12

GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2

QUARTER 1
Week 1

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Name: _ Grade Level:

Date: Score:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

In the previous lessons in General Chemistry 1, you have learned about

the kinetic molecular model of gases. This activity sheet will mainly focus on
the kinetic molecular model of solids and liquids.

Matter can exist in three main different states: namely, solid, liquid, and
gas. The most common example of which is water. You only have to think about
water to appreciate how different the
three states of matter are. Steam
bathing, drinking, and ice skating are all
done in contact with water in its various
forms. But how do these states of matter
differ with each other? Understanding the
kinetic molecular model of the three
states will answer this question.

What is Kinetic Molecular Theory?

The kinetic-molecular theory is a theory that explains the states of matter

and is based on the idea that matter is composed of tiny particles that are
always in motion. The theory helps explain observable properties and behaviors
of solids, liquids, and gases. An application of the theory is that it helps to
explain why matter exists in different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) and how
matter can change from one phase to another.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

1
 The state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic
energy of the individual particles (molecules or atoms) and the intermolecular
forces. The kinetic energy keeps the molecules apart and moving around, and
is a function of the temperature of the substance. The intermolecular forces are
attractive forces that try to draw the particles together.

Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is based on a series of postulates. Some

of the postulates of KMT are as follows:

1. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in

motion is called kinetic energy.
2. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
Increased temperature means greater speed.
3. There is space between particles. The amount of space in between
particles is related to the substance's state of matter.
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes
sufficiently.
5. There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular
forces. The strength of these forces increase as particles get closer
together.

KMT of Liquids and Solids

The principal difference between the condensed states (liquids and

solids) and the gaseous state is the distance between molecules. In a liquid,
the molecules are so close together that there is very little empty space. Thus,
liquids are much more difficult to compress than gases, and they are also much
denser under normal conditions. Molecules in a liquid are held together by one
or more types of attractive forces. A liquid also has a definite volume, because
molecules in a liquid do not break away from the attractive forces. The
molecules can, however, move past one another freely, and so a liquid can
flow, can be poured, and assumes the shape of its container.

In a solid, molecules are held rigidly in position with virtually no freedom

of motion, so they only vibrate only about fixed positions. There is even less

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

2
empty space in a solid than in a liquid because their particles are tightly packed.
Thus, solids are almost incompressible and possess definite shape and
volume. This is due to stronger intermolecular force of attraction compared to
liquids.

Change in
phase: The
figure shows
the orientation
of particles in
each state and
the direction of
phase change
due to addition
https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-8/particle-model-of- and removal of
matter/06- particle-model-of-matter?id=toc-id-4
kinetic energy.

Learning Competency:

Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-99)

Activity 1: Color Drop

Estimated time frame: 5 minutes

Materials:
 a glass of hot water
 a glass of cold water
 Liquid food color
Note: You can dissolve a pinch of powdered food color, if you don’t have a
liquid food color. You can use liquid detergent or fabric conditioner if the food
color is not available.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

3
Procedure:
1. Label the two glasses hot and cold with respect to their temperature toavoid
confusion.
2. Put a equal drops of food color into the two glasses at the same time. Do not
stir. Observe what happens and compare.

Safety Precaution: Be careful in handling hot water. Always ask the

assistance of your parents if necessary.

Illustration of the experiment:

COL HO
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwkw_Z6luIg

Questions:
1. What happens after dropping the food color into the water? Why did this
happen?

2. How can you compare the rate of diffusion in the two glasses? What is the
reason for this difference?

3. How can you relate the kinetic molecular theory with the experiment?

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 4. What do you think will happen if the substances does not follow kinetic
molecular theory?

ACTIVITY 2: Be a Science Detective!

Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide an explanation for the
phenomenon.
Based on the kinetic molecular model, solids usually have higher densities
compared to liquids. However, ice, a solid form of H2O floats on liquid water which
means ice is less dense than water. What do you think is the reason for this
phenomenon? What is the biological significance of this concept?
_
_
_
_

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Name: _ Grade Level:

Date: Score:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

In the preceding lesson, we have noted the differences in properties of matter

in gas phase from those in the liquid and solid phases can be attributed to the attractive
forces in solid and liquid molecules while gas molecules have negligible or no
attractions at all.

The condensation of gaseous substance to form liquids which in turn form

solids could be explained by the attractive forces called intermolecular forces.

