MEMORY AND LEARNING:

THE PATH TO UNDERSTANDING

Prepared for:
Shane M. Fliger

Prepared by:
David J. Hanson
Stark State College

December 4, 2020
Memorandum

Date: December 4, 2020

To: Shane Fliger (SFliger@starkstate.edu)

From: David Hanson (david.hanson@starkstate.net)

Subject: Formal Report

Memory and Learning: The Path to Understanding

The goal, when learning, should be complete understanding. This report details all processes that
occur and are necessary to achieve complete understanding.

In this report, I explore what goes on behind the scenes when you are learning. I detail the brain’s
functions when learning, effective and ineffective learning strategies, and the cognitive processes
required to achieve complete understanding. My recommendation is requiring teachers to
demonstrate understanding of effective learning strategies as well as emphasize the goal of
complete understanding.

Thank you for the opportunity to write this report. I hope that its information will prove
informative. I did not have any help writing this report. All research was done on my own.

Sincerely,

David J. Hanson
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ILLUSTRATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 3
PROJECT DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................................. 3
SCOPE OF STUDY ............................................................................................................................ 3
REPORT FORMAT ............................................................................................................................ 3
THE BRAIN .......................................................................................................................................... 4
THE HIPPOCAMPUS AND PREFRONTAL CORTEX...................................................................... 4
SYNAPTIC LEARNING..................................................................................................................... 4
THE MYTH OF LEARNING STYLES ............................................................................................... 6
INEFFECTIVE TEACHING ............................................................................................................... 6
INEFFECTIVE LEARNING ............................................................................................................... 6
EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES OF TEACHING ..................................................................................... 7
SPACED PRACTICE ...................................................................................................................... 7
INTERLEAVING ............................................................................................................................ 8
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE ............................................................................................................... 9
THE SIX LEVELS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING ........................................................................... 10
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY ................................................................................................ 10
REMEMBER ................................................................................................................................ 10
UNDERSTAND ............................................................................................................................ 10
APPLY .......................................................................................................................................... 10
ANALYZE .................................................................................................................................... 11
EVALUATE.................................................................................................................................. 11
CREATE ....................................................................................................................................... 11
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................. 12
CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 12
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................... 12
REFERENCES........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
APPENDIX A ....................................................................................................................................... 14
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ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. Spaced practice example schedule for one week ...........................................................8

Figure 2. Example of Interleaved vs. Blocked Practice ................................................................9

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A major function of the brain is memory storage. Through the understanding of how the
brain stores information, we can figure out how and why some learning strategies do and do not
work. These findings can be directly applied to any classroom environment and show positive
effects.
The brain stores long-term memories in two parts of the brain which can be recalled at
any time. The act of recalling this information makes recalling it easier in the future. This makes
strategies such as spaced practice, interleaving, and retrieval practice especially effective as
opposed to direct approaches—such as learning-style oriented teaching. By following Bloom’s
Revised Taxonomy, we can establish learning objectives to base our effective learning strategies
on. Doing so will result in complete understanding of course materials.
Based on my findings, I recommend that (1) teachers are required to demonstrate
understanding of memory formation and effective learning strategies; (2) the effective learning
strategies be implemented into classrooms; (3) Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy be used as a basis for
learning objectives. With these steps, student understanding and ability in the classroom will
increase.
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INTRODUCTION
This report was created to develop understanding of the brain and effective strategies of
teaching and learning in the classroom.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The brain is made up of billions of neurons that interact with each other to preform
everyday tasks. The root of everything we do is memory—both declarative and implicit. In this
report, we study how the brain works, what effective learning strategies look like, and how to use
this knowledge to achieve full understanding of concepts.

SCOPE OF STUDY
The purpose of this report is to determine what effective in teaching a classroom setting
is. To do this, we examined:
• Long-term memory formation
• Synaptic growth
• The myth of learning styles
• Ineffective teaching
• Ineffective learning
• Spaced practice
• Interleaving
• Retrieval practice
• Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy

REPORT FORMAT
This report includes four main sections:

1. The Brain: an insight into memory formation.

2. The Myth of Learning Styles: an overview of effective and ineffective
learning/teaching strategies
3. The Six Levels of Cognitive Learning: an explanation of the six levels of Bloom’s
Revised Taxonomy
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
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THE BRAIN

Before we understand what works in learning, we must first understand how we learn.
When you access the memory, there is not just one part of your brain that responds. Your whole
brain uses interconnected parts to perceive and store this information. Namely, the hippocampus
and the prefrontal cortex are responsible for memory storage and retrieval. The basolateral
amygdala is influential as well, but we will not be focusing on it in this paper. Interconnected by
a web of billions of neurons and synapses, these systems can communicate with each other
instantaneously.

