Atomic Structure

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Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest electrically neutral particle that takes part in a chemical reaction.
An atom is composed of electrons, protons and neutrons the properties of which are given in the table below:
components symbol charge mass
Proton p +1 1
Neutron n 0 1
Electron e -1 1
1840
The proton and neutron are situated in the nucleus whereas the electrons rotate around the nucleus in definite
shells.
Definitions
Atomic number is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. All atoms of the same element
have the same number of protons and thus the same atomic number.
Atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutron in an atom.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different number of neutron and
thus different atomic mass.
Relative atomic mass is the number of time atoms of an element are heavier than a 12th of carbon-12 isotope.
Relative atomic mass is obtained as an average of atomic mass of isotopes of an element in the ratio of their
existence or relative abundance.
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Example 2.1
Natural chlorine has Isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl the percentage of the abundance of these isotopes is 75%and
25%respectively. Calculate the atomic mass of Cl-atom.
Solution
The question implies that for every 100 atoms of chlorine, 75 of them each weigh 35units and 25 of them each
weigh 25units.
Thus mass of 100 atoms of chlorine = 75 x 35 + 25 x 37

35 𝑥 75+37 𝑥 25
Relative atomic mass of chlorine = average mass of 100 atoms = 100
= 35.50
Trial 2.1
The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5. Calculate the percentage of the isotopes 63Cuand 65Cu in it.
Trial 2.2
Naturally occurring born consist of two isotopes whose atomic weights are 10.01 and 11.01. the atomic weight
of born is 10.181. Calculate the % of each isotope in naturally occurring boron
Trial 2.3
Naturally occurring carbon consist of two isotopes namely 12C and 13C. What is the % abundance of the isotopes
in a sample of carbon whose atomic weight is 12.01112? Assume that the nucleic masses of 12Cand 13C are 12.0
and 13.00339 respectively
Trial 2.4
A sample of ordinary neon is found to consist of 20Ne, 21Ne and 22Ne isotopes in percentage of 90.92%, 0.26%
and 8-82% respectively. Calculate the actual atomic weight of neon.
Determination of Relative atomic masses

Mass spectrometer
2 5
6
1
Functions at each numbered step

1. Heated filament gives electrons. They pass into the ionization chamber.
2. The sample to be analyzed is injected as a gas into the ionization chamber. Electrons collide with and ionize
the molecules of the sample.
3. To this plate a negative potential is applied (about 800V). The electric field accelerates the positive ions while
repelling the negative ions.
4. An electromagnet produces a magnetic field. The field deflects the beam of ions into circular paths. Ions
with a high ratio of charge to mass are deflected more than those with low ratio of charge/mass.
5. By varying the magnetic field ions that have a correct charge/mass ratio are directed through the slit to the
collector.
6. Amplifier. Here the charge received by the collector is turned into a sizable electric current, interpreted and
recorded.
7. If the magnetic field is kept constant while the accelerating voltage is continuously varied, one species after
another is deflected into the ion collector.
Uses of mass spectrophotometer

1. Determination of the relative molecular mass of a compound.
2. Identification of compounds
3. In forensic science it is useful because a small sample gives results.
Trial 2.5
(a) Define the terms; mass number, isotope, relative atomic mass
(b) Chlorine has two isotopes of relative atomic masses 34.97 and 36.96 and relative abundance 75.77% and
24.23% respectively.
Calculate the mean relative atomic mass of naturally occurring chlorine
Trial 2.6(1984/1/5)
Element X with atomic number 84 and mass number 216 decays by loss of an α-particle gives element Y. Y further
decays by loss of β-particle to give Z.
(a) write down
(i) the mass number of element Y
(ii) the atomic number of element Z
(b) In which group of the Periodic Table would you expect Z?
(c) The table shows the mass numbers and the percentage abundance of an element.
Mass number % abundance
54 5.84
56 91.68
57 2.17
58 0.31
Calculate the relative atomic mass of Q
Trial 2.7 (2007/1/)

(a)(i) Define the term isotope
(ii) Describe the main steps involved in the operation of a mass spectrometer (diagram not required)
(b) The table below shows the information from a mass spectrum of a lead sample.
Isotope Detector/mA
204 0.16
206 2.72
207 2.50
208 5.92
Calculate
(i) The relative abundance of the different isotopes of lead in the sample used
(ii) The relative atomic mass of lead
(iii) State two advantages of Using a mass spectrometer over depression of freezing point method of determining
relative atomic mass.
(c) The initial count of a radioactive nucleus was 680s-1, after 350s, the count rate was 125s-1. Calculate
(i) decay constant
(ii) half life of the nucleus
Nuclear stability
A stable nucleus is one that does not undergo spontaneous disintegration
Factors affecting nuclear stability

