurs.
When a system returns to its initial state after experiencing a consecutive series of
processes, it is said to have described a thermodynamic cycle. Figure 1 shows two
thermodynamic cycles, in which the variables changing in the system are pressure and
volume. In this way, a process is called isocoric when the volume of the system remains
constant (ΔV = 0), which in Figure 1 is represented by stages 2 to 3 and 4 to 1 in the
four-stage cycle. On the other hand, the process is called isothermal when the
temperature of the system remains constant (ΔT = 0), and isobaric when the process
occurs at constant pressure (ΔP = 0). Additionally, if the process does not give place to
thermal interactions, it is denominated as adiabatic (Q = 0). Finally, it is said that a
system reaches a thermodynamic equilibrium state when its thermodynamic properties
remain invariable over time. This equilibrium condition is difficult to reach in many
food systems, whether fresh or processed. However, for practical purposes, such
equilibrium is usually considered in the design of processing systems or in the selection
of storage conditions.

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2.2. Zero Law of Thermodynamics

It is traditional to discuss the three fundamental laws of thermodynamics. However, the

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so-called zero law exists, which was formulated by R. H Fowler in 1931, and although
obvious, it is essential in describing thermal equilibrium concepts.

Thus, when a body contacts another body with different temperature, heat from the one
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having the highest temperature is transferred to the one with the lowest, until both reach
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the same temperature. Heat transfer stops at this point and it is said that both have
reached thermal equilibrium. Thus, it can be understood that temperature equality is the
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only requirement for thermal equilibrium. In this way, the zero law of thermodynamics
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states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are in
equilibrium with each other. These simple concepts, which are not considered in other
thermodynamic laws, are the basis behind temperature measurement systems and a
fundamental principle in many food preservation processes in which heat is transferred
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from or to the food, as in pasteurization, refrigeration, and freezing.

2.3. Thermodynamic Equilibrium

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As mentioned in section 2.1.2., a chemical or food system can be macroscopically

described according to a set of thermodynamic variables, which can be considered
coordinates that define the system’s state. When these coordinates are modified for
some circumstance, whether spontaneously or due to external actions, it is said that the
system experiences a state change. It is important to note that these alterations do not
represent phase changes (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, etc.).

Usually, when the state of a system is modified interactions between the system and its
surroundings take place, which can originate mechanical, chemical, or thermal non-
equilibrium conditions.

If a lack of equilibrium of forces does not exist inside a system, including between the
system and its environment, it is said that the system is under a mechanical equilibrium

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

state. When these conditions are not complied with, whether in the system alone or the
system and its surroundings, the system experiences a state change, which will only stop
when the mechanical equilibrium is reached again.

On the other hand, if a system under mechanical equilibrium tends not to experience
spontaneous change in its internal structure, as a chemical reaction or mass transfer
from one part of the system to another (e.g., diffusion or solution), although it can be
slow (as happens in many processed foods), it is said to be under a chemical equilibrium
state.

A system not under chemical equilibrium suffers a state change, which in some cases is
very slow. Change stops when chemical equilibrium is reached again.

The possibility of thermal equilibrium and its importance in food processing was
commented on in section 2.2. However, it is important to understand that in this type of

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equilibrium the entire system has the same temperature, which is equal to that of the

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environment.

When conditions are met for the three types of equilibrium, mechanical, chemical, and
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thermal, the system is said to present thermodynamic equilibrium, and under these
conditions will not exhibit a tendency toward change of state, neither in the system nor
in the surroundings.

Thus, thermodynamic equilibrium states can be described in terms of macroscopic

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coordinates, without time intervention, meaning as a function of thermodynamic

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variables.
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Classic thermodynamics does not deal with problems in which the velocity of the
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process intervenes. Investigation of such problems is performed through other science

branches (chemical kinetics, hydrodynamics, and kinetics theory of gases, among
others) that, when related to thermodynamics, are essential to understanding the many
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changes and reactions that occur in foods during handling and processing.

