Modern Indian history---- f middle of 18th cen until present ----- significant events, personalities, issues.

The Freedom Struggle –--- stages + imp contributors / contributions f diff parts of country.
______________________________________________________________________________INDEX
Chapters:
 
 
Approach:
● Map PYQP to various keywords.
● Learn basic timeline from 1757 - 1947 - They are all connected. Preceding event becomes the reason
and the succeeding event is the effect. - NCERT HELPS.
● study trends like developments in education, civil services, decentralization/ centralization of power,
etc.
● Comparative analysis of important events and personalities
● Focus on developing the understanding behind the cause of any particular event or action taken by any
personality.
● Link events in India with the developments in the world like the Impact of Russian Revolution or
WW-II, etc
● Study impact of British policies on Economy, Society, Culture, Polity of India.
 
PYQP
2019
● The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had
occurred in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate. (10)
● Examine linkages bw 19th century’s ‘Indian Renaissance’ + emergence of national identity. (10)
● Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movements during the Gandhian phase.
Elaborate. (15)
● Assess the role of British imperial power in completing the process of transfer of power during the
1940s.
 
2018
● Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times. (Answer in
150 words) (10)
● Why indentured labour was taken by the British form India to other colonies? Have they been able to
preserve their cultural identity over there? (Answer in 250 words) (15)
 
2017
● Clarify how mid- 18th Cen India was beset with the specter of a fragmented polity. (150 words) (10)
● Why did the ‘Moderates’ failed to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed ideology and
political goals by the end of the nineteenth century? (150 words) (10)
● Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural economy.
(250 words) (15)
● Highlight the importance of the new objectives that got added to the vision of Indian Independence
since the twenties of the last century. (250 words) (15)
● The women’s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th century social reform movement.
What are the major issues and debates concerning women in that period? (250 words) (15)
 
2016
 ● Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British
policies towards colonial India. (12.5)
● Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian phase. (12.5)
● Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the
struggle for freedom. (12.5)
GENERAL STUDIES II
● Did the Government of India Act, 1935 lay down a federal constitution? Discuss. (12.5)
GENERAL STUDIES IV
● Discuss Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of seven sins (150 words) (10)
 
2015
● How different would have been the achievement of Indian independence without Mahatma Gandhi?
Discuss. (12.5)
● Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had a
common goal of amelioration of the downtrodden. Elucidate. (12.5)
● It would have been difficult for the Constituent Assembly to complete its historic task of drafting the
Constitution for Independent India in just three years but for the experience gained with the
Government of India Act, 1935. Discuss. (12.5)
 
2014
● Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mid-18th century
till independence. (200 words) (10)
● In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the last nail in the coffin of British colonial aspirations
in India? (200 words) (10)
 
2013
● Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch-bearer during
the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss. (200 words) (10)
● Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their
role in the Indian Struggle for freedom. (200 words) (10)
● “In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of Modern India.” Elaborate. (200 words) (10)
● Discuss the contributions of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to pre- and post-independent India. (200
words) (10)
 
EVENTS OF 18th CEN
● Lucknow - set-up by Asaf-ud-Daula in 1775 (son of Shuja-ud-Daula (battle of Buxar))
● Decline of Mughal Empire- In 1707- Aurangzeb died → ME collapsed within 40 yrs
i. Vast empire- hard to maintain
o Mughal empire - largest physical limits.
o conquest of Bijapur + Golconda in late 1680s → ME spread to southern edge of Deccan
Peninsula
o Territorial expansion put treasury u/ strain
o Conquests brought new areas u/ Mughal control
● But, Aurangzeb did not distribute them as jagirs.
● retained them as khalisa (royal lands) - to fund further wars
● Thus, jagiri was not main problem in Deccan
 o Revenue collection in Deccan was problematic.
ii. Agrarian Crisis- Peasant's rebellion- LINKED w ‘jagirdari crisis’
o different modes of --- assessing + fixing land revenue & its collection
o crisis caused by endemic state oppression → generated resistance f exploited peasants.- due to
(below)
o High Revenue Demand
● to allow mansabdars to maintain military - out of the revenues of their jagirs (Mansabdari
System)
● that left peasant w ‘just the barest minimum needed for subsistence’
● Thus, common people - subjected to utter poverty.
o Jagirdar's tenure lasted 3-4 yrs + Jagir could be transferred any moment-- RESULT:
● Showed no interest in long-term agri development.
● Tried to accumulate as much wealth as he could.
● constant + unpredictable transfer of jagirs in late 17th C → didn’t help peasants at all → it
became worse in 18th C
● Often, peasants would sell women/ children / cattle → Pay revenue
● And often, peasants fled → affecting cultivation.
● last resort for peasants → rebellion
o From isolated acts of peasant resistance to uprising
● When helped by richer peasants (had men +weapons)
● Of greater significance → intervention of zamindars (had own reasons for opposing ME)
▪ Zamindars never liked that Mughal Collected almost entire revenue surplus f
villages → leaving only a marginal share
● Often zamindars gave refuge to peasants → Benefit to zamindars
▪ Helped in cultivation

▪ recruits for their armed bands.

o Thus, two aggravating elements of ‘agrarian crisis’ in 18th C:
● coming together of peasant + zamindar
● severing ties bw zamindar & jagirdar
o Although peasant + zamindar → not uniform / widespread
● But, 2 major revolts a ME, i.e. by Marathas & Jats → was led by zamindars /men who
aspired to be so .
● peasant distress → root cause of rebellions a. ME
o This 'Agrarian crisis' Led to ‘societal crisis’ → ME decline → in which economic failures coincided
w & sometimes preceded political decline.
iii. Aurangzeb’s religious bigotry
o Discriminatory religious policy - generated a ‘Hindu reaction’ among Rathor, Bundela, Maratha &
Sikh groups
o Not corrected by his weak successors.
iv. Competition bw diff groups of nobles aristocrats, military & revenue officers
o Each had authority - distributed hierarchically. (Irani, Turani & Hindustani factions.)
o Emperor - at apex of this, w diff members owing diff degrees of personal loyalty to him.
o Effective functioning of the system depended on - conflicts management + maintaining balance by
emperor.
 v. Mansabdari System
o a centralized admin apparatus - dev by Akbar in 16th C
o linked bureaucracy & military aristocracy.
o Power - distributed + delegated among elite --- in a manner that
● strengthened military basis of ‘war state’
● retained the supremacy of emperor.
o MS conferred on each mansabdar, military officer, a dual rank of jat and sawar, (jat - personal
rank; sawar - no. of horsemen, mansabdar was required to maintain).
o Payment for service + maintaining soldiers & horses → assignment of revenue collection right
from a jagir (landed estate).
o 2 kinds of Jagirs
● Tankha (transferable) - most Jagirs.
● Vatan (non-transferable)- represented a compromise w powerful local princes &
landlords---who offer allegiance only on condition of vatan jagirs.
o Some princes & LL - incorporated as Mughal officers (given vatan jagirs-- in regions u/ direct
control)
o Powerful princes on fringes of ME-- retained autonomy over internal affairs & payed only an
annual tribute.
o PRO- MS consolidated emperor’s position as Shah-en-Shah—as ranks / jagirs -conferred
/transferred /dismissed at his will;
o CON-
● produced intense competition among various ethnic groups of Mughal nobility.
● pushed ME towards constant expansion of territories → as only way of ↑ resources &

➡️ Naqdi.
assigning new jagirs.

➡️ Jagirdars.
o NOTE - Mansabdars paid in cash
● Mansabdars paid through land (Jagirs)
● (only right to collect revenue was assigned & NOT THE LAND)
o ‘jagirdari crisis’ of late 17th & early- 18th C
● inability of imperial officials to ensure efficient revenue collection → fiscal crisis.
● heightened by other factors
▪ intense rivalry among mansabdars - Their no. ↑ in Aurangzeb’s reign

▪ decline /stagnation of jagirs

▪ Wars - affected revenue collection in disturbed areas

o system of transfer of jagirs put aristocracy u/ strain--compounded by rise in luxury goods prices
(due to ↑ export to Europe).
o added complication :- by intricate power-plays bw jagirdars, zamindars & khudkasht (resident)
cultivators.
o All this Result in -- by Aurangzeb’s reign end, MS become non-functional.
vi. Cost of Wars in Deccan- Bijapur & Golconda
o Aurangzeb’s wars in Deccan - expensive → stretched treasury to limits.
o Acquisition of new territories → new competition in tussle for prestige/ authority.
● e.g.- incorporation of Deccani group in aristocracy - ↑ conflicts among rival Irani, Turani &
Hindustani factions.
● officials in Deccan complained - revenue f their jagirs - insufficient for their expenses.
o RESULT- mansabdars, affected by ↑ demand, But ↓ revenue,
 ● Reduced soldiers + horses
● tried to extract as much revenue as possible f LL & peasants.
● → weakened military might of ME + caused disaffection among LLs + peasants.
vii. Open Revolt of Jat chieftains + zamindars in Agra & Mathura (bw 1689 -1719 )
o They plunder ‘bullock trains of treasure /trade passing into Gangetic basin f Deccan’
o Aurangzeb’s army, sent to subdue Jats- lost
o subsequent attempts - prompted some Rajput houses to support Jats.
o Aurangzeb died at this juncture - occasioned a struggle for power among his 3 sons.
● Muazzam, ascended w title -Bahadur Shah- was 63 - die after 5 yrs.-- little he could do.
viii. Jat revolt incited Sikhs in Punjab ; Marathas in Deccan→ others LLs/ chiefs
o Sikhs- followers of Guru Nanak (founded Sikh community in 1520s)
● U/guidance of gurus- by 17th C- come to be perceived as a threat to ME @ Lahore.
● tensions resulted in - execution of 5th guru Arjan (in 1606) in Lahore
● @ 18th C u/ leadership of Banda Bahadur, who gained political power after the
assassination of last guru, Govind Singh.
o Marathas
● Late 17th C, Marathas u/ Shivaji - successfully demonstrated vulnerability of Mughal army.
o Marathas + Sikhs resistance encouraged - zamindars (local roots, power) - to disavow authority of
ME
o Mughal officers, i.e. diwans & subedars (governors) followed suit.
 
