SEED PRODUCTION AND HANDLING MANUAL FOR

COMMUNITY BASED SEED INSPECTORS AND PRODUCERS

SEED PRODUCTION AND HANDLING MANUAL
FOR COMMUNITY BASED SEED INSPECTORS AND PRODUCERS

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Lilongwe, 2018
FAO. 2018. Seed production and handling manual for community based seed producers and inspectors. Lilongwe. 46 pp. Licence: CC BY-
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Contents
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................vi
Abbreviations and acronyms .................................................................................................... vii
Tables ........................................................................................................................................... viii
Figures .......................................................................................................................................... viii
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... ix
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
2. Production practices ............................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Cowpeas (Vigna ungiculata): khobwe .......................................................................... 2
Management ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan): nandolo ........................................................................... 5
Field preparation ................................................................................................................ 5
Time of planting .................................................................................................................. 5
Seed dressing ...................................................................................................................... 6
Weed control....................................................................................................................... 6
Insect and pest control ...................................................................................................... 6
Disease control ................................................................................................................... 6
Harvesting and storage .................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum): mchewere............................................................. 7
Management ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.4 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): mapira ............................................................................... 9
Planting and plant population ......................................................................................... 10
Field preparation and spacing......................................................................................... 10
2.5 Yams (Discorea spp.): chilazi .......................................................................................... 11
3. Agronomic practices ..................................................................................................... 11
4. Seed quality ............................................................................................................................ 13
4.1 Genetic purity ................................................................................................................... 13
4.2 Physical purity ................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Germination capacity ..................................................................................................... 13
4.4 Moisture content .............................................................................................................. 13

iii
 4.5 Seed health ....................................................................................................................... 14
4.6 Production practices affecting seed quality ............................................................... 14
5. Agronomic practices in seed production .......................................................................... 15
5.1 Site selection & registration as a seed multiplier .......................................................... 15
5.2 Planting .............................................................................................................................. 15
5.3 Weed, pest and disease control .................................................................................... 15
5.4 Harvesting .......................................................................................................................... 16
5.5 Post-Harvest handling of seed ........................................................................................ 16
5.5.1 Seed drying ................................................................................................................ 16
5.5.4 Seed grading ............................................................................................................. 18
5.5.5 Seed storage .............................................................................................................. 18
6. Seed Systems and certification ............................................................................................ 20
6.1 Classes of seed under formal system............................................................................. 20
6.1.1 Breeder Seed ............................................................................................................. 20
6.1.2 Pre-basic seed ........................................................................................................... 21
6.1.3 Basic seed................................................................................................................... 21
6.1.4 Certified seed ............................................................................................................ 21
6.1.5 Quality declared seed.............................................................................................. 21
6.2 Seed certification ............................................................................................................. 23
6.2.1 Seed certification process ........................................................................................... 23
6.2.1.3 Seed field inspection ............................................................................................. 24
6.2.1.6 Seed sampling ........................................................................................................ 29
6.2.1.7 Seed testing ............................................................................................................ 30
7. Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................................... 33
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................ 34
References .................................................................................................................................. 36

iv
Foreword

Agricultural activities are fundamental to ensuring food security in Malawi. One of the basic units
that would boost crop production is the use of high quality seed. This can be achieved through
dissemination of messages concerning the importance of using such seeds. It is necessary for the
farming community to be aware of the processes involved in coming up with high quality seed. It
is also crucial to encourage farmers to get involved in seed multiplication in order to increase
availability of seed and access by farmers to high quality seed.

This module on seed production and handling has been developed as a training tool for
community based seed producers and inspectors under the project “Strengthening community
resilience to climate change in Blantyre, Zomba, Neno and Phalombe districts
(GCP/MLW/067/EC)” within the framework of the Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA)
programme. Government extension workers and non-government organizations (NGOs) that are
involved in seed multiplication will use the module, as well as master trainers in farmer field schools
(FFS). Financial support for the development of this module has come from the European Union
(EU) through the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

It is expected that use of this module will help extension workers to effectively undertake their role
under this project, of strengthening the local seed system through safeguarding existing genetic
biodiversity for food security and disseminate appropriate seed production and handling
practices in the farmer field schools. Therefore, respective extension workers are urged to take
their roles seriously in order to achieve the intended objective of contributing towards community
resilience to climate change.

Wilkson I. Makumba

Director of Agricultural Research Services

v
Acknowledgements

We would like to convey our sincere gratitude to various organizations, institutions

and individuals who were instrumental in the development of this module. We
particularly appreciate the various contributions made by:

 The Director of Agricultural Research Services

 The Director of Crop Development
 The Director of Agricultural Extension Services
 The Seed Services Unit
 The Malawi Plant Genetic Resources Centre
 Biodiversity Conservation Initiative
 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)-Lilongwe

vi
Abbreviations and acronyms

ACTESA Alliance for commodity trade in eastern and southern Africa

COMESA Common market for eastern and southern Africa

DARS Department of agricultural research services

EU European union

FAO Food and agriculture organization of the united nations

GCCA Global climate change alliance

Kg Kilogram (s)

OPV Open pollinated variety (s)

QDS Quality declared seed

SADC Southern Africa development community

SSU Seed services unit

vii
Tables

Table 1: Maximum moisture content ........................................................................... 14

Table 2: Isolation distances ............................................................................................ 26
Table 3: Maximum allowable seed borne disease incidence ................................. 27
Table 4: Maximum permitted off-types ....................................................................... 28
Table 5: Maximum allowable disease prevalence.................................................... 29

