CHAPTER

CONVECTION
3
3.1 Introduction
-The process of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid
flowing in contact with it is called convection.

-Heat transfer by convection involves two simultaneously

occurring mechanisms, diffusion or conduction, accompanied
with macroscopic transport of heat to (or from) a moving or
flowing fluid.

-The fluid acts as a vehicle for energy transport, and the heat-flux
density depends on the velocity with which the fluid is renewed
over the surface
3.2 Classification

If the flow is caused by an external device like a pump or

blower, it is termed as forced convection. (fig a)
If the flow is caused by the buoyant forces generated by
heating or cooling of the fluid the process is called as natural
or free convection.(fig b)
3.3. Newton's law of cooling

The heat transfer by convection is described by the Newton's

law of cooling:

dQ  h Tw  T dAd or

Q  hA Tw  T
Where:
Tw : the surface temperature , °C or K.
T∞ : the fluid temperature of the free stream, °C or K.
Q : heat tranfer rate (W)
h : Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
3.4 Convective heat transfer coefficient
dQ q
h  W / m2 K
Tw  T dA Tw  T
Convective heat transfer coefficient is influenced by
(i) fluid properties like density, viscosity and other thermal
properties like specific heat, conductivity
(ii) the flow velocity and
(iii) the surface geometry.
As the properties vary with temperature and location the value of
convective heat transfer coefficient will vary from point to point. This
leads to the situation that analytically derived equations are applicable
only to a limited extent.

h  f Tw , T ,  , k , C p ,  ,  , , l1 , l2 , l3 
3.5 Mechanism of convection
In convection, energy flow occurs at the surface purely by conduction. But in the next
layers both conduction and diffusion-mass movement in the molecular level or
macroscopic level occurs. Due to the mass movement the rate the rate of energy
transfer is higher. Higher the rate of mass movement, higher will be the heat flow rate

Fig.2 Velocity and temperature variation of a point in a fluid flowing over a surface,
laminar flow, plate hotter.
3.5 Mechanism of convection
Considering conduction at the surface layer the heat flux is given by the
equation

where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. Combining this equations and
equation heat flux:

we obtain equation for Convection coefficient.

The value of convection coefficient can be determined if the temperature

gradient at the surface is known. The model postulated is used to solve for
temperature as a function of y so that the temperature gradient can be
calculated. The gradient is influenced by the fluid stream and the surface.
Boundary layer theory is applied for the determination of the gradient.
3.5 Mechanism of convection

Convert equation into dimensionless form.This is done first by replacing T by a

dimensionless temperature T* = (T – Ts)/(T∞ – Ts) and y by a dimensionless distance
y* = y/L.

Substituting and rearranging

It may be noted that hL/k is dimensionless and this group is known as Nusselt number
(Nu), a ratio of conduction resistance to heat flow (L/k) and convection resistance
to heat flow (1/h).
3.6 The concept of velocity boundary layer
The determination of the convective heat transfer coefficient the key is the
determination of the temperature gradient in the fluid at the solid-fluid interface. The
velocity gradient at the surface is also involved in the determinations
The simplest situation is the flow over a flat plate. The fluid enters with a uniform
velocity of u∞. When fluid particles touch the surface of the plate the velocity of these
particles is reduced to zero due to viscous forces.

Fig. 3 Velocity boundary layer on a flat plate. Fig. 4 Shear forces in the boundary layer.

The value of y where velocity u = 0.99 u∞ is called hydrodynamic boundary layer

thickness denoted by δ. The velocity profile in the boundary layer depicts the
variation of u with y, through the boundary layer
3.6 The concept of velocity boundary layer

Fig. 5 Velocities distribution in the boundary layer

The model characterises the flow as consisting of two distinct regions

(i) a thin boundary layer in which the velocity gradients and shear stresses are large.
(ii) the remaining region outside of the boundary layer where the velocity gradients
and shear stresses are negligibly small. This is also called potential flow.
The boundary layer thickness increases along the direction of flow over a flat plate as
effects of viscous drag is felt farther into the free stream. This is called the velocity
boundary layer model as this describes the variation of velocity in the boundary
layer.
The direct application of velocity boundary layer is in fluid mechanics for the
determination of the wall shear stress and then the dimensionless drag coefficient.
The net shear over the plate in flow is the wall shear and shear stress beyond the
boundary layer is zero.
3.7 Thermal boundary layer
Velocity boundary layer automatically forms when a real fluid flows over a surface, but thermal
boundary layer will develop only when the fluid temperature is different from the surface
temperature.
Considering the flow over a flat plate with fluid temperature of T∞ and surface temperature Ts
the temperature of the fluid is T∞ all over the flow till the fluid reaches the leading edge of the
surface. The fluid particles coming in contact with the surface is slowed down to zero velocity
and the fluid layer reaches equilibrium with the surface and reaches temperature Ts.
The distance y at which the ratio [(Ts – T)/(Ts – T∞)] = 0.99 is defined as thermal boundary
layer thickness δt.
The flow can now be considered to consist of two regions. A thin layer of thickness δt in which
the temperature gradient is large and the remaining flow where the temperature gradient is
negligible. The heat flow from the surface to the fluid can be calculated using the temperature
gradient at the surface
3.8 Laminar and turbulent flow

