Original Article International Anthropometric Study of Facial Morphology in Various Ethnic Groups/Races

Original Article
International Anthropometric Study of

Facial Morphology in Various
Ethnic Groups/Races
Leslie G. Farkas, MD, PhD, DSc, FRCSC,* Marko J. Katic, BA,y
Christopher R. Forrest, MD, MSc, FRCSC*
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
When anthropometric methods were introduced ments, 10 of them used already by classic facial
into clinical practice to quantify changes in the cra- artists, Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer, com-
niofacial framework, features distinguishing vari- plemented by four measurements from the nasal,
ous races/ethnic groups were discovered. To treat labio-oral and ear regions. In the regions with sin-
congenital or post-traumatic facial disfigurements gle measurements, identical values to NAW in fore-
in members of these groups successfully, surgeons head height, mouth width, and ear height were
require access to craniofacial databases based on found in 99.7% in both sexes, while in those with
accurate anthropometric measurements. Normative multiple measurements, vertical measurements re-
data of facial measurements are indispensable to vealed a higher frequency of identical values than
precise determination of the degree of deviations horizontal ones. The orbital regions exhibited the
from the normal. The set of anthropometric meas- greatest variations in identical and contrasting mea-
urements of the face in the population studied surements in comparison to NAW. Nose heights and
was gathered by an international team of scientists. widths contrasted sharply: in relation to NAW the
Investigators in the country of the given ethnic nose was very or extremely significantly wide in
group, experienced and/or specially trained in an- both sexes of Asian and Black ethnic groups. Among
thropometric methods, carried out the measure- Caucasians, nose height significantly differed from
ments. The normal range in each resultant database NAW in three ethnic groups, with one shorter and
was then established, providing valuable informa- two greater. In the Middle Eastern groups nose width
tion about major facial characteristics. Comparison was identical to those of NAW but the height was
of the ethnic groups’ databases with the established significantly greater. The present study, conducted
norms of the North America whites (NAW) offered by investigators working separately across the world
the most suitable way to select a method for success- and with small samples of the population, is clearly
ful treatment. The study group consisted of 1470 preliminary in nature and extent. Yet it may fulfill its
healthy subjects (18 to 30 years), 750 males and mission if medical and anthropological investigators
720 females. The largest group (780 subjects, continue the work of establishing normative data of
53.1%) came from Europe, all of them Caucasians. the face. These data are urgently needed by medical
Three were drawn from the Middle-East (180 sub- professionals but have been lacking up till now in
jects, 12.2%), five from Asia (300 subjects, 20.4%) western and northern Europe, Asia, and Africa.
and four from peoples of African origin (210 sub-
jects, 14.3%). Their morphological characteristics
were determined by 14 anthropometric measure-
O
ver the last century wars, poverty, and
political turmoil in Europe, Asia and
*From the Center for Craniofacial Care and Research, The
Africa have led to sharply increased
Hospital for Sick Children, and the Division of Plastic Surgery, migration of numerous peoples to North
University of Toronto, and yDepartment of Research Design and America. These newcomers represent a much
Biostatistics, Sunnybrook and Women’s College Health Sciences broader spectrum of races and ethnic groups than
Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
were seen in earlier waves of immigration. This influx
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Farkas, 59
Claywood Road, North York, Ontario, Canada, M2N 2R3; E-mail: of diverse peoples has important implications for cra-
lfarkas@interlog.com niofacial surgeons and other medical professionals
615
THE JOURNAL OF CRANIOFACIAL SURGERY / VOLUME 16, NUMBER 4 July 2005
whose work involves analysis and correction of mor- We selected 14 anthropometric measurements to
phological disfigurements and anomalies of the head determine the morphologic characteristics of the cra-
and face.1 Unfortunately, normative data of the head niofacial complex. Ten of them were the neoclassical
and face of more recent immigrants remain largely facial canons of the Renaissance used by da Vinci
unavailable. and Dürer9 (tr-n, zy-zy, sn-gn, en-en, en-ex, n-sn,
Although physical anthropologists have long al-al, ch-ch, sa-sba and the inclination of the nasal
been aware of differences in facial measurements bridge), complemented by three facial (tr-gn, n-gn
among races and ethnic groups,2–7 for centuries the and go-go) and one orbital measurement (ex-ex) (Figs
neoclassical facial canons established during the Re- 1,2). In each participating nation 30 males and 30 fe-
naissance8 went unchallenged. Only in recent years males (omitted in the Tonga nation) were examined
has the validity of these canons been systematically by physical anthropologists, anatomists, plastic sur-
investigated.9–12 These initial studies, based on an- geons, or dentists working in university hospitals
thropometric techniques, led to comparisons of facial and medical institutes, who volunteered their help
differences among races and ethnic groups not repre- to provide the data for the study. The first author
sented in earlier investigations. The present study, to was in close contact with the participants, giving spe-
our knowledge, is the broadest yet conducted in cial attention for using the accepted anthropometric
terms of geographical reach and diversity of subjects. techniques to ensure the accuracy of measurements.
It compares data from 25 countries across the world Details of the anthropometric measuring techniques
to norms established previously for North American have been published previously.13
whites (NAW).13 For evaluation of the distributional differences
The aim of this study are as follows: among measurement values in ethnic groups
(Caucasians of Europe, ethnic groups in the Middle
1. To establish the normal range of measurements of East, Asia and Africa), the data base of the North
the craniofacial complex selected for the study in American white population was used as a reference
all participating ethnic/racial groups group.13
2. To establish the frequency of identical, very or ex-
tremely significantly smaller or greater measure-
ments in these groups in relation to the normal
range of NAW
3. To identify the craniofacial region(s) that contrib-
ute most to significant differences between NAW
and other ethnic/racial groups
4. To identify the measurements that contribute most
to the anthropometric quality of the facial region.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
T he study group consisted of 1470 healthy young

subjects, 750 males and 720 females, 18 to 30
years of age, drawn from five regions of the world:
Europe, the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and North
America. The largest group (780 subjects, 53.1%) were
of Caucasian origin and came from 13 countries
in Europe (Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Re-
public, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Por-
tugal, Russia, Slovakia and Slovenia). Three countries
in the Middle East (Egypt, Iran, Turkey) were repre-
sented (180 subjects, 12.2%) and five from Asia (India,
Japan, the Chinese of Singapore, Vietnam and Fig 1 Measurements on the lateral aspect of the face:
Thailand, 300 subjects, 20.4%). Finally, there were Head: tr-n (forehead height) Face: tr-gn (physiognomical
210 subjects (14.3%) with an African origin (Angola, face height) n-gn (morphological face height) sn-gn (lower
the Tonga and Zulu nations of Africa, and African- face height) Nose: n-sn (nose height), in: (inclination of the
Americans from the United States). nasal bridge) Ear: sa-sba (length of the auricle).
616
INTERNATIONAL ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF FACIAL MORPHOLOGY / Farkas et al
First, the NAW distribution for a given measure-

ment was divided into three categories: one central
category, spanning +2 standard deviation (SD) to
–2 SD around the mean and indicated in tables 1–26
as the normal range, and two outer categories, desig-
nated either as significantly smaller (more than –2 SD
from the mean) or larger (more than +2 SD from the
mean). Next, each subject’s specific measurement was
placed in the appropriate category, resulting in a fre-
quency distribution of counts. Finally, a goodness-of-
fit x2 statistic was calculated for these three observed
frequencies compared with the expected frequencies
derived from the NAW distribution.
The following descriptors were used to indicate
the degree of statistical significance: only P values
of #0.009 were considered statistically significant,
those between 0.009 and 0.001 were termed very sig-
nificant, and those ,0.001 were termed extremely sig-
nificant. P values between 0.01 and 0.05, representing
differences too small to be visually discerned, were
not considered significant.
RESULTS
T he craniofacial measurements of 25 ethnic groups