Figures

Figure 1: Suggested walking patterns for field inspection (Zambia Seed

Technology Hand book, 1995)...................................................................................... 25
Figure 2: A seed inspector inspecting soybean field ................................................ 26
Figure 3: Separation of a seed sample to show various components in physical
purity ................................................................................................................................. 31

viii
Executive Summary

The seed production tool has been developed for community based seed producers
and inspectors under the “Strengthening community resilience to climate change in
Blantyre, Zomba, Neno and Phalombe districts project”. The project is managed by the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in collaboration with the
Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Department, through the Department of
Agricultural Research Services, with funding from the European Union (EU). It is envisaged
that government extension workers, non-governmental organizations and master trainers
in farmer field schools shall utilize the tool. Recognizing that seed systems forms an integral
part in access, utilization and availability of seeds in rural communities, its elements have
greatly been articulated to create awareness among rural masses involved in the sector.
It is anticipated that the seed systems shall be applied in the informal seed systems mainly
for the production of quality declared seed.

ix
x
 1. Introduction

Seeds are part of a plant which when planted under favorable conditions, are
capable of germinating to reproduce the original plant. Examples are grain/true
seeds (rice, maize, millet), rhizomes (ginger, some grasses), tubers (yam,
cocoyam) and stem portions such as cassava or sweet potato (Seed Act, 1996).
Improved seeds are seeds derived from the efforts of conventional plant breeding
by research scientists of participatory variety selection/participatory plant
breeding by farmers and research scientists, on station and on farm.

Seed quality expresses the extent to which a given seed lot meets the standards
for seed certification. A seed lot is an identifiable quantity of seed of one variety,
of known origin, recorded under a single reference number in a seed quality
assurance scheme. A variety in this case is a group of cultivated plants which is
characteristically distinguishable from others and when reproduced retains its
distinguishing characteristics (AfricaSeeds, 2016).

The GCP/MLW/067/EC project being implemented by FAO in collaboration with

the government of Malawi, Total Land Care and Evangelical Association of
Malawi in Blantyre, Zomba, Neno and Phalombe districts has four components
namely: (i) good agricultural practices and technology for greater resilience to
climate change; (ii) HIV and AIDS and gender sensitive nutrition practices; (iii)
diversity of sustainable livelihoods; and (iv) conservation and safeguarding of
biodiversity. The fourth project component encompasses seed systems and has
five target crops, which are sorghum, pearl millet, cowpeas, pigeon peas and
yams. The production practices of the five crops are briefly described in this
module.

1
2. Production practices

2.1 Cowpeas (Vigna ungiculata): khobwe

The crop tolerates heat and relatively dry weather conditions. The pea contains
good quality protein that will complement the protein present in other cereal
grains. Leaves are valuable vegetables (mtambe) that provide vitamins and
minerals. Seeds are of different colours including cream, white and brown.
Cowpea requires hot, moderately wet conditions and does well in loam, sandy
and other well-drained soils. Average yields for both pure and mixed cropping
range from 300 to 600 kg per hectare, with a potential yield of up to 2000 kg per
hectare, in pure stand.

Management

Cowpea is grown either in pure stand, intercropped or in relay with maize,

cassava, groundnuts, sorghum or pearl millet. However, during seed production it
has to be grown as a pure stand.

Time of planting

 For pure stand, farmers in the lakeshore areas and Shire valley should plant
with the first planting rains. Pure stand is recommended for seed production
as it ensures seed purity.

 In medium and high altitude areas where there is need to escape excessive
damage by diseases and insect pests, farmers should plant in January and
early February. Preventing pest and disease attack is the best agronomic
practice in terms of pest and disease management. In this regard, when
pests and diseases attack plants in the later stages of crop growth, there is
little effect on crop production.

2
Plant population

a) Pure stand

 Indeterminate and semi-determinate (khobwe) types: plant one

seed 20 cm apart on ridges 75 cm or 90 cm apart.

 Determinate (nseula) types: plant two seeds per station, 20 cm apart

on ridges 75 cm or 95 cm apart.

 The seed rate for all types under pure stand is 10 to 16 kg per hectare.

Pest and disease control

i) Weed control

 The crop should be free of weeds during the first 3 weeks for good
and early establishment. Weeds usually compete with the target
crop for soil nutrients, air and photo active radiation. It is therefore
important to eliminate this competition.

ii) Insect and pest control

 Foliage beetles (Ootheca mutabilis), foliage thrips (Sericothrips

occipitalis), leafhoppers (Empoasca dolichi) and aphids (Aphis
craccivora) can start attacking the crop at seedling stage and can
cause losses of 70 to 80 percent. For farmers to have good yields
insect pests and disease attacks must be prevented.

 Flower thrips (Taemothrips sjostedti) attack at flower bud initiation

stage and can cause up to 100 percent damage.

 Flower and pod borers (Maruca tesstulalis) and pod sucking bugs
(Anopicnemis curvipes) if present can cause losses of up to 100
percent.

3
  Aphids and leafhoppers can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate
(Rogor) 20 WP at the rate of 34 g for 14 litres of water for knapsack
sprayer, or 34 g for 1 litre of water for ULV sprayer, or Dimethoate 40
EC at the rate of 17 ml for 14 litres of water for knapsack sprayer, or
17ml for 1 litre of water for UVL sprayer.

 Flower and pod borers, foliage thrips and sucking bugs can be
controlled by spraying Carbaryl 85 WP at the rate of 85 g for 14 liters
of water for knapsack sprayer or 85 g for 1liter of water for UVL
sprayer.

 These chemicals can be acquired from agro-dealer shops. Those

using them should follow instructions stipulated on the manuals.
Farmers should also consult the extension officers in their vicinity for
more information on how to handle chemicals.

iii) Disease control

 The major diseases are Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta phaseolorum)

which causes up to 100 percent yield loss, Scab (Elsinoe phaseoli), which
causes up to 80 percent yield loss, Cercospora leaf spots (Cercospora
spp.), which causes up to 40 to 60 percent yield loss and aphid borne
mosaic virus disease (ABMD), which causes up to 80 percent yield loss.