Intermolecular forces vs. Intramolecular forces

It is important to note the difference between

intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces. As
discussed in General Chemistry 1, atoms can form
stable units called molecules by sharing electrons.
This is called the intramolecular bonding.
Intramolecular force in water molecule
which hold hydrogen and oxygen Intramolecular (within molecules) forces holds atoms
atom.
together in a molecule. Intramolecular forces stabilize
individual molecules. Generally, these forces are simply the chemical bonds such as
ionic and covalent bonding.

On the other hand,

Intermolecular forces are
attractive forces between
molecules. Intermolecular forces
are responsible for the non-ideal Intermolecular force in water molecule which hold two
molecules together.
behavior of gases, but they exert more influence in the condensed phases of matter

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

which are liquids and solids. Intermolecular forces are collectively known as van der
Waals forces named after Dutch chemist, Johannes van der Waal. Van der Waals
forces are electrical in nature; that is, they result in the attraction between centers of
opposite charge in two molecules close to each other.

It is important to recognize that when a substance such as water changes from

solid to liquid to gas, the molecules remain intact. The changes in states are due to
changes in the forces among the molecules rather than in those within the molecules.
In ice, the molecules are virtually locked in place, although they can vibrate about their
positions. If energy is added, the motions of the molecules increase, and they
eventually achieve the greater movement and disorder characteristic of liquid water.
The ice has melted. As more energy is added, the gaseous state is eventually reached,
with the individual molecules far apart and interacting relatively little. However, the gas
still consists of water molecules. It would take much energy to overcome the covalent
bonds and decompose the water molecules into their component atoms. This can be
seen by comparing the energy needed to vaporize 1 mole of liquid water (40.7 kJ) with
that needed to break the -OOH bonds in 1 mole of water molecules (934 kJ).

Types of Intermolecular Forces

The intermolecular forces of attraction in substances includes Dipole-dipole,

London dispersion forces, hydrogen bonding and ion-dipole forces.

London Dispersion forces

London dispersion forces, or simply dispersion forces, are intermolecular forces

of attraction that exist between all atoms and molecules. In addition, dispersion forces
are the only kind of intermolecular forces present among symmetrical nonpolar
substances such as O2 and CO2 and monoatomic species such as noble gases.
Without dispersion forces, such substances could not condense to form liquids or
solidify to form solids.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Dispersion forces are weak
attractive forces that results from
the continuous movement of
electrons in particles. Nonpolar
molecules have zero dipole
moment because their electron
density is uniform and symmetrical.
Nevertheless, the electrons have
some freedom to move around the molecule. This induces temporary dipoles
(instantaneous dipoles) in neighboring atoms or molecules. As electron clouds
become larger and more diffuse, they are attracted less strongly by their own positive
nuclei. Thus, they are more easily distorted, or polarized by the adjacent/nearby nuclei.

Polarization increases with increasing numbers of electrons and therefore with

increasing size of molecules. Therefore, dispersion forces are generally stronger for
molecules that are larger or have more electrons. As an example, between helium
and argon, two argon atoms will have greater dispersion force because they are bigger
than helium atoms.

Dipole-dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules, that is,
between molecules that possess dipole moments. Their origin is electrostatic, and they
can be understood in terms of Coulomb’s law. The larger the dipole moment, the
greater the force. Dipole-dipole forces are the attraction between the positive end of
one molecule and the negative end of
another.

Two molecules of HCl interacts. HCl has both positive and Dipoles form when there is a large
negative end so it is a polar molecule and exhibits a dipole
moment. The solid lines represent intramolecular force while difference in electronegativity between
the broken lines represent intermolecular force.
two atoms joined by a covalent bond.

Hydrogen bonding

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Hydrogen bond is a special case of very
strong dipole-dipole interaction. They are not
chemical bonds in formal sense. Strong
hydrogen bonding occurs among polar
covalent molecules containing H and one of the
three small, highly electronegative elements – F,
O, or N.
Like ordinary dipole-dipole interactions,
hydrogen bonds result from the attractions
between  partial positive atoms of one molecule, in this case H atoms and the
 partial negative atoms of another molecule. The  H is attracted to a lone pair of
electrons on an F, O, or N atom. Typically, a hydrogen bond is about five to ten times
stronger than other dipole-dipole interactions.