of Caucasoid, Middle Eastern, Asian and African
origin are summarized below.
Fig 2 Measurements on the frontal aspect of the face:
Orbits: en-en (intercanthal width) ex-ex (biocular width) Craniofacial Regions With a Single Measurement:
en-ex (eye fissure length) Face: zy-zy (face width) go-go Their Relationship to the North American White
(mandible width) Nose: al-al (morphological nose width) Normal Range
Labio-oral region: ch-ch (mouth width).
Head
Forehead heights (tr-n) of 13 Caucasian male and 12
female groups (92.3%) were identical to those of
Table 1. Normal Range of Measurements of North American White Young Adult Population
Males Females
Measurement ÿ2 SD ÿ1 SD Mean +1 SD +2 SD ÿ2 SD ÿ1 SD Mean +1 SD +2 SD
tr-n 57.3 63.7 70.1 76.5 82.9 50.5 57.0 63.3 70.0 76.5
tr-gn 171.3 179.4 187.5 195.6 203.7 157.5 165.0 172.5 180.0 187.5
n-gn 107.7 114.5 121.3 128.1 134.9 101.4 106.6 111.8 117.0 122.2
sn-gn 59.9 65.9 71.9 77.9 83.9 56.5 61.0 65.5 70.0 74.5
zy-zy 128.5 132.8 137.1 141.4 145.7 119.3 124.6 129.9 135.2 140.5
go-go 85.5 91.3 97.1 102.9 108.7 79.3 85.2 91.1 97.0 102.9
en-en 27.5 30.2 32.9 35.6 38.3 26.8 29.2 31.6 34.0 36.4
en-ex 28.6 29.9 31.2 32.5 33.8 27.1 28.9 30.7 32.5 34.3
ex-ex 82.2 85.8 89.4 93.0 96.6 78.8 82.8 86.8 90.8 94.8
n-sn 46.0 49.5 53.0 56.5 60.0 43.7 46.3 48.9 51.5 54.1
al-al 29.5 32.1 34.7 37.3 39.9 27.6 29.5 31.4 33.3 35.2
noseinclin 22.4 27.0 31.6 36.2 40.8 19.4 24.7 30.0 35.3 40.6
ch-ch 46.7 50.0 53.3 56.6 59.9 43.4 46.6 49.8 53.0 56.2
sa-sba 55.0 58.7 62.4 66.1 69.8 51.7 55.1 58.5 61.9 65.3
617
Table 2a. Azerbaijan Males (n = 30)

Relationship of the Nation’s Craniofacial Measurement Goodness
Data to the NAW Normal Range of Fit
Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square
ÿ2 SD Mean +2 SD N % N % N % p-value
HEAD
tr-n 50.5 64.7 78.9 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 167.1 185.1 203.1 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 110.5 121.3 132.1 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 60.0 69.0 78.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 136.7 147.5 158.3 10 33.3 0 0 20 66.7 ,0.00001
go-go 98.1 106.3 114.5 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 p=0.03
ORBITS
en-en 23.8 30.8 37.8 22 73.3 7 23.3 1 3.3 NS
en-ex 31.0 34.4 37.8 9 30.0 0 0 21 70.0 ,0.00001
ex-ex 87.8 96.2 104.6 16 53.3 0 0 14 46.7 p=0.0004
NOSE
n-sn 49.1 55.9 62.7 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
al-al 30.9 35.7 40.5 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
nasal bridge inclination 27.0 39.8 52.6 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 p=0.008
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 46.4 53.4 60.4 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 57.4 65.6 73.8 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
Table 2b. Azerbaijan Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 52.8 60.6 68.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 161.8 175.4 189.0 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 103.5 111.5 119.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 56.8 63.6 70.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 128.3 138.7 149.1 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 p=0.03
go-go 91.1 102.9 114.7 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 p=0.008
ORBITS
en-en 26.1 30.5 34.9 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 30.6 33.8 37.0 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
ex-ex 86.2 94.2 102.2 17 56.7 0 0 13 43.3 p=0.0009
NOSE
n-sn 45.1 52.3 59.5 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
al-al 28.4 33.8 39.2 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
nasal bridge inclination 29.0 39.4 49.8 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.3 49.7 57.1 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.2 61.2 68.2 27 90.0 0 0 3 10 NS
618
Table 3a. Bulgarian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 52.0 66.4 80.8 26 86.7 3 10.0 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 166.9 184.3 201.7 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 107.7 122.9 138.1 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 59.9 69.5 79.1 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 128.3 139.5 150.7 25 83.3 1 3.3 4 13.3 NS
go-go 90.6 108.8 127.0 14 46.7 0 0 16 53.3 0.00008
ORBITS
en-en 25.3 32.3 39.3 26 86.7 2 6.7 2 6.7 NS
en-ex 28.1 31.3 34.5 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
ex-ex 83.1 94.7 106.3 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 46.4 54.0 61.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
al-al 29.4 36.0 42.6 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
nasal bridge inclination 20.7 30.9 41.1 26 86.7 2 6.7 2 6.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.2 49.8 57.4 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 56.4 64.4 72.4 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
Table 3b. Bulgarian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 50.0 63.4 76.8 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 156.9 170.5 184.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 101.4 111.0 120.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 52.8 61.6 70.4 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 122.1 130.9 139.7 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
go-go 89.1 98.7 108.3 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 25.3 29.7 34.1 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 27.8 30.4 33.0 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ex-ex 82.1 91.9 101.7 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 45.7 52.1 58.5 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
al-al 23.6 33.0 42.4 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.0 46.2 50.4 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 53.0 59.0 65.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
619
Table 4a. Czech Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 63.4 69.6 75.8 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 165.9 181.7 197.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 107.5 117.5 127.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 61.1 70.7 80.3 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 108.3 134.9 161.5 21 70.0 5 16.7 4 13.3 NS
go-go 101.9 109.5 117.1 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 24.7 30.9 37.1 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 25.8 29.4 33.0 21 70.0 9 30.0 0 0 0.02
ex-ex 76.4 84.2 92.0 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
NOSE
n-sn 45.8 54.0 62.2 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
al-al 31.2 36.2 41.2 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
nasal bridge inclination 29.0 33.0 37.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 46.6 53.8 61.0 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 56.9 64.3 71.7 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
Table 4b. Czech Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 54.7 67.3 79.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 166.7 182.9 199.1 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 104.0 112.6 121.2 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
sn-gn 50.6 66.0 81.4 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 97.6 126.4 155.2 22 73.3 6 20.0 2 6.7 NS
go-go 100.3 107.1 113.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 24.3 29.1 33.9 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
en-ex 24.0 28.2 32.4 18 60.0 12 40.0 0 0 0.002
ex-ex 71.7 80.3 88.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 44.7 52.1 59.5 23 76.7 1 3.3 6 20.0 NS
al-al 28.8 33.8 38.8 23 76.7 1 3.3 6 20.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 43.4 50.2 57.0 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.3 61.7 69.1 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
620
Table 5a. Croatian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 48.5 60.3 72.1 15 50.0 15 50.0 0 0 0.0002
FACE
tr-gn 158.9 180.1 201.3 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
n-gn 104.0 119.8 135.6 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 53.6 66.0 78.4 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
zy-zy 128.7 140.7 152.7 22 73.3 1 3.3 7 23.3 NS
go-go 89.5 102.1 114.7 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 26.1 31.5 36.9 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.9 30.5 34.1 26 86.7 3 10.0 1 3.3 NS
ex-ex 83.1 92.5 101.9 21 70.0 2 6.7 7 23.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 47.8 53.8 59.8 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
al-al 31.1 36.5 41.9 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.7 50.5 58.3 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 53.8 63.6 73.4 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
Table 5b. Croatian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 50.0 62.2 74.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 155.2 172.6 190.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
n-gn 98.6 110.4 122.2 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 51.3 60.7 70.1 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 119.6 133.2 146.8 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
go-go 83.6 94.6 105.6 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 24.9 29.7 34.5 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
en-ex 34.5 38.3 42.1 20 66.7 10 33.3 0 0 0.008
ex-ex 76.7 86.3 95.9 25 83.3 3 10.0 2 6.7 NS
NOSE
n-sn 42.8 50.0 57.2 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
al-al 28.9 32.9 36.9 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
nasal bridge inclination 22.3 33.7 45.1 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 40.1 46.9 53.7 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.1 59.1 67.1 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
621
Table 6a. German Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 53.3 69.9 86.5 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 160.0 182.2 204.4 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 99.4 116.0 132.6 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
sn-gn 53.3 67.9 82.5 26 86.7 3 10.0 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 118.2 133.2 148.2 23 76.7 6 20.0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 85.6 97.6 109.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 26.0 31.2 36.4 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.5 31.9 37.3 22 73.3 1 3.3 7 30.0 NS
ex-ex 78.9 87.9 96.9 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 40.8 52.0 63.2 26 86.7 2 6.7 2 6.7 NS
al-al 29.6 34.0 38.4 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 44.1 50.9 57.7 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.7 63.1 71.5 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
Table 6b. German Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 53.9 66.3 78.7 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 156.5 170.9 185.3 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 99.5 109.5 119.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
sn-gn 52.9 63.3 73.7 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
zy-zy 105.0 123.4 141.8 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
go-go 81.5 91.5 101.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 22.6 28.6 34.6 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
en-ex 28.0 31.8 35.6 25 83.3 1 3.3 4 13.3 NS
ex-ex 80.0 86.4 92.8 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 45.8 51.4 57.0 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
al-al 25.6 31.0 36.4 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.2 48.2 55.2 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
EAR
sa-sba 50.4 58.4 66.4 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
622
Table 7a. Greek Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 47.2 64.3 81.5 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 152.9 178.7 204.5 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
n-gn 105.4 120.0 134.6 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
sn-gn 50.4 65.8 81.2 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 105.8 128.6 151.4 14 46.7 14 46.7 2 6.7 0.0003
go-go 90.5 108.7 126.9 14 46.7 0 0 16 53.3 0.00008
ORBITS
en-en 22.8 30.0 37.8 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
en-ex 26.8 34.8 42.8 14 46.7 1 3.3 15 50.0 0.00002
ex-ex 78.9 93.7 108.5 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
NOSE
n-sn 47.3 55.5 63.7 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
al-al 29.9 35.7 41.5 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.4 51.8 61.2 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 55.8 63.2 70.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
Table 7b. Greek Females