 Ascochyta blight can be controlled by spraying Mancozeb (Dithane

M45) 80 WP at the rate 15 g for 10 litres of water for knapsack sprayer or
15 g for 1 litre of water for ULV sprayer.

 Spraying to be done at fortnightly intervals to avoid the building up of

pathogens.

4
  Planting cowpea in between maize stations reduces asochyta blight
pressure on cowpeas.

 Scab, ABMD and ceroscora leaf spots can be controlled by use of

resistant varieties such as IT82E-16.

 The crop can also be attacked by Cowpea Yellow Mosaic Virus Disease
and can be controlled by using resistant varieties like Sudan 1 and IT82E-
16.

Source: Guide to Agricultural production in Malawi 2002/ 2003.

2.2 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan): nandolo

Pigeon pea is an important pulse in Malawi particularly in the southern region. It

can be grown in almost all types of free draining soils either in pure stand or in
mixed cultivation with other crops such as maize and cassava. Pigeon pea is a
valuable source of vegetable protein and farmers grow it either for food or for
cash. Pigeon pea improves soil fertility through leaf litter and nitrogen fixation. It
can be grown either as an annual or sometimes as a perennial crop.

Present average yields range from 400 to 800 kg per hectare. Potential yields of
up to 2,500 kg per hectare can be obtained in a pure stand.

Field preparation

Field preparation should be done before the first planting rains. Prepare ridges at
75 cm or 90 cm apart. Fields should be properly tilled to conserve soil and water.

Time of planting

To achieve higher yields, planting should be done with the first planting rains.

5
Seed dressing

All seeds should be treated with a fungicide seed dressing, such as Thiram, before
planting in order to control seed borne and soil-borne diseases.

Weed control

The field should be weed free especially in the initial stages of establishment to
prevent competition between the crop and weeds for soil nutrients, air and photo
active radiation.

Insect and pest control

Without exception, all early maturing pigeon peas have to be sprayed twice
between 50 percent and full flowering, and twice between 50 percent and full pod
to control insect pests. Aphids can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate.

Disease control

The only major disease is the Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum). The disease can only be
controlled by use of resistant varieties. In this case, use Sauma or Kachangu varieties
which are resistant to Fusarium. Use of these varieties can help to contain the spread
of the disease.

Harvesting and storage

Harvest the dry pods and stack them to complete drying. Thresh and clean the
grain. Dust the grain with Actellic Super dust at the rate of 25 g to 50 kg of grain to
control storage pests.

Grain may be put in bags or other clean containers. Store them on a clean and cool
dry place to prevent rotting and growth of fungi, which lead to increase in aflatoxin
levels.

Source: Guide to Agricultural Production in Malawi 2002/ 2003.

6
2.3 Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum): mchewere

Pearl millet is a tall grass, which is cultivated for its grain. It usually grows between
1.5 – 2.5 m tall, and some varieties even reach up to 5m. The stem is often
branched and in many cases with several branches arising from the rootstocks.
Leaves are slightly hairy long and narrow. Flowers are cylindrical heads up to 20
cm long, greenish white at first (due to style) turning dirty yellow-brown (due to
anthers) then grey as grain matures.

Management

Field preparation

Early land preparation is recommended. All shrubs, weeds and stumps must be
removed and soil clods broken and smothered out. Ridges should be spaced at
90cm apart for unimproved varieties or 75 cm apart for improved varieties.

Planting time

Plant with first planting rains when 25 mm rainfall has fallen, to take advantage of
entire rainy season.

Planting

 Split the ridge 2.5 cm deep, plant five seeds into the groove every 40 cm,
and cover the ridge. Initial planting of five seeds will help a farmer in case
there is poor germination. Farmers still stand a chance of having some
emerged seedlings.

 Thin to two seeds per station when seedlings are 15 cm high or 2 weeks after
seedling emergence. Thinning will ensure that there is good plant
population, which in turn leads to optimum yields. Good plant population
prevents completion among crop plants for sunlight and nutrients.

7
  Pearl millet may be planted in fallows or side of the ridge to give better crop
establishment in marginal rainfall areas.

Seed rate

 4 kg per hectare

Fertilizer application

Fertilizer is only recommended for improved varieties as follows:-

 200 kg of 23:21:0+4s per hectare at the time of planting, using drilling

method 18 g per metre of ridge length using two and half cupfuls of cup
No.8. OR

 100 kg of 23:21:0+4S at the time of planting or soon after seedling

emergence at 9 g per metre of ridge length using two cupfuls of cup No.5.
This should be followed by 50 kg of Urea per hectare at 4.5 g per metre of
ridge length using one heaped cup No.5; OR 80 kg CAN per hectare at 7
g per metre of ridge length using one cupful of cup No.8, two to three
weeks after planting.

Pests and diseases

 Most important pests of pearl millet are birds. Birds should be scared away
right from head formation to harvesting.

 Diseases of economic importance in pearl millet are Eleucine indica and

downy mildews. They can be controlled by the use of improved varieties
and early planting.

Weeding

Should be done at 6 - 8 weeks from planting.

8
Harvesting

 Should be done as soon as the crop has reached physiological maturity.

At this stage, the grain has 25 to 30 percent moisture content.

 Timely harvesting minimizes weevil attack in the field, grain damage and
shattering.

Storage

 After harvesting, dry the grain well to about 12.5 percent moisture content
and store in dry structures.

 Treat the grain with Actellic Super or Super Grain Dust at the rate of 25 g per
50 kg bag of Pearl Millet.

 Before starting to fill the crib (nkhokwe), clean and remove all old grains,
which may harbour some pests. Sprinkle evenly some Actellic Super and
Super Grain Dust on the side and floor of the ‘nkhokwe’ roughly at the rate
of one sachet (40 g) for every 3 sq. m.

Source: Guide to Agricultural production in Malawi 2002/ 2003.