A process that tends to drive a system not in equilibrium to an equilibrium state is called
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an irreversible or natural process. Irreversible modifications are the only changes that
occur in reality, which justifies their alternate name (natural changes).

In an isolated system, the original state cannot be re-established after a natural change,
while in a non-isolated system the original state can be restored, but only through an
irreversible change in some other system.

If change occurs in such way that the system remains in equilibrium, it will be carried
out in an extremely slow manner and will be capable of generating the maximum work
quantity. This idealized process is called reversible change. On the other hand, as
demonstrated in section 2.7., a system absorbs the maximum quantity of heat from its
surroundings and gives the maximum quantity of work to the environment during a
reversible change. A natural process absorbs less heat and makes less work than does a
reversible process.

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Bibliography

Aguilera J.M. (ed.). (1997). Temas en Tecnología de Alimentos, Vol. 1. México: Instituto Politécnico
Nacional. [This presents a comprehensive discussion on selected topics such as water activity, foods
preserved by combined methods, controlled and modified atmospheres, food freezing, food frying,
rheology of solids and texture, color, characterization of powder foods.]

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Alberty R.A. and Silbey R.J. (1997). Physical Chemistry. Second Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons,

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Inc. [This presents an overview on topics such as thermodynamics; quantum chemistry; kinetics; and
macroscopic and microscopic structures.]

Baianu I.C. (ed.). (1992). Physical Chemistry of Food Process, Vol. I. Fundamental Aspects. New York:
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Van Nostrand Reinhold. [This presents a discussion on the thermodynamic basic concepts; molecular
structures and bonding; applications to food processes; molecules; lipids; proteins; carbohydrates; water
activity; mixing and diffusion; drum drying; rheology of cheese; and food extrusion.]

Batty J.C. and Folkman S.L. (1983). Food Engineering Fundamentals. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
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[This presents a comprehensive discussion on dimensions; mass flow; work, heat and energy; entropy;
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ideal gas mixtures; refrigeration; heat transfer; and drying.]

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Brennan J.G., Batters J.R., Cowelland N.D., and Lilly A.E. (1981). Food engineering operations. New
York: Applied Sci. Pub. [This presents a discussion on preliminary operations (cleaning, sorting),
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conversion operations (size reduction, mixing, filtration, etc.), preservation operations (evaporation,
freezing, etc.), and ancillary techniques.]

Çengel Y.A. and Boles M.A. (1994). Thermodynamics, 2nd. Ed. USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.. [This presents a
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comprehensive discussion on properties of pure substances; first law of thermodynamics; entropy; energy
cycles; chemical reactions; chemical and phase equilibrium, and high-speed fluid flow.]

Charm S.E. (1971). The Fundamentals of Food Engineering (1st Ed). Westport, Conn: The Avi Pub. Co.
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Inc. [This presents a discussion on basic concepts (e.g., material and energy balances; heat and mass
transfer) and food topics such as freeze drying, dehydration, evaporation, etc.]

Earle R.L. (1983). Unit Operations in food processing. 2nd Ed. New York: Pergamon Press. [This presents
an overview on material and energy balances, fluid flow, heat transfer, drying, separation processes, and
some engineering applications of process engineering in the food industry.]

Heldman D.R. and Singh R.P. (1981). Food Process Engineering (2a Ed). New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold. [This presents a discussion on the rheology of processed foods, heating and food dehydration,
contact equilibrium processes, mechanical and separation processes.]

Le Maguer M. (1992). Thermodynamics and Vapor-Liquid Equilibria. In Physical Chemistry of Foods

(H.G. Schwarstzberg and R.W. Hartel Eds.). New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. [This presents a
comprehensive discussion on excess Gibbs energy and thermodynamic modeling of solutions, application
to food solutions, thermodynamic modeling of aqueous carbohydrated solutions.]

Levenspiel O. (1996). Understanding Engineering Thermo. NJ: Prentice Hall PTR. [This presents a

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

comprehensive discussion on units, first law of thermodynamics, work, heat, energy, fluids, entropy,
enthalpy, free energy, chemical reactions, etc.]

