Vedantism and Sufism

A Comparative Study
Wahid Nasaru
Abstract
The tradition of Vedant and Sufism both as doctrines and practices are
firmly founded on the priori that there is a dimension of existence which
is beyond conceptual comprehensions. A mystic and spiritual dimension
that is more experienced than explained. Mystical traditions of Vedant and
Sufism although sprouting from two distinct belief systems address the same
universal human problem of being, truth and absolute reality. Both aspire
and expect from its adherents to search for truth through intuition and
personal experience while rejecting sources of knowledge other than divine
to be authentic . Present paper is an attempt to deconstruct the phenomena
of mystical practices of Vedant and Sufism which defy to be subjected to
explanation and empirical applications, thus are resilient to be reduced to
be confined to time and space; as an absolute is by its nature eternal and
infinite beyond the realm of time and space. Although not claiming to be
strictly a comparative study, the paper takes these mystical traditions as
a general human phenomenon with a few commonalities , in cosmogony,
ritual practices structural organization despite a marked difference between
the universalizing Islam and ethnic religion Hinduism. However in a crude
sense both are cults and fringe religions in a sense that the cults arise to
meet demands not being satiated by the existing exoteric forms held by the
majority.

Keywords
Vedant, Sufism, Exoteric, Esoteric, Aphoristic, Metaphorical, Brahmaan,
Sukta, Aayat, Atman, Unity of God, Mukti, Baqa.

Introduction
Mystical traditions of Vedant and Sufism, although sprouting from two
distinct belief systems of Hinduism and Islam, address the problems
of being, truth and absolute reality. Despite developing in entirely two
different socio-cultural and geographical settings at two different time
frame works, vow for the search of truth through intuition: rejecting
sources of knowledge other than divine to be authentic.
The traditions of Vedant and Sufism: - both as doctrine and practice
are firmly founded on the priori that there is a dimension of existence
which is beyond conceptual comprehensions. The mystic or spiritual
Vedantism and Sufism: A Comparative Study

dimension that is more experienced than explained. Explanations

and emperical applications reduce an object to a thing in space and
time. It will be absurd to reduce absolute reality to a thing which by
its very nature is eternal and infinite, beyond the realms of time and
space. It defies conceptualization and even imagination. One can only
be bewildered (Ibn Arabi) creation, creator, God, Brahman are veiled
in mysteries and all scientific (empirical) approach proves a failure to
demystify these realities. Transcendence or the concept of beyond are
beyond appropriation in absolute terms. While deliberating upon the
concepts with regard to religion, some methodological problems are
bound to arise, which need to be explained if not solved entirely.
Western social thought is oblivious to the sacred mystery of being
and does not acknowledge intuition or mystical experiences as valid
sources of knowledge and that these don’t have knowable structure
which defies analysis. On the contrary Advaitini and sufis reject logic
and reasoning and consider intuition and knowledge as the sole source
to see the reality. It is the domain of the knowledge where the actions
and consequences are assumed to b true if they are universely believed
to be true. As John Dewy states that religious beliefs are not statements
of the fact but are aspirations and are far from illusiory. They exist and in
their interaction with actual conditions of life have consequences-they
are real that way.1 With this argument a functional theory of religion
can be formulated. The approach therefore, should be to investigate
not what religion or religious belief or a practice is, but what it does
to its practitioner and the collectivity, where it is practiced. These
consequences can be operationalised during investigation.
The Vedanta and Sufism as a focus of enquiry has been immensely
deliberated and the share bulk of the literature is intriguing as well
as frustrating. The original sources of Vedant doctrine are Vedas,
Upanishads and a treasure of commentaries written in archaic Sanskrit.
Carried first through oral tradition (Surthiparampara) and then put in
writing over a long period of time. The sacred language has turned into
an archaic relic as far as its spoken dimension is concerned. That a
very large volume perhaps even the greater volume of the primary and
secondary material, indispensable to social science research, is still
unpublished. The major portion of commentaries and critique is yet to
be translated so as to be available to researchers not knowing Sanskrit.
On the other hand Sufi literature and its critique is besieged with the
1 John Dewy, A common Faith, New Heaven, Yale University press,1934.
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problem of being multi lingual and spanned across the personal and
public library of sub continent, Asia, Africa and Europe. The primary
documents are in Arabic and Persian languages and mostly in manuscript
form and yet to be explored. Absence of such material hampers to trace
the origin and development of tradition in a scientific way.
Same applies to the aspects of philosophy, metaphysics, art, poetry,
ritual practices, which in Vedant case spread over thousands of years
and for Sufism it is transcontinental. Both need volume of expertise
and knowledge of languages. We owe much to the orientalists who
painstakingly brought these masterpieces of literature to the fore for
contemporary readers and researchers. For the present paper entitled
“Vedant and Sufism: A Comparative Study”, the literature reviewed
although but a drop in the ocean, facilitated the construction of a
conceptual framework and a theoretical background. Besides holy texts
of Vedas, Quran and their Exagetical commentaries the review includes
Das Gupta, Surendra Nath (1922,1924), Arthur Llewllyn Basham (1954).
Dawson Paul, Geden (1972), Roy Parret (2000), Ganga ja Nath (1903-
1936), Ghate V. S (1926), Cough (1923), Griffith R.T (1920), Hirayana
M. (1960), Keith Arthur Baredale (1925), Mahadevan (1938,1975),
Max Muller (1887.1956), Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme(1966),
Radha Krishnan S.(1951), Roy Parett (2000), William Indrich (1980),
Aditya K. Gupta (2013), Micheal Comans (2000).
For sufi philosophical dimensions the works reviewed are Nasr
Syed Husain (1991), Shimmel Annemarie (1975,1985), Sells Micheal
(1996), Arberry (1948, 1952, 1990), Birchardt Titus (1983), Smith,
Grace Martin, Earnest (1994), von Schlligal (1990), Oral Nicholson
(2009), Martin Lings (1956), Afifi Abul Ala (1939), Gibb (1945) and
Hourani Albert (2009). In addition the reputed English translations of
the master pieces such as Kashf Al-Mahjub of Hujwiri, Mantakotayir
of Fareed-ud-din Attar, Fasusul-Hikam of Ibn Arabi, Insaan-i-Kamil
of Jilly, Fatu-al-Ghayib of Abdul Qadir Jeelani and Tohfa Mursala by
Mubarak Makhzoomi were of immense help to formulate conceptual
background of the tradition.
Vedant and Sufism encompass a broad range of ideology and
beliefs by virtue of having branched out in many orders and suborders.
Every other order is linked to extraordinary experiences and states of
mind which render application of a single theoretical model impossible.
An attempt is made to use a contextual approach converging it with
sociological functionalism. The former has a potential to take
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historical-cultural contexts in consideration and the latter is a proved

