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Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

8. Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Background
Traveling Wave
Stationary Wave
Wave equation
Group Velocity
Phase Velocity

Aim of the experiment

1. To determine the phase velocity of the stationary wave produced in an
ordinary string (1) by measuring the wavelength () and the frequency (and (2) by
measuring the tension T in the cord and mass per unit length () of the cord.
2. To determine the velocity of sound in air by using a resonating tube closed
at one end and open at the other end.

Apparatus required
Square cross-section rubber rope/ordinary string
Supports
Wave generator
Measuring tape
Resonance tubes
Measuring cylinder (water reservoir)
Tuning forks, rubber hammer
Meter scale

Theory

1. Phase velocity
A cotton cord fixed at one end is inserted through the eye of the plunger of an
electromagnetic vibrator (wave generator). The other end goes over a pulley and attached
to a pan which can carry weights. The frequency of vibration recorded from the vibrator
is so adjusted that stationary wave is produced in the cord held under certain tension. The
wavelength of the wave produced is calculated by measuring the distance between the
pulley and the vibrator head. Nodes are formed at the points where the support and
vibrator are attached.

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Fig. 1. Experimental set up to measure phase velocity of a rope wave

The stationary wave produced in a string or rope as a result of two oppositely

traveling waves

y1 = A Sin(kx-t)
and y2 = A Sin(-kx-t+)
is given by,

y = y1 + y2 = A [Sin (kx-t) + Sin(-kx-t+)]

   
= 2 ASin  t  Cos kx   , …(1)
2   2
where  is the phase difference between two waves.

For the stationary wave produced in a rope fixed at both ends,

y = 0 at x=0 …(2)
and y = 0 at x=L …(3)

where L = length of the rope

Boundary condition (2) implies =(2n+1) or

y = 2A Sin kx Cos t

Boundary condition (3) implies Sin kL = 0 or kL = n

where n is an integer.

2 n
or L
 

n
L …(4)
2

Therefore, if the length of the string is an integral multiple of /2, then only stationary
waves are produced.


Fundamental or first harmonic L  0
2
First overtone or second harmonic L  1

Second overtone or third harmonic L  3 2
2
Third overtone or fourth harmonic L  2 3

For nth overtone, there are n nodes and (n+1)

antinodes forms between the ends

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Phase velocity (c) of the rope wave is calculated by multiplying the wavelength () of
the stationary wave produced with the frequency of vibration (), recorded by the
wave generator

i.e. c = 

Assuming that the wave speed (c) depends only on tension (T) and mass per unit
length (μ) of the string, we can use dimensional analysis to find how ‘c’ depends on
these quantities. So the result is; phase velocity
T
c

The proportionality constant cannot be fixed by the dimensional analysis. The value
of the constant can be obtained from a mechanical analysis of the problem or from
experiment. These methods show that the constant is equal to unity and the final result
is:
T
c=

So if we measure T and μ we can again calculate c, and this should match
with the earlier obtained result by measuring λ and ν.

2. Velocity of sound in air

We know that in open and closed organ pipes resonates when stationary waves are
formed inside the pipes. If l is the length of the air column then for stationary waves
the following conditions are satisfied.
Open ended:
l = (2n) /4, (n = 1,2,3………) …………………..(5)

One end closed:

l = (2n-1) /4, (n = 1,2,3………) ………………..(6)

Procedure

Phase velocity
1. Pass the cotton cord through the eye of the vibrator plunger.
2. Fix the one side of the end to a vertical supports and the other side is attached
to a pan and is passed over a pulley.
3. Put some weight on the pan to produce a reasonable tension.
4. Measure the length of the cord between the vibrator head and the pulley with
the help of a meter scale. Count the number of loops formed for the resonance.
5. With different range settings, slowly increase the frequency of vibration of
the wave generator until the rope begins to vibrate with blurry antinodes and
nodes in between.
6. Note down the frequency at which the rope is set into vibration.
7. Repeat for different lengths of the strings and different weights on the pan.