HEAD
tr-n 53.3 63.1 72.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 160.0 173.8 187.6 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
n-gn 102.2 116.4 130.6 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 54.7 63.3 71.9 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 122.6 132.2 141.8 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 90.2 99.2 108.2 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
ORBITS
en-en 24.5 29.5 34.5 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.4 32.0 37.6 23 76.7 2 6.7 5 16.7 NS
ex-ex 75.6 87.8 100.0 27 90 0 0 3 10 NS
NOSE
n-sn 46.2 52.8 59.4 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 0.008
al-al 28.0 32.4 36.8 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.7 50.3 58.9 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.8 58.8 65.8 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
623
Table 8a. Hungarian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 56.8 72.8 88.8 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 152.9 181.3 209.7 25 83.3 4 13.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 103.8 120.0 136.2 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
sn-gn 56.4 64.2 72.0 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 131.5 142.1 152.7 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 0.008
go-go 92.6 106.6 120.6 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
ORBITS
en-en 27.1 31.7 36.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 31.7 37.7 43.7 3 10.0 0 0 27 90.0 ,0.00001
ex-ex 90.4 100.4 110.4 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 49.8 55.0 60.2 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 32.3 37.3 42.3 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 48.8 57.0 65.2 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 0.008
EAR
sa-sba 54.7 63.9 73.1 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
Table 8b. Hungarian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 57.2 69.2 81.2 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 154.0 169.4 184.8 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
n-gn 101.6 112.4 123.2 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
sn-gn 49.1 56.7 64.3 16 53.3 14 46.7 0 0 0.0004
zy-zy 124.3 131.3 138.3 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
go-go 83.6 95.0 106.4 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 27.6 31.2 34.8 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 30.1 34.9 39.7 3 10.0 0 0 27 90.0 ,0.00001
ex-ex 87.7 97.3 106.9 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 45.5 52.5 59.5 16 53.3 14 46.7 0 0 0.0004
al-al 29.7 33.5 37.3 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 44.0 51.6 59.2 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 52.8 60.2 67.6 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
624
Table 9a. Italian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 47.5 63.1 78.7 23 76.7 6 20.0 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 164.8 186.0 207.2 25 83.3 3 10.0 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 113.3 124.7 136.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 61.0 71.4 81.8 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 131.4 143.2 155.0 19 64.3 0 0 11 36.7 0.004
go-go 102.5 116.3 130.1 3 10.0 0 0 27 90.0 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 25.4 30.2 35.0 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
en-ex 29.5 33.9 38.3 15 50.0 0 0 15 50.0 0.0002
ex-ex 86.8 93.8 100.8 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 48.4 56.2 64.0 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
al-al 27.9 32.1 36.3 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 43.2 50.8 58.4 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.4 63.2 72.0 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
Table 9b. Italian Females

HEAD
tr-n 45.8 59.4 73.0 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 153.0 171.4 189.8 26 86.7 3 10.0 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 102.8 113.8 124.8 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
sn-gn 53.6 64.4 75.2 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
zy-zy 125.1 133.3 141.5 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 95.3 104.9 114.5 7 23.3 1 3.3 22 73.3 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 21.2 27.6 34.0 19 63.3 11 36.7 0 0 0.004
en-ex 28.5 32.7 36.9 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
ex-ex 81.5 89.5 97.5 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 38.5 52.1 65.7 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
al-al 24.7 29.5 34.3 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 40.1 47.7 55.3 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 49.5 57.5 65.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
625
Table 10a. Polish Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 58.2 68.8 79.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 165.5 181.9 198.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 105.3 117.5 129.7 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 60.5 68.1 75.7 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 133.2 142.6 152.0 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
go-go 85.8 98.8 111.8 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 25.5 30.3 35.1 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
en-ex 30.0 34.0 38.0 11 36.7 0 0 19 63.3 ,0.00001
ex-ex 80.2 90.2 100.2 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 46.9 53.7 60.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 31.2 35.2 39.2 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 46.1 52.5 58.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 55.1 63.3 71.5 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
Table 10b. Polish Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 50.9 63.7 76.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 154.3 172.1 189.9 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 98.2 111.6 125.0 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
sn-gn 51.7 60.5 69.3 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
zy-zy 124.5 135.5 146.5 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
go-go 85.5 93.9 102.3 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 24.8 29.2 33.6 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
en-ex 29.2 32.8 36.4 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
ex-ex 81.0 87.4 93.8 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 44.8 51.2 57.6 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
al-al 27.2 32.6 38.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 43.4 49.0 54.6 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 53.4 58.6 63.8 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
626
Table 11a. Portuguese Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 55.8 67.6 79.4 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 176.5 190.7 204.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
n-gn 113.1 124.5 135.9 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
sn-gn 58.2 69.6 81.0 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 114.3 125.1 135.9 8 26.7 22 73.3 0 0 ,0.00001
go-go 80.0 87.6 95.2 18 60.0 12 40.0 0 0 0.002
ORBITS
en-en 23.3 30.5 37.7 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
en-ex 33.3 38.1 42.9 2 6.7 0 0 28 93.3 ,0.00001
ex-ex 87.7 99.3 110.9 6 20.0 0 0 24 80.0 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 51.7 59.5 67.3 19 63.3 0 0 11 36.7 0.004
al-al 30.8 36.6 42.4 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.8 50.0 58.2 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.3 60.9 67.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
Table 11b. Portuguese Female (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 51.4 62.2 73.0 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 158.4 177.4 196.4 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 104.2 118.2 132.2 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 0.05
sn-gn 53.6 62.8 72.0 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
zy-zy 109.6 120.4 131.2 16 53.3 14 46.7 0 0 0.004
go-go 76.7 84.3 91.9 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 23.5 29.1 34.7 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
en-ex 30.7 35.9 41.1 10 33.3 0 0 20 66.7 ,0.00001
ex-ex 81.3 93.9 106.5 19 63.3 0 0 11 36.7 0.004
NOSE
n-sn 49.0 57.8 66.6 6 20.0 0 0 24 80.0 ,0.00001
al-al 27.1 31.9 36.7 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 39.5 45.3 51.1 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
EAR
sa-sba 48.2 55.4 62.6 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
627
Table 12a. Russian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 59.5 75.1 90.7 24 80.0 1 3.3 5 16.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 168.2 184.4 200.2 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 110.3 122.9 135.5 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 53.9 64.5 75.1 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 132.4 141.2 150.0 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
go-go 93.0 103.8 114.6 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 30.4 34.2 38.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
en-ex 29.6 34.6 39.6 10 33.3 0 0 20 66.7 ,0.00001
ex-ex 91.1 98.9 106.7 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 46.5 51.7 56.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 31.2 35.8 40.4 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
nasal bridge inclination 29.4 37.4 45.4 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 44.9 52.5 60.1 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 56.1 63.1 70.1 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
Table 12b. Russian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 57.3 70.7 84.1 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 157.0 174.4 191.8 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 101.4 114.2 127.0 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 47.4 61.4 75.4 21 70.0 8 26.7 1 3.3 0.04
zy-zy 122.7 132.3 141.9 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
go-go 90.4 98.6 106.8 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 26.7 32.7 38.7 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
en-ex 30.7 34.5 38.3 13 43.3 0 0 17 56.7 0.00003
ex-ex 87.6 94.6 101.6 16 53.3 0 0 14 46.7 0.0004
NOSE
n-sn 43.6 50.4 57.2 26 87.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
al-al 28.8 33.2 37.6 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.9 48.1 54.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 53.2 59.2 65.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
628
Table 13a. Slovak Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 53.8 68.8 83.8 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 166.1 183.7 201.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 99.2 115.0 130.8 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 50.7 63.7 76.7 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 123.7 134.7 145.7 25 83.3 4 13.3 1 3.3 NS
go-go 101.6 118.6 135.6 4 13.3 0 0 26 86.7 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 27.0 32.6 38.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
en-ex 31.7 34.9 38.1 5 16.7 0 0 25 83.3 ,0.00001
ex-ex 90.1 100.7 111.3 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 47.9 53.5 59.1 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 29.2 33.6 38.0 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 45.2 53.2 61.2 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 58.1 63.9 69.7 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
Table 13b. Slovak Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 52.6 66.2 79.8 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 152.2 169.7 186.9 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
n-gn 98.5 109.3 120.1 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 50.0 58.6 67.2 19 63.3 11 36.7 0 0 0.004
zy-zy 113.6 125.0 136.4 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
go-go 96.6 105.4 114.2 13 43.3 0 0 17 56.7 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 25.9 30.7 35.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 28.3 32.3 36.3 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
ex-ex 88.1 96.1 104.1 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 44.6 49.4 54.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
al-al 27.0 30.6 34.2 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.9 48.9 54.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 52.7 59.3 65.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
629
Table 14a. Slovenian Males (n = 30))