2.4 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): mapira

Sorghum is mainly cultivated for its edible grain. It originated from northern Africa
and now widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Sorghum is
typically an annual crop, but some cultivars are perennial. It usually grows in
clumps that may reach over 4 m high. The grain is small ranging from 3 to 4 mm
in diameter. Sweet sorghums are cultivars that are primarily grown for foliage,
syrup production and ethanol and are usually taller than grain cultivars. Sorghum
leaf and blade are broader than in pearl millet. Sorghum grains are of various
colours ranging from white to red and dark brown.

9
Planting and plant population

Planting

 Plant with first planting rains to take advantage of the entire rainy season.

Seeds per station

 Five seeds per station thinned to two seeds per station. Planting five seeds
ensures that there are still seedlings despite situations of poor germination.
Thinning to two plants helps to ensure that there is proper plant population
which optimizes yields.

Seed rate

 5 kg per hectare

Field preparation and spacing

Ridge spacing

 75 – 90 cm

Spacing between stations

 30 – 45 cm

Fertilizer Application

Basal dressing: apply 23:21:0+4S at 15 cm plant height using drilling method at 18

g per meter of ridge length.

Top dressing: apply Urea or CAN at 4.5 g per meter of ridge.

Weeding

 Important at 6 – 8 weeks after planting followed by banking.

10
Pests and diseases

 Most important pests of sorghum are birds. Birds should be scared away
right from head formation to harvesting.

 Leaf bright is the most common disease. This disease can be prevented by
storing dry harvested seeds to at least 12.5 percent moisture content and
treating with Actellic super dust.

Harvesting

 To be done when crop has reached physiological maturity (25 -30 percent
moisture content).

 Timely harvesting prevents heavy weevil attack, continued bird attack and
shattering.

Source: Guide to Agricultural production in Malawi 2002/ 2003.

2.5 Yams (Discorea spp.): chilazi

Yam is an important food crop that is widely adapted to all environments in

Malawi. Although it prefers high rainfall evenly distributed over more than six
months, it performs quite well in all agro-ecologies of Malawi. Yams may be of
varying colours including ivory, white, yellow or purple. Its thick skin may be white,
pink or brownish black depending on variety. The shape is long and cylindrical
while its exterior is rough and scaly.

Potential yield ranges from 13 tons/ha to 35 tons/ha depending on variety.

3. Agronomic practices

Planting Time

 Dry planting from late October to mid-November or plant with the first
planting rains.

11
Spacing

 Construct mounds at 100 cm x 100 cm or 150 cm x 150 cm

 1–2 m spacing between plant stations.

Weeding

 Weeding as soon as weeds appear is recommended.

Fertilizer application

 Not necessarily required.

Stalking

 Recommended when yam plants have reached 15–30 cm height.

Harvesting

 When the yams have reached physiological maturity, normally from

August to October. In some cases, harvesting may go up to December.

Storage

 Store in a cool, dark and well-ventilated place, where they will keep fresh.
 Yams should be stored loose and not in plastic bags.
 Keep them out of exposure to direct sunlight or temperatures of around
15oC.
Source: Guide to Agricultural Production in Malawi 2002/2003.

12
4. Seed quality

A high quality seed is the desire of every farmer because it is from him or her that
a good plant springs. The following are some of the attributes of good seed
quality:

4.1 Genetic purity

This is the trueness-to-type of seeds to the variety of interest. Genetic purity has a
direct effect on final yield.

4.2 Physical purity

Physical purity is the cleanliness of the seeds in terms of physical composition.

When analyzing seed for purity the following parameters are considered; inert
matter, weeds, seed defect and other crop seeds. The pure seed component,
combined with the germination capacity, determines the planting value.

4.3 Germination capacity

This is a proportion of normal seedlings out of the total planted seeds. Farmers
would want to plant seeds that are going to germinate and produce good
seedlings. Anyone buying seeds has to ensure that they has good germination
percentage. Certified seed sold in shops has labels, which indicate germination
percentages. It is therefore important for farmers to check the labels before
purchasing the seed.

4.4 Moisture content

The moisture level of the seeds determines the storability. Well-dried seeds are
crucial in maintaining viability of seeds. Seeds should be dried. Moisture content
of a seed sample is the loss in weight when dried, or the amount of water
collected when it is heated. Moisture content is a very important factor in seed
because it influences the period seed remains viable. High moisture content at

13
harvest increases seed threshing damage, while in storage viability decreases
rapidly when moisture is high because it promotes mould growth, heating
damage, ageing and increases insect damage.

Seed longevity studies have emphasized the importance of favourable storage

conditions: low temperature, low humidity and low oxygen.

Table 1: Maximum moisture content

Species Maximum Moisture Content %

Pearl millet 12.0
Sorghum (OPV) 12.0
Sorghum (Hybrid) 12.0
Pigeon peas 13.0
Soy beans 12.0
Common Beans 13.0
Pea (garden) 10.0
Cowpeas 13.0
Chickpeas 10.0
Groundnuts 9.0
Sunflower (OPV) 10.0
Sunflower (Hybrid) 10.0

Source: SADC, 2008 and ACTESA, 2014

4.5 Seed health

This attribute looks at whether seeds are free from seed-borne diseases and insect
pests. Considering the attributes listed above, a high quality seed has high
genetic purity, high physical purity, high germination capacity, and is free from
diseases and pests. Refer to sections 2.1 and 2.2.3 for control of pests and diseases.

4.6 Production practices affecting seed quality

Production practices that affect seed quality can be categorised into two,
namely agronomic and post-harvest practices. Environmental stresses such as
nutrient deficiency, water shortage and grading that come about due to poor
crop management, can lead to low seed quality.