THE HIPPOCAMPUS AND PREFRONTAL CORTEX

Believed to be responsible for the storage of long-term memories—namely episodic and

semantic—the hippocampus is all-important in the formation of memory (Bird & Burgess;
Trafton, 2017). Whether you are stung by a bee or learning something new at school, all
information you encounter finds itself in the hippocampus. However, this information does
not only go to the hippocampus. While the hippocampus is vital to the acquisition of long-term
memories, it is not wholly responsible for its storage. New memories consolidate in both the
hippocampus and in the prefrontal cortex simultaneously. The result is an interplay between the
hippocampus and prefrontal cortex for memory retrieval.
With this discovery, we can understand what makes a long-term memory. New memories
stored in the prefrontal cortex remain “silent” for about two weeks until they are fully mature
(Trafton, 2017). At which point, said memories fully integrate into long-term storage. As for the
same memory stored in the hippocampus, it gradually becomes silent, leaving only traces of the
memory. Given this information, we must now look towards how the brain itself learns.

SYNAPTIC LEARNING
Neurons and their Synapses are the building blocks of our brain. With every movement,
word, and emotion, billions of neurons and trillions of synapses are engaged and firing off and,
by doing so, they are learning and becoming stronger (Trafton, 2015). It is the brain’s ability to
change and “rewire” itself when necessary that makes us so versatile. This ability is known as
plasticity, and it is integral in our ability to learn.
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From the moment you are born, the brain is learning. With every breath you take, your
relative synapses get stronger (Takeuchi, Duszkiewicz, & Morris; Trafton, 2015). This applies to
anything that you do. Learning how to talk, write, problem-solve--it is all controlled by the
neural networks in your brain. When you repeatedly perform an action (such as those previously
stated), your synapses undergo a growth of new connections (boutons) between the presynaptic
and postsynaptic cells. “This makes the postsynaptic neuron even more responsive to any future
communication from the presynaptic neuron,” (Trafton, 2015). In other words, the repetition of
an action creates additional synapses. The result is an improved neural connection and an
increase in synaptic functionality.
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THE MYTH OF LEARNING STYLES

In 1984, David Kolb proposed the idea of person-to-person learning styles. The idea
behind his theory was that it could be used to categorize the “learner’s internal cognitive
processes” (McLeod, 2017). However, it must be made abundantly clear that this theory has no
scientific bearing- at least presently (Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018; de Pillis & Johnson,
2015). The idea of learning styles—namely auditory, visual, and kinesthetic—have gained a
tremendous amount of traction since its introduction and, while the theory is myth, does have
some interesting insights into methods of learning/teaching.

INEFFECTIVE TEACHING

In your traditional classroom setting, you will often be faced with a teacher standing in
the front reading a textbook. Students may be taking notes, reading along in the book, or perhaps
not paying attention whatsoever. In this scenario, unless the student wants to learn the
information, everyone will leave this classroom having learned nothing. Nothing will be retained
in any meaningful way. This is an example of ineffective teaching.
Ineffective teaching can be characterized largely by a lack of involvement from the
teacher. The result of this is poor student understanding over course materials. Methods
involving hands-on approaches (our kinesthetic learning style) have proven more effective in
student understanding than oral or visual approaches—lectures or presentations (de Pillis &
Johnson, 2015). However, attempting to teach to a students’ unique learning style has proven
ineffective. I believe this is due to the narrow scope of which you would be attempting to teach.
To take an all oral approach (auditory) would not favor you as well as taking a mixed approach
(e.g. visual and auditory).