HEAD
tr-n 50.7 69.3 87.9 25 83.3 3 10.0 2 6.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 160.7 181.3 202.9 25 83.3 3 10.0 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 103.6 116.6 129.6 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
sn-gn 57.0 66.8 76.6 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
zy-zy 124.6 136.2 147.8 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
go-go 92.3 106.3 120.3 20 66.7 10 33.3 0 0 0.008
ORBITS
en-en 28.0 32.0 36.0 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 30.6 36.4 42.2 5 16.7 0 0 25 83.3 ,0.00001
ex-ex 93.8 102.6 111.4 2 6.7 0 0 28 93.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 48.2 56.2 64.2 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
al-al 30.1 35.9 41.7 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 45.2 53.0 60.8 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 55.1 63.3 71.5 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
Table 14b. Slovenian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 51.7 65.3 78.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 140.2 170.4 200.6 25 83.3 3 10.0 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 90.2 108.8 127.4 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
sn-gn 51.4 61.4 71.4 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 119.1 129.5 139.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 89.9 100.7 111.5 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
ORBITS
en-en 24.6 30.2 35.8 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 28.8 33.2 37.6 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
ex-ex 85.9 96.1 106.3 10 33.3 0 0 20 66.7 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 47.4 52.0 56.6 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
al-al 28.1 33.1 38.1 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 42.8 49.2 55.6 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.4 59.6 67.8 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
630
Table 15a. Iranian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 37.0 53.4 69.8 6 20.0 24 80.0 0 0 ,0.00001
FACE
tr-gn 159.9 180.3 200.7 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
n-gn 116.6 132.4 148.2 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
sn-gn 63.7 73.3 82.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 127.0 138.4 149.8 25 83.3 1 3.3 4 13.3 NS
go-go 92.5 105.9 119.3 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 31.9 27.3 32.7 15 50.0 15 50.0 0 0 ,0.00001
en-ex 34.2 37.2 30.2 6 20.0 24 80.0 0 0 ,0.00001
ex-ex 78.8 91.8 104.8 16 53.3 2 6.7 12 40.0 0.002
NOSE
n-sn 56.2 62.6 69.0 9 30.0 0 0 21 70.0 ,0.00001
al-al 29.3 35.3 41.3 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 44.1 50.3 56.5 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.4 61.2 71.0 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
Table 15b. Iranian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 40.3 56.9 73.5 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 160.9 175.9 190.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 108.7 120.3 131.9 18 60.0 0 0 12 40.0 0.002
sn-gn 57.4 66.2 75.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 118.3 131.7 145.1 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
go-go 88.7 102.7 116.7 14 46.7 0 0 16 53.3 0.00008
ORBITS
en-en 17.6 24.6 31.6 10 33.3 20 66.7 0 0 ,0.00001
en-ex 17.8 24.4 31.0 5 16.7 25 83.3 0 0 ,0.00001
ex-ex 68.0 79.8 91.6 15 50.0 15 50.0 0 0 0.0002
NOSE
n-sn 52.9 58.5 64.1 2 6.7 0 0 28 93.3 ,0.00001
al-al 27.1 32.1 37.1 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 39.8 45.0 50.2 21 70.0 9 30.0 0 0 0.02
EAR
sa-sba 52.0 59.0 66.0 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
631
Table 16a. Turkish Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 49.7 61.9 74.1 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 173.7 186.5 199.3 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
n-gn 121.9 127.7 133.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 57.5 65.9 74.3 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
zy-zy 124.0 140.4 156.8 23 76.7 1 3.3 6 20.0 NS
go-go 100.9 109.5 118.1 13 43.3 0 0 17 56.7 0.00003
ORBITS
en-en 27.6 32.8 38.0 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
en-ex 28.2 30.6 33.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
ex-ex 89.6 95.8 102.0 16 53.3 0 0 14 46.7 0.0004
NOSE
n-sn 51.1 58.1 65.1 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
al-al 32.2 36.8 41.4 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 46.6 53.0 59.4 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 57.6 64.8 72.0 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
Table 16b. Turkish Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 46.7 60.7 74.7 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 160.4 179.2 198.0 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
n-gn 102.2 116.4 130.6 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
sn-gn 51.5 59.1 66.7 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 125.9 134.5 143.1 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
go-go 84.4 100.0 115.6 18 60.0 0 0 12 40.0 0.002
ORBITS
en-en 27.3 31.7 36.1 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.6 29.8 33.0 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ex-ex 83.8 93.2 101.6 17 56.7 0 0 13 43.3 0.0009
NOSE
n-sn 47.2 55.2 63.2 13 43.3 0 0 17 56.7 0.00003
al-al 28.7 32.9 37.1 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.8 47.6 53.4 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 53.8 60.0 66.2 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
632
Table 17a. Egyptian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 44.6 63.6 82.6 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 150.1 176.9 203.7 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
n-gn 101.2 116.4 131.6 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
sn-gn 51.3 64.1 76.9 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 126.0 139.8 153.6 24 80.0 1 3.3 5 16.7 NS
go-go 88.7 97.9 107.1 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 27.6 31.8 36.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
en-ex 27.9 31.5 35.1 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
ex-ex 80.6 89.0 97.4 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 43.4 54.6 65.8 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
al-al 24.4 32.4 40.4 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 40.9 48.3 55.7 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
EAR
sa-sba 55.2 61.0 66.8 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
Table 17b. Egyptian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 49.2 61.2 73.2 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 143.6 161.4 179.2 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 92.1 103.1 114.1 19 63.3 11 36.7 0 0 0.004
sn-gn 48.8 57.8 66.8 20 66.7 10 33.3 0 0 0.008
zy-zy 119.9 130.3 140.7 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 84.0 91.2 98.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 26.3 30.9 35.5 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.7 30.8 34.3 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
ex-ex 77.9 86.3 94.9 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
NOSE
n-sn 37.0 47.4 57.8 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
al-al 21.9 29.3 36.7 21 70.0 9 30.0 0 0 0.02
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 39.3 46.7 54.1 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 50.6 57.8 65.0 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
633
Table 18a. Indian Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 50.7 65.5 80.3 25 83.3 3 10.0 2 6.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 156.7 161.3 165.9 0 0 30 100.0 0 0 ,0.00001
n-gn 101.1 112.5 124.9 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
sn-gn 52.7 62.7 72.7 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 127.2 135.8 144.4 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
go-go 96.2 102.8 109.4 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 29.7 34.1 38.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.2 30.2 34.2 24 80.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 NS
ex-ex 91.8 98.8 105.8 24 80.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 39.8 47.2 54.6 18 60.0 12 40.0 0 0 0.002