NOTE: rivalry within MARATHA
● Maratha - divided by caste & class status - Rife competition
● owed diff degrees of allegiance to Mughals.
● Some even offered help to Aurangzeb against Shivaji’s son Shambhuji.
● But, aided Mughal emperor during Afghan invasions in middle 18th C.
 
● Weak Central Power- rise of regional powers
o weakness of later Mughals + nobles
● Not capable of commanding loyalty + allegiance + handling conflicts
● incessant wars of succession --- hastened ME decline
● In 18th C - no lack of able generals + politicians in Mughal court.
▪ But they used their ability to further personal gains

▪ This reveals- faulty structure of Mughal admin system.

o There was clear distinction bw agrarian & commercial sectors
● urban + commercial growth → depended on ME policies → imply commerce could have
prospered despite stagnant agriculture
o Another view : - although, political disarray + armed conflict affected economy in many parts →
it didn't imply ‘a general decline in India as a whole.
● Agra u/ Jat & Maratha occupation → was a flourishing city until 1787
● Similarly, decline in Bengal’s economy → was largely post-Plassey + even post-1813
o Regional growth (not center's ↓) → as Reason for decline of ME
● 18th C → period of slow population growth & prices ↑, urbanization, commercialization &
growth of new markets & new economic + political forces.
 ● Punjab & Awadh in 18th C → showed economic growth → revenue ↑ + emergence &
affluence of many towns w links to distant trades
o BUT, inability of weak center → to control these new flourishing regions of surplus production
(+ ↓↓ support of estd LLs, trader & guilds to ME) → led to gradual substitution by ‘successor
states’.
o Regional prosperity → benefitted zamindars (in conflict w center) & merchants (who dominated
markets)
● → Gave birth to strong sense of regional identity,
● But, brought diff regional elements in competition /conflict → allowed Mughal nobles to
exert their hegemony → by playing off one element a. other.
o By mid- 18th C → a shift in relationship w centre
● zamindars, merchants & madad-i-ma’ash (rent free) holders (who tried making lands
hereditary) → were joined by imperial governors in asserting autonomy.
● In 1720s, revenue officers & governors of Bengal & Awadh - became independent rulers
→ FLIGHT OF LOYALTY f Mughal Court
● appointed officials + nominated successors
● Trend set by Nizam ul Mulk Asaf Jah -Hyderabad - in 1724
▪ To make good look the loss -- Emperor recognised Nizam as Viceroy of
southern part of ME
▪ But for all practical purposes-- Nizam + nawabs of Bengal & Awadh - became
independent.
● This followed by → autonomous local princes - stopped paying tribute to emperor.
● Such local rulers - received support f Hindu + Jain moneylenders & merchants -
enabled them to consolidate authority.
● Thus, commercial growth, which had ‘succoured the power of Delhi ultimately eroded
it’.
● Office of Governor in Awadh, Bengal & Hyderabad → became hereditary
● Mughal amildars → took advantage of struggle bw centre vs provinces → by
consolidating their position
● Provinces now made claims on centre, rather than centre controlling them.
● ME's centralized political power never really controlled economic forces completely.
● This questions linear relationship bw economic growth & political consolidation → by
showing → regional economic expansion continued despite central political edifice
crumbled
● Early 18th century 'political turmoil’ → although, regional states formed rapidly → but not
accompanied w general social & economic dislocation
● only post-1750s → warfare affected social life.
● That strong political power did not translate into complete control of economic forces is
pointed
out, in a different way, by Karen Leonard ([1979] 1998). Her article highlights the
significance of indigenous bankers and merchants, particularly the ones who pertained to
‘great firms’ in the sustenance, and later, the disruption of the Mughal empire. The Mughal
state relied heavily on indigenous banking firms, which maintained an intricate network of
revenue collection, banking and credit by validating and minting money, maintaining
exchange ratios between different regional currencies and receiving and remitting land
revenues through hundis (indigenous bills of exchange) that made the transfer of land
revenue easier and safer. Indigenous bankers also financed tax farmers and served as
lenders of cash and credit (ibid.: 403). The shift in their loyalty from the imperial
government to rising regional powers between 1650 and 1750 caused severe erosion of
 Mughal power and eventually caused its downfall. Revenue supply from the regions to the
centre declined continually over the eighteenth century as the great banking firms got
involved in collection at local levels and diverted their resources of credit and trade from
the Mughal government to regional powers. The importance of such banking firms is
reflected in the fact that the East India Company entered into the power politics of the
regions by way of partnership with them, but dislodged them as soon as it achieved political
dominance.
 