INEFFECTIVE LEARNING

While a mixed approach could prove to be an effective method of teaching, it is not a

completely effective method of learning. It is one thing to deliver the information, but if you
recall how memories are formed (see The Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex), there is a two-
week period before the information is fully integrated into long-term storage. This is also under
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the assumption that the materials are not simply forgotten through synaptic disuse (synaptic
plasticity).
Simple strategies such as flashcards are used to remedy this consolidation—though to
varying degrees of success. This method is known as "rote learning." Rote learning is
memorization through repetition and is emphasized at an early age for subjects such as math and
spelling. However, the issue with rote learning is that it does not assist with understanding the
problem (Mayer, 2002). It simply tells you what the answer is. Without understanding, the brain
will never adequately apply this knowledge. It is one thing to remember, but it is another to
understand.

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

Other, more effective, methods of learning exist aside from rote learning. Spaced
Practice, interleaving, and retrieval practice are the strategies we will focus on. All these methods
can be used in a classroom setting to improve cognitive retention and understanding of class
materials (Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018). The efficacy of these strategies is proven and
can aid in learning and understanding. This is cannot be said for rote learning.

SPACED PRACTICE

Spaced practice, one of the most effective strategies of information retention, is the
method by which studying is repeated for equal amounts of time over varying periods
(Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018). When studying is not spaced out and, instead, done all
at once (see figure 1), your brain struggles to store the massive input of information. Empirical
evidence of this method date back to the 19th century and, since then, hundreds of studies have
shown a clear advantage toward spaced practice (Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018). This
method can be achieved in the classroom through a simple review of information at different
points (e.g., every day or two).
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Figure 1. Spaced practice example schedule for one week

(Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018)

INTERLEAVING

Interleaving occurs when “different ideas or problem types are tackled in a sequence, as
opposed to the more common method of attempting multiple versions of the same problem in a
given study session (known as blocking)” (Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018). The key
behind interleaving is identification. When faced with a variety of problems—as opposed to
issues of the same kind (see figure 2)—the student must discern the correct solution instead of
simply plugging it in. Interleaving in the classroom can be achieved by mixing current and
previous materials on homework, quizzes, and tests. However, it should be noted that the
interleaving of different subjects is not recommended.
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Figure 2. Example of Interleaved vs. Blocked Practice

(Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018)

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE

If you refer to Synaptic Learning, you will see that stimulating the synapses through the
recall of information improves synaptic connection—the ability to remember information.
Retrieval practice achieves precisely that. By taking tests, the student is improving their memory
over the tested information (Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018). Its effectiveness has been
demonstrated since over 100 years ago. “Requiring students to practice retrieval can be as simple
as asking students to put their class materials away and try to write out everything they know
about a topic” (Weinstein, Madan, & Sumeracki, 2018). Practice retrieval can be used at any
point, whether that be through tests, open-ended prompts, or otherwise.
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THE SIX LEVELS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

Remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. These are the six levels of
cognitive learning, according to Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Mayer, 2002). The goal of
Bloom’s Taxonomy is complete understanding and ability to apply said knowledge. Within these
six categories are 19 cognitive processes (see Appendix A). To learn and to understand are two
separate concepts. You can learn without understanding, but you cannot understand without
learning.

REMEMBER

Rote learning can be an effective tool to achieve memorization. It strengthens the

synapses and stimulates the brain, creating new connections that eventually allow for the natural
recall of information. However, it cannot end there. As I stated before, rote learning is merely the
memorization of information—not necessarily its understanding. To achieve understanding, we
must first ask ourselves how does it work? (Mayer, 2002)
A quote from Mayer explains this concept perfectly.
“…when meaningful learning is the goal, then remembering becomes a means to an
end, rather than the end itself.” (Mayer, 2002)

UNDERSTAND

The key to understanding is association (Mayer, 2002). By forming connections between

new and old knowledge, you are allowing yourself to come to your own, new conclusions. Your
brain, in doing so, is linking pre-existing neurons to newly formed, weak neurons—integrating
them into one neural circuit. It is as if your brain is putting together pieces of a puzzle.