al-al 30.9 37.9 44.9 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 0.008
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.8 51.0 60.2 24 80.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.1 61.1 68.1 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
Table 18b. Indian Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 45.6 64.2 82.8 25 83.3 2 6.7 3 10.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 146.4 163.0 179.6 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 90.5 101.5 112.5 19 63.3 11 36.7 0 0 0.004
sn-gn 48.2 57.2 66.2 16 53.3 14 46.7 0 0 0.0004
zy-zy 108.0 124.9 141.7 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
go-go 86.6 97.4 107.9 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 25.1 30.9 36.7 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
en-ex 26.9 31.3 35.7 26 86.7 1 3.3 3 10.0 NS
ex-ex 87.5 97.5 107.5 10 33.3 0 0 20 66.7 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 36.5 43.7 50.9 17 56.7 13 43.3 0 0 0.0009
al-al 29.0 33.8 38.6 22 73.3 1 3.3 7 23.3 NS
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 40.5 46.5 52.5 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 46.7 57.1 67.5 24 80.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 NS
634
Table 19a. Singaporean Chinese Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 53.3 67.1 80.9 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 172.9 187.3 201.7 24 80.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 113.0 123.6 134.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 62.2 72.8 83.4 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 133.4 144.6 155.8 18 60.0 0 0 12 40.0 0.002
go-go 96.1 107.3 118.5 4 13.3 0 0 26 86.7 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 31.0 37.6 44.2 16 53.3 0 0 14 46.7 0.0004
en-ex 27.0 29.4 31.8 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
ex-ex 83.7 91.7 99.7 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
NOSE
n-sn 47.8 53.8 59.8 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 33.4 39.2 45.0 14 46.7 1 3.3 15 50.0 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 44.0 49.6 55.2 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 53.1 60.7 68.3 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
Table 19b. Singaporean Chinese Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 49.1 64.1 79.1 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 159.6 176.2 192.8 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 105.1 114.9 124.7 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
sn-gn 55.2 66.4 77.6 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
zy-zy 128.2 136.2 244.2 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
go-go 95.5 102.3 109.1 5 16.7 0 0 25 83.3 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 29.7 36.1 42.5 15 50.0 0 0 15 50.0 0.0002
en-ex 25.0 28.4 31.8 18 60.0 12 40.0 0 0 0.002
ex-ex 76.9 87.3 97.7 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 45.1 51.7 58.3 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
al-al 33.0 37.2 41.4 7 23.3 0 0 23 76.7 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 40.7 47.3 53.9 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 49.8 57.6 65.4 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
635
Table 20a. Vietnamese Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 54.3 65.3 76.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 164.3 180.9 197.5 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
n-gn 112.0 121.2 130.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 59.7 71.1 82.5 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 135.2 144.0 152.8 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
go-go 99.8 110.4 121.0 12 40.0 18 60.0 0 0 0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 32.1 36.7 41.3 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
en-ex 24.3 29.1 33.9 17 56.7 12 40.0 1 3.3 0.002
ex-ex 87.1 91.5 95.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 46.1 52.1 58.1 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 36.0 40.2 44.4 12 40.0 0 0 18 60.0 0.00001
nasal bridge inclination 16.4 24.0 31.6 20 66.7 10 33.3 0 0 0.008
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 38.3 47.5 56.7 19 63.3 11 36.7 0 0 0.004
EAR
sa-sba 54.5 59.9 65.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
Table 20b. Vietnamese Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 54.9 63.3 71.7 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 156.9 171.1 185.3 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
n-gn 103.7 113.1 122.5 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 56.2 64.0 71.8 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 128.5 134.3 140.1 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
go-go 98.8 104.8 110.8 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 31.2 36.6 42.0 17 56.7 0 0 13 43.3 0.0009
en-ex 25.2 29.2 33.2 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
ex-ex 82.5 89.9 97.3 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 42.4 50.4 58.4 25 83.3 2 6.7 3 10.0 NS
al-al 35.6 39.8 44.0 0 0 0 0 30 100.0 ,0.00001
nasal bridge inclination 12.8 21.8 30.8 22 73.3 8 26.7 0 0 0.03
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 38.5 48.5 58.5 21 70.0 7 23.3 2 6.7 NS
EAR
sa-sba 55.0 59.8 64.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
636
Table 21a. Thai Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 56.9 66.9 76.9 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 169.7 185.1 205.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
n-gn 111.5 123.5 135.5 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
sn-gn 62.2 72.4 82.6 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 136.1 147.1 158.1 12 40.0 0 0 18 60.0 0.00001
go-go 100.0 109.5 119.0 14 46.7 0 0 16 53.3 0.00008
ORBITS
en-en 31.2 37.2 43.2 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
en-ex 25.8 29.8 33.5 28 93.3 2 6.7 0 0 NS
ex-ex 82.5 91.5 100.5 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
NOSE
n-sn 47.1 51.5 55.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
al-al 36.4 40.8 45.2 7 23.3 0 0 23 76.7 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 45.5 50.3 55.1 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.6 62.4 73.2 24 80.0 3 10.0 3 10.0 NS
Table 21b. Thai Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 52.9 65.3 77.7 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 155.4 172.8 190.2 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 102.4 112.8 123.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 53.6 62.6 71.6 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 125.7 138.3 150.9 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
go-go 96.2 106.0 115.8 6 20.0 0 0 24 80.0 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 31.0 36.0 41.0 20 66.7 0 0 10 33.3 0.008
en-ex 25.1 28.9 32.7 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
ex-ex 89.0 99.0 109.0 22 73.3 1 3.3 7 23.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 43.1 49.5 55.9 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
al-al 34.2 40.2 46.2 2 6.7 0 0 28 93.3 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 38.8 45.4 52.0 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 52.9 60.3 67.7 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
637
Table 22a. Japanese Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 47.4 63.0 78.6 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 174.8 191.4 208.0 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 109.0 122.8 136.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 57.2 69.4 81.6 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 136.0 147.2 158.4 13 43.3 0 0 17 56.7 0.00003
go-go 101.5 117.3 133.1 5 16.7 0 0 25 83.3 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 31.3 37.5 43.7 18 60.0 0 0 12 40.0 0.002
en-ex 26.1 30.7 35.3 23 76.7 4 13.3 3 10.0 NS
ex-ex 95.5 103.9 122.3 1 3.3 0 0 29 96.7 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 47.1 56.9 66.7 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
al-al 33.2 38.2 43.2 19 63.3 0 0 11 36.7 0.004
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.4 48.4 55.4 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 58.0 65.6 73.2 27 90.0 1 3.3 2 6.7 NS