The transition Reynolds number for flow over a flat plate depends on many
factors and may be anywhere from 105 to 3 × 106. Generally the value is taken as
5 × 105 unless otherwise specified. For flow through tubes the transition value
is 2300, unless otherwise specified.
3.9 Methods used in convection studies
1. Dimensional analysis combined with experiments
2. Exact mathematical solutions of the boundary layer
equations
3. Approximate analyses of the boundary layer equations by
integral methods
4. The analogy between heat and momentum transfer
5. Numerical analysis, or modeling with computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) methods
3.9.1. Dimensional analysis combined with experiments

Dimensional analysis is mathematically simple and has found a wide range of

application.
The chief limitation of this method is that the results obtained are incomplete and
quite useless without experimental data. Dimensional analysis contributes little to
our understanding of the transfer process but facilitates the interpretation and
extends the range of experimental data by correlating them in terms of
dimensionless groups.
There are two different methods for determining dimensionless groups suitable for
correlating experimental data.
(i) The first of these methods, discussed in the following section, requires only listing
of the variables pertinent to a phenomenon. This technique is simple to use, but if a
pertinent variable is omitted, erroneous results ensue.
(ii) In the second method, the dimensionless groups and similarity conditions are
deduced from the differential equations describing the phenomenon.
This method is preferable when the phenomenon can be described mathematically,
but the solution of the resulting equations is often too involved to be practical
3.9.2. Exact mathematical analyses

Exact mathematical analyses require simultaneous solution of the equations

describing the fluid motion and the transfer of energy in the moving fluid. The
method presupposes that the physical mechanisms are sufficiently well
understood to be described in mathematical language. This preliminary
requirement limits the scope of exact solutions because complete mathematical
equations describing the fluid flow and the heat transfer mechanisms can be
written only for laminar flow. Even for laminar flow, the equations are quite
complicated, but solutions have been obtained for a number of simple systems
such as flow over a flat plate, an airfoil, or a circular cylinder .
Exact solutions are important because the assumptions made in the course of the
analysis can be specified accurately and their validity can be checked by
experiment. They also serve as a basis of comparison and as a check on simpler
approximate methods. Furthermore, the development of high-speed computers
has increased the range of problems amenable to mathematical solution, and
results of computations for different systems are continually being published in
the literature.
3.9.3. Approximate analysis of the boundary layer

Approximate analysis of the boundary layer avoids the detailed

mathematical description of the flow in the boundary layer.
Instead, a plausible but simple equation is used to describe the
velocity and temperature distributions in the boundary layer. The
problem is then analyzed on a macroscopic basis by applying the
equation of motion and the energy equation to the aggregate of the
fluid particles contained within the boundary layer.
This method is relatively simple; moreover, it yields solutions to
problems that cannot be treated by an exact mathematical analysis.
In instances where other solutions are available, they agree within
engineering accuracy with the solutions obtained by this
approximate method.
The technique is not limited to laminar flow but also can be applied
to turbulent flow.
3.9.4. Numerical methods

Numerical methods can solve in an approximate form the exact

equations of motion . The approximation results from the need to
express the field variables (temperature, velocity, and pressure) at
discrete points in time and space rather than continuously.
However, the solution can be made sufficiently accurate if care is
taken in discretizing the exact equations.
One of the most important advantages of numerical methods is
that once the solution procedure has been programmed, solutions
for different boundary conditions, property variables, and so on
can be easily computed. Generally, numerical methods can handle
complex boundary conditions easily.
3.10. Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis differs from other approaches in that it does

not yield equations that can be solved. Instead, it combines several
variables into dimensionless groups, such as the Nusselt number,
which facilitate the interpretation and extend the range of
application of experimental data.
In practice, convection heat transfer coefficients are generally
calculated from empirical equations obtained by correlating
experimental data with the aid of dimensional analysis
3.10.1. Primary Dimensions and Dimensional Formulas
Table 1. Important heat and mass transfer physical quantities and their dimensions
3.10.2. Buckingham π Theorem
To determine the number of independent dimensionless groups required to obtain a
relation describing a physical phenomenon

The required number of independent dimensionless groups that can be formed by

combining the physical variables pertinent to a problem is equal to the total number
of these physical quantities n (e.g., density, viscosity, heat transfer coefficient) minus
the number of primary dimensions m required to express the dimensional formulas of
the n physical quantities. If we call these groups π1, π2, and so forth, the equation
expressing the relationship among the variables has a solution of the form