● Foreign invasions
o Persian invasion u/ Nadir Shah in 1738–39- looted Delhi, Kohinoor diamond → severe blow to
Mughal prestige.
o 1st Afghan raid - 1748
o Afghans u/ Ahmad Shah Abdali - returned in 1755–56
● conquered Punjab & ransacked Delhi.
● Mughals + Marathas vs Afghans → Battle of Panipat in 1761, - Mughal lost.
i.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
● India under East India Company
i. English East India Company was established on 31 December 1600 as per Royal Charter issued by
Elizabeth I. Captain Hawkins was sent to Jahangir in 1608 to establish a factory at Surat. He agreed
eventually in 1613. Thomas Roe got more trading rights. 1639, Francis Day established city of Madras by
constructing Fort St George. 1668 - Bombay was obtained on lease from Charles II for 10 pounds per
year rent. In 1690 villages Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kalikatta were purchased and Fort William
established by Job Charnock. These were three presidencies of Bombay, Madras & Calcutta.
Warren Hastings was 1st Governor General of Fort William.
ii. Warren Hastings - introduced the following reforms
o Abolition of dual system - which was introduced by Robert Clive. Company decided to act as
diwan. Halved Nawab's allowance and stopped annual payment to Mughal emperor.
o Revenue reforms - Board of Revenue established, Accountant General appointed, Calcutta
becomes capital of Bengal (and thus British India). Land auction for 5 years and safeguards taken
to protect interests of peasants. System was a failure.
o Judicial system - Nawabs and judges were highly corrupt and prejudiced. Each district gets its
civil court under Collector and criminal court under Indian judge. Appellate courts for both civil
and criminal cases established. Sadar Diwani Adalat (civil) and Sadar Nizamat Adalat (criminal)
were highest court of appeal. Code of Gentoo was translated from Persian into English by N. B.
Halhed.
o Trade regulations - abolished system of dastaks (free passes) and regulated internal trade.
Uniform tariff of 2.5% on Indian and non-Indian goods.
ii. Regulating Act of 1773 - opened new chapter in constitutional history of EIC. Home Govt consisted of
Court of Directors and Court of Proprietors. Govt of presidency was conducted by a Governor and a
Council, responsible to Home Govt. Why the Act was passed?
 EEIC became territorial power when it acquired wide dominion and diwani rights. Its early
administration was corrupt and notorious. Company was in financial trouble but its officials were
affluent. The famine in 1770 affected agriculturists and revenue collection was poor, and they were on
the brink of bankruptcy. Company approached govt for a loan and Parliament resolved to regulate
affairs of Company. Provisions of the Act
● Court of Directors' term increased to 4 years (from 1), with 1/4 retiring every year, no re-election
● Tenure of Governor General of Fort William to be of 5 years
● Council of 4 members to assist the Governor-General, govt conducted as per majority
● Governor-General in council made supreme over other Presidencies in matters of war and peace.
● 1774, Supreme Court of Calcutta established consisting of 4 judges. Independent of
Governor-General in Council.
● Act prevented Company officials from receiving any cash or gift in kind.
Merits - brought affairs of Company under Parliament control, put end to arbitrary rule of Company and
provided framework for all future enactments. Demerits - made Governor-General in Council powerless
and deadlock in decision making.
● Expansion under Warren Hastings -
i. Rohilla War 1774 - small kingdom bw Oudh and Marathas, who had taken Oudh protection
against Marathas. But when they didn't pay, Nawab invaded with the help of British.
ii. 1st Anglo-Maratha War 1775-82 - Marathas were disunited since 3rd Battle of Panipat 1761.
Dispute for the post of Peshwa between Madhav Rao and his uncle Ragunatha Rao was best
utilized by British. Raghunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to British under Treaty
of Surat 1775 to get restored to Poona.  British Calcutta Council under Warren Hastings annulled
this treaty and a new treaty, the Treaty of Purandhar was signed in 1776 between the Calcutta
Council and Nana Phadnavis, a Maratha minister. Raghunathrao was given a pension only and
Madhav Rao II was accepted as Peshwa. But the British establishment at Bombay violated this
treaty and sheltered Raghunathrao. In 1777, Nana Phadnavis went against his treaty with the
Calcutta Council and granted a port on the west coast to the French. In 1782, the Treaty of Salbai
was signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia, resulting in Maratha victory.
o The Treaty of Salbai established the British influence in Indian politics. Treaty also enabled
the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their
territories from Haider Ali. Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves from the
combined opposition of Indian powers and on the other, succeeded in dividing the Indian
powers.
ii. Second Anglo-Mysore War 1780-82 - First was in 1767-69 in which Haider Ali defeated British.
Why second one happened?
o British didn't fulfil terms of defensive treaty they signed when Haider was attacked by
Marathas
o Outbreak of hostilities bw French and British due to American War of Independence.
o British captured Mahe, which was a French settlement within Haider's territories.
o Haider was working on a grand alliance bw Hyderabad, Marathas and Mysore against British
War began when British tried capturing Guntur. Haider Ali defeated British in 1780 but Hastings
divided the confederacy, isolating Haider Ali. He was defeated in 1781, and died in 1782 of cancer.
War came to an end with Treaty of Mangalore 1784 which restored the status quo ante bellum.
● Pitt's India Act 1784 - as Regulating Act failed in its objective, Pitt's India Act was passed in 1784. Main
provisions
i. Board of Control of 6 members, appointed by crown
ii. Court of Directors retained without any alteration in its composition.
iii. Reduced number of members of Governor General's Council from 4 to 3.
● Pitt's India Act was rude shock to Warren Hastings. His image was tarnished due to PM's view of policy
of Govt of Bengal and hence left India in 1785. He was impeached in the Parliament for judicial murder
 of Nanda Kumar and other 21 charges. He was acquitted after a long trial in 1795. Under Hastings's
term as governor-general, a great deal of administrative precedent was set which profoundly shaped
later attitudes towards the government of British India. Hastings had a great respect for the ancient
scripture of Hinduism and set the British position on governance as one of looking back to the earliest
precedents possible. This in turn allowed Hindu caste system to accentuate which will till now more
flexibly applied. He retains the strange distinction of being both the architect of British India and the
one ruler of British India to whom the creation of such an entity was anathema.
● Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)
i. Was offered Governor-Generalship in India after return from American War, he was a
warrior-statesman. Cornwallis was prompted by a strong sense of public duty and enjoyed the respect
as well as the confidence of his fellow countrymen. New tradition of choosing a person from an
aristocratic family for the post of Governor-General was initiated with Cornwallis.
ii. Third Mysore War - The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore, exposed
English weaknesses and increased Tipu’s strength. Like his father he wanted to eliminate the English
from India. Causes:
o Tipu was gaining strength on back of internal reforms, causing Nizam, Marathas and British to
worry.
o Tipu sent envoys to French and Turkey to seek their help
o Expanded territories at the cost of Travancore, ally of British.
o In 1789, British concluded tripartite alliance with Nizam and Marathas against Tipu.
Conclusion - ended in Tipu's defeat with him giving up half his dominion, war indemnity of 3 crores and
2 sons as hostage. Treaty of Srirangapattinam signifies a shift in fortunes for British in South India where
they secured large territory on Malabar Coast. Cornwallis could defeat Tipu with significant help from
Marathas.
● Reforms of Cornwallis -
i. Administrative - purification of civil service by employment of honest civil servants. Abolished the
vicious system of paying small salaries and allowing enormous perquisites. Appointment on basis
of merit, laying foundation of Indian Civil Service. Separation of the three branches of service,
commercial, judicial and revenue.
ii. Judicial - with help of William Jones. Top courts were Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat
Adalat, presided over Governor-General in Council. 4 provincial court at Calcutta, Dhaka,
Murshidabad and Patna, each under 3 European judges. District courts under a European judge,
who was not the Collector. Indian judges (munsiffs) appointed to bottom courts. All officials
answerable to courts. In civil cases, Hindu and Muslim laws were followed according to the
religion of the litigants.
iii. Police - District judge controlled the police, each district divided into police circles headed by
daroga.
iv. Permanent Settlement (Zamindari) -  previous experiment of Izaredar system was based on
annual assessment of revenue. To streamline the revenues of the company, Cornwallis changed
the settlement schedule from annual to decennial (10 years). In the permanent settlement, the
company recognized them as owners of soil. They were given permanent hereditary rights to
collect revenue. Zamindars were allowed to keep force and maintain order in their districts. They
were expected to improve the conditions of the tenants but the company would not interfere in
their internal dealings with the tenants so long they paid the fixed land revenue.
● He discharged his duties fearlessly, and his life was an embodiment of ‘duty and sacrifice’. He perceived
the danger of Tipu’s growing power and curtailed it by boldly discarding the policy of nonintervention.
As an administrator, he consolidated the Company’s position in India and started the tradition of
efficient and pure administration. John Shore was his successor, uneventful as he adopted a policy of
non-intervention.
● Wellesley (1798-1805)
i. He was a great imperialist and called himself ‘a Bengal tiger’. Wellesley came to India with a
determination to launch a forward policy in order to make ‘the British Empire in India’ into ‘the British
 Empire of India’. The system that he adopted to achieve his object is known as the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’.
Marathas were a formidable power, Nizam was getting his army trained by French and Tipu was the
disavowed enemy. Given his predecessor's policy affected British prestige and fear of Napoleon in larger
context, led him to his two aims - preservation of British prestige and removal of French danger from
India were Wellesley’s twin aims.
ii. Subsidiary alliance - building on previous alliances:
o Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had to maintain a contingent
of British troops in his territory. It was commanded by a British officer. The Indian state was called
‘the protected state’ and the British hereinafter were referred to as ‘the paramount power’.
o Protected state to cut off its connection with European powers other than the English and with
the French in particular.
o Ruler of the protected state to keep a British Resident at court and disband own army, no
employment to any non-British European without approval, enter into agreements and engage in
warfare with British permission. Led to unemployment of thousands of soldiers.
This system is regarded as masterstroke of British imperialism. Increased military strength of Company
at expense of protected states. Rulers of protected states neglected administrative responsibilities
leading easy going lives; misgovernment followed. Heavy payments for getting protection took toll on
economy.
● Enforcement of subsidiary system
i. Hyderabad - first state to get under the subsidiary system in 1798.
ii. Oudh - threat of invasion by Zaman Shah was pretext for Wellesley to force Nawab to enter
subsidiary treaty. British could frame rules and regulations in name of maintaining law and order.
iii. Tanjore, Surat and Karnatak - in all these places British took over administration by paying pension
to the rulers and letting them retain their titles.
● Fourth Mysore War 1799 -
i. Tipu wanted to avenge his defeat and terms imposed upon him by British. He took efforts to seek
the help of the France, Arabia, Kabul and Turkey. He corresponded with Napoleon, who had
arrived in Egypt promising to liberate British India. At Srirangapattinam, a Jacobian Club was
started and the flag of the French Republic was hoisted. The tree of Liberty was also planted.
ii. Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary alliance and asked Tipu to
dismiss the French, to receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the Company and its
allies. Tipu paid no attention to Wellesley and thus the war started. Tipu fought till his capital
Srirangapattinam was captured and was shot dead. The Wodeyar dynasty was restored on the
throne of the Mysore and Mysore came indirectly under the British.
● Marathas - Nana Fadnavis provided the leadership to the Marathas. He was responsible for the
preservation of independence of his country from the onslaught of the British. By helping Cornwallis
against Tipu he was able to acquire a large slice of territory from Mysore. His death in 1800 removed
the last great Maratha leader. After that in-fighting among leaders proved self-destructive. Scindia and
Peshwa battled against Holkar in some internal dispute which Holkar won. Peshwa Baji Rao II fled and
signed Treaty of Bassein 1802 with British. Marathas considered the treaty as a document of
surrendering their independence.
● Second Maratha War 1803-05 -
i. Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghoji Bhonsle took the Treaty of Bassein as an insult to the national
honor of the Marathas. Soon the forces of both the chieftains were united, but Wellesley
defeated their combined forces. Treaty of Deogaon and Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon were signed by
Marathas.
● Wellesley was an unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of forward policy, he was one of the
greatest empire-builders that England had ever produced. Located the weak spot of Indian rulers and
applied his subsidiary alliance. He turned East India Company from a trading corporation into an
imperial power.
 George Barlow (1805-1807) - Vellore Mutiny of 1806 (because of dress code change and apparent
forced conversion to Christianity).
Lord Minto (1807-13) - Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh of Punjab in 1809.
● Lord Hastings (1813-1823)
i. Followed path set up by Wellesley - forward policy and extensive wars. When he assumed power,
anarchy in central India - Pindaris plundering whole region and Marathas plagued with infighting
couldn't control them. He went to war against Marathas and Gurkhas to eliminate threats to British
power.
ii. Anglo Gorkha War (1814-16) - Nepal emerged as powerful Gorkha state in 1768. British bought districts
of Gorakhpur and Basti from Nawab of Oudh and had border skirmishes with Gorkhas that culminated
in war. War ended with Treaty of Sagauli and Gorkhas gave up their claims of Terai, Kumaon and
Garhwal and Sikkim.
iii. Pindaris - origin is unknown. Irregular Muslim horsemen (defeated Mughal soldiers) captured by
Marathas that plundered and foraged with the Maratha armies in central India. Served without
payment but allowed to plunder. They never helped the British. Lord Hastings resolved to suppress the
Pindaris, successfully by 1818.
iv. Downfall of Marathas - The relationships of powerful Maratha chiefs like the Bhonsle, Gaekwar, Scindia,
Holkar and the Peshwa were ridden with mutual jealousies. Treaty of Poona 1817 - Baji Rao II forced to
give up his dream of becoming the supreme head of Marathas.
Third Maratha War - But soon the Peshwa undid this treaty with the British and on 5 November 1817
attacked the British Residency. He was defeated at a place called Kirkee. Similarly, the Bhonsle chief,
Appa Sahib also refused to abide by the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had signed with the British on 17
May 1816. According to this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the Company. He fought with the
British in the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817, but was defeated. The Peshwa now turned to Holkar
for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21 December 1817 at Baroda. Therefore, by
December 1817 the dream of a Mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
v. Causes of defeat of Marathas
o Lack of capable leadership
o Military weakness of Marathas
o Mutual bitterness and lack of cooperation amongst themselves
o No positive impact on conquered territories by way of governance
o Not cordial relationship with other princes or Nawabs - fighting on all fronts
o Failed to estimate the political and diplomatic strength of British
ii. Reforms of Hastings - approved Ryotwari system (introduced by Thomas Munro in Madras). Hastings
encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by missionaries and others. He encouraged the
freedom of press and abolished the censorship introduced in 1799. The Bengali Weekly, Samachar
Darpan was started in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore missionary.
● Lord William Bentinck (1828-35) - initiated era of progress and reforms. William Bentinck adopted a policy of
non-intervention and non-aggression with Indian states. If at all he interfered in the affairs of the Indian
states, it was only to end any form of misgovernment and never to annex any territory.
i. Mysore - was taken over as Krishnaraja III proved incompetent and peasants revolted.
ii. Cachar and Jaintia - came under British custody at the end of first Anglo-Burmese War as per
Treaty of Yandaboo 1826.
iii. Coorg - Vira Raja was the ruthless ruler at that point, and was deposed quickly and state annexed
by British in 1834.
iv. Relations with Ranjit Singh - successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus
Navigation Treaty was concluded between them, opening Satluj for navigation. Objective to
make Afghanistan as buffer state bw British India and Russian invaders.
i. Charter Act of 1833 - Regulating Act 1773 made it compulsory to renew Company Charter every 20
years. Significance -
o Liberal and utilitarian philosophy of Bentham was made popular with this
 o EIC ceased to be a commercial agency but political agent of Crown
o Governor General of Fort William was now Governor General of India (and Lord Bentinck was the
first one)
o Law member appointed to Governor-General in Council, Macaulay was 1st one
o Act allowed native Indians to hold employment and office, thus Indianization of public service
ii. Reforms of Bentinck - ushered in new era in annals of India
o Financial - were weak when he came in, reduced salaries and allowances. Abolished system of
double batta (allowance to troops on active service).
o Administrative - abolished provincial courts of appeal established by Cornwallis. Introduction of
local languages in lower courts and English in higher courts instead of Persian. Revenue
settlements of North West Province under RM Bird, period of 30 years made with tillers or
landowners.
o Social reforms - Abolition of sati in 1829 in Bengal and 1830 rest of presidencies. Suppression of
thugs, who were hereditary robbers, by William Sleeman, aka Thuggee Sleeman. Declared female
infanticide as punishable crime.
o English education - introduction of English education. Macaulay emphasized the promotion of
European literature and science through English medium to the people of India. This
recommendation was wholeheartedly accepted by Bentinck. The Government Resolution in 1835
made English the official and literary language of India.
● Lord Dalhousie
i. Youngest Governor General of India. Used different policy of annexation but saw himself ending
misrule. At the same time he had in his mind the advantages of annexation to the British such as
imperial defense, commercial and financial benefits. His great annexations include Punjab, Lower
Burma, most of the Central Provinces and Awadh.
ii. Annexed Punjab after 2nd Anglo Sikh War in 1849, and moved to rule it efficiently. Revenue and
judicial departments combined, law and procedure simplified as per custom of people.
iii. Doctrine of Lapse - took every opportunity to take over kingdoms by peaceful means. Dalhousie
maintained that there was a difference in principle between the right to inherit private property and
the right to govern. This principle was called the Doctrine of Lapse. Kingdoms taken - Satara, Jhansi,
Nagpur. Withdrawn after 1857.
iv. Awadh - Mismanagement by ruling Nawabs eventually led to British annexation even though they were
already a British protectorate. This offended Muslim elite (who lost prestige) and many sepoys who
came from Awadh.
v. Administration - His greatest achievement was the molding of the new provinces into a modern
centralized state. For the newly acquired territories, he introduced the centralized control called
“Non-Regulation System”, which appointed a Commissioner.
vi. Railways - British introduced Railways in India for three purposes - administration, commercial interests
and defense. Guaranteed 5% return to them and govt buying of railway at the end of contract period.
vii. Telegraph & Post - About 4000 miles long telegraph lines were laid before the departure of Dalhousie.
During the 1857 Revolt, the system of telegraphic communication proved a boon for the English and the
military value of Dalhousie’s creation was much realized at that time. Foundation of modern postal
system was laid down, Post Office Act was passed in 1854.
viii. Education - Educational Dspatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the “Intellectual Charter of
India”. Provided an outline for the comprehensive scheme of education at primary, secondary and
collegiate levels. Dalhousie fully accepted the views of Charles Wood and took steps to carry out the
new scheme. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were founded in 1857.
ix. He created a separate Public Works Department and allotted more funds for cutting canals and roads.
The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in 1854. Many bridges were constructed.
x. Estimate - He introduced the process of modernization of India. Hence, he is hailed as “the maker of
modern India”. However, his policy of annexation came to be one of the direct causes of the mutiny.
● British Administration and economic policy of British -
 i. During Kingship, land was divided into Jagirs, Jagirs were allotted to Jagirdars, who split the land they
got and allocated to sub-ordinate Zamindars. They made peasants cultivate the land, in-return collected
part of their revenue as tax.
ii. British Agrarian Policy - India primarily agricultural country. Till 18th century, strong relation bw
agriculture and cottage industries. British destroyed handicraft industry while unleashing changes in
agrarian structures by introducing new systems of land tenures and policies of revenue administration.
India's economic dominance revolved around agriculture which British ruthlessly exploited.
iii. Permanent Settlement 1793 by Lord Cornwallis - introduced in Bengal, then in Bihar and Odisha.
Hastings introduced annual lease system of auctioning land to highest bidder. Shore and Grant were
consulted by Cornwallis in coming up with this. Features:
o Zamindars recognized owners of land, till they pay revenue to EIC regularly
o Amount of revenue firmly fixed and not raised. Govt got 89% (10/11 parts)
o Ryots became tenants
o Settlement took away administrative and judicial functions of zamindars
This system was bitterly criticized.
● No attempt was made to survey land and assess its value.
● Effects on both zamindar and ryots were disastrous. Many zamindars defaulted, some entrusted
collection to agents who took illegal taxes from ryots.
● Idea of building benevolent land-lord system failed. Company faced losses in long term because
land productivity was high. However, zamindars prospered at the cost of welfare of tenants.
● Ryotwari settlement 1820 - by Munro. Introduced in Madras, later Bombay & Assam.
i. Peasant was recognized as proprietor of land. No intermediary such as zamindar.
ii. Revenue paid in time = peasant not evicted. Peasant directly responsible. 50% dry lands, 60%
irrigated lands.
iii. Land revenue fixed from 20 to 40 years
However, collection officials indulged in harsh measures hence system not successful.
● Mahalwari settlement - introduced in Punjab in 1833 (Bentick) and subsequently in North/Central.
i. Basic unit of revenue settlement was village. Joint responsibility of paying revenue with entire
mahal.
ii. Entire land of village measured when fixing revenue.
iii. Eliminated middlemen, but benefit enjoyed by govt not peasants
● Handicrafts policy - trade monopoly ended by Charter Act 1833.
i. Textiles were most important among Indian industries. Muslin of Dhaka, carpets of Lahore, shawls
of Kashmir, embroidery of Benaras were famous. Important centers were - Krishnanagar,
Chanderi, Arni, Benaras.
ii. Shipping, leather and metal industries along with cutting and polishing of marbles and precious
stones.
British influence
● Indian market flooded with cheap imports from Britain - which had sought to develop India as a
colony market to balance its trade deficit. Import duty of 2.5% imposed cotton, while 15% on
Indian cotton.
● Goods from England can only be brought by English ships => Indian textiles couldn’t enter British
market.
● Domestic demand for luxury goods reduced as British paramountcy curtailed expenditure of
royals and nobles.
● Industrial revolution in Britain made their products cheaper and faster to produce and sought to
develop a mass market in India.
 