approach for consequences. The multiplicity of orders is a barrier to
define the abstract concepts because same concepts most often convey
multiple meanings. Another methodological problem arises because
of tradition’s generic nature, resulting in clubbing of separate practice
and beliefs into one concept which otherwise have grown into separate
socio-cultural environs. As a continuous process (especially for Vedant)
through the generations, nay ages, their meanings have undergone
changes. In addition their applications are as varied as the cultures these
have sprouted from.
The Christian overtures employed in transliteration and translation
of archaic texts not only by western scholars but nonwestern scholars as
well, pose another methodological problem. There is a dearth of similar
terms in Hinduism and Islam. Secondly the state of consciousness
experienced by an Advaitini or a Sufi are distinct when compared to
the sensory experiences of the majority. Such experiences although
fundamental to a mystic, but often contradict with ecclesiastic or
theological interpretations. A typical example is of the concepts like
presence of God, unity of God, consciousness of God and union
with God. In most of the studies such concepts have been used
interchangeably resulting in constant tension between an order and the
theological interpretations.
There is a consensus that Vedant and Sufism are mystic traditions
of Hinduism and Islam, closer to the meanings of ‘Musterion’ or
‘Mysterion’ of New Testament. It literally means anything hidden
. In other biblical versions it is applied to the hidden will of God or
hidden sense of things , secrets behind sayings. If Advaitini finds secret
meanings in Vedas, Sufi too is engrossed in the riddles of Quranic verse.
This is the fundamental but not the last plank where both traditions
stand together. The main objective of the paper is to present a synoptic
view of these rich traditions to infer more questions than answers. It
tries to situate the twin doctrines of Vedant and Sufism as a contested
subject which despite a campaign of malice are being practiced and
continue to admit new adherents.
The paper does not claim to be technically a comparative study
which demands a specific comparative methodology characterized
by the accommodation of the religious facts, determination of their
real agreements and differences in addition to their demonstrable
interdependence. Besides both traditions Vedanta of Hindus and Sufism
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of Islam are taken as a general human phenomenon in an attempt to