Table 22b. Japanese Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 48.1 60.5 72.9 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 168.4 182.8 197.2 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
n-gn 102.4 113.8 125.2 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 51.0 62.8 74.6 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 129.4 141.2 153.0 13 43.3 0 0 17 56.7 0.00003
go-go 104.4 115.6 126.8 0 0 0 0 30 100.0 ,0.00001
ORBITS
en-en 29.4 35.0 40.6 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
en-ex 25.2 29.2 33.2 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
ex-ex 91.3 93.3 107.3 2 6.7 0 0 28 93.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 43.5 53.3 63.1 19 63.3 1 3.3 10 33.3 0.01
al-al 32.3 37.1 41.9 6 20.0 0 0 24 80.0 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 28.9 46.5 54.1 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 54.3 61.9 69.5 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
638
Table 23a. Angolan Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 49.3 63.9 78.5 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 164.4 182.6 200.8 10 33.3 20 66.7 0 0 ,0.00001
n-gn 90.1 112.1 134.1 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
sn-gn 57.7 67.3 76.9 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 129.6 139.8 150.0 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
go-go 88.0 97.4 106.8 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 28.3 36.3 44.3 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
en-ex 23.3 28.5 33.7 13 43.3 16 53.3 1 3.3 0.00009
ex-ex 76.3 92.7 99.1 23 76.7 2 6.7 5 16.7 NS
NOSE
n-sn 42.6 49.8 57.0 27 90.0 3 10.0 0 0 NS
al-al 41.5 46.3 51.1 0 0 0 0 30 100.0 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 48.4 54.4 60.4 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.1 57.5 63.9 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
Table 23b. Angolan Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 46.9 64.9 82.9 26 86.7 2 6.7 2 6.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 154.6 172.4 190.2 22 73.3 6 20.0 2 6.7 NS
n-gn 83.7 106.5 129.3 17 56.7 12 40.0 1 3.3 0.002
sn-gn 49.0 63.2 76.4 23 76.7 6 20.0 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 124.4 132.8 141.2 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 78.9 90.3 101.7 21 70.0 6 20.0 3 10.0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 27.4 36.6 45.8 15 50.0 0 0 15 50.0 0.0002
en-ex 19.5 27.1 34.7 12 40.0 18 60.0 0 0 0.00001
ex-ex 79.4 87.0 94.6 18 60.0 6 20.0 6 20.0 0.009
NOSE
n-sn 37.6 46.6 55.6 21 70.0 7 23.3 2 6.7 NS
al-al 34.6 40.8 47.0 1 3.3 0 0 29 96.7 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 41.7 52.9 64.1 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
EAR
sa-sba 47.2 55.0 62.8 24 80.0 6 20.0 0 0 NS
639
Table 24. Tonga Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 56.1 62.7 69.3 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 144.8 161.8 178.8 13 43.3 17 56.7 0 0 0.00003
n-gn 98.1 109.5 120.9 18 60.0 12 40.0 0 0 0.002
sn-gn 57.2 66.0 74.8 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
zy-zy 130.7 133.3 134.9 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
go-go 65.3 72.3 79.3 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 28.2 34.8 41.4 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
en-ex 23.9 28.0 32.2 10 33.3 20 66.7 0 0 ,0.00001
ex-ex 82.1 90.9 99.7 25 83.3 1 3.3 4 13.3 NS
NOSE
n-sn 40.8 49.2 57.6 23 76.7 7 23.3 0 0 NS
al-al 38.2 44.0 49.8 1 3.3 0 0 29 96.7 ,0.00001
nasal bridge inclination
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 45.4 53.2 61.0 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 48.4 55.8 63.2 18 60.0 12 40.0 0 0 0.002
NAW, to 1 of 3 (33.3%) from the Middle East, and to Craniofacial Regions With Multiple Measurements:
100% in the 5 Asian and 4 African ethnic groups. Only their Relationship to the North American White
in Croatian males (Table 5) and Iranians (Table 17) Normal Ranges
was the forehead height extremely significantly
Facial Region
smaller.
Of the five measurements, the three vertical ones
(tr-gn, n-gn, sn-gn) showed a higher percentage
Labio-oral region
(76.9%, 10 of 13 groups) of identical values to
Mouth width (ch-ch) was identical to that of the NAW those of NAW than the two horizontal ones (zy-zy,
in 12 of 13 Caucasian groups (92.3%), 4 of 5 of Asian go-go) (38.5%, 5 of 13) in both sexes of Caucasian
groups (80%), and all Middle Eastern and African groups. The lower face height (sn-gn) in Hungarian
ethnic groups. The mouth width was very signifi- females was extremely significantly and in Slovakian
cantly larger in 33.3% of Hungarian males (Table 8) females very significantly smaller (Tables 8,13). Of the
and significantly smaller in 36.7% of Vietnamese two horizontal measurements, the mandible width
males (Table 20). (go-go) displayed significantly larger rather than
smaller values slightly more often (9) than did face
width (7). In Portuguese males, the face and mandible
Ear
widths were extremely significantly smaller and in
Ear lengths (sa-sba) of Caucasians (Tables 2–14), Mid- females very significantly smaller (Table 11), while
dle Eastern groups (Tables 15–17), and Asian groups among Italians and Slovaks the mandible width
(Tables 18–22) were the same as those of NAW. was extremely significantly increased in both sexes
Among the African ethnic groups (Tables 23–26), (Tables 9,13).
the Tonga males’ ear length was smaller in a very sig- In the three Middle Eastern male groups all ver-
nificant frequency (40%). tical measurements were identical to those of NAW.
640
Table 25a. Zulu Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 53.7 71.3 88.9 25 83.3 2 6.7 3 10.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 168.0 188.6 209.2 27 90.0 2 6.7 1 3.3 NS
n-gn 108.0 121.8 135.6 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
sn-gn 64.4 72.2 80.0 30 100.0 0 0 0 0 NS
zy-zy 120.1 129.3 138.5 20 66.7 10 33.3 0 0 0.008
go-go 93.2 104.4 115.6 25 83.3 0 0 5 16.7 NS
ORBITS
en-en 29.1 36.5 43.9 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
en-ex 29.9 34.5 39.1 11 36.7 0 0 19 63.3 ,0.00001
ex-ex 88.9 99.3 109.7 8 26.7 0 0 22 73.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 39.0 50.2 61.4 24 80.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 NS
al-al 36.2 42.0 47.8 6 20.0 0 0 24 80.0 ,0.00001
nasal bridge inclination 23.0 36.6 50.2 21 70.0 1 3.3 8 26.7 0.04
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 47.6 56.2 64.8 24 80.0 2 6.7 4 13.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 52.2 57.8 63.4 26 86.7 4 13.3 0 0 NS
Table 25b. Zulu Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 53.7 69.1 84.5 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
FACE
tr-gn 159.3 179.1 198.9 24 80.0 1 3.3 5 16.7 NS
n-gn 102.5 113.7 124.9 28 93.3 1 3.3 1 3.3 NS
sn-gn 57.2 65.4 73.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
zy-zy 118.8 128.4 138.0 29 96.7 1 3.3 0 0 NS
go-go 87.0 102.0 113.4 22 73.3 0 0 8 26.7 0.03
ORBITS
en-en 29.7 34.5 39.3 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
en-ex 27.8 33.4 39.0 21 70.0 0 0 9 30.0 0.02
ex-ex 87.1 96.9 106.7 11 36.7 0 0 19 63.3 ,0.00001
NOSE
n-sn 34.9 49.5 64.1 14 46.7 7 23.3 9 30.0 0.0004
al-al 32.2 38.0 43.8 7 23.3 0 0 23 76.7 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 44.2 52.2 60.2 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
EAR
sa-sba 47.4 56.2 65.0 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
641
Table 26a. Afro-American Males (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 56.6 72.0 87.4 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
FACE
tr-gn 173.4 194.6 215.2 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
n-gn 109.5 125.9 142.3 27 90.0 0 0 3 10.0 NS
sn-gn 65.5 78.9 92.4 21 70.0 1 3.3 8 26.7 0.04
zy-zy 127.5 138.7 149.9 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
go-go 92.2 104.2 116.2 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
ORBITS
en-en 30.2 35.8 41.4 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
en-ex 29.7 32.9 36.1 22 73.3 1 3.3 7 23.3 NS
ex-ex 87.6 96.8 106.0 14 46.7 0 0 16 53.3 0.00008
NOSE
n-sn 45.9 51.9 57.5 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
al-al 37.3 44.1 50.9 4 13.3 0 0 26 86.7 ,0.00001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 46.4 54.6 62.8 26 86.7 2 6.7 2 6.7 NS
EAR
sa-sba 51.8 59.8 67.8 25 83.3 5 16.7 0 0 NS
Table 26b. Afro-American Females (n = 30)