The image shows

the unusual high
boiling points of
NH3, H2O and HF
compared with
those other
hydrides of the
same group
because of
hydrogen
bonding

Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-dipole force acts between an ion (either cation or anion) and a polar
molecule. When an ionic compound is placed in a solution of water, the positive end
of the ionic compound becomes surrounded with the partial negative end of the ionic
compound, in turn, becomes surrounded by the partial positive hydrogen ion in water.
In short, the positive pole is attracted to the negative ion (anion), while the negative
pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Ion- dipole
interactions are involved in
solution process like in the
case of sodium chloride
(table salt) dissolving in
water. In this case, Na+ and
Cl- ions are dispersed
amidst water molecules. The
Na+ will be surround by the partial negative oxygen of water molecule while the Cl- will
be surround by the partial positive H of water molecule.

The strength of this interaction depends on the

charge and size of the ion and on the magnitude of the
dipole moment and size of the molecule. The charges
on cations are generally more concentrated because
cations are usually smaller than anions. Therefore, a
cation interacts more strongly with dipoles than does an
anion having a charge of the same magnitude.

These four intermolecular forces vary in strength. Ion dipole forces is the
strongest of the four, followed by hydrogen bonding being a special type of dipole-
dipole. Dipole-dipole is weaker than the ion-dipole and hydrogen bonding while
London dispersion forces is the weakest.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

Learning Competency:
Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-
100)

Activity 1: OPERATION: Crossword Puzzle

Directions: Complete the crossword by filling in the boxes to form a word that fits
each clue.

Across:
1. This is a special case of very strong dipole-dipole interaction.
4. This holds atoms together in a molecule.
6. Intermolecular force present among symmetrical nonpolar substance
8. These are attractive forces between molecules

Down:
2. This is an intermolecular force that acts between an ion and a polar
molecule.
3. A collective term used to define attraction of intermolecular forces.
5. These are attractive forces between polar molecules.
7. This is an element that forms hydrogen bonding.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

Activity 2: WHAT IF?
Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide a
detailed explanation of the situation.
Water is present in almost every living thing including human beings. It
was discussed that water possesses a unique bond known as hydrogen bond.
What do you think will happen if hydrogen bonding in water does not exist at all?
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: _ Grade Level:
Date: Score:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

Liquids are made up of particles that are close to each other and have kinetic
energy.
The particles are not confined to a rigid position and they move, but they can
only travel at a short distance before they collide with each other and change the
direction of motion. They roll and slide on top of one another and flow. Since the
molecules flow, they take the shape of their container and diffuse moderately to a fixed
volume.
Liquids have moderately high density since they occupy a fixed volume and the
particles are attracted to each other. They also have low compressibility and thermal
expansion.
The kinetic energy of the molecules break away from their neighbor and thus,
the particles are joined by intermolecular forces.
Most liquids exist as molecules at room temperature. The presence of the
intermolecular forces results in special properties. The physical properties of liquids
depends on the type of the different intermolecular forces.

 SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is the force that causes the surface of a liquid to contract. It is
the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to
the cohesive nature of its molecules.
Phenomena such as insects walking on the surface of water, droplets of liquid
being spherical in shape, and needle remaining suspended on the surface of water
can all be explained in terms of surface tension.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 The strength of surface tension depends on the intermolecular force of
attraction. If the intermolecular force of attraction of a liquid is strong, then there is a
greater force needed to break through the surface and the greater the surface tension
is. Since the intermolecular forces vary in nature and strength, surface tension is
different for different form of liquids. Water has a high surface tension because of its
ability to form a hydrogen bond.
Temperature affects surface tension, an increase in the liquid’s temperature
causes water molecules at the surface to evaporate resulting to the weakening of the
force of attraction. Therefore, there is less force needed to break through the surface
of the molecules, this decreases surface tension.

Fig.1. The forces of attraction

between all the molecules in the
water pull molecules at the surface
together. The molecules look like
thin elastic membrane of slightly
denser molecules. The geometry of
the legs of the water strider allows

Image Source: http://

hyperphysics.phy-

Fig.2 examples of how surface tension is manifested.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
Molecules at the surface are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not
upward away from the surface (shown in the diagram below).

These intermolecular forces tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause
the surface to tighten like an elastic film or “skin”.

Fig. 3 Intermolecular forces

that acts on a liquid.