● Language and education policy
i. Study of ancient texts continued into British administration. Hastings established a madrasa in Calcutta
to encourage study of Muslim laws (1781). In 1791, efforts of Jonathan Duncan - Sanskrit College
established in Benaras. Till 1830s, development of education took place through traditional institutions.
From govt records - 1 school for 400 people in Bengal, similar for whole of India.
ii. EIC adopted a dual policy, discouraged indigenous education system and gave importance to western
and English education. Charter Act of 1813 gave Rs 1 lakh to spread of education. However was mired in
debate, hence not spent. British scholars were divided into Orientalists and Anglicists. William Bentick
emphasized the latter when he became G-G in 1829.
o In 1835, General Committee of Public Instruction divided into 2, chairman Lord Macaulay favored
English medium when committee was in dead heat.
o In 1854, Charles Wood developed a grand plan on education, known as Wood's Dispatch.
Established govt departments and pattern of grant in aids to encourage private participation,
schools for technical education, teachers and women education. Establishment of Bombay,
Calcutta and Madras University.
ii. Since British were afraid of meddling in local culture and institutions and fear of losing people's support
- adopted policy of extreme precaution and indifference towards social issues. However from mid-19th
century, various campaigns launched against social evils attracted attention of govt. Primarily two areas
in which laws were enacted - women emancipation and caste system
o Women - practice of Sati, purdah, child marriage, female infanticide, dowry and polygamy had
made their life quite miserable. From education and social standing point of view, women were
oppressed. Not entitled to inherit any property and completely dependent on men.
● Laws were enacted during 19th and 20th century, first was against Sati by Bentinck by
Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829.
● Female infanticide was in vogue in North/NW India. Killed by feeding opium, strangulating
or intentional neglect. Laws enacted in 1795, 1802, 1804 and 1870.
● Widow remarriage - prominent reformers were Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar. J.P. Grant tabled the bill that became Widow Remarriage Act 1856.
● Child marriage - 1870 Indian Reforms Association (started by Keshab Chandra Sen). B.M.
Malabari launched Mahapap Bal Vivah. In 1891, Age of Consent Act raised it to 12 years. In
1930, Sharda Act raised it to 14 years.
● Purdah system - purdah was not prevalent in South India and among peasant women.
Disappeared with large scale participation of women in national freedom movement
without any legislation.
o Caste related legislation - by 19th century, castes of India had split into innumerable sub-castes on
basis of birth.
● Gandhi made removal of untouchability a part of his constructive program, through paper
called The Harijan and organized Harijan Sevak Sangh
● B.R. Ambedkar dedicated entire life to welfare of downtrodden. In 1924, formed Bahiskrit
Hitkarni Sabhi, Akhil Bhartiya Dalit Varg Sabha against caste oppression.
● Satyashodhak Samaj, a social reform society founded by Jyotirao Phule in 1873. Its purpose
was to liberate the Shudra and Untouchable castes from exploitation and oppression.
Naryana Guru established Narayan Dharma Partipalana Yogam (1903) to inculcate
self-esteem among downtrodden. Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy worked to eradicate this evil
practice through Self-Respect Movement (started in 1925 by S. Ramanathan).
 