1. Even and odd number of protons (p) and neutrons (n): nuclides with even proton and even neutrons tend to
be more stable than those with even protons and odd neutrons or odd protons-even neutrons than those
with odd proton and odd neutrons.
2. Neutrons to proton ratio (𝑛⁄𝑝 ratio)
A plot of the graph of neutrons versus proton indicating the zone of stability is given below
Belt of stability
n 𝑛
=1
𝑝
𝑛
The belt of stability is the region of 𝑝 where we find most stable nuclei, i.e. non-radioactive nuclei. The belt
goes on widening as the number of protons (or atomic number of the element s) increases. The nuclei whose
𝑛
𝑝
value lies above or below this belt are radioactive and hence spontaneously disintegrate to give stable
nuclei.
(i) the nuclei above the belt of stability are rich in neutrons and hence disintegrate in such a way that one
of the neutron is converted to a proton
i.e. [ 10𝑛 → 11𝐻 or 11𝑝 + −10𝑒] or such nuclei emit a β-particle.
Example
(a) 24
11𝑁𝑎 →
24
12𝑀𝑔 + −10𝑒
14 14
(b) 6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝑒
(ii) The nuclei lying below the belt of stability are deficient in neutrons and hence disintegrate in such a way
that one of their proton is converted into a neutron. The conversion can be done by any of the following
two ways
(a) emission of positron: 11𝐻 → 10𝑛 + +10𝑒
(b) electron capture process
1 0 1
1𝐻 + −1𝑒 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) → 0𝑛
208
(iii) 82𝑃𝑏 and 209
83𝐵𝑖 are the heaviest stable nuclei. Nuclei having higher number of protons or neutrons
disintegrate by loss of α( 42𝐻𝑒), +10𝑒, −10𝑒 or by fission process.
3. Packing fraction (f)
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠−𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Packing fraction (f) = x 104
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
If the packing fraction is negative or low positive value, the nuclide is stable. The nuclei having very high
positive value are unstable
4. mass defect
This is the difference in [masses of all protons, + all neutrons + mass of all electrons) – actual atomic mass
of all atoms. The bigger the mass defect the more stable the nuclide.
5. Magic number: A nucleus containing protons or neutron or both equal to the magic number (i.e. 2, 8, 20, 28,
50, 82or 126) are very stable.
Nuclear reaction
This is a reaction where rearrangement of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom take place and new
element is formed.
Types of radiations
There are three types of radiations given by radioactive substances. They all cause certain substances, such as
zinc sulphide, to luminesce, and all ionize gases through which they pass. They differ in their response to an
electric field in the manner shown in figure below:
-
α rays, +vely charged
γ rays, not deflected
Radioactive + β rays, –vely charged

sores in lead
block
γ-rays
These uncharged rays are similar to X-rays
- they have high penetrating power; being able to pass through 0.1m of metal.
- have negligible weight
- are un deflected by electric field
- ionize gases they pass through
α-rays
- positively charged helium ions
- deflected towards negative electric field
- have low penetrating power
β-rays
- negatively charged
- deflected toward positive electric field
- have medium penetrating power
Balancing nuclear equations

The sum of protons and the mass number on the either side of the equation should be equal. Deficits are
balanced with either α-particle ( 42𝐻𝑒), β-particle ( −10𝑒, or −10𝛽 ) or positron( +10𝑒) or neutron ( 10𝑛).
Example 2.2(1985/1/6c)
The nucleus of element X reacts with an alpha particle according to the following equation
𝑚 4 45 1
𝑛𝑋 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 21𝑆𝑛 + 0𝑛
Determine the values of m and n.

Solution
m+4 = 45 +1; m = 42
n + 2 = 21 + 0
n = 19
∴ X is potassium, i.e., the number of protons in an atom is characteristic of an element.
Trial 2.8(1986/1/2)
Polonium 21684𝑃𝑜 undergoes radioactive to give element Y according to the following equation
216
84𝑃𝑜 → Y +α
(a) Calculate
(i) atomic number of Y (½ mk)
(ii) the mass number of Y (½ mk)
(b) Y decays further to form Z as shown by the equation below
Y→Z+β
Calculate
(i) the atomic number of Z (½ mk)
(ii) the mass number of Z (½ mk)
Trial 2.9(1991/1/3)
(a) The following equation shows part off the radioactive decay of Thorium.
234 234
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + ___ → X +α
(i) Name the particle emitted in the first stage of the reaction (1mk)
(ii) State the atomic number and the atomic mass of X (1mk)
Trial 2.10
(a) State three properties of beta particles
(b) complete the following nuclear transformations
(i) 239 1 86 150
94𝑃𝑢 + 0𝑛 → 34𝑆𝑒 + 60𝑁𝑑 + ____
235
(ii) 96𝐶𝑚 + 42𝐻𝑒 → _____
(iii) 235
92𝑈 + 10n → 148 1
57𝐿𝑎 + ____ + 3 0𝑛
(c) Francium isotope ( 223

87𝐹𝑟) emits beta particles. the rate of emission reduces from 14.0 to 7.5 counter in 80
second. Calculate the half life of isotopes.
Trial 2.11 (1994/1/1)