In a problem involving five physical quantities and three primary dimensions, n-m is equal
to two and the solution either has the form

F(π1, π2) = 0
or the form
π1 = f(π2)
3.10.3. Determination of Dimensionless Groups
Ex: There are seven physical quantities and four primary dimensions. We
therefore expect that three dimensionless groups will be required to correlate
the data. To find these dimensionless groups, we write as a product of the
variables, each raised to an unknown power:

Table 2. Pertinent physical quantities in convection heat transfer

3.10.3. Determination of Dimensionless Groups

and substitute the dimensional formulas

For to be dimensionless, the exponents of each primary dimension must separately add up
to zero. Equating the sum of the exponents of each primary dimension to zero, we obtain the
set of equations

There are seven unknowns, but only four equations. We can therefore choose values for
three of the exponents in each of the dimensionless groups. The only restriction on the
choice of the exponents is that each of the selected exponents be independent of the
others. An exponent is independent if the determinant formed with the coefficients of the
remaining terms does not vanish (i.e., is not equal to zero).
3.10.3. Determination of Dimensionless Groups
Since hc, the convection heat transfer coefficient, is the variable we eventually
want to evaluate, it is convenient to set its exponent g equal to unity. At the same time,
we let c = d = 0 to simplify the algebraic manipulations. Solving the equations
simultaneously, we obtain a =1, b=-1, e = f =0. The first dimensionless group is then

For π2, we select g equal to zero, so that hc will not appear again, and let a =1 and f =0.
Simultaneous solution of the equations with these choices yields b=0, c=d =1, e=-1, and

This dimensionless group is a Reynolds number, ReD, with the tube diameter as the
length parameter
If we let e=1 and c=g=0, we obtain the third dimensionless group,
3.10.3. Determination of Dimensionless Groups

Experimental data now can be correlated in terms of three variables instead of the
original seven. The importance of this reduction in the number of variables becomes
apparent when we attempt to plan experiments and correlate experimental data.
3.10.4. Correlation of Experimental Data

Experimental data now can be correlated in terms of three variables instead of the
original seven. The importance of this reduction in the number of variables becomes
apparent when we attempt to plan experiments and correlate experimental data.

Fig.8 Correlation of experimental heat transfer data for various fluids in cross-flow over pipes,
wires, and circular cylinders.
3.10.5. Principle of Similarity

According to the model law, the behavior of two systems will be similar if the ratios of
their linear dimensions, forces, velocities, and so forth are the same. Under conditions of
forced convection in geometrically similar systems, the velocity fields will be similar
provided the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces is the same in both fluids.

The Reynolds number is the ratio of these forces, and consequently, we expect similar flow
conditions in forced convection for a given value of the Reynolds number

The Prandtl number is the ratio of two molecular transport properties, the kinematic
viscosity which affects the velocity distribution, and the thermal diffusivity which affects
the temperature profile. Hence, in geometrically similar systems having the same
Prandtl and Reynolds numbers, the temperature distributions will be similar.

The Nusselt number is equal to the ratio of the temperature gradient at a fluid-to-
surface interface to a reference temperature gradient. We therefore expect that, in
systems having similar geometries and similar temperature fields, the numerical values
of the Nusselt numbers will be equal
3.10.5. Principle of Similarity
Table 3. Dimensionless groups of importance for heat transfer and fluid flow
3.10.5. Principle of Similarity
3.10.5. Principle of Similarity
3.10.5. Principle of Similarity

Fig. 10 In-tube flow boundary layer regions.

3.10.5. Principle of Similarity
3.10.5. Principle of Similarity
 PART
FREE CONVECTION A
IN OPENED SPACES
 Equation by Mikheeva
= =

: Nusselt number, =
: Grashof number, =
: Prandtl number, = =
: Rayleigh number, = .
ℎ, , , , , are determined at = +
For vertical plate, is the height of the plate
For horizontal cylinder, is the diameter
 Equation by Mikheeva
Geometry =
10 ÷ 10 Fig. 1
10 ÷ 10 0.59 0.25
Vertical plates and cylinders
0.021 0.4
10 ÷ 10
0.1 1⁄3
0 ÷ 10 0.4 0
10 ÷ 10 Fig. 2
10 ÷ 10 0.53 0.25
10 ÷ 10 0.13 1⁄3
Horizontal cylinders 10 ÷ 10 0.675 0.058
10 ÷ 10 1.02 0.148
10 ÷ 10 0.850 0.188
10 ÷ 10 0.480 0.25
10 ÷ 10 0.125 1⁄3
 Equation by Mikheeva