● Vellore Mutiny 1806 - first revolt by native sepoys.
i. Causes - immediate causes of the mutiny revolved mainly around resentment felt towards changes in
the sepoy dress code, introduced in November 1805.
o Hindus were prohibited from wearing religious marks on their foreheads and Muslims were
required to shave their beards and trim their moustaches.
 o Popular belief that this was beginning of their conversion to Christianity.
o Sepoys earlier served local chieftains but now served foreigners.
o Mutineers proclaims son of Tipu as new ruler.
ii. Aftermath - Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no proper leadership. The rebellion was also not well
organized. But it is the starting point of a new era of the resistance of the sepoys to the British rule. The
18th century was marked by the resistance of the local chieftains. The first six decades of 19th century
was marked by the resistance of sepoys.
 
● Great Revolt of 1857 - sowed seeds of Indian nationalism. Vir Savarkar hailed it 1st War of Indian
Independence.
i. Political causes - discontent and disaffection manifested in form of revolts. Anti-British feelings were
particularly strong in those regions which were unjustly annexed to British empire. Doctrine of Lapse, by
Lord Dalhousie, gave discontent and alarm among native places.
ii. Economic causes - huge drain of wealth, destruction of industry and increasing land revenue became
common feature of late 18th century. Textile industry, artisans and craftsmen were left unemployed due
to British trade policies without alternative growth of new industrial forms.
Plantation system caused incalculable misery for Indian peasants as Englishmen acquired and
plantations in India.
● Social causes - arrogant behavior of Englishmen, activities of Christian missionaries alarmed Hindus and
Muslims.
● Military causes - Indian sepoys resented their low salary and poor prospects of promotion,
dissatisfaction with abolition of batta (foreign allowance).
● Immediate cause - was the rumor that new cartridges whose end had to be bitten off before loaded into
rifle was composed of fat taken from cows and pigs. Sepoys believed govt was deliberately trying to
destroy religious and cultural identity.
● Timeline of revolt
i. March 1857 - Mangal Pandey refused to use the cartridges and attacked and killed his officer; was
hanged. Regiment disbanded and sepoys held guilty of rebeliion
ii. By May 1857, another regiment 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry was sentenced to imprisonment for
refusing to use greased cartridges. Sepoys broke out in open rebellion, attacked prison and
released their fellow sepoys and headed to Delhi. Proclaimed BSZ as Emperor of India.
iii. Delhi - real control by General Bhakt Khan, recaptured by Sep 1857
iv. Kanpur - led by Nana Sahab, supported by Tantia Tope and Azimullah. Kanpur captured by
Campbell.
v. Lucknow - Begum of Oudh led the resistance, Lawrence dies and Campbell suppresses the revolt.
vi. Jhansi - widowed queen of Gangadhar whose kingdom was taken by Doctrine, joined Tantia Tope
who defeated by Hugh Rose. Rani of Jhansi died in battle.
vii. Bihar - Kunwar Singh, disgruntled zamindar.
● Causes for failure
i. Failed to embrace whole of India. Sections such as moneylender, merchants, modern educated
Indians were against the revolt. Lack of intellectuals support was a serious setback
ii. Resources of British empire were far superior, rebels lacked a concerted plan and central
organization.
iii. Better equipment and new scientific inventions - telegraph system - enabled British to maneuver
troops according to their needs.
● Significance
i. Revolt though completely suppressed, exhibited popular character and brought disgruntled
sections to rise. Common people rose up in arms fighting with whatever they could muster.
ii. Hindu-Muslim unity in the revolt
 iii. Changes in character of Indian administration; Queen takes over and Viceroy appointed. Queen's
Proclamation is called Magana Carta of Indian people (place: Allahabad).
iv. Watershed moment - end of British paramountcy and beginning of growth of Indian nationalism
 