Lewis M.J. (1993). Physical properties of foods and food processing systems. Chichester: Ellis Horwood
Ltd. [This presents an overview on units, fluids, viscosity, rheology, thermodynamics, heat changes, gases
and vapors, and electrical properties.]

Mafart P. and Béliard. (1992). Génie industriel alimentaire. Tome II: Techniques séparatives. Tec. & Doc.
Lavoisier. Paris. [This describes separation processes such as decantation, centrifugation, filtration,
ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, extraction by pressure, extraction by solvent, distillation, and
electrodialisis.]

Mafart P. (1991). Génie industriel alimentaire. Tome I: Les procédés physiques de conservation. Tec. &
Doc. Lavoisier. Paris. [This describes food preservation processes such as pasteurization, canning,
preservation by cooling, ionization, and additives.]

Reid CH. E. (1990). Chemical Thermodynamics. USA: McGraw-Hills Pub. Co. [This presents a
comprehensive discussion on topics such as units, introduction to basic laws, equilibrium and free energy

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functions, gases, thermochemistry, statistical thermodynamics, mixtures and solutions, chemical and
phase equilibrium, solutions, etc.]

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Reidy G.A. (1968). "Thermal properties of foods and methods of their determination." M. S. Thesis, Food
Science Department, Michigan State University.
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Sandler S.I. (1997). Chemical and Engineering Thermodynamics. New York: John Wiley and Sons. [This
presents an overview on the laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic properties, phase equilibria,
conversion of heat into work, etc.]
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Tinoco I.J., Sauer K., and Wang J.C. (1978). Physical Chemistry. Principles and Applications in
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Biological Sciences. NJ: Prentice Hall. [This presents a comprehensive discussion on the application of
physical chemistry principles to biological systems.]
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Toledo R.T. (1991). Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering (2a Ed.). New York: Van Nostrand
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Reinhold. [This presents a review on basic topics such as material balances and heat transfer as well as
comprehensive discussions on refrigeration, dehydration, extraction, etc.]

Biographical Sketches
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Jorge Welti-Chanes was born in Puebla City, Mexico; he obtained his B.S. in Biochemical Engineering
(1976) and Master of Science in Food Engineering (1979) at the Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios
Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) in his birth country. In 1979 he moved to Spain to obtain a Ph.D.
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degree in Chemical Sciences, with a major in Food Technology, from the Universidad de Valencia. He
has been professor at the ITESM and, since 1977, the University of the Américas-Puebla (UDLA). At
UDLA, he has taught at undergraduate and graduate levels in the Departments of Chemical and Food
Engineering and Chemistry and Biology. He was Head of the department for one year, and then Dean of
the Engineering School (1986-1988). He was Academic Vice-President of UDLA (1988-2002) and
currently is Professor and Researcher at the last institution and Visiting Research Scholar at Texas
Christian University. His research areas are focused mainly on food and biological polymers, candy
technology food drying, water activity, minimal processing of foods and biological materials, process
simulation, and emerging technologies. He has been coordinator of diverse international research projects
and advisor for different industries within the mentioned research areas. He was the World President of
the International Association of Food and Engineering (1997-2000). Dr. Welti-Chanes is author of more
than 140 scientific publications in refereed journals and books, and more than 150 presentations at
international meetings. He is author or coeditor of the books: Food Preservation by Moisture Control,
Inventario de Alimentos de Humedad Intermedia Tradicionales de Iberoamérica, Engineering and Food
for the 21st Century, Transport Phenomena in Food Engineering, and Harvesting, Handling, and
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Combined Methods at Rural and Village Levels (Technical
Manual of FAO). He is a member on the Editorial Boards of different journals and book-series, and

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FOOD ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Thermodynamics in Food Engineering - J. Welti-Chanes, H. Mújica-Paz, A. Valdez-Fragoso, F.
Vergara-Balderas and L. Ríos

evaluator of research projects in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Venezuela, Mexico, and USA. He is advisor
for different food enterprises in areas such as processing, quality assurance, and process optimization.
Also, he has advised different universities in Mexico and Latin-America in Strategic Planning of
Educational Processes.