Geometry =
Upper surface of heated plates 2 × 10 ÷ 800 × 10 0.54 0.25
(or lower surface of cooled plates) 800 × 10 ÷ 10 0.15 1⁄3
Lower surface of heated plates
10 ÷ 10 0.27 0.25
(or upper surface of cooled plates)
Vertical cylinder (height = diameter)
10 ÷ 10 0.775 0.21
Horizontal cylinder (length = diameter)
Irregular solids (length = distance fluid
10 ÷ 10 0.52 0.25
particle travels in boundary layer)
 Equation by Mikheeva
1000

100
Figure 1

10

= ∙
10 10 10 10 10
 Equation by Mikheeva
10000

1000
Figure 2

100

10

= ∙
0.1
10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
 Equation by Churchill & Chu
• For vertical plates and cylinders

⁄
0.387
= 0.825 + ⁄
⁄
0.492
1+

= 10 ÷ 10
 Equation by Churchill & Chu
• For horizontal plates and cylinders

⁄
0.387
= 0.6 + ⁄
⁄
0.559
1+

= 10 ÷ 10
 Equation by Fujii & Imura
• For inclined plates with positive angles
.
= 0.56 cos
< 88°
+ cos = 10 ÷ 10

.
= 0.58
= 88° ÷ 90°
Heated surface = 10 ÷ 10

Fluid properties are determined at = − 0.25 −

 Equation by Fujii & Imura
• For inclined plates with negative angles
⁄ ⁄ .
= 0.14 − + 0.56 cos

= −75° ÷ −15°
cos = 10 ÷ 10
− Heated surface
Angel ° (critical Grashof)
−15 5 × 10
−30 2 × 10
−60 10
−75 10
 Equations for air

Laminar Turbulent
Geometry
= ÷ >
.
− ⁄
Vertical plates and cylinders ℎ = 1.42 ℎ = 1.31 −

.
− ⁄
Horizontal cylinders ℎ = 1.32 ℎ = 1.24 −
.
Horizontal heated plate facing upward − ⁄
(or cooled plate facing downward) ℎ = 1.32 ℎ = 1.52 −
.
Horizontal eated plate facing downward −
(or cooled plate facing upward) ℎ = 0.59

.
Heated cube ( is length of side, Area is −
6 ) ℎ = 1.052
 Equations for spheres
• Equation by Yuge
= 2 + 0.43 .
= 1 ÷ 10

• Equation by Amato & Tien

.
= 2 + 0.5 = 3 × 10 ÷ 8 × 10

• Equation by Churchill
.
0.589 < 10
=2+ ⁄ > 0.5
⁄
0.469
1+
 Problem 1
A large vertical plate 4 high is maintained at 60℃ and
exposed to atmospheric air at 10℃ . Calculate the heat
transfer if the plate is 10 wide

1
=
308
= 35℃ = 0.02685
= 16.5 × 10
= 0.7
 Problem 2
A2 diameter horizontal heater is maintained at a surface
temperature of 38℃ and submerged in water at 27℃ .
Calculate the free convection heat loss per unit length of the
heater
 Problem 3
A horizontal fine wire having a diameter of 0.02 is
maintained at a constant temperature of 54℃ by an electric
current. The wire is exposed to air at 1 and 0℃. Calculate
the electric power necessary to maintain the wire temperature
if the length is 50 . (use Mihkeeva relation)
 Problem 4
A horizontal pipe 1 0.3048 in diameter is maintained at
a temperature of 250℃ in a room where the ambient air is at
15℃. Calculate the free convection heat loss per meter of
length. (use Mihkeeva, Churchill & Chu relations and relation
for air)
 PART
FREE CONVECTION
B
IN ENCLOSED SPACES
 Equations by MacGregor & Emery
• For vertical gap
,
= 0.42 . .

= 10 ÷ 10
= 1 ÷ 2 × 10
= 10 ÷ 40

= 10 ÷ 10
= 1 ÷ 20
⁄
= 0.46 = 1 ÷ 40
Characteristic dimension
 Equation by Evans & Stefany

• For vertical, horizontal cylinders or inclined gap

.
= 0.55

= 0.75 ÷ 2
 Equation by Eckert

• For vertical gap with air

.
= 0.119
 Other equations

= 1; < 10
.
= 0.105 ; = 10 ÷ 10
.
= 0.4 ; = 10 ÷ 10
 Other equations
• For horizontal gap with air
.
= 0.195 ; = 10 ÷ 10
⁄
= 0.068 ; = 4 × 10

• For horizontal gap with liquids

⁄ .
= 0.069
= 0.02 ÷ 8750
= 3 × 10 ÷ 7 × 10
 General relation Effective thermal
conductivity

=ℎ − = − = −

Fluid Geometry

< 2000 = (pure conduction)