● British India after 1858
i. Lord Canning became first Viceroy of India in 1858 after Govt of India Act. Queen's Proclamation
remained basis of policy for more than 60 years.
ii. Lord Lytton (1876-80)
o Prevailing famine and political disturbances in NW causing great worry to British. Famine of 76-78
resulted from failure of monsoons and affected almost entire country and 60 million people. 5
million died in single year; cholera and fever added to misery. Lytton's govt failed to take quick
action. First Famine Commission under Richard Strachey made many commendable
recommendations, Famine Code was passed in 1883.
o Vernacular Press Act 1878 - empowered a magistrate to secure undertaking from publisher that
nothing against English Govt will be published - equipment will be seized. This Act crushed
freedom of Indian press.
Arms Act 1878 - prevented Indians to keep arms without appropriate license, made it criminal
offense. Europeans and Anglo-Indians were allowed.
o Lytton introduced uniform salt tax throughout British India. Abolished many import duties and
supported Free Trade Policy. Provincial govt empowered with some control of expenditure such
as land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice. Lytton wanted to strengthen financial power and
position of provinces. Introduced Statutory Civil Services for Indians in 1878, which was abolished
later.
o Second Afghan War (1878-80) - based on assumed threat of Russian invasion. 1st war was
disastrous for British. Lytton was told to follow a forward policy. British captured territory bw
Kabul and Kandahar. British concluded Treaty of Gandamak with Yakub Khan, British resident sent
but murdered. Lytton was forced to resign by new govt - situation in Afghan, millions dead due to
famines and Vernacular Press Act.
ii. Lord Ripon (1880-84)
o Staunch liberal democrat with faith in self govt, instructed to reverse Afghan policy of Lytton,
made peace with Afghans, Mysore was transitioned to Hindu ruler and repealed Vernacular
Press Act.
o Local self govt 1882 - Ripon believed in self-govt. Helped growth of local bodies such as Municipal
Committees and Local Boards. Entrusted with care of local amenities, sanitation, drainage, water
supply, primary education. Members of these boards were elected non-officials. Advocated
election of local bodies as against selection by govt. Diffused administration and brought govt
closer to people.
o Education - champion of education of Indians. Hunter Commission 1882 for expansion and
improvement of elementary education of masses. Commission recommended two channels for
secondary education - university through entrance exams and other was vocational career.
Encouraged local bodies to manage the elementary education.
o First Factory Act 1881 - to service condition of factory workers in India, banned child labor below
age 7. Reduced working hours for children. Dangerous machines to be properly fenced.
o Ilbert Bill Agitation 1984 - earlier, European could be tried only by European judge/magistrate. C.
P. Ilbert introduced a bill to remove the discrimination but was vehemently opposed by
Europeans through organization called Defense Association and were ultimately successful. But it
helped the cause of Indian nationalism. Ripon was disillusioned and tendered his resignation. Led
to birth of Indian National Congress in 1885 under Lord Dufferin.
o Most popular Viceroy ever sent to India, handled problems with compassion and sympathy.
iv. Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
o Thorough imperialist. Overhauled the entire administrative machinery.
 o Educational reforms - he felt universities were degenerating into factories for producing political
revolutionaries, set up Universities Commission 1902 and Indian Universities Act 1904 which
brought all universities under control of govt.
o Policy and military reforms - believed in efficiency and discipline. Police Commission in 1902
under Andrew Frazer. Set up training schools for officers and constables and introduced
provincial police service. Commander of Curzon, Lord Kitchener did remodeling of army.
Founded Imperial Cadet Corps.
o Calcutta Corporation Act 1899 - strength of elected members reduced and officials increased,
gave more representation to English people.
o Archaeological preservation - most active of all Viceroys in this field. Passed Ancient Monuments
Act 1904 which made it obligatory for govt and local authorities to preserve monuments of
archaeological importance.
o Partition of Bengal - into two provinces in July 1905. Partition divided Hindus and Muslims of
Bengal and led to anti-partition movement and intensified National Movement.
 
● Socio-religious reform movements
i. Brahmo Samaj 1828 - Raja Rammohan Roy established to purify Hinduism and preach monotheism.
o First modern man of India, pioneer of socio-religious reform movements in India
o 1815 established Atmiya Sabha which developed into Brahmo Samaj. Combined teaching of
various religions to develop unity among people.
o Roy helped Bentinck to declare Sati punishable offense in 1829. Protested against child marriage
and female infanticide.
o Favored widow remarriage, women's right to property, did not believe in supremacy of Brahman
priests.
o In 1817, founded Hindu College in Calcutta along with David Hare.
o Started first Bengali weekly - Samvad Kaumudi and edited Persian weekly - Mirat-ul-akhbar.
ii. Young Bengal Movement ~1828 - Henry Vivian Derozio.
o Followers known as Derozians, attacked old traditions and decadent customs.
o Advocated women's right and education. Against idol worship, casteism and superstitions.
ii. Prarthana Samaj 1867 - by Atmaram Pandurang. Off shoot of Brahmo Samaj.
o Reform movement within Hinduism, concentrating on social reforms such as inter-dining,
inter-marriage, widow remarriage, uplift of women and depressed classes.
o Justice M.G. Ranade who was a supporter promoted Deccan Education Society
ii. Arya Samaj 1875 - Swami Dayanand Saraswati
o Vedas source of true knowledge, motto was - back to vedas. Against idol worship, child marriage
and caste system based on birth. Encouraged inter-caste and widow remarriage.
o Started Suddhi movement to bring back Hindus who had converted
o Wrote Satyartha Prakash
o Arya Samaj became popular in Punjab, contributed to spread of education (Dayanand Anglo-Vedic
DAV educational group 1886 Lahore by supporters).
ii. Theosophical Society - in USA by Blavatsky and Olcott in 1875.
o Form universal brotherhood without distinction of race, color, creed
o To promote study of ancient religion and philosophies
o HQ in Adyar, Madras in 1882, took over by Annie Besant in 1893.
o Founded Central Hindu School with Madan Mohan Malviya in Benaras (became BHU)
ii. Ramakrishna Mission 1897 - Swami Viveknanda
o Originally Narendranath Dutta, became most famous disciple of Ramkrishna Paramhansa.
 o Preached vedantic philosophy and condemned caste system and rituals.
o Raised prestige of India and Hinduism in Parliament of Religions held in Chicago 1893
ii. Aligarh Movement - by Syed Ahmad Khan
o For social and educational advancement of Muslims in India, fought against medieval
backwardness.
o In 1866, started Mohammadan Education Conference for spreading liberal ideas among Muslims.
o In 1875, founded school at Aligarh to promote English education among Muslims, went on to
become AMU
ii. Deoband School - organized by orthodox Muslim ulemas
o Revivalist movement whose objectives were - propagate pure teachings of Koran and Hadis AND
keep alive spirit of Jihad against foreign rulers.
ii. Sikh Reform movement -
o Nirankari movement - Baba Dayal Das, worship of formless god
o Namdhari movement - Baba Ram Singh, followers wore white clothes and gave up meat
o Singh Sabhas - aimed at reforming Sikh society, encouraged Gurmukhi and Punjabi literature
o Akalis 1920 - to remove corrupt priests from gurudwaras
ii. Parsi reform movement
o Parsi Religious Reform Association - 1851 by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee. Advocated spread
of women's education and reform marriage customs
ii. Some key people
o Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar - great educator, humanist and reformer. Founded many
schools for girls. Protested against child marriage and favored widow remarriage (Widow
Remarriage Act 1856).
o Jyoti Phule - belonged to low caste family, life long struggle against Brahamanical supremacy.
Founded Satyasodhak Samaj in 1873. Established first girls' school at Poona
o Saint Ramalinga - foremost saint of TN in 19th century. Founded Samarasa Suddha Sanmargha
Sangha in 1865 - to promote ideals of establishing casteless society. Est Satya Gyana Sabai in
1872. Introduced idea of worshipping God in form of light.
o Sri Vaikunda Swamigal - teachings known as Ayyavazhi, later recognized as separate religion
o Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy - sought to secure untouchables' rights. Started Self Respect Movement
in 1925 to uplift Dravidians and expose Brahamanical tyranny, conducted Self Respect Marriage
(without rituals). Attacked laws of Manu. Was given title of Periyar and later Socrates of South
Asia by UNESCO.
 