APPLY

The next step to complete understanding is the application of the concept (Mayer, 2002).
This involves, in math, completing simple problems on a worksheet—a familiar concept. You
then apply the same concept to an unfamiliar task. The idea behind this is integrating old,
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previously learned concepts with the new ones—once again reinforcing the connections in your
brain and enhancing understanding.
ANALYZE

The breaking down of new concepts and analyzing how they are related to each other is
the next cognitive level (Mayer, 2002). While analyzing may not seem too dissimilar from
understanding, its importance is still paramount. Through analysis, you can break down your
understanding and test what parts do and do not apply to different concepts. The first question
when analyzing should always be, “What is relevant here?” Once you address this, your
breakdown of the problem at hand becomes much clearer.

EVALUATE

Evaluating is “defined as making judgments based on criteria and standards” (Mayer,

2002). This means being able to determine for yourself, using your understanding of the concept,
if an outcome is incorrect or not “good enough.” The ability to critique said data to improve it in
some shape or form should be the goal in evaluating.
CREATE

The final stage in Bloom’s Taxonomy is create. Creating “involves putting elements
together to form a coherent or functional whole; that is, reorganizing elements into a new pattern
or structure” (Mayer, 2002). Through creation, we achieve the highest form of understanding.
With this mastery, we can create new concepts and connections—pushing the boundaries of what
we know.
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This section includes the major conclusions and recommendations from my study of how

the memory and learning.

CONCLUSIONS
The brain stores its long-term memory in both the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.
Neurons and synapses are the means of which these memories are accessed. Through the
repetitive use of these synapses, additional connections are made—increasing cognitive ability to
recall said information.
Learning styles, while popular in its idea, is a myth and an ineffective teaching model.
While hands-on approaches (kinesthetic) have proven effective, pampering to a specific learning
style does help the student learn. Effective strategies of learning involve spaced practice,
interleaving, and retrieval practice. Each of these strategies focus on the recalling of information
and student engagement. This promotes synaptic growth and allows for deeper connections into
existing neural networks.
Without learning, you cannot achieve understanding. Following Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy, we know that remembering is the first step to complete understanding. By following
our effective learning strategies, we can advance through the Taxonomy to the final stage create.
Once here, you have developed a complete understanding of your concept.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on these findings, I recommend the following actions for classroom teaching:

1. Require teachers to learn how the brain stores and retrieves memory.
2. Integrate spaced practice into the teaching method
3. Integrate interleaving into the teaching method
4. Integrate retrieval practice into the teaching method
5. Use the six levels of cognitive learning as learning objectives

Through teacher understanding of memory formation and effective means of learning, student
understanding of course materials can be improved.
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REFERENCES

Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (n.d.). The hippocampus and memory: insights from spatial

processing.

de Pillis, E., & Johnson, G. (2015). First, Do No Harm: Effective, Ineffective, and

Counterproductive Teaching Methods. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice,

15(1), 60-63.

Mayer, R. (2002). Rote Versus Meaningful Learning. Theory into Practice, 41, 226-232.

McLeod, S. A. (2017, October 24). Kolb's Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Cycle.

Retrieved from SimplyPsychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-

kolb.html

Takeuchi, T., Duszkiewicz, A. J., & Morris, R. G. (2013). The synaptic plasticity and memory

hypothesis: encoding, storage and persistence. Philosophical transactions of the Royal

Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 369(1633), 20130288.

https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0288

Trafton, A. (2015, November 18). Neuroscientists reveal how the brain can enhance connections.

Retrieved from MIT News: https://news.mit.edu/2015/brain-strengthen-connections-

between-neurons-1118

Trafton, A. (2017, April 6). Neuroscientists identify brain circuit necessary for memory

formation. Retrieved from MIT News: https://news.mit.edu/2017/neuroscientists-

identify-brain-circuit-necessary-memory-formation-0406

Weinstein, Y., Madan, C. R., & Sumeracki, M. A. (2018). Teaching the Science of Learning.

Cognitive Research: Principals and Implications.

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APPENDIX A

THE 19 COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy contains 19 cognitive processes needed to achieve complete

understanding in a concept. Listed are these processes under their respective categories. (Mayer,
2002)

Remember
- Recognizing
- Recalling
Understand
- Interpreting
- Exemplifying
- Classifying
- Summarizing
- Inferring
- Comparing
- Explaining
Apply
- Executing
- Implementing
Analyze
- Differentiating
- Organizing
- Attributing
Evaluate
- Checking
- Critiquing
Create
- Generating
- Planning
- Producing