6 × 10 ÷ 200 × 10 0.5 ÷ 2 11 ÷ 42 0.197 0.25 − 1⁄9
Vertical plates
1
0.2 × 10 ÷ 11 × 10 0.5 ÷ 2 11 ÷ 42 0.073 − 1⁄9
3
Gas
< 1700 = (pure conduction)
Horizontal 1700 ÷ 7000 0.5 ÷ 2 – 0.059 0.4 0
plates, heated
from below 7 × 10 ÷ 320 × 10 0.5 ÷ 2 – 0.212 0.25 0
> 320 × 10 0.5 ÷ 2 – 0.061 1⁄3 0
 General relation
Fluid Geometry

< 2000 = (pure conduction)

Vertical plates 10 ÷ 10 1 ÷ 20000 10 ÷ 40 Eq. by Churchill for spheres

10 ÷ 10 1 ÷ 20 1 ÷ 40 0.046 1⁄3 0
< 1700 = (pure conduction)
Liquid
Horizontal plate, 1700 ÷ 6000 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.012 0.6 0
heated from 6000 ÷ 37 × 10 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.375 0.2 0
below 37 × 10 ÷ 10 1 ÷ 20 – 0.13 0.3 0
> 10 1 ÷ 20 – 0.057 1⁄3 0
Vertical annulus Same as vertical plates
Gas 6000 ÷ 10 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.11 0.29 0
Horizontal
or
annulus 10 ÷ 10 1 ÷ 5000 – 0.40 0.20 0
Liquid
Spherical annulus 120 ÷ 11 × 10 0.7 ÷ 4000 – 0.228 0.226 0
 Problem 6
Air at atmospheric pressure is contained between two 0.5
square vertical plates separated by a distance of 15 . The
temperature of the plates are 100℃ and 40℃, respectively.
Calculate the free convection heat transfer across the air
space. (use general relation)
 Problem 7
Two horizontal plates 20 on a side are separated by a
distance of 1 with air at 1 in the space. The
temperature of the plates are 100℃ for the lower and 40℃
for the upper plate. Calculate the heat transfer across the air
space. (use general relation)
 Problem 8
Two 50 horizontal square plates are separated by a
distance of 1 . The lower plate is maintained at a constant
temperature of 100℉ and the upper plate is constant at 80℃.
Water at atmospheric pressure occupies the space between
the plates. Calculate the heat lost by the lower plate. (use
general relation)
 Problem 9
A vertical air gap between two glass plates is to be evacuated
so that the convective currents are essentially eliminated, that
is, the air behaves as a pure conductor. For air at a mean
temperature of 300 and a temperature difference of 20℃,
calculate the vacuum necessary for glass spacings of 1 and
2 . (use general relation)
 PART
C
FORCED CONVECTION
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)

Laminar flow: The condition is that the Reynolds number should be less than 5 × 105

The average value of Cf in the laminar region for a length L from leading edge is given by

The value of local Nusselt number is given by

This is valid for Prandtl number range
of 0.6 to 50.
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)

Fig.9 Temperatures distribution in the boundary layer of a fluid flowing over a flat plate.
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)
Laminar constant wall temperature, with heating starting at a distance x0 from the leading
edge.
The correlation is obtained as below
Flow Over Surfaces (Laminar flow)
Flow Over Surfaces (Turbulent flow)

Turbulent flow
In flow over flat plate, the flow is initially laminar and after some distance turns turbulent,
the value of Reynolds number at this point being near 5 × 105. However, there are
circumstances under which the flow turns turbulent at a very short distance, due to
higher velocities or due to disturbances, roughness etc. The critical reynolds number in
these cases is low and has to be specified.
In the turbulent region the velocity boundary layer thickness is given by

The displacement and momentum thickness are much thinner. The displacement
thickness is

Momentum thickness is
Flow Over Surfaces (Turbulent flow)

The local friction coefficient is given for the range Rex from 5 × 105 to 107 by

For constant heat flux, the Nusselt number is found to increase by 4% over the
value for constant wall temperature.
Flow Over Surfaces (Turbulent flow)
Flow Over Surfaces (Turbulent flow)
Flow across cylinders
The other type of flow over surfaces is flow across cylinders often met
with in heat exchangers and hot or cold pipe lines in the open. An
important difference is the velocity distribution along the flow.
The obstruction by the cylinder causes a closing up of the streamlines
and an increase in pressure at the stagnation point.

For angles upto 80°, the variation of

Nusselt number can be represented
by Nu = CRe m Pr0.333
D D

Where C and m are tabulated below.

Flow across cylinders

The validity for this correlation is for 0.7 < Pr < 500; 1 < ReD < 106 and
with n = 0.36 for Pr < 10 and n = 0.37 for Pr > 10 The values of C and m are
tabulated below

The properties for Re and Pr should be at free stream temperature.