(Image Source:
www.bville.org/.../AP%20Chapter%2011%20Intermolecular%20F
orces)
Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn
into small openings such as those between grains of a rock. Capillary action, also
known as capillarity, is a result of intermolecular attraction between the liquid and solid
materials.
Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously in capillary tubes. A
thin film of water adheres to the wall of the glass tube as water molecules are attracted
to atoms making up the glass (SiO2). Surface tension causes the film of water to
contract and pulls the water up the tube.

Fig.4 Colored water rising

up in tubes.

Image Source:
http://
water.usgs.gov/edu/capillaryaction.ht
ml

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:

Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid

molecules).

Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water

and in the particles that make up the glass tube).

These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical
container (the meniscus!)

 VISCOSITY

Viscosity is the resistance of fluids to flow. A liquid’s resistance (friction) to

flow exists between the molecules of liquid when they move past each other. The
greater the resistance in flowing, the more viscous the liquid is.
Maple syrup is usually made from the xylem sap of sugar maple, red maple
or black maple trees. It is boiled down so it becomes more concentrated and
viscous liquid. Maple syrup is more viscous than water. The difference in viscosity
between the two liquids is a measure of their intermolecular force of attraction. In
order to flow, molecules must move, roll and slide over one another. A liquid with
low intermolecular force allows its molecules to move freely and, therefore, has
lower viscosity.

An increase in temperature causes kinetic energy to increase. Heat breaks

the intermolecular forces causing the liquid molecules to move faster. This makes
the molecules flow more readily. Therefore, an increase in temperature decreases
viscosity.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Since the structure of maple syrup contains a lot of O-H bond compared to
water, more H-bonds are formed in maple syrup. The greater the number of H-
bonds, the stronger the intermolecular force of attraction is, and the higher the
viscosity of the liquid.

Fig.5 The structure of maple syrup

shows the O-H bonds present. This
allows the formation of many
hydrogen bonds.

Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The table below gives viscosities of

liquids of some pure substances. Water has viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at
20 0C. Substances with lower viscosities include carbon tetrachloride and benzene.
Glycerol has a resistance to flow of more than a thousand times greater than water.
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher viscosities than those
that have weak intermolecular forces.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Viscosity decreases as temperature increases: hot molasses flows much faster
than cold molasses.

 VAPOR PRESSURE

Vaporization is a change of state from liquid to gas, while the opposite process
(gas to liquid) is condensation. When liquid molecules break free from their neighbors
and escape into the gas phase, the process is called evaporation.
Vaporization is a broader term that includes evaporation and boiling. Gas and
vapor are similar but not the same. Vapor is used to refer to the gaseous state of a
substance which is normally a liquid or solid at room temperature. The average kinetic
energy of the liquid molecules of a substance depends on temperature. Most liquid
particles have higher kinetic energy and some others move at a slower pace.
Substances that evaporate readily are volatile. They have weak intermolecular
forces of attraction. Some examples of volatile liquids are alcohol, gasoline, paint
thinner and dry-cleaning solvents. Volatile substances burn more readily since they
easily combine with oxygen. As evaporation continues, the slow -moving particles are
left behind. Since the average kinetic energy is directly proportional to temperature,
temperature decreases. Therefore, evaporation is accompanied by cooling.
In a closed container half-filled with liquid, the fast-moving molecules also escape
into the gas phase forming vapor at the space above the liquid.
Gas molecules move in random directions, collide with other gas particles and the
walls of the container. Some will strike the liquid surface and condense back into it. In
the closed flask, none of the gas particles are able to get out of the container, and
eventually, the number of molecules that goes into the gaseous state would equal the
number of molecules that condenses back.
When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of
evaporation of the liquid, the gas in the container is said to be in equilibrium with the
liquid.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 liquid ⇋ vapor (gas)
In this condition, the amount of gas and liquid no longer changes.

Fig.6
Equilibrium
between
liquid and
gas.

Image Source:
http://wpscms.pearsoncmg.com/wps/media/objects/3662/3750037/Aus_content_10/Fig10-
20.jpg

Like any gas sample, the molecules in the gaseous state over its liquid create a
pressure. The greater the number of gaseous particles, the greater the pressure
exerted by the gas. The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a liquid in a
closed container at a given temperature is called the equilibrium vapor pressure or
simply vapor pressure of the liquid.
The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at a
given temperature and that it is constant at a constant temperature. It increases with
temperature.
Vapor pressure is independent of the amount of liquid as well as the surface area
of the liquid in contact with the gas.
When temperature is high, more molecules have enough energy to escape from
the liquid. At a lower temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape
from the liquid.