HEAD
tr-n 55.3 67.1 78.9 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
FACE
tr-gn 165.1 180.1 195.1 23 76.7 0 0 7 23.3 NS
n-gn 104.3 116.5 128.7 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
sn-gn 61.6 71.5 81.9 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
zy-zy 120.9 130.5 140.1 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
go-go 86.7 96.7 106.7 24 80.0 0 0 6 20.0 NS
ORBITS
en-en 27.6 34.4 41.2 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
en-ex 28.2 32.2 36.2 26 86.7 0 0 4 13.3 NS
ex-ex 82.3 92.9 103.5 19 63.3 0 0 11 36.7 0.004
NOSE
n-sn 41.4 48.8 56.2 28 93.3 0 0 2 6.7 NS
al-al 33.7 40.1 46.5 2 6.7 0 0 28 93.3 ,0.0001
LABIO-ORAL REGION
ch-ch 45.6 53.6 61.6 24 80.0 1 3.3 5 16.7 NS
EAR
sa-sba 50.4 57.0 63.6 29 96.7 0 0 1 3.3 NS
642
In females the three vertical measurements were biocular width (ex-ex) was extremely significantly
identical with NAW in Turks only (Table 16). Face greater. In Iranians the intercanthal width and eye fis-
height (n-gn) in Iranian females was very signifi- sure length were extremely significantly smaller in
cantly greater (Table 15), while both face height both sexes, while the biocular width (ex-ex) in males
and lower face height (sn-gn) were very significantly was very significantly greater and in females ex-
smaller in Egyptian females (Table 17). In the hori- tremely significantly smaller.
zontal measurements, both the face (zy-zy) and man- In three of five Asian ethnic groups (Tables 18,
dible (go-go) widths of Egyptians were identical with 21,22) the eye fissure length (en-ex) was identical
NAW in both sexes. The face width of Iranians and with NAW in both sexes, differing only among female
Turks was identical with NAW in males only. Ex- Singaporean Chinese and Vietnamese males (very sig-
tremely significantly greater mandible width was nificantly smaller). Identical intercanthal width (en-en)
present in male Turks and Iranian females. to NAW was present in three ethnic groups: in both
In almost all Asian male and female ethnic groups sexes of Indians and in Vietnamese and Thai males.
(Tables 17–22) the vertical measurements were iden- The measurement was extremely significantly greater
tical to NAW. Both the face and mandible width were in both sexes of Singaporean Chinese and Vietnamese
extremely or very significantly greater in male Thais females, and very significantly greater in Thai and
and in both sexes of Japanese. An extremely signifi- Japanese males. Identical biocular width (ex-ex) to
cantly wide mandible was seen in both sexes of Sin- NAW was observed in males of India and Singaporean
gaporean Chinese, Vietnamese and Thais. Face width Chinese and in both sexes of Vietnamese and Thais.
was identical to NAW in Singaporean Chinese and The measurement was extremely significantly wider
Thai females and in both sexes of Vietnamese. In Sin- in Indian females and in both sexes of Japanese.
gaporean Chinese males the face width was very sig- In three of four African ethnic groups the inter-
nificantly wider. Of the four African ethnic groups, canthal width (en-en) was identical in both sexes to
the Zulus and Afro-Americans showed identical ver- NAW (Tables 23,25,26), as well as in Tonga males.
tical facial measurements compared with NAWs in The measurement was extremely significantly greater
both sexes (Tables 23–26). Extremely and very signif- among Angolan females only. Eye fissure length
icantly reduced vertical measurements (tr-n, n-gn, (en-ex) was identical to NAW in Zulu females and
sn-gn) were common in other ethnic groups. Identical in both sexes of Afro-Americans but extremely signif-
face and mandible width measurements were seen in icantly smaller in Tonga males and in Angolans of
both sexes of Angolans, Afro-Americans, Tonga males both sexes and extremely significantly greater in Zulu
and Zulu females. The face width of Zulu males was males. The biocular width (ex-ex) showed identical
very significantly smaller (Table 25). values to NAW in Angolan and Tonga males. It
was extremely significantly greater in both sexes of
Zulus and Afro-American males and very signifi-
Orbits
cantly greater in Angola and Afro-American females.
Intercanthal widths (en-en) identical to those of the
NAW were observed in 12 of 13 (92.3%) Caucasian
groups (Tables 2–14). Eye fissure length (en-ex) iden-
Nose
tical to NAW was seen in 8 of 13 (61.5%) ethnic groups
in females and in 4 groups of males (30.8%), very Nose height (n-sn) was identical with those of the
significantly smaller in 2 females (Tables 4,5) and normal range in NAW in 92.3% of Caucasian males
extremely significantly wider in 3 females (Tables and in 76.9% of females. It was very significantly
8,11,12) and 8 males (Tables 2,7–12,14). The biocular greater in Greek females (33.3%) and Portuguese males
width (ex-ex) showed identical values to NAW in (36.7%), extremely significantly shorter in Hungarian
7 males and 7 females out of the 13 groups (53.8%). Ex- females, and extremely significantly greater in Portu-
tremely significantly greater biocular width measure- guese females (Tables 7,8,11). The morphological
ments were present in 6 males (46.2%) and 5 females width of the nose (al-al) in both sexes of Caucasians
(38.5%), and one female had a very significantly wide was identical to that of the NAW normal range. The
biocular width. nasal bridge inclination in Caucasian males was iden-
Among the Middle Eastern ethnic groups (Tables tical to NAW in 12 (92.3%) and in females 11 (84.6%)
15–17) all orbital measurements in Egyptian males of 13 groups. Very significantly greater inclination
and females were identical to NAW. In Turkish males was observed in male Azerbaijanis (Table 2) and
and females both intercanthal width (en-en) and eye female Russians (Table 12), and extremely significantly
fissure length (en-ex) were identical with NAW, but greater inclination in Slovenian females (Table 14).
643
Nose width and the inclination of the nasal bridge measurements. A significantly greater bizygomatic
in all Middle Eastern groups were identical to NAW width was found most frequently in Caucasian males
in both sexes. Nose height was extremely signifi- (11.3%) and Asians (10.3%). The highest frequency of
cantly greater in both sexes of Iranians and of Turkish significantly greater mandible widths was seen in
females. Asian (14%) and Caucasian females (6.8%). In the
In Asian ethnic groups the nose width (al-al) African groups, significantly greater facial or mandi-
was extremely significantly wider in both sexes of bular widths were not observed. The orbits, situated
Singaporean Chinese, Vietnamese, and Thais and in as they are between forehead and face, and with three
Japanese females, and very significantly greater in horizontal measurements (en-en, en-ex, ex-ex) are
Japanese males. Nose height (n-sn) was identical to one of the craniofacial areas most exposed to visual
NAW in four of five ethnic groups (Tables 19–22), very judgment. The fact that the intercanthal width (en-en)
significantly smaller in Indian males, and extremely was identical to NAW in all Caucasian males and
significantly smaller in Indian females. The nasal in 92.3% females greatly contributed to the quality
bridge inclination was identical to NAW in all female of the mutual relationship between the intercanthal,
ethnic groups (100%) and in four out of five male nose, and mouth widths. In four of five African male
groups (Tables 18,19,21,22). ethnic groups the intercanthal width was identical to
The nose height (n-sn) was identical to NAW in NAW. In Middle Eastern and Asian groups most
all of African male ethnic groups and in female An- intercanthal and biocular widths were significantly
golans and Afro-Americans. (No female measurements greater than those in NAW, and eye fissure length
were available from Tongans.) In Zulu females the nose was significantly smaller. Although nose width was
height was extremely significantly greater (Table 25). significantly greater in both the Asian and African
Nose width was extremely significantly greater in groups than in NAW, the width was more conspicu-
both sexes of three African ethnic groups and in male ous among the Africans because their mandible and
Tongans. The inclination of the nasal bridge was face widths were the same as NAW. In three of the
identical to NAW in both sexes in all African ethnic five Asian groups, both face and mandible widths
groups. of males and mandible width in females were also
significantly greater than in NAW, thus obscuring
DISCUSSION visual judgment of nose width.
Nose height of Caucasians of both sexes seldom
T he measurements selected for the study were in-