14
5. Agronomic practices in seed production

5.1 Site selection & registration as a seed multiplier

Choice of land for seed production has to be taken into strict consideration. Poor
choice of land is the genesis of non-compliance in seed production. Farmers
should choose a site with fertile soils and which is easily accessible. Farmers should
also look at a number of factors such as history of the land and isolation distances.

After careful selection of land for seed production, potential seed multipliers need
to register with the Seed Services Unit. This is the first stage in recognizing a farmer
as a seed multiplier. Details of registration of seed growers are indicated in section
4.2.1.

5.2 Planting

Planting is one of the crucial agronomic practices in seed production. Malawi

farmers need to follow recommended agronomic practices as explained in the
Agricultural Production Guides and Natural Resources Management and as
taught by the extension officers. It is important to consider time of planting and
plant spacing. Plant spacing affects plant population, which in turn affects yields
and production.

5.3 Weed, pest and disease control

Farmers must practice recommended agronomic practices that ensure that the
fields are weed free and that pests and diseases are prevented or controlled.
Recommended pesticides should be used. Refer to the Malawi Guide to
Agricultural Production and Natural Resources Management of the Ministry of
Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development.

15
5.4 Harvesting

Harvesting of seed crops needs to be done at the right time. Untimely harvesting
may also compromise the quality of seed. Harvesting too early or too late is not
good in seed production. This module is developed for a number of crops. Refer
to the Guide to Agricultural Production or your Agricultural Extension
Development Officer/Coordinator for more information on recommended
agronomic practices.

5.5 Post-Harvest handling of seed

Post-harvest handling has a very significant influence on the outcome of the seed
laboratory results as it influences breaking of cotyledons of the seeds, affects the
biochemical activities in the seed in terms of poor drying and affects the presence
of inert materials in the seeds. Post-harvest handling of seed such as threshing,
drying and processing determine the quality of seed. Failure to clean the seed
results in poor quality. When the seed is harvested, a seed multiplier needs to
grade, weigh, pack and label it. A seed inspector will then collect a sample for
laboratory testing. The inspector will only sample if the seed lot is visually uniform
or is homogeneous.

5.5.1 Seed drying

Seed needs to be thoroughly dried before storage. Drying ensures that the seed
is stored with an ideal moisture content. Moisture content has a big impact on the
storability of seeds. High moisture content accelerates biochemical activities and
facilitates establishment of fungi on seeds. Various crops have different ideal
moisture contents at which they can be stored. For details of moisture content,
refer to Table 2.1. This moisture content is measured in the laboratory with moisture
metres or ovens. However, farmers have their own ways of determining the
moisture content of seeds. For instance, some farmers fill a transparent jar with
seeds and some salt. The jar is closed and placed in direct sunlight. After some

16
minutes, they collect the jar and observe. If the salt in the jar gets wet, it means
the seed is not well dried.

5.5.2 Natural drying

Natural drying, which mostly includes sun drying, is the most common technique
used for drying seed. It is the traditional way of drying seed grains using energy
from the sun. The sun’s heat and wind take away moisture from grains. Natural
drying is the most inexpensive technique of drying as farmers use the readily
available natural energy from the sun. However, there is contamination from dirt.

This technique can be categorised into three categories as follows:

1. Spreading of the harvested seed on the ground in shallow layers to expose

them to sun and wind.
2. Drying plants/crop in the field. In this case, there is no need or little need to
dry the grains again after harvesting.
3. Drying of seed in structures with open sides to allow ventilation. Examples of
this are cribs.

5.5.3 Artificial drying

In artificial drying, forced air circulation and heat facilitate the drying of grains. A
good example of artificial drying is the use of solar dryers. During solar drying, heat
produced by solar dryers facilitates drying. In this case, an equipment is used to
capture the sun’s radiation in order to harness the radioactive energy for drying.
When an artificial source of heat is used for drying, there must be a good source
of aeration to complement the heat, as evaporation of moisture from a surface
also requires air motion to carry away the moisture.

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Activity 1

Ask farmers about the ways they dry their crops. Discuss with them the suitability of these crop-
drying techniques with regard to seeds. Ask them if they dry seeds on iron sheets, rocks, in dambos
etc. Give them expert advice.

Please note that drying seeds on iron sheets or rocks negatively affects the seed viability as
biochemical processes in a seed are disturbed because enzymes in the seed get denatured.

5.5.4 Seed grading

Grading is one of the important stages in seed crop handling. During grading,
farmers need to remove seeds of different colours, shrivelled, rotten, cracked or
broken and other seed varieties. The way a farmer grades his/her seed
determines the outcome of the purity analysis.

5.5.5 Seed storage

Storage environment has an impact on seed viability. Many farmers use granaries,
sacks and warehouses for grain. Farmers should store seeds in new sacks that are
well dried, graded, cleaned and placed in a good storage space. The bags
should be stacked on pallets in a well-ventilated room. Sacks for seed need to be
well sealed in such a way that there will be no spillage of seed. When sealing a
50 kg bag, fold the bag mouth inwards to some depth at least 5 cm to create a
“valve” so that the seed does not spill out when handling or transferring the bags.
The strings used for sealing the bag should extend to the opposite end with about
5 to 10 cm to allow for sealing by inspectors with government seals. Recycling of
sacks is strictly prohibited.

Poor storage conditions not only affect the seed viability, but also increase
chances of development of mycotoxins such as aflatoxin. Aflatoxins are
considered as a serious health hazard and are prevalent in crops such as maize,
groundnuts and rice. Moulds that cause aflatoxin grow exponentially in hot and

18
humid conditions (Hell et al., 2010). Storing well-dried seed in a well-dried space
can therefore help to reduce the build-up of aflatoxin.

Since pests whose respiratory activities can lead to diseases can easily attack
seed in storage, farmers need to treat the stored seed with recommended
pesticides as stipulated in the Guide to Agriculture Production to control pests
and diseases.