Flow across cylinders
Flow Across non Circular Shapes: The general correlation used for
gases, including the Pr0.333 in the constant is
Flow across cylinders

Example : Air at 30°C flows across a steam

pipe of 0.2 m dia at a surface temperature
of 130°C, with a velocity of 6 m/s.
Determine the value of convective heat
transfer coefficient using equations
NuD = CReDm Pr0.333
Flow Across Bank Of Tubes

Tube bundles are used with one fluid flowing across tube bundles. First it is necessary
to define certain terms before discussing heat transfer calculations. Two types of tube
arrangement are possible:
(i) in line and
(ii) staggered.
The distance between tube centres is known as pitch. The pitch along the flow is known
as (Sn) and the pitch in the perpendicular direction is called (Sp).
Flow Across Bank Of Tubes
Flow Across Bank Of Tubes
Flow Across Bank Of Tubes
Flow Across Bank Of Tubes
Flow Across Bank Of Tubes

Example: 20 mm OD copper tubes are

arranged in line at 30 mm pitch perpendicular
to flow and 25 mm pitch along the flow. The
entry velocity of air is 1 m/s, and the air
temperature is 20°C. The tube wall is at 40°C.
Determine the value of convection coefficient
if the number of tubes along the flow is 6 (or
Bank is 6 rows deep).
Problems
Problem 1: A plate 5 m long at 470°C has air flowing over it
with a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The air is at 30°C. Determine the
heat to be supplied for every m length. Assume unit width.

Problem 2: A motor cycle travels at 100 kmph. On the engine

head a fin of 0.16 m length and 0.04 m width is exposed to
convection on both sides. The fin surface is at 300°C and air
is at 20°C. Determine the rate of heat removal from the fin
assuming turbulent flow prevails all through

Problem 3: Water flows over a flat plate having a uniform heat

generation rate. The plate is 15 cm × 15 cm side. Water is at
20°C and the flow velocity is 3 m/s. Determine the heat that
may be carried away by the water if the maximum
temperature of the plate is not to exceed 80°C.
Problems
Problem 4: Calculate the value of convection coefficient for
flow of the following fluids at 10°C across a pipe 20 mm dia at
30°C, the flow velocity being 5 m/s
(a) Air (b) Water (c) engine oil (d) liquid ammonia.
Flow across spheres
Flow across spheres
Flow across spheres
Flow across spheres

Example : Air at 30°CC flows over

a sphere of 0.1 m dia with a
velocity of 8 m/s. The solid
surface is at 50°C. Determine
the value of convection
coefficient.
Tank with jacket

ℎ
 Tank with jacket
General relation
ℎ 2
=

Configuration of tank Restriction

Tank with agitator, coil, no From coil to fluid 1.01 0.32 0.33 0.14 0 0 0 0
jacket From wall to fluid 0.4 2 ⁄3 1⁄ 3 0.14 0 0 0 0

From coil to fluid 0.36 2 ⁄3 1⁄ 3 0.14 0 0 0 0

Tank with jacket, coil, agitator, From coil to fluid and

0.87 0.62 0.33 0.14 0 0 0 0
no baffle = 286 ÷ 258 × 10
2 From coil to fluid and
= 0.6; = 0.83; = 0.8 0.415 2 ⁄3 1⁄ 3 0.24 0 0 0 0
= 20 ÷ 4000
From jacket to fluid 1.6 0.5 0.24 0.14 0 0 0 0
Tank with jacket, coil, agitator, From coil to fluid and
0.55 0.64 0.3 0.32 0.4 0 0 0
no baffle Newton fluid
Tank with jacket, coil and
= 10 ÷ 2 × 10 0.036 2 ⁄3 1⁄ 3 0.14 0 0 0 0
baffles, no agitator
 Tank with jacket
General relation
Configuration of tank Restriction
From coil to fluid and
Tank with agitator, coil and 1 0.5 0.33 0.18 0 0 0 0
= 30 ÷ 300
high viscosity fluid, no
jacket From coil to fluid and
0.38 0.67 0.33 0.18 0 0 0 0
= 300 ÷ 4000
Tank with turbine agitator, From coil to fluid and
0.17 0.67 0.37 0.14 0.1 0 0.5 0
coil, 4 baffles, no jacket = 400 ÷ 15 × 10