● Indian National Movement (1885-1905)
i. Factors promoting growth of nationalism
o Political unity - most regions in India were politically united under a single power under a uniform
system of law and govt.
o Development of communication and transportation - railways, telegraph, postal services and
construction of roads facilitated communication among people.
o English language and western education - educated Indians led the national movement and
organized it, spread of concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and nationalism
o Role of press - both vernacular and English press aroused national conciousness
o Reform movements - leaders of various organizations such as Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj,
Ramkrishna Mission aimed to eradicate inequalities and unite people under Indian nationalism
o British exploitation - anti-British feeling created by economic policies pursued by them
 o Racial discrimination - revolt created permanent bitterness among British and Indians, and their
feeling of superiority grew
ii. Early political associations
o British Indian Association 1851 - formed by the amalgamation of the Landholders’ Society and the
Bengal British India Society. Submissions of petitions to the Government and to the British
Parliament on grievances, trust in the good intentions of the rulers. President of the first
committee of this organization was Raja Radhakanta Deb, while Debendranath Tagore was its
secretary.
o Bombay Association 1852 - founded by Naoroji Furdoonji , 1st political organization in Bombay
Presidency . It's purpose was to vent public grievances to the British.
o East India Association 1866 - founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London. One of the predecessor
organizations of the Indian National Congress. The idea was to present the correct information
about India to the British Public and voice Indian grievances.
o Madras Native Association 1852 - 1st organization in the Madras Presidency to vent for the rights
of Indians was the Madras Native Association which was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu
Chetty in 1849. Merged with -
Madras Mahajana Sabha 1884 - established by P. Anandacharlu and P. Rangaiya Naidu
o Poona Sarvajanik Sabha 1870 - was founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade. Mediating body
between the government and people of India and to popularize the peasants' legal rights
ii. Indian National Congress - founded by Octavian Hume in 1995. W.C. Banerjee was first president,
session held in Bombay where 72 delegates gathered. History INC can be in three phases
o Moderate (1885-1905) when Congress continued to be loyal to British Crown.
o Home Rule (1906-16) - Swadesi Movement, militant nationalism and Home Rule Movement
o Gandhian Era (1917-47)
ii. Moderates - leading figures were A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji,
Feroze Shah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Madan Mohan Malviya, Badruddin Tyabjii, M.G. Ranade, G.
Subramaniam Aiyar.
o Surendranath Banerjee was called Indian Burke. Firmly opposed partition of Bengal, founded
Indian Association 1876 to agitate for political reforms. Convened Indian National Conference in
1883 which merged with INC in 1886.
o G Subramaniam Aiyar - preached nationalism through Madras Mahajan Sabha. Also founded The
Hindu and Swadeshmitran
o Dadabhai Naoroji - Grand Old Man of India, regarded as India's unofficial ambassador in England.
1st Indian to become member of British House of Commons.
o Gopal Krishna Gokhale - political guru of Gandhi. Founded Servants of India Society 1905 to train
Indians to dedicate lives to cause of country
Moderates adopted peaceful and constitutional means to achieve their demands
● Main demands -
i. Expansion and reform of legislative councils
ii. Greater opportunities of Indians in higher posts by holding ICS exam in England and India at the
same time
iii. Separation of judiciary from executive
iv. More power for local bodies
v. Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants
vi. Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty
vii. Reduction of spending on army
viii. Freedom of speech and to form associations
 ● Methods of moderates - faith in British sense of justice and fair play. Used petitions, resolutions,
meetings, leaflets and pamphlets to present their demands. Confined activities to educated class only,
aim to attain political rights and self-govt stage by stage.
i. British govt welcomed INC in beginning. But with increase in their demands, govt became
unfriendly. Only demand granted was expansion of legislative councils by Indian Councils Act
1892.
● Achievements of moderates
i. Able to create wide national awakening among people
ii. Popularized idea of democracy, civil liberties and representative institutions
iii. Brought awakening to level of exploitation - Naoroji in Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India gave
Drain Theory. British Govt forced to appoint Welby Commission 1895 to look into the expenditure.
iv. Favored social reforms and protested against child marriage and for widow remarriage.
 
● Indian National Movement (1905-16) - era of extremism, believed independence can be achieved through
bold means. Important leaders were - Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo
Ghosh.
i. Causes for rise of extremism -
o Failure of moderates to win any notable success, except expansion of legislative councils by Indian
Councils Act 1892
o Famine and plague of 1896-97 affected whole country and suffering of masses
o Ill-treatment of Indians on basis of color of skin
o Russia-Japanese war 1904-05 in which Japan won, encouraged Indians to fight British
o Immediate cause was reaction to Lord Curzon's rule
● Passed Calcutta Corporation Act 1899 reducing Indian control of local body
● Universities Act 1904 reduced autonomy of universities
● Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act (1904)- to curtail Indian press. No work procedure
of government can be leaked to public
● And finally, Partition of Bengal in 1905
ii. Objective of extremists was to attain Swaraj or complete independence and not just self government.
Methods
o Not cooperating with British govt by boycotting govt court, schools and colleges
o Promotion of swadesi and boycott of foreign goods
o Introduction and promotion of national education.
ii. Leaders of extremists -
o Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak - real founder of popular anti British movement in India. Set up
first Home Rule League in 1916 and declared "Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it"
o Lala Lajpat Rai - Lion of Punjab. Founded Indian Home Rule League in USA in 1916. Died while
leading a procession against Simon Commission.
o Bipin Chandra Pal - started as moderate and turned extremist. Played important role in Swadesi
movement.
o Aurobindo Ghosh - participated in Swadesi movement, after imprisonment established Auroville.
ii. Partition of Bengal - provided a spark for rise of extremism. Curzon's motives
o Break growing strength of Bengali nationalism, divide Hindus and Muslims, show enormous
power of British govt.
On the day of partition 16 Oct 1905, people observed a day of mourning. Anti-partition movement
culminated into swadesi movement. Aggressive nationalists forced Naoroji to speak of Swaraj in
Calcutta session 1906 and adopted resolutions of Boycott and Swadesi. Eventually led to split of
Congress at Surat session 1907.
 ● Swadesi movement - involved programs such boycott of govt service, foreign goods, promotion of
swadesi goods, promotion of national education - it was both political and economic movement.
i. Govt adopted tough measures - volunteers beaten up, Vande Mataram banned, Indian govt
employees lost their jobs, Lal-Bal-Pal and Ghosh imprisoned and deported.
● Achievements of extremists
i. First to demand swaraj as matter of birth right
ii. Involved masses in freedom struggle and broadened social base of national movement
iii. First to organize all-India political movement, the Swadesi Movement
● Formation of Muslim League 1906
i. December 1906, Muslim delegates met at Dhaka for Muslim Educational Conference. Nawab
Salimullah of Dhaka proposed setting up of All India Muslim League on lines of INC. 1st
achievement was separate electorates for Muslims in Minto-Morley reforms
● Lucknow Pact 1916 - Congress Session of 1916 saw two major events - Congress reunited and joint
action against British bw Congress and Muslim League was called Lucknow Pact.
● Home Rule Movement 1916-1918 -
i. Two Home Rule Leagues were established, Tilak in Poona in 1916 (covered Maharashtra) and by
Annie Besant in 1916 at Madras (covered rest of country).
ii. Aim of movement was to get self-govt for India within British empire, believed freedom was
natural right of all nations.
iii. Revival of Swadesi and women joined in large numbers.
iv. Montague-Chelmsford reforms were announced in 1917 for gradual development of
self-governing institutions in India. This declaration led to end of Home Rule Movement.
● Revolutionary Movements -
i. Anusilan Samiti 1902 Calcutta- Pramatha Nath Mishra, Barindra Kumar Ghos, Jatindra Nath
Bannerjee
ii. Abhinava Bharat 1904 Maharashtra - Savarkar brothers
iii. Bharatmata Association, Madras - Nilakanta Brahmachari & Vanchi Ayyer
iv. Ghadar Party 1913 USA - Sohan Singh Bhakna and Lala Hardyal
 
