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    Artificial Intelligence: First Order Logic (FOL) and Resolution

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    Md.Nazmul Abdal Shourov
    The document discusses inference rules and resolution in first-order logic. It provides examples of common sound rules of inference like modus ponens, modus tollens, and disjunctive syllogism. Resolution is introduced as a valid rule of inference that can derive new clauses from complementary literals in two clauses. The resolution principle and converting sentences to conjunctive normal form (CNF) are also explained to enable the application of resolution to build a sound and complete theorem prover. Horn clauses are defined as having at most one positive literal.

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    Artificial Intelligence: First Order Logic (FOL) and Resolution

    Uploaded by

    Md.Nazmul Abdal Shourov
    76 views35 pages
    The document discusses inference rules and resolution in first-order logic. It provides examples of common sound rules of inference like modus ponens, modus tollens, and disjunctive syllogism. Resolution is introduced as a valid rule of inference that can derive new clauses from complementary literals in two clauses. The resolution principle and converting sentences to conjunctive normal form (CNF) are also explained to enable the application of resolution to build a sound and complete theorem prover. Horn clauses are defined as having at most one positive literal.

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    CSE-3201 (AI_11)

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    The document discusses inference rules and resolution in first-order logic. It provides examples of common sound rules of inference like modus ponens, modus tollens, and disjunctive syllogism. Resolution is introduced as a valid rule of inference that can derive new clauses from complementary literals in two clauses. The resolution principle and converting sentences to conjunctive normal form (CNF) are also explained to enable the application of resolution to build a sound and complete theorem prover. Horn clauses are defined as having at most one positive literal.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    76 views35 pages

    Artificial Intelligence: First Order Logic (FOL) and Resolution

    Uploaded by

    Md.Nazmul Abdal Shourov
    The document discusses inference rules and resolution in first-order logic. It provides examples of common sound rules of inference like modus ponens, modus tollens, and disjunctive syllogism. Resolution is introduced as a valid rule of inference that can derive new clauses from complementary literals in two clauses. The resolution principle and converting sentences to conjunctive normal form (CNF) are also explained to enable the application of resolution to build a sound and complete theorem prover. Horn clauses are defined as having at most one positive literal.

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    ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

    CSE 3201

    First Order Logic (FOL) and Resolution


    Inference Rules
    • In AI, we need intelligent systems which can create new logic from old
    logic or by evidence.
    • Inference is deriving conclusion from evidences.
    • An inference procedure generates new sentences on the basis of
    inference rules.
    • So, these rules are templates to construct valid arguments.
    • An inference rule is sound if every sentence X it produces when
    operating on a KB logically follows from the KB (Knowledge Base)
    – i.e., inference rule creates no contradictions
    • Inference rules are applied to derive proofs in AI.
    Sound Rules of Inference
    • Here are some examples of sound rules of inference
    • Each can be shown to be sound using a truth table

    RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION

    Modus Ponens A, A  B B
    And Introduction A, B AB
    And Elimination AB A
    Double Negation A A
    Resolution A  B, B  C AC
    Modus Ponens
    Modus Tollens
    Hypothetical Syllogism
    Disjunctive Syllogism
    Addition
    (Disjunction Introduction)
    Simplification
    (Conjunction Elimination)

     ∧ elimination is a valid rule of inference which makes the inference that,


    if the conjunction A and B is true, then A is true, and B is true.
    Conjunction
    (And Introduction)
    Resolution
    Resolution
    ■ Resolution is a valid inference rule producing a new clause implied by
    two clauses containing complementary literals.
    ■ Amazingly, this is the only inference rule you need to build a sound and
    complete theorem prover.
    – Based on proof by contradiction and usually called resolution refutation.
    ■ To use resolution, put knowledge base into conjunctive normal form
    (CNF), where each sentence written as a disjunction of (one or more)
    literals.
    The Resolution Principle
    A Common Error
    Refutation Resolution
    ■ The previous example was easy because it had very few clauses
    ■ When we have a lot of clauses, we want to focus our search on the thing we
    would like to prove.
    ■ We can do this as follows:
    – Add the negation of the thing we want to prove to the fact base
    – Show that the fact base is now inconsistent
    – Conclude the thing we want to prove
    Clause Form
    • A clause is a disjunction (“or”) of literals
    - A literal is an atomic symbol or its negation, i.e., P or P
    A First Example
    Example of Resolution
    The resolution is a simple
    iterative process:
    – At each step,
    • Two clauses (parent
    clauses) are compared
    (resolved), yielding a new
    clause that has been
    produced from them.
    FOL Resolution Proof – Another Example
    Example
    ■ All Romans who know Marcus either hate Caesar or think that anyone
    who hates anyone is crazy.
    Step 1: Eliminate Implication
    Step 2: Reduce The Scope of 
    Step 3: Standardize Variables Apart
    Step 4: Move Quantifiers
    Step 5: Eliminate Existential Quantifiers
    Step 6: Drop The Prefix (Quantifiers)
    Step 7: Convert to CNF/Create A
    Conjunction Of Disjunction
    Step 8: Create Separate Clauses
    Step 9: Standardize Apart
    Conjunctive Normal Form(CNF)
    ■ A literal is a variable or a negated variable.
    ■ A clause is either a single literal or the disjunction of two or more literals.
    P, P  P, and P  Q  R  S are clauses.
    (R  S ) and P  Q are not clauses.

    ■ A wff (Well Formed Formulas) is in conjunctive normal form iff it is either a


    single clause or the conjunction of two or more clauses.
    (P  Q  R  S)  (P  R) is in cnf
    (P  Q  R  S)  (P  R) is not in cnf
    Conversion to Conjunctive Normal Form
    Horn Clause
    ■ A Horn sentence or Horn clause:
    - A horn clause is a disjunction with at most one positive literal.
    Horn Clause
    ■ Every Horn clause can be rewritten as an implication with a conjunction
    of literals in the premises and at most a single positive literal as a
    conclusion.

    ■ 1 positive literal: definite clause.

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