Activity 2

Provide farmers with a quantity of a particular crop species, 50 kg sacks, strings and sewing
material (needle or any improvised material). Ask them to demonstrate how they usually seal their
bags. If they did not do it right somewhere, demonstrate the correct method to them. Emphasise
sealing and leaving a 5 to 10 cm length of the string at the end.

19
6. Seed Systems and certification

There are mainly two types of seed systems namely formal and informal seed
systems.

Formal seed systems encompass specific activities to make available new

varieties, maintain their purity, certify seed and distribute it to farmers through
recognized seed channels. In this case, quality seed is produced under supervised
arrangements. This is a regulated system and is accompanied by the seed
legislation. It is important for farmers to use seed that has undergone the seed
certification system.

The informal seed system, also known as the farmer seed system, does not have
public sector regulation. Seed is exchanged among farmers or sold on the local
market. In this system, farmers grow and use their own grown seed without any
supervision from the regulatory authority. Farmers can use whatever crop species,
including landraces.

6.1 Classes of seed under formal system

Seed is categorized into different classes. The classes are:

 Breeder
 Pre-Basic
 Basic
 Certified
 Quality Declared Seeds

6.1.1 Breeder Seed

Breeder seed is seed of a particular generation of an inbred line or variety, which

is produced under the supervision of the breeder, or institution that developed
the variety in conjunction with the seed regulatory authority.

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6.1.2 Pre-basic seed

Pre-basic seed is produced from breeder’s seed. It is used for production of basic
seed, and sometimes certified seed, depending on particular seed certification
standards.

6.1.3 Basic seed

Basic seed is produced from pre-basic seed and is used for production of certified
seed.

6.1.4 Certified seed

Certified seed is produced from basic seed. This class of seed is used for
production of grain. Thus if farmers plant certified seed, they will harvest grain
which will be used for consumption or sale, but not as seed.

6.1.5 Quality declared seed

Quality Declared Seed (QDS) system was introduced by Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to improve the quality of seed being
offered for sale in countries where human and physical resources for quality
control are limited especially in countries whose seed regulatory systems are still
at infancy (FAO, 2006). It was established to help communities where the formal
seed system may not work very well. QDS was introduced in 1993, but revised in
2006. In this system, it is the responsibility of farmers and seed companies to ensure
seed quality, while the government plays a monitoring role. In this scheme, apart
from authorized Seed Service Unit, other government officers such as extension
staff may be used for inspection.

According to FAO (2006), the QDS system recognizes the following three types of
varieties:

21
  Varieties developed through conventional breeding technologies such
as MH 18 (maize), CG7 (groundnuts), Makwacha (soybean) or Pilira
1(sorghum).
 Local varieties evolved over time under particular agro-ecological
conditions and adapted to local conditions (“land race” or “ecotype”)
such as Kanjelenjele (maize), Kalisele (groundnuts) or Chikope chanyani
(bambara nuts).
 Varieties developed through alternative plant breeding approaches
such as participatory variety selection such as Kayera, Kadziunde or
Makata (bambara nut).

The QDS system is based on the following four principles:

 A list of eligible varieties for production is established.

 Seed producers register with an appropriate national authority. In
Malawi, it is the Seed Services Unit that registers seed growers.
 National authority checks at least 10 percent of seed crops. Inspectors
from the Seed Services Unit have to inspect at least 10 percent of the
fields in a QDS system. Conclusions on whether the fields are suitable for
QDS are based on the fields inspected.
 National authority checks at least 10 percent of seed on sale as QDS.
Inspectors from the Seed Services Unit check at least 10 percent of the
harvested seed. At least 10 percent of seed is sampled and tested in
the laboratory. Inspectors also check at least 10 percent of the seed
being marketed.

It should be noted that the QDS system was not established to compete with the
already existing seed systems in countries.

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6.2 Seed certification

Seed certification is a quality assurance system whereby seed meant for use or
sale is inspected and tested. In simple terms, it is a process of certifying seed. Only
seed in the formal system is certified. In the formal system, the crop variety of the
seed of interest has to be released and registered in the variety catalogue in order
for the seed to start getting into the certification process. Respective plant
breeders in the recognised research institutions such as Department of
Agricultural Research Services (DARS) mainly do the release of varieties after crop
variety evaluations. The data on how much better the crop performs in relation
to other crops, morphological and physiological characteristics and adaptability
among others is necessary before release.

Seed certification is implemented by the Seed Services Unit (SSU), under the DARS
in the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development based on the
Seed Act (1996). The unit is mandated to ensure that high quality seed of released
varieties is made available to the farming community.

6.2.1 Seed certification process

Seed certification involves a number of activities to ensure that a high quality seed
is produced at the end of the day. The activities include seed grower registration,
seed field inspection, seed sampling and testing.

6.2.1.1 Seed grower registration

During seed grower registration, a farmer registers with any office of the Seed
Certification and Quality Control Unit at Chitedze, Bvumbwe, Lunyangwa and
Lifuwu Research Stations. A farmer provides information regarding:

 Name of grower
 Address of the farm
 Type of crop

23
  Crop variety to be planted
 Class of seed
 Seed source(in this case a grower produces a receipt from the institution
or person where the seed was acquired)
 Land history

Seed should be acquired from a reliable and known source. A seed inspector
usually officially verifies it during registration by checking the receipts, labels or
certificate numbers and containers. A crop will not be registered if the source is
questionable. Farmers can register at Chitedze, Bvumbwe, Lunyangwa, and
Lifuwu Research Stations.

6.2.1.2 Land verification

Inspectors will visit a farmer’s field to verify particulars of the land. Land verification
helps to confirm the history of the field meant for seed production. The inspector
will also confirm the location and accessibility of the field. Farmers have to make
sure that the field is accessible and accessibility considers safety of an inspector
to visit the field and the ability to travel. A farmer must ensure that the seed crop
is not being planted on a field that carried a similar crop in the preceding season.
Crop rotation is important to avoid variety contamination and disease incidents.