Consider the vapor pressure of the following substances;

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Ethyl alcohol and water have very low vapor pressures. Both liquids have the
strong dipole-dipole interaction called hydrogen bonding. Acetone is polar but does
not have H-bonding. Its vapor pressure is of intermediate value. Pentane is a nonpolar
substance, and its vapor pressure is high compared to those of water and ethyl
alcohol.
When liquids evaporate, the molecules have to have sufficient energy to break
the attractive forces that hold them in the liquid state. The stronger these
intermolecular forces are, the greater the amount of energy needed to break them.
For some substances with weak intermolecular forces, the energy requirement
is easily obtained from collisions with other molecules and absorption of energy from
the surroundings. Many molecules can vaporize, resulting in a high vapor pressure.
For molecules with strong intermolecular forces, gathering enough energy may not be
as easy, and register low vapor pressures.
The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the lower the vapor pressure
of a liquid.

 MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

The relationship between vapor pressure and strength of intermolecular forces is

consistent with the trends in two other properties of liquids, the enthalpy or molar heat
of vaporization, and the boiling point of the liquid.
The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy required to vaporize 1 mole
of a liquid at a given temperature. H is the symbol for enthalpy, which means heat
content at a given standard condition.

Molar heat of vaporization and boiling points of selected

substances.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the strength of
intermolecular forces in a liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot
of energy to free the molecules from the liquid phase and the heat of vaporization will
be high.
It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap) than water (higher Hvap) at a given
temperature, and more acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given temperature.
Acetone is a polar substance but has no H-bonding. It has weaker intermolecular
forces than water, and therefore acetone molecules are held less tightly to one another
in the liquid phase.
A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of vaporization is
by rubbing acetone on your hands. Compare what is felt when water is used. Acetone
has a lower ΔHvap than water so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the
kinetic energy of the these molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize them.
As a result of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.

 BOILING POINT
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid converts into
a gas.
A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the surface
of the liquid. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid
is equal to the external pressure.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid converts to a gas
when the external pressure is 1 atm. The normal boiling point of water is 100 OC. The
boiling point of a liquid depends on the external pressure. For example, at 1 atm, water
boils at 100 OC, but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils at only 82 OC.
The boiling point is related to molar heat of vaporization: the higher ΔHvap, the
higher the boiling point.

Learning Competency:
Describe the following properties of liquid, and explain the effect of intermolecular
forces on these properties; surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point,
and molar heat of vaporization (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-102

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

Activity 1: PICTURE SHOWS WHAT I KNOW!
Directions: Describe what is happening to the water molecules in the two flasks
shown in the picture.

Image Source: http://

boomeria.org/physicslectures/heat/equilibrium.j
pg

Guide questions:
 What happens to the molecules of water in the container when the
temperature increases?
 Container B shows equilibrium; how does it manifest such balance?
1. _
_

2. _
_

Activity 2: CRITICAL THINKER

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times
Directions: Analyze the problem and answer the questions below.

1. At 50. ° C the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, acetic acid is 0.08 atm,
water is 0.12 atm, and acetone is 0.84 atm.

a. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates of evaporation.

b. Arrange these substances in order of increasing boiling point temperature

c. Arrange these substances in order of increasing intermolecular forces.

2. Given molecular structures of water and glycerol, can you tell why glycerol
has a higher viscosity than water?

Answer: _ _
_
_

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Name: _ Grade Level:

Date: Score:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

PROPERTIES OF WATER AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

Water makes up a large proportion of the entire biosphere and of these, 95%
is saltwater and the remaining 5% is freshwater.
Water is locked up in ice and glaciers, deep and shallow underground lakes,
soil, atmosphere, and in rivers. The human body consists of 50-75% water. Water
serves important purposes for life on earth. Water’s unique properties result from the
strong intermolecular force of attraction characterized by the hydrogen bond.
Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily.
When placed in water, sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged
sodium ion (Na+) binds to oxygen, while the negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-)
attaches to hydrogen. This property of water allows for the transport of nutrients vital
to life in animals and plants. A drop of rainwater falling through the air dissolves
atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land, lakes
and rivers.