Tank with turbine agitator, From wall to fluid and

0.54 0.67 0.33 0.14 0 0 0 0
jacket, 4 baffles, no coil = 30 ÷ 400
1 ℎ From wall to fluid and
= ; = 1.05; = 0.3 0.74 0.67 0.33 0.14 0 0 0 0
3 = 4 × 10 ÷ 3 × 10
= 5 × 10 ÷ 85 × 10
Tank with turbine agitator, 1 3 ℎ 1 0.76 0.67 0.33 0.14 0 0 0 0
= ÷ ; =
jacket, baffles, no coil 6 4 3
= 5 × 10 ÷ 85 × 10 1.01 0.67 0.33 0.14 0.13 0.12 0 0
1 ℎ 1
Tank with jacket, no baffles, = ; = 1; = 0.73 0.65 0.33 0.24 0 0 0 0
3 3
no coil, no agitator
1.15 0.65 0.33 0.24 0 0.4 0 0.56
Tank with agitator,
= 3 × 10 ÷ 85 × 10 0.44 0.66 0.33 0.2 0.1 0.05 0 0
resistance heating
 PART
COMBINED FREE
D
&
FORCED CONVECTION
 Empirical relations
• For horizontal tubes in laminar flow region

⁄ .
⁄ ⁄
= 1.75 + 0.012

= 10 ÷1
 Empirical relations
• For vertical plate
.
= 0.67 1 + 0.5 .

⁄
≤
= 5 × 10 ÷ 3 × 10
.
.
= 0.135 1 + 0.5
⁄
>
> 3 × 10
 Empirical relations
• For horizontal plate
Cooling in plate
. < 2 × 10
= 0.55 1 + 0.5 . ⁄
≥
≤ 3 × 10

Heating in plate
. < 2 × 10
= 1 + 0.5 . ⁄
≥ 0.2
≤ 3 × 10
 Empirical relations
• For spheres

. .
1 3.7 . ⁄
= 2 + 0.3 1 + − .
1 + 0.276

= 2 ÷ 1800
= 500 ÷ 2 × 10
3.7 .
< . .
+
 Empirical relations
• For spheres

. .
. ⁄
= 0.67 1 + 0.15 1 +

= 2 × 10 ÷ 300 × 10
⁄
≤
 Empirical relations
• For spheres

.
.
= 0.54 1 +

3.7 .
> . .
+
How to solve the convection problem ?
In general, approach the solution in
the direction of simple to complex

Specify the fluid involved and

evaluate the fluid properties

Specify the geometry of the problem

(inside/across/along the length)
How to solve the convection problem ?
Free / forced / combined convection

Determine the flow regime by Reynolds,

Prandtl or Grashof numbers…

Select an appropriate equation for heat

transfer coefficient
 PART
CONVECTION IN E
BOILING & EVAPORATION
 The effects
• Dimension
Geometry • Position in space
• Roughness

• Temperature difference ∆ = −
• Thermal conductivity
• Heat flux
• Viscosity , velocity
• Fluid direction

ℎ
• Density , heat capacity …
• Mass flowrate
• Concentration, wettability…
• Pressure drop ∆

Fluid
Operation
properties
 Regimes of pooling boiling
Nucleate boiling is useful
for process design

Vapour will be observed

log ℎ

over the water surface. No

bubbles will be observed
Film boiling

∆ = −

10 10 5 10 30 10 320 10 10
Regimes of pooling boiling
Regimes of pooling boiling
 Empirical relations
: mass flow per unit depth ⁄ℎ
Authors Restrictions Relations
.
Water in horizontal tube, < 195 ℎ = 1870
Zakharov
.
Water in horizontal tube, > 195 ℎ = 535
.
Water in vertical tube, < 150 ℎ = 8.15
Tananaiko I.M. Water in vertical tube, = 150 ÷ 400 ℎ = 23.6 .

Water out of vertical tube, = 100 ÷ 3000 ℎ = 560 . . .

Bressler R. Turbulent vertical plate ℎ = 1.45 .

NaOH 2% out of vertical tube, = 2 ÷ 6 × 10 ℎ = 1860 . .

. .
NaOH 10% out of vertical tube, = 2 ÷ 6 × 10 ℎ = 432000
. .
Rishkov I.A. NaOH 15% out of vertical tube, = 2 ÷ 6 × 10 ℎ = 1580000
,. .
NaOH 25% out of vertical tube, = 2 ÷ 6 × 10 ℎ = 1070000
Water out of vertical tube, = 2 ÷ 6 × 10 ℎ = 12.1 . .

. .
Liquefied air in short tube, = 120 ÷ 9400 ℎ = 80
Vishner I.P.
Industrial tube, = 120 ÷ 9400 ℎ = 450 .
 Empirical relations
Authors Restrictions Relations
Boiling water with horizontal surface
< 16 ⁄ ⁄
− = 0 ÷ 7.76℃
ℎ = 1042 −
ℎ = 0 ÷ 2060 ⁄
Boiling water with horizontal surface
= 16 ÷ 240 ⁄
− = 7.32 ÷ 14.4℃
ℎ = 5.56 −
ℎ = 2180 ÷ 16600 ⁄
Jakob & Hawkins
Boiling water with vertical surface
<3 ⁄ ⁄
− = 0 ÷ 4.51℃
ℎ = 537 −
ℎ = 0 ÷ 670 ⁄
Boiling water with vertical surface
= 3 ÷ 63 ⁄
− = 4.41 ÷ 9.43℃
ℎ = 7.96 −
ℎ = 680 ÷ 6680 ⁄
 Regimes of flow boiling
ℎ
Liquid forced convection