● Indian National Movement (1917-47) - known as Gandhian era as he became undisputed leader of National
Movement. Principles of violence and Satyagraha were employed against British, he also made it a mass
movement. He came to India in 1915 after two decades of fighting apartheid in South Africa.
i. Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha against oppressive European indigo
planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917
ii. In 1918, in Kheda Gujarat in support of peasants who couldn't pay land tax due to crop failure
iii. In 1918, fast unto death for cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers
iv. Help him become leader of the masses
i. Rowlatt Act - in 1917 committee was set up under Sydney Rowlatt to look into militant nationalist
activities. On the basis of his report, Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919 by Central Legislative Council.
o Censorship of the press
o Any person can be arrested on suspicion
o No appeal or petition could be filed against such arrests
Act was called Black Act and widely opposed, people were arrested including Gandhi
Jallianwala Bagh - Unprecedented support for Rowlatt Satyagraha, administration under military
command. General Dyer banned all public meetings and detained all political leaders. On Baisakhi day,
Dyer marched in and fired in and opened fire on crowd, around 400 dead. Rabinandranath Tagore
renounced his knighthood in protest.
● Khilafat Movement - chief cause was defeat of Ottoman Empire in 1st World War. Treaty of Sevres
imposed harsh terms which were considered insulting by Muslims. Movement was based on belief that
Caliph was religious head of Muslims all over the world.
i. Maulana Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Ali brothers were leaders of this movement.
ii. Gandhi was interested in bringing together Hindu and Muslims to achieve country's
independence, hence merged Khilafat with Non-Cooperation Movement
● Non-Cooperation Movement - as a sequel to Rowlatt, Jallianwala Bagh and Khilafat. Nagpur 1920
session.
i. Surrender of titles and honorary positions, resignation of membership form local bodies
ii. Boycott of elections to be held under provisions of Govt of India Act 1919 and boycott of
government courts, colleges, schools, functions
iii. Boycott of foreign good, popularizing swadesi goods and khadi
iv. National schools such as Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia were set up.
v. Prominent leaders gave up their lucrative legal practice, mass demonstration held against Prince
of Wales tour of India in 1921.
vi. Chauri Chara incident led to movement being abruptly called off when angry mob burnt down
police station. Top leaders of the country were stunned with sudden suspension.
Significance of NCM
● Real mass movement with participation of different section of workers
● Witnessed spread of nationalism to remote corners of India
● Height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of merger of Khilafat movement
● Willingness and ability of masses to endure hardships and make sacrifices
● Swaraj party - Gaya session in 1922 led to split with Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das forming
separate group in 1923 who wanted to contest council elections and wreck govt from within. In Central
Legislative Council, Nehru became leader of the party and CR Das head in Bengal.
i. Demanded setting up of responsible govt in India and changes in 1919 Act, passed resolutions
against repressive laws of British govt. Weakened after passing away of CR Das in 1925.
● Simon Commission 1927
i. Act of 1919 included provision for review after 10 years. All 7 members of Simon Commission
were Englishmen.
ii. In 1928, when Commission reached Bombay, it was greeted with black flags and cries of Simon Go
Back. Anti-Simon demonstration, lathi charge led to death of Lala Lajpat Rai
iii. Simon Commission report in 1930 stated that Dyarchy was unsuccessful and recommended
autonomous govt. Basis for enacting Govt of India Act 1935.
● Nehru Report 1928
i. Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged Indians to produce a constitution that will be
acceptable to all. Challenge accepted by Congress and convened meeting in 1928. Committee of 8
led by ML Nehru to draft blueprint of future constitution. Report is known as Nehru Report -
o Dominion status as next immediate step, full responsible govt at the center
o Autonomy to provinces and clear cut division of power bw center and provinces
o Bicarmel legislature at the center
ii. However leader of Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, regarded it as detrimental to interests
of Muslims. He drew up a lists of Fourteen Points as demands of League.
● Civil Disobedience Movement
i. Lahore Session 1929 passed Poorna Swaraj resolution. Govt failed to accept Nehru Report so
Congress gave call to launch CDM. Congress announced January 26 1930 as Day of Independence.
ii. Dandi March - People were not allowed to make salt even for domestic use. Salt was taxed at 14
times its value - what couldn't be sold was destroyed instead of sold at less profit. Gandhi
 marched for 24 days to Dandi and formally launched CDM by breaking salt laws. Gandhi laid out
program of movement which included making of salt in every village in violation of salt laws,
picketing of liquor shops and foreign goods store, resigning from govt job and not pay taxes.
March was notable for 3 reasons
o Event brought Gandhi to world attention, widely covered in American and European press
o 1st nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers. Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyay was instrumental
o Realization of British that their Raj will not be forever and would have to devolve some
powers
ii. Round Table Conference - govt strategy of talking to different political parties by convening Round
Table Conference. 1st held in Nov 1930 and was boycotted by Congress. In March 1931,
Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. CDM suspended and participation in 2nd RTC in London in Sep
1931. But failed due to lack of consensus on demand of complete independence and communal
question. Movement relaunched but failed as leaders jailed and Congress banned.
● Poona Pact -
i. BR Ambedkar was championing cause of depressed people. Demanded separate electorate for
depressed classes in 1st RTC.
ii. PM MacDonald announced Communal Award - which provided SC separate electorate. Gandhi
went on fast unto death in jail in 1932
iii. Agreement bw Ambedkar and Gandhi is Poona Pact which reserved 148 seats in different
provincial legislatures for depressed classes.
iv. 3rd RTC in 1932 - Congress didn't take part. In 1933, govt issued white paper which became Govt
of India Act 1935
● Second World and National Movement
i. In 1937 elections were held under provisions of 1935 Act. Congress ministries formed in 7 states.
When 2nd World War broker out, British involved India in war without consulting Indian leaders.
Congress protested and resigned from provincial ministries. Muslim League was elated at this and
celebrated it as Day of Deliverance.
ii. August Offer - in August 1940. After war, a representative body of Indians set up to frame new
constitution. Gandhi was unsatisfied with this offer and launched individual satyagraha. It was
limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was first to offer satyagraha
and was jailed. JL Nehru was 2nd and jailed.
iii. Cripps Mission - Viceroy Linlithgow expanded his Executive Council by including 5 more Indians
into it in 1941. British govt to secure Indian cooperation in war time, sent Stafford Cripps in Mar
1942.
o Promise of dominion status to India
o Setting up of Constituent Assembly with representative of princely states and British
provinces
o Provision for any province to not accept this constitution, retain existing or frame new
Parties rejected Cripps proposal. Gandhi called it a post dated cheque. Didn't like rights of princely
states to send their representative or stay out of Indian Union. Jinnah was dissatisfied as demand
for Pakistan was conceded.
● Quit India Movement (1942-44)
i. Failure of Cripps mission and fear of impending Japanese invasion led Gandhi to begin Quit India
campaign. Believed interim govt could only be formed only after British left India.
ii. Congress met in Bombay in August 1942 and passed Quit India Resolution. Gandhi gave his call of
do or die.
iii. Govt arrested all prominent leaders of Congress. Rammanohar Lohia and JP Narain rose up to
lead people.
iv. Many people were jailed and 7000 killed. Paved way for India's freedom.
 ● Indian National Army
i. Bose reached Singapore in 1943 and gave war cry of Dillhi Chalo. Made president of Indian
Independence League and soon became supreme commander of Indian National Army. Gave the
slogan of Jai Hind. Marched towards Imphal after taking Kohima. But after Japanese surrender,
failed in its efforts.
ii. Bose escaped to Taiwan and died in a plane crash on his way to Tokyo
● Cabinet Mission
i. Lord Clemet Atlee is new PM after WW2. On 15 Mar 1946, right to self determination and framing
of constitution of India conceded. Cabinet Mission consisting of Lawrence, Cripps and Alexander
sent.
ii. Provision was made for 3 groups of provinces to possess their separate constitution, proposed
formation of Union of India comprising British India and Princely States. Union to keep foreign
affairs, defense and communication leaving residuary powers with provinces.
iii. Proposal for interim govt which would remain in office till new govt on basis of new constitution
by constituent assembly was framed. Both Congress and Muslim League accepted. Interim govt
under JLN formed in Sep 1946.
● Mountbatten Plan -Atlee in Feb 1947 announced, transfer of power to responsible Indian hands not
later than June 1948. Sent Mountbatten as Viceroy. Partition of India appeared inevitable to him. Put
forth the plan of partition on 3 June 1947.
● Indian Independence Act 1947 - enacted on 18 July 1947.
i. Partition of India into India and Pakistan from 15 Aug 1947.
ii. British govt would transfer all power to these 2 dominions, whose constituent assemblies will
have full authority to frame respective constitutions.
iii. Boundary Commission to demarcate boundaries of provinces of Punjab and Bengal. Radcliff
Boundary Commission drew the line separating India and Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten was first
Governor-General of India.
 
CLASS 12 NCERT - THEMES IN HISTORY 3
 
●  Colonialism & Countryside
i. IMPACT of Laws intro. by Brits on Ppl :-
o determine who grows richer/ poorer,
o acquires/ loses land,

➡️
o where peasants go when they need money.
o ppl resisted law by acting a/c to what they believed to be just -> thus, people defined way in
which laws operated, thereby modifying their consequences.
ii. Architecture - by late 19th C, many rich zamindars of Bengal had city palaces with ballrooms, large
grounds, entrance porches supported by Corinthian columns.
iii. Bengal & Zamindars
colonial rule 1st estd. in Bengal ->earliest attempts by EIC to reorder rural society + est. a new
regime of land rights & revenue system.
● The Permanent Settlement Act come into operation in 1793.
i. Fixed revenue that each zamindar had to pay.
ii. To recover arrers of revenue -> estates of defaulters - auctioned. e.g. Burdwan estate in
1797 (wherein raja repurchasedhis zamindari through his servants)

⬇️ agri output.
iii. AIM of PS Act - to resolve issues which they faced since conquest of Bengal.
● By 1770s, Bengal's rural economy in crisis + recurrent famines +
● Felt that agri, trade & revenue resources be dev.-> by encouraging investment in agri.
 ● This could be done by securing rights of property & permanently fixing rates of
revenue demand -> for regular flow of revenue (while investors could earn a sure
profit on investment, since state wouldn't siphon it off by raising claim.
● They hoped, -> LEAD TO a new class of yeomen farmers + rich landowners --w capital
+ incentive to improve agri. &
● since Nurtured by Brits - loyal to EIC.
iv. PROBLEM - in selecting person, who could both improve agri + pay fixed revenue to state.
● Settled for rajas & taluqdars of Bengal ---became zamindars.
● But, this zamindar was not a landowner, but a revenue Collector of state.

➡️
e. Many villages = 1 zamindari = 1 revenue estate (for EIC).
f. EIC fixed total revenue demand over the entire estate zamindar collected rent f diff
villages (-) paid revenue to Company = retained difference as income.
g. He had to pay regularly -> failing - estate auctioned.
(Lord Cornwallis - commander of British forces during American War of Independence + G.G of
Bengal when PS Act intro. in 1793.)
● Why zamindars defaulted on payments?