tended to develop a satisfactory image of the
morphological structure of the craniofacial complex,
differed from that of NAW, and nose width was
totally identical to it. However, the inclination of
the nasal bridge influences the shape of the profile:
consisting of six regions with 14 measurements. a significantly reduced inclination makes a short nose
These measurements were taken in an attempt to es- look higher than it is. For example, the normal nose
tablish the main facial characteristics of 25 national height of Vietnamese males may appear significantly
groups belonging to four races and thereby differen- greater in the presence of a significantly smaller nasal
tiate the morphological complex between one group bridge inclination, simultaneously increasing the flat-
and another. ness of the facial profile. The opposite is also true: the
Determination of the differences between the cra- nose height of Azerbaijani males and Russian and
niofacial norms of North American whites and the Slovenian females is normal, but their significantly
measurements of other ethnic groups depended on greater nasal bridge inclination might make the nose
linear and angular anthropometric data. Differences look shorter. When the inclination is identical to
had to be visually striking, statistically defined as dif- NAW, a significantly larger nose, such as is found
fering very or extremely significantly from those of in Portuguese, Iranians and Greek of both sexes
NAW. As expected, the Caucasian groups of Europe and in Hungarian and Turkish females, remains visu-
showed the smallest differences from the reference ally apparent.
group, since they closely approximated the mixture Studies identifying the factors influencing the
of Caucasian nationalities of today’s North American variations in facial morphology refer chiefly to the en-
white population. vironmental conditions, socioeconomic status, and
While the regions with single measurements nutritional habits of the populations.14–19 Theories
(head, mouth, ear) showed almost no differences that in hot, moist climates the nasal aperture becomes
between the ethnic groups/races studied and NAW, much wider, present in all African and Asian ethnic
in those with multiple measurements certain differ- groups in both sexes, remains unproven.20 Afro-
ences were observed between vertical and horizontal Americans who have lived for centuries in the same
644
climate as the North American white population 3. Baltadjiev, Georgi MD, PhD, Assoc. Prof., Head of Dpt. of Anat-
have retained their greatly wider nose, unaffected omy, Medical Faculty, Plovdiv, Bulgaria,
4. Cunha, Eugenia RNDr, Ass. Prof., Departimento de Anthropo-
even in cases of white and American Indian ances- logia, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal,
try21. The great similarities between the NAW and 5. Čvičelová, Marta RNDr, PhD, Assist. Prof, Dpt. of Anthro-
the European Caucasians, together with the stable pology, Prirodovedecká fakulta UK, Comenius University,
Bratislava, Slovakia,
characteristics of Asians and Africans maintained 6. Davies, Scott Dr, Houseman, General Practitioner, Baragwa-
throughout their ethnic groups, can be explained only nath Hospital, University Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South
by inherited genetic factors – an explanation widely Africa
accepted by scientists.21–24 7. Erasmus, Ilse Dr, Research Fellow, Fetal Medicine, Baragwa-
nath Hospital, Obstetrics-Gynecology, University Witwaters-
This study required 5 years to complete and rand, Johannesburg, South Africa,
could not have been done without the collaboration 8. Gillett-Netting, Rhonda RNDr, PhD, Assist. Prof., Dpt. of An-
of many anthropologists and medical scientists, thropology, Univ. of Arizona, TUCSON, USA
9. Hajniš, Karel RNDr, PhD, Prof (em), Institute of Anthropology,
researchers, clinicians who willingly joined the inter- Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic,
national team for this ‘‘mega-project’’, without any fi- 10. Kemkes-Grottenthaler, Arianne RNDr, Institute für Anthropo-
nancial support. They deserve our deepest gratitude. logie, Johannes Guttenberg Universität, Mainz, Germany,
It is hoped that this study will encourage scientists to 11. Khomyakova, Irena RNDr, Institute and Museum of Anthro-
pology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
establish a more detailed anthropometric databases 12. Kumi, Ashizava RNDr. Prof., Division of Growth and Ergo-
for the benefit of patients. Establishment of these fa- nomics, Institute of Human Living Sciences, Otsuma Women’s
cial databases for various ethnic groups/races, whose University, Tokyo, Japan
members are potential immigrants to North America, 13. Kgamphe, J. Stranger BSc, Dip Med Tech, Human Biologist,
National Dpt. of Education, Pretoria, South Africa
is essential to determine the differences between 14. Kayo-daigo, Nakamura MD, Division of Plastic Surgery,
them and the normative data of the North American Yokohama City University Hospital, Yokohama, Japan
white population when planning quantitative evalu- 15. Le, Thuy MD, Plastic Surgeon, Senior Resident, Division of Plastic
Surgery, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA, USA
ation of morphological aberrations or surgical correc- 16. Malinowski, Andrzej RNDr, Prof (em), Katedra Anthropologii,
tion of facial disfigurements. Universitet Lodzki, qodz, Poland,
17. Negasheva, Marina RNDr, Institute and Museum of Anthro-
pology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Data Tables 18. Manolis, Sotiris Dr, PhD, Assist.Prof., Biological Anthropolo-
gist, School of Biology, Dpt of Animal & Human Physiology,
Table 1 represents the normal range of the North Panepistimiopolis 157 84 Athens, Greece,
American white young adult males and females. 19. Ögetürk, Murat MD, PhD, Assist. Prof., Dpt. of Anatomy, Med-
The linear measurements are given in millimeters, ical Faculty, Firat University, Elazig, Turkey
20. Parvizrad, Ramin MD, Tasua Clinic, Guilan University of Med-
the angular one (inclination) in degrees. The follow- ical Sciences. RASHT, Iran
ing 25 tables show the data of the various ethnic/ra- 21. Rösing, Friedrich Dr., Professor, Institute für Humangenetik
cial groups. The left size exhibits the normal range of und Anthropologie, Universität ULM, Germany
the 14 craniofacial measurements of the ethnic group, 22. Sahu, Paresh RnDr, Professor. Postgraduate Dpt of Anthropol-
ogy, Sambalpure University, IYOTI VIHAR, Orissa, India
the right side the relationship between the findings 23. Sforza, Chiarella MD, Professor, Functional Anatomy Center,
of the ethnic group and the North American white Departimento di Anatomia Umana, Universita degli Study
population. Data for European Caucasians are re- di Milano, MILANO, Italy
24. Sivkov, Stefan MD, PhD, Senior Lecturer in Anatomy, Dpt. of
ported in Tables 2–14, for Middle Eastern groups in Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Medical University
Tables 15–17, for Asian groups in Tables 18–22, and Plovdiv, PLOVDIV, Bulgaria
in ethnic groups of African origin in Tables 23–26. 25. Sultanova, Nigar MD, Assist. Prof., Plastic Surgeon, Dpt. of
Each ethnic group table has two parts, one for males, Maxillo-facial Surgery, Azerbaijan Medical University, BAKU,
Azerbaijan
the other for females, with the exception of Table 24 26. Tomazo-Ravnik, Tatjana RNDr, PhD, Assoc. Prof, Dpt. of Biol-
(Tonga), which provides data for males only. The ogy, Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia,
abbreviation NAW, found in each table, stands for 27. Tóth, Gábor PhD, Human biologist, Clinical Somatometry,
Berzsenyi College, Szombathely, Hungary
North American whites. 28. Uzun, Ahmet MD, Assoc. Prof., Dpt. of Anatomy, Faculty of
Medicine, Ondokuz May’s University, Kurupelit, Samsun, Turkey
29. Yahia, Eman MD, PhD, Asst. Lecturer., Dpt. of Plastic Surgery,
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
CONTRIBUTING CO-AUTHORS
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646

Original Article International Anthropometric Study of Facial Morphology in Various Ethnic Groups/Races

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Original Article

International Anthropometric Study of

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

T he study group consisted of 1470 healthy young

First, the NAW distribution for a given measure-

T he craniofacial measurements of 25 ethnic groups

Measurement ÿ2 SD ÿ1 SD Mean +1 SD +2 SD ÿ2 SD ÿ1 SD Mean +1 SD +2 SD

Table 2a. Azerbaijan Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 2b. Azerbaijan Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 3a. Bulgarian Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 3b. Bulgarian Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 4a. Czech Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 4b. Czech Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 5a. Croatian Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 5b. Croatian Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 6a. German Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 6b. German Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 7a. Greek Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 7b. Greek Females

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 8a. Hungarian Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 8b. Hungarian Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 9a. Italian Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 9b. Italian Females

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 10a. Polish Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 10b. Polish Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 11a. Portuguese Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 11b. Portuguese Female (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 12a. Russian Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 12b. Russian Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 13a. Slovak Males (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 13b. Slovak Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 14a. Slovenian Males (n = 30))

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square

Table 14b. Slovenian Females (n = 30)

Normal Range of Facial Measurements Normal Range Smaller Greater Chi-Square