The following are properties of water:

1. Boiling point and freezing point. The high boiling point of water is a
consequence of its strong intermolecular forces of attraction caused by the
formation of the H-bond. It also explains why water is liquid at room
temperature. Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling to each other
(cohesion) and remain in liquid state under temperatures that are favorable to
plants and other living organisms.
Pure water at sea level boils at 100 0C and freezes at 0 0C, but extra
energy is needed to push water molecules into the air. This is called latent
heat—the heat required to change water from one phase to another. At higher

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 elevations (lower atmospheric pressure) water’s boiling temperature
decreases. This is why it takes longer to boil and egg at higher altitudes. The
temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg properly. If a substance
is dissolved in water, then the freezing point is lowered. Energy is lost when
water freezes. A great deal of heat is released into the environment when liquid
water changes to ice. It is lost when the high energy phase of liquid water moves
to the low energy phase of ice. Nights when ice freezes often feel warmer than
nights when ice melts.

2. Specific heat. Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 oC. For water, its specific heat is
1cal/g oC. It means that water can absorb and release large quantities of heat
without change in temperature. This is the reason why body temperature
remains at 37 oC even when there’s a change in the surrounding. This also
explains why oceans and lakes exert an influence on the climate. If there were
no large bodies of water, the earth would experience great temperature
variations. Water has a high specific heat. The amount of energy required to
raise the temperature of water by one degree Celsius is quite large. Because
so much heat loss or heat input is required to lower or raise the temperature of
water, the oceans and other large bodies of water have relatively constant
temperatures. Thus, many organisms living in the oceans are provided with a
relatively constant environmental temperature. The high water content of plants
and animals living on land helps them to maintain a relatively constant internal
temperature. The specific heat of water is 5 times greater than of sand.

3. Density in its liquid form. Water is the only substance that contracts when
cooled. For most substances, their solid form is denser than their liquid form.
This is because the H-bond is more extensive in its solid state than in its liquid
state. Ice has an open structure because the hydrogen bonds could not get
inside the hexagonal ring structure. This more open structure of the solid form
of water causes the ice to have smaller number of molecules packed in a given
volume. This causes the mass to be lower, hence, the density of ice is lesser
than the liquid water, and, as a result, ice floats on water. This also causes
water in lakes to freeze from the top down.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Water is most dense at 4 0C and then begins to expand again (becoming less
dense) as the temperature decreases further. This expansion occurs because
its hydrogen bonds become more rigid and ordered. As a result, frozen water
(ice floats) upon the denser cold water. The expansion of water takes place
even before it actually freezes. This explains why a pond freezes from the
surface down, rather than from the bottom up. As water temperature drops, the
colder water (0-4 0C) where it is less dense— rises to the pond surface. It
freezes to form a lid of ice. This ice insulates the water below from the wintry
chill so that it is less likely to freeze. Organisms that inhabit the pond are able
to survive the frigid winter below the icy surface.

For most substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the special properties of
water make it less dense as a solid. Ice floats on water! Strong hydrogen bonds formed
at freezing 0 0C lock water molecules away from each other. When ice melts, the
structure collapses and molecules move closer together. Liquid water at 4 0C is about
9% denser than ice. This property plays an important role in lake and ocean
ecosystems. Floating ice often insulates and protects animals and plants living in the
water below.

4. Surface tension. The hydrogen bond formation among water molecules

causes water to have high surface tension, as described earlier. This high
surface tension causes water to move from the roots of a tree to the top of very
tall trees and explains why water moves into the fibers of a towel. This
phenomenon is called capillarity.