Fidel T. Vergara-Balderas was born in Puebla City, Mexico; he obtained his B.S. in Food Engineering
(1977) from the Universidad de las Américas A.C. (Mexico) and Master of Food Science (1980) from the
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, ITESM (Mexico). He was professor at
ITESM, and since 1981, he has been professor and researcher at the Universidad de las Américas, Puebla
(Mexico) where he teaches several courses in the Department of Chemical and Food Engineering. He was
head of this department for 3 years (1996-1999). He is co-author of several scientific publications and
presentations, and has offered consulting services and courses within the Food Industry in Mexico.

Luis Gabriel Ríos Casas was born in Mexico. He obtained a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the
Universidad Iberoamericana (1974, Mexico City) and a M.S. in Chemical Engineering from the
Universidad de las Américas-Puebla (1992). Professor Ríos worked a the Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo
from 1973 to 1980; in his last position as head of the area for Equipment Design by Computer, he
developed important projects such as The General Process Simulator of the IMP (SIMPROC), Systematic

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Methods for Process Synthesis and Optimization for Chemical and Petrochemical Process, and Synthesis
Optimal for the Auxiliary Services Plant. At the same time, Professor Ríos taught different courses related

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to Chemical Engineering at the Universidad Iberoamericana, ENEP-Cuautitlán, and the Universidad La
Salle. He has advised some industries such as Ciba Geigy Mexicana (1991 and 1992) and Bendix-Pemsa
(1986). He has been Associate Professor of the Department of Chemical and Food Engineering at the
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Universidad de las Américas-Puebla (UDLA) since 1981. His interests are focused on physicochemistry,
thermodynamics, process engineering, and simulation of chemical processes. He has advised around 50
undergraduate theses, given several conferences at national and international congresses, and published
papers in refereed journals and other periodic publications. At the present, he heads two important
research projects at the UDLA: Solar Energy and Development of Software for Chemical Engineering.
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Aurora Valdez Fragoso received her B.S. in Food Engineering from the Universidad Autónoma de
Chihuahua in 1984, and her Master in Sciences in Food Engineering from the Universidad de las
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Américas-Puebla, México. She received her doctorate from the Ecole Nationale Superieure des Industries
AgroAlimentaires-Massy, France. She served at several public universities in Mexico before joining the
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staff of the Facultad de Ciencias Químicas at the Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua. She has been
involved in educational, research, and science diffusion activities for more than 12 years. Professor
Valdez Fragoso has taught courses in biochemistry, food chemistry, and technology of fruits and
vegetables to both undergraduate and graduate students. Areas of focus include food physical properties,
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food processing (especially minimally processing), and biochemistry of foods. She is author and co-
author of many chapters and journal articles on food process engineering. Dr. Valdez Fragoso is a
member of the Institute of Food Technologists and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
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Hugo Mújica Paz received his Bachelor degree in Chemical Engineering from the Instituto Politécnico
Nacional (México) and Master and Doctorate degrees in Food Engineering from the Universidad de las
Américas-Puebla (México) and the Institute National Politechnique de Toulouse (France), respectively.
Dr. Mújica Paz began teaching chemical engineering at the Universidad de Nayarit (México) in 1985.
Since then, he has been involved in higher education in his country, lecturing on topics in unit operations
of food engineering, chemical reaction engineering, food technology, etc. Currently, Dr. Mújica Paz is a
faculty member at the Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua. Professor Mújica’s research interest has
been in mass transport phenomena in foods, food packaging, and minimal processing of fruits and
vegetables. He has contributed to 9 chapters and has published several papers in these areas. He is a
member of the Institute of Food Technologists and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He has
presented several lectures at national and international meetings. He is fluent in Spanish and French and
has some conversation ability in English and Italian.

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