6.2.1.3 Seed field inspection

Seed inspection is one of the seed certification activities that help ensure purity
of seed. Seed inspectors visit seed fields as one way of ensuring high quality seed
production. Once a farmer registers as a seed grower, a government seed
inspector comes to the field to do the following:

 Confirm the crop information provided during seed grower registration and
the correct location of the field
 Authenticate the seed sown to produce the crop.
 Origin and identity of parent seed

24
  Diseases
 Confirm information on the cropping history of the seed field and verify
whether the seed field meets the prescribed land requirements
 Detect and quantify any admixtures and other crop plants of other varieties
of the same species
 Assess noxious weed contamination
 Check the isolation distance
 Assess the general crop condition in the field including crop
Management (Fig. 1)
 Assess other species contamination.

Figure 1: Suggested walking patterns for field inspection (Zambia Seed Technology Hand book, 1995)

25
 Figure 2: A seed inspector inspecting soybean field

6.2.1.4 Isolation distance

Inspectors will check the isolation distance of the seed field. Isolation distance,
which tells how far the seed field is from similar crop species, is very helpful as it
prevents pollen contamination and mixing of seeds through dispersal. Farmers
therefore, must ensure that the seed crop field is isolated (separated) from any
other variety of the same crop to avoid cross-pollination and mechanical
admixtures. Isolation distance varies from crop to crop.

Table 2: Isolation distances

Crop Isolation Distance (metres)

Basic Certified
Groundnut 10 5
Pigeon pea 400 200
Cow pea 10 5
Beans 10 5
Maize OPV 400 200
Maize hybrid 400 350
Pearl millet 400 200
Sorghum OPV 400 350
Sorghum hybrid 750 500
Yams 10 5
Sunflower hybrid 3000 1500

26
Source: Seed Services Unit

Field management

Farmers have to follow the agronomic practices of the crop when multiplying
seed. Seed inspectors will check on crop stand and hygiene of the field. Growers
should refer to Guide to Agricultural Production manual and other appropriate
production manuals. Poor crop stand, lack of vigour or uniformity, weeds, or
anything, which may hinder accurate inspections, can lead to rejection of the
field. Crop hygiene is very crucial in seed production as it helps to reduce
transmission of plant diseases. Table 3 below shows maximum allowable seed
borne disease incidence.

Table 3: Maximum allowable seed borne disease incidence

Crop species Seed borne diseases on or after flowering

Basic Certified
Groundnut 0.1 0.1
Soybean 0.1 0.1
Pigeon pea 0.1 0.1
Cow pea 0.1 0.1
Beans 0.1 0.1
Rice 0.1 0.1
Sunflower hybrid 0.1 0.1
Sunflower OPV 0.1 0.1
Pearl millet 0.1 0.1

Source: Seed Services Unit

In addition, a field for seed production should be weed free to prevent admixture
and also allow easy movement of inspectors and farmers. Noxious weeds should
not be allowed in the field. Farmers should prevent as much as possible, weeds
that are difficult to differentiate from the main crop of interest, for example,
Echinochloa crusgalli (Nadanga) and red rice in rice seed multiplication. All the

27
off-types should be rogued off. Table 4 below shows permitted off-types for
different crops.

Table 4: Maximum permitted off-types

Crop species Maximum permitted off-types %

Basic Certified
Groundnut 0.1 0.1
Soybean 0.1 0.1
Pigeon pea 0.1 0.1
Cow pea 0.1 0.3
Beans 0.1 0.1
Rice 0.1 0.1
Pearl millet 0.2 0.5
Sunflower hybrid 0.1 0.1
Sunflower OPV 0.1 0.1

Source: SADC, 2008 and ACTESA, 2014

Activity 3

Organize farmers in groups and take them to fields of any specific crop varieties. Let them
walk through the fields while observing morphological or physiological traits, isolation distance,
volunteer plants, and field hygiene. Let them look at among other things, flower colour, hair
colour, leaf shape, panicle colour and branching angle. Discuss with them the differences. Let
them select a particular area or a few rows and determine the number of plants. Let them
count the number of plants showing off-type traits comparative to the variety of interest. Plants
differing in observable traits from the variety of interest are off-types.

Off-type percentage= (Number of off-types ÷ Total number of plants counted) x 100.

If the figures are beyond the maximum permitted off-type percentage, the field should be
rejected.

6.2.1.5 Frequency of seed field inspection

Farmers should bear in mind that a seed inspector might visit their field at any time
of crop growth. However, there are certain crop growth and development stages

28
that are so significant to inspection as the plants will show clearly distinguishable
traits. Farmers can also use these timings for their own field inspection. In this
regard, seed crop field inspections are recommended to be conducted in three
stages of crop development. These stages are as follows:

 Pre-flowering stage
 Flowering stage
 Post flowering stage

In some crops such as maize, inspections are also done on harvested seed lots.
After the field inspection, an inspector produces a report. The report will give
details of whether to proceed as a grower or whether to regard the field as grain
if it does not meet the minimum seed field standards. Tables 3 and 4 show
maximum allowable disease infestation in seed fields.

Table 5: Maximum allowable disease prevalence

Crop species Disease prevalence

Rossete plants infested Plants affected with Puccinia,
at any inspection Rhizoctonia or Rhizopus at any
inspection
Groundnut 0.5 0.5

Source: Seed Services Unit

6.2.1.6 Seed sampling

After farmers have graded and packed their seed, a seed inspector draws a
representative sample of the seed lot at random. The sample size drawn varies
depending on the type of crop and value. For example, a sample of maize will
weigh about 1kg while a sample of tobacco or vegetables will weigh less than
that with a very large margin. This sample is taken to the laboratory for analysis.