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Water molecules at the surface (next to air) hold closely together, forming an
invisible film. Water’s surface tension can hold weight that would normally sink.
You can carefully float a paper clip on top of the water. Some aquatic insects
such as the water strider or pond skater rely on surface tension to walk on
water. Surface tension is essential for the transfer of energy from wind to water
to create waves. Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes and
seas. Next to mercury, water has the highest surface tension of all commonly
occurring liquids.
Cohesion—Water molecules stick to each other. This is due to the hydrogen
bonds among the molecules. Water molecules at the surface have a much
greater attraction for each other than for molecules in the air. This cohesiveness
creates a high surface tension at the surface of the water. The water molecules
at the surface crowd together, producing a strong layer as they are pulled
downward by the attraction of other water molecules beneath them.
Adhesion—Water molecules stick to other substances. You can see this
property when water creeps up the inside of a drinking glass. Think of a sponge
or a paper towel used to “soak up” spilled water. This is how water makes things
wet. Water also clings to living things. Most plants have adapted to take
advantage of water’s adhesion that helps move water from the roots to the
leaves. This is called capillary action. This can also be seen as blood moves
through our capillaries, carrying nutrients to each cell within our body. One of
the tallest plants is the redwood tree. Water moves from its roots to its leaves,
more than 90 m above the ground. As a plant loses water through pores in the
leaves, more water moves up from roots and stems to replace the lost water.
The process of water loss by leaves is known as transpiration.
Thermal properties - Water absorbs or releases more heat than many
substances for each degree of temperature increase or decrease. Because of
this, it is widely used for cooling and for transferring heat in thermal and
chemical processes. Differences in temperature between lakes and rivers and
the surrounding air may have a variety of effects. For example, local fog or mist
is likely to occur if a lake cools in the surrounding air enough to cause
saturation—small water droplets are suspended in the air. Large bodies of
water, such as the oceans or the Great Lakes, have a profound influence on
climate. They are the world’s great heat reservoirs and heat exchangers and

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 the source of much of the moisture that falls as rain and snow over adjacent
landmasses. When water is colder than the air, precipitation is curbed, winds
are reduced, and fog banks are formed. These properties of water are crucial
in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

5. Heat of vaporization. Large amount of heat is needed to vaporize a given

amount of water. This causes a significant drop in temperature during
evaporation. When molecules of water absorb heat energy, they move fast in
water. Eventually, the speed of movement of some molecules becomes so fast
allowing them to overcome the intermolecular attraction, detach from the multi-
molecular water, form bubbles, and leave the water surface in gas state. This
property of water helps to cool down the body of living organisms. This is called
evaporative cooling. In humans, body heat is used to vaporize sweat; in plants,
heat is likewise used in converting liquid water to water vapor which then
escapes into the atmosphere. This natural process of vaporizing plant water is
called transpiration.

6. pH. Water molecules have a tendency to ionize. They dissociate into ions
(charged particles) hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-). In pure water
a very small number of water molecules form ions in this way. Thetendency of

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 water to dissociate is balanced by the tendency of hydrogen ions and hydroxide
ions to reunite to form water. A neutral solution contains an equal number of
hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions. A solution with a greater concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+) is said to be acidic. A solution with a greater concentration
of hydroxide (OH-) ions is said to be alkaline or basic.

Learning Competency:

Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-103)

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times

 Activity 1: MIND POWER

Directions: Identify what property of water is being shown on the pictures

below.

1.

 




2.

 






3.

 




4.

 

NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times



5.

 






Activity 2: EXPLORING PROPERTIES

Directions: Choose the letter/letters of the property of water related to each

phenomenon described below. More than one property may be used to explain the
given phenomenon.

a. Water molecules are cohesive, they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
b. Water molecules are adhesive, they form hydrogen bonds with polar surfaces.
c. Water is a liquid at normal physiological temperature.
d. Water has high specific heat.
e. Water has a high heat of vaporization.
f. Water shows high surface tension.

1. During the winter, air temperature in the northern parts of the planet can
remain below zero degrees Celsius for months, however, the fish and other animals
living in the lakes survive.
2. Many substances, for example, salt (NaCl) and sucrose, dissolve quickly in
water.
3. When you pour water into a 25mL cylinder, a meniscus forms at the top of
the water column.
4. Sweating and the evaporation of sweat from the body surface help reduce
a human’s body temperature.
5. Water drops that fall on a surface tend to form rounded drops or beads.
6. If you put the end of a paper towel to a coloured water, the water will move
up into the towel.
7. A paper clip can float on water.
8. When you place a straw into a glass of water, the water seems to climb up
the straw before you even place your mouth on the straw.
9. Water is most dense at about 4°C. As a result, the water at the bottom of a
lake or the ocean usually has temperature of about 4°C.
_10. If you drop a tiny amount of water onto a very smooth surface, the water
molecules will stick together and form a droplet, rather than spread out over the
surface.