(a) 234 234
91Pa → 92U + --------
(b) 63Li + 10n → 31H +---------
(c) 107 1
47Ag + 0n →………………
Trial 2.12 (2000/1/2)

(a) Complete the following equations for the decay of bismuth.
214 0
83Bi → −1e + --------
(b) The half-life of bismuth is 19.7minutes. Determine the time taken for 43% by mass of bismuth to decay.
Solutions to trials of chapter 2
Trial 2.1
63
Cu = 72.5% and 65Cu = 27.5%
Trial 2.3
10.1
B = 91.9 and 11.1B = 8.1
Trial 2.3
12
C = 98.892 and 13C = 1.108
Trial 2.4
Atomic mass of neon = 20.179
Trial 2.5
Relative atomic mass = 35.429446
Trial 2.6(1984/1/5)
(a)(i) 212 (ii) 83
(b) Group 5
(c) 55.9111
Trial 2.7 (2007/1/)

(a) Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
(ii) Main steps involved in operation of mass spectrophotometer
- A vaporized sample of a substance whose mass is to be determined is introduced into the ionization chamber
- Electrons from heated filament collide with the gaseous molecules of the substance producing positive ions.
- The positive ions are accelerated by the electric field into the magnetic field where they are deflected into
circular path according to charge/mass ratios. Ions with high charge mass ratio are deflected more strongly
than those with low values of charge/mass.
- By varying the magnetic and/or electric field, ions of a particular mass charge ration is selected and directed
to the detector. This amplifies and records the relative abundance of various ions and hence isotopes in a
sample.
(b)(i) Total current = 0.16 + 2.72 + 2.50 + 5.92
= 11.3
0.16
% 204
82𝑃𝑏 isotope = 𝑥 100 = 1.42
11.3
2.72
% 206
82𝑃𝑏 isotope = 𝑥 100 = 24.07
11.3
2.50
% 207
82𝑃𝑏 isotope = 11.3
𝑥 100 = 22.12
5.92
% 208
82𝑃𝑏 isotope = 11.3 𝑥 100 = 52.39
(ii) Relative atomic mass

1.42 𝑥 204 24.07 𝑥 206 22.12 𝑥 207 52.39 𝑥 208
{ 100
+ 100
+ 100
+ 100
}
= 207.2
( iii) – require small sample
- it is very accurate
- less tedious.
𝑁
(e) from In 𝑁0 = Kt
680
In = 350k
125
 K= 4.83 x 10-3s-1
𝐼𝑛 2 𝐼𝑛 2
(ii) from 𝑡1⁄ = = 143s-1
2 𝐾 4.83 𝑥 10−3
Trial 2.8(1986/1/2)
(a)(i) atomic mass of Y = 82
(ii) mass number of Y = 212
(b)(i) atomic mass of Z = 83
(ii) mass number of Z = 212
Trial 2.9(1991/1/3)
(i) particle emitted = beta ( −10𝛽)
(ii) atomic number of X = 89
Mass number of X = 230
Trial 2.10
𝟏
(b)(i) 239 1 86 150
94𝑃𝑢 + 0𝑛 → 34𝑆𝑒 + 60𝑁𝑑 + 4 𝟎𝒏
𝟐𝟑𝟗
(ii) 235 4
96𝐶𝑚 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 𝟗𝟖𝑪𝒇
𝟖𝟓
(iii) 235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 148 1
57𝐿𝑎 + 𝟑𝟓𝑩𝒓+ 3 0𝑛
𝑁0
(c) From In 𝑁
= Kt
14
K = In 7.5 ÷ 80 = 0.0078s-1
𝐼𝑛2 𝐼𝑛2
t½ = = = 88.865s
𝐾 0.0078
Trial 2.11 (1994/1/1)

𝟎
(a) 234 234
91Pa → 92U + −𝟏𝛃
(b) 63Li + 10n → 31H + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆
(c) 107 1 108
47Ag + 0n → 47𝐴𝑔
Trial 2.12 (2000/1/2)

𝟐𝟏𝟒
(a) 214 0
83Bi → −1e + 𝟖𝟒𝐩𝐨
END

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Our country, our future

Atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutron in an atom.

Thus mass of 100 atoms of chlorine = 75 x 35 + 25 x 37

Determination of Relative atomic masses

Functions at each numbered step

Uses of mass spectrophotometer

Trial 2.7 (2007/1/)

Factors affecting nuclear stability

3. Packing fraction (f)

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠−𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

γ rays, not deflected

Radioactive + β rays, –vely charged

Balancing nuclear equations

Determine the values of m and n.

(c) Francium isotope ( 223

Trial 2.11 (1994/1/1)

Trial 2.12 (2000/1/2)

Atomic mass of neon = 20.179

(a)(i) 212 (ii) 83

Trial 2.7 (2007/1/)

(ii) Relative atomic mass

(ii) mass number of Y = 212

(b)(i) atomic mass of Z = 83

(ii) mass number of Z = 212

Trial 2.11 (1994/1/1)

Trial 2.12 (2000/1/2)

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