29
The results obtained from this sample represent the condition of the whole seed
lot.

6.2.1.7 Seed testing

Seed testing is the last stage of seed certification process prior to issuance of a
certificate. In Malawi, two tests are mandatory for a seed to be certified. These
are: Purity test and Germination Test. This is applicable to grain crops such as
cereals and legumes just to mention some. Horticultural crops that are vegetative
propagated do not undergo this stage.

6.2.1.8 Purity analysis

During purity analysis seed analysts look at the physical purity of seeds. In this case,
they consider a number of components including pure seed, inert matter, other
seeds and other varieties. Defects such as broken or weevilled seeds are also
taken into consideration. It is for this reason that farmers need to ensure that their
seed is well graded so that it passes this test. The test is conducted in the
laboratory by seed experts. However, farmers can take some sample from their
seed storage containers and try to separate to see if the seed has been well
processed and graded.

30
 Figure 3:

Activity 4

Organize farmers into groups and give them seed samples comprising different varieties and
crop species and non-seed materials. Let them separate and see how they are doing it. In their
separation, take note of the following: seed of interest, inert matter, other seeds, stones, other
varieties and broken or weevilled seeds.

6.2.1.9 Germination test

The aim of a germination test is to ensure that the seed that will go on the market
will germinate once purchased by farmers. During this test, seeds are planted in
sand, between paper or on top of paper. The seed analysts then analyse the seed
some days after planting. They look at normal seedlings, abnormal seedlings,
dead seeds, hard seeds and fresh seeds. On seed testing certificates and seed
packs, germination percentage of the seed lot is indicated. Germination
percentage is the number of normal seedlings multiplied by 100 and divided by
the total number of seeds planted. If a germination capacity of 90 percent is
indicated, it means that out of 100 seeds a farmer will sow will give rise to 90
seedlings or good plants. This test too is done by seed experts. However, farmers
can test the performance of seed on small plots.

31
C D
Figure 4:Pigeon pea (C) and groundnut (D) seed being tested for germination

Activity 5

Allow farmers to try this at home. They should get 50 to 100 seeds and plant them. Let them
record the day of planting and the day of first emergence. After a week or two, they should
count the number of seeds that have emerged and divide by the number of seeds planted.
They should then multiply these by 100. They will come up with the performance of the seed
lot. This will not be the germination test per se, but will give a farmer an indication of how their
seed or the seed they have purchased will perform once planted.

Calculation: (Number of emerged seedlings X 100) ÷ Number of seeds planted

There are other tests conducted by Seed Services Unit Laboratories, but they are
not mandatory. These include moisture content and seed vigour tests.

32
7. Conclusions and recommendations

Adherence to seed production principles presented in this training manual would

ensure that farmers have access to improved and high quality planting material.
Although the training manual is based on formal seed system, the principles can
be applied in the informal seed system mainly for the production of quality
declared seed (QDS) or other planting materials for use by farmers.

The QDS is applicable in the context of this project, which is promoting locally
adapted germplasm as part of climate change adaptation. It is recommended
that this training manual should be used with reference to the Guide to
Agricultural Production for the guidance on the appropriate agronomic
practices. Appropriate guidance should be sought from experts in the seed
production, such as seed inspectors from the Department of Agricultural
Research Services (DARS), para seed inspectors, and crop officers from district
agricultural offices.

33
Glossary

“Basic seed” is a progeny of pre-basic seed.

“Certified seed” is seed that has undergone seed certification process and has
met the standards.

“Field inspection” is a process of systematically going around seed crop fields to

check if they meet the minimum standards of seed production.

“Isolation” is the distance from a seed field to a field of a similar crop.

“Noxious weed” are weeds that are considered harmful to the environment
(plants and animals) and are usually designated by some regulation.

“Off-type” is a plant growing in a field but characteristically differs from the variety
planted.

“Quality Declared Seed” is seed produced following procedures for quality

declared seed production.

“Roguing” means the removal of unwanted seedlings or plants in the field.

“Seed certification” is a quality assurance system whereby seed meant for use or
sell is inspected and tested. In simple terms, it is a process of certifying seed. Only
seed in the formal system is certified.

“Seed dressing” is the process of treating seeds with chemicals prior to planting.

“Seed inspector” is an individual empowered by the country’s legislation

pertaining to seed to inspect seed crop fields, seed processing units and storage
facility.

“Seed processing” is a process of cleaning and treating seed.

“Seed producer” is an individual or institution producing seed.

“Seed producer” is any person who either exclusively or in conjunction with any
other business produces seed for sale.

34
“Variety” is a group of cultivated plants which is characteristically distinguishable
from others and when reproduced retains its distinguishing characteristics.

“Volunteer plant” are plants that grow on their own without deliberately being
planted by a farmer.

“Weed” is an unwanted wild plant growing in competition with the cultivated

plants.

35
References

ACTESA. 2014. COMESA Seed Trade Harmonisation Regulations Lusaka, Zambia

AfricaSeeds. 2016. Seeds Toolkit, Module 3

FAO. 2006. Quality Declared Seed System, FAO Plant Production and Protection
paper 185, Rome, Italy

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. 2002-2003. Guide to Agricultural

Production in Malawi, Malawi

Hell, K., Mutegi, C., Fandohan, P. 2010. Aflatoxin control and prevention strategies
in maize for Sub-Saharan Africa, in the 10th International Working Conference on
Stored Product Protection, Vol. 2 (Estoril), 534–540; Green. J. Agricult. Sci 2, 280,
October 2012

SADC. 2008. Technical Agreements on Harmonisation of Seed Regulations in the

SADC Region, Gaborone, Botswana

Seed Act (Act no. 9). 1996. Amended Arrangement of Sections, Malawi

36
 This document has been produced with financial assistance of the European Union. The views
expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union.

Government of Malawi Funded by European Union