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8. Plot a graph of ‘1/ν vs ’. Slope of the straight line is the phase velocity of the
wave for fixed length and fixed tension.
9. Calculate tension in the string and use given linear mass density of the rope
and hence calculate the phase velocity again to compare the result with the one
obtained in step 8.
Note: To excite higher modes use low tension (50 – 100 gms) & long string lengths
(more than 1.5 mts).

Velocity of sound
1. Fill the measuring cylinder with tap water and immerse completely the hollow
tube vertically in the cylinder. Moving the tube up and down in the measuring
cylinder would change the level of water in the tube, and hence would vary the
length of the resonating air-column.
2. Pick one of the tuning forks of known natural frequency, strike it against the
rubber surface provided, and place it above the resonance tube (Start with the
highest frequency tuning fork wherein a relatively loud resonance can be
heard). Hit the fork from time to time to the rubber surface and position it back
at the top of the resonance tube to keep it vibrating. Do not touch the tuning
fork to the tube.
3. Move the resonance tube up and down with one hand, keeping the vibrating
tuning fork just above it with the other hand, and listen to the resonance
(Listen for the increase in volume of the sound).
4. Having found the approximate point of the resonance, carefully adjust the
length of the immersed tube to locate the resonance as precisely as possible.
Record the length of the tube above the surface of the water. The length of the
air-column gives the length of the resonance tube.
5. To find the length of the resonating tube for the 1st overtone, use the longer
resonance tube and repeat steps 3 and 4.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for various tuning forks of known natural frequencies.
7. Identify the resonating mode, and hence find  for each resonating frequency.
Plot a graph of ‘1/ν vs ’. Slope of the straight line is the velocity of the sound
wave in air.
8. Use the value of the velocity of sound waves to estimate the natural frequency
of the tuning fork whose frequency is unknown.

The first two modes of open and closed columns

Open

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Observations
Mass per unit length of the string () = ……. kg/m,
Tension, T, in the rope = (M+m) gm, where ‘m’ is the mass of the pan and ‘M’ is the
mass placed on the pan.
Mass of the pan (m) = 50 gm.
Repeat experiment for M= 50 gm, 100 gm, 150 gm

Table 1: Phase velocity of rope waves

Velocity v
Length of No. of (in m/s)
Sl. T=(M+m)g Frequency 1/ν
the string, loops λ = 2L/n νλ
No. (in Newton) ν (in Hz) (in s) T
L (in m) (n)


(50+50)g

L1=

(100+50)g

L2 =

(150 +50)g

L3 =

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Table 2: Velocity of sound in air

Natural Velocity v
Length of Mode
frequency λ= (in m/s)
Sl. 1/ν air column, number ‘n’
of the 4L/(2n-1)
No. (in s) L (fundamental
tuning fork (closed) νλ
(in cm) or overtone)
ν (in Hz)

Results
Plot a graph of ‘1/ν vs ’.

The velocity of the sound wave in air from the slope of the straight line is…………

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 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Table 3: Determination of the unknown natural frequency of the tuning fork

Natural
Length of air Mode number ‘n’ Velocity of the
λ = 4L/(2n-1) frequency of the
column, L (fundamental or sound wave from
(closed) tuning fork
(in cm) overtone) the graph (v)
ν (in Hz)

Error calculation
c = 
 c  
Find  
c  

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Precautions
1. Ensure that the amplitude of vibration is maximum or else, error may come in
correlating nodal distances with the rope lengths

2. Always set the vibration to maximum by turning the frequency knob in one
direction or else backlash error may creep in

3. Ensure that the rope passes freely through the eye of the vibrator plunger

4. Do not place more than 200g on the pan as it may damage or break the string.

Questions
1. Do we get first, second, third…. (i.e., all the harmonics) harmonics in all cases
of stationary waves produced?
2. What is the difference between group velocity and phase velocity? Which of the
two in greater?
3. How can you improve upon the experimental set up to find the velocity of rope
wave without the use of a wave generator?
4. What are the possible sources of error in the experiment?
5. With what frequency or frequencies the string would vibrate if it is plucked.

Graphs: Phase velocity of rope wave and velocity of sound.

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