Vapor forced convection

Bubble
Slug

Annular Mist
Transition

0 Quality % 100
 Empirical relations
= +

. .
For convection = 0.019

1−
= : mass fraction of vapor

Authors Restrictions Relations

Boiling water .
McAdams = 2.253 −
Pressure system = 0.2 ÷ 0.7
Boiling water ⁄
Levy
Pressure system = 0.7 ÷ 14
= 283 −

= 1.3 = 0.01 . .
Flush irrigation outside
of horizontal tube bank . .
= 1.7 ÷ 2 = 0.0245
 Empirical relations
Authors Restrictions Relations
.
Film boiling downward in tube, < 7000 = 198 × 10 . .

Kewille J.F.
.
Film boiling downward in tube, > 7000 . .
= 54 × 10

Haase B. & Film boiling downward in tube without . .

Struve H. bubble, < 8000 ⁄
= 554 × 10
CFCl3 film boiling downward in tube, .
< 100
= 0.9

Film boiling downward in tube, .

0.844
Struve H. = 100 ÷ 800 = 0.176 −
+ 2.95
Film boiling downward in tube, 0.778 .
> 800
= 0.152 −
+ 5.47
Sinek J.R. & ⁄
Young E.H.
Film boiling upward in tube = 0.01
 Empirical relations

For flow boiling water in vertical tube = 5 ÷ 170

⁄ .
ℎ = 2.54 −
by Jakob
 PART
CONVECTION IN F
CONDENSATION
 The effects

• Wall surface
Geometry • Tube arrangement

• Temperature ,
• Heat flux direction
• Vapor velocity
• Heat flux
• Wall temperature
• Fluid direction
• Superheat
•
•
Mass flowrate
Pressure drop ∆
ℎ •
•
Foul gas
Co–condensable

Fluid
Operation
properties
 Empirical relations
Condensation number
⁄
=ℎ
−

Authors Restriction Relation

⁄
Vertical plate < 1800 = 1.47
Differential equation
⁄
Horizontal cylinder < 1800 = 1.514
Kirkbride Turbulent film > 1800 = 0.0077 .
 Empirical relations
Authors Restriction Relation
.
.
∆ℎ
Vertical plate in laminar region = 0.943
∆
.
.
∆ℎ sin ∡
Nusselt Inclined plate ∡ in laminar region = 0.943
∆
. .
.
∆ℎ
Horizontal tube in laminar region = 0.726
∆
Condensation

4
=

: total mass flow rate of condensate ⁄

: tube diameter
: liquid viscosity
 Condensation

< 30
Very high viscous,

< 1800 > 1800

 Condensation
For laminar flow (Refilm < 1800), the steam-side condensation coefficient
for vertical surfaces can be calculated by the following equation:

.
ℎ −
= = 1.13
∆
- All physical properties of the liquid are evaluated at the film temperature
Tfilm = (Tsat + Twall)/2.
- λ (latent heat of condensation) is evaluated at Tsat.
ρL – liquid density (kg/m3)
ρV – vapour density (kg/m3)
g = 9.8066 m/s2
λ – latent heat (J/kg)
μL – liquid viscosity (Pa.s)
ΔT = Tsat – Twall (K)
 Condensation
For turbulent flow (Refilm >1800), the steam-side condensation coefficient
for vertical surfaces can be calculated by the following equation:

⁄
ℎ .
= = 0.0077

- All physical properties of the liquid are evaluated at the film temperature
Tfilm = (Tsat + Twall)/2.
- λ (latent heat of condensation) is evaluated at Tsat.
ρL – liquid density (kg/m3)
ρV – vapour density (kg/m3)
g = 9.8066 m/s2
λ – latent heat (J/kg)
μL – liquid viscosity (Pa.s)
ΔT = Tsat – Twall (K)
 Condensation
For laminar flow (Refilm < 1800), the steam-side condensation coefficient
for horizontal surfaces can be calculated by the following equation:
.
ℎ −
= = 0.725
∆

- All physical properties of the liquid are evaluated at the film temperature
Tfilm = (Tsat + Twall)/2.
- λ (latent heat of condensation) is evaluated at Tsat.
ρL – liquid density (kg/m3)
ρV – vapour density (kg/m3)
g = 9.8066 m/s2
λ – latent heat (J/kg)
μL – liquid viscosity (Pa.s)
ΔT = Tsat – Twall (K)
 CHAPTER
CONVECTION
3