discuss a few commonalities, general patterns and their associations
with their cultural and ecological features. Secondly both traditions
are seen as a part of larger cultural or a social system. The paper
subscribes to the view point that there is a marked difference between a
universalizing and ethnic religious tradition. Sufism falls in the former
and Vedanta in particular and Hinduism in general falls in the category
of ethnic religion like Judaism or Shinto. By ethnic shall we mean that
it belongs to a specific people or a group of people2. Both the traditions
again fall in the category of extraordinary religion.3 i.e Their everyday
culture and concerns, growing at the borders of life and seek to cross
over to contact God. In a crude sense both Vedanta and Sufism are more
cults, fringe religion in the sense that the cults arise to meet demands
not being satisfied by the existing exoteric forms held by the majority.4
The objective of the present paper is to understand human behavior in
mono cultural context without underrating diversity.
Both are one way or the other mystical; the experiences of which are
ineffable and indispensible by virtue of the involvement of numinous to
attain an unexpected knowledge and understanding of universe through
a changed self.
Sufism and Vedanta before establishing themselves as metaphysical
doctrine are mystical dimensions of two great traditions: Islam and
Hinduism; impacted by their historical and geographical and cultural
settings. Mysticism on the other hand is taken as a religious belief based
on union with a deity or divine being which lets a seeker transcend
the physical experience divine enlightenment. Both Hinduism
and Islam have their forms of mysticism; placing an emphasis on
spiritual dimension and mysteries of scripture over dogma and rigid
legal derivatives. The paper further subscribes to the view point that
mysticism of all religious address the fundamental quest of human mind
to seek the ultimate truth. The commonalities in the quest is the common
heritage of human civilization. Secondly the development and growth
of Vedanta and Sufism along with their divergent schools of thoughts,
variation in their modes of thought and virtue, upholds the argument
that religion and its scripture too is subject to change by the way of
interpretations of the original scripture to find a new meaning. It is one
2 Anne Sofie Granslund; Vikings: The Norse Atlantic Sag.
3 Catherine Albanese, America: Religion and Religions.
4 Phillip Jenkins: Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native
Spirituality. Oxford University Press 2005
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of the reasons that such mystical trends emerge when the customary and
traditional practice seem spiritually stifling.
As mysticism is not bound by a specific religion is more prone to
syneretism and by its very nature turns radical towards strict dogma
and rituals in vogue. Sir William Jhones (1807) while reflecting upon
Sufism states that they were free thinkers and that they had much
more in common with Greek Philosophy and mystical Speculations of
Indian Vedanta.5 For an observer the mystical doctrines of vedant and
Sufism looked same in substance of their meaning and differed only in
expression.6

Sources
The sources upon which Sufism and Vedanta draw are sacred scripture
as both are mystical paths of literate tradition. For advaita Vedanta the
sources to legetamise their metaphysical inferences in Vedas. Upanishads
Brahma Sutra. A group of sacred hymns composed in aarchaic Sanskrit
probably during 1500-1200 B.C.7 The entire focus of Vedic literature
is considered to be the product of device revelation. These were handed
down orally for generations in the form of memorized texts through
Snavana and Surti Parampara before being committed to writing.
Without the twin foundation of Vedas, Quran and Hadiths (saying of
prophet, the vast beautiful structure of Hindu and Islamic mysticism
could neither have been erected nor preserved ).8 Vedant literally
means end of Vedas. Veda and Vedanta. It is by text and explanations
considered to be the concluding part of Vedas. Out of the accumulated
treasures of Vedas the Upanishads
1. ChandogayPanishad
2. Bradara Nayaka Upanishad
3. Mundokoya Panishad
4. Taittniyo Panishad
5. Katho Panishad
6. Praso Panishad
7. Maitri Upanishad
8. Mubti Upanishad are the fountain head of vedant a philosophical
5 “The sixth Discourse on the Persians” in Works, (London,1807) 3. PP.130-132.
6 Sir William Jones, “On the mystical poetry of Persians and Hindus”,WORKS.4.
PP.220-221.
7 Britanica Ready Reference Encyclopedia BritanicaIne vol.10,2005. P.88.
8 Arthur. J.Arbury, Introduction to the History of Sufism, Longman Group, Lon-
don, 1942,P.2. See also Abdullah Suharwardi, Traditions of the Prophet.
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school embodying the crux of vedic thought rightly held that Vedanta is
the fruit of vedic seed which are garnered in the Upanishads or Vedanta
exists in the Vedas like oil exists in the Tila corn. (Tilesu-Tailamiva
Vede-Vedantah Supratisthitah). The Upanishads of many parts being
in aphoristic style and difficult to understand Badrayana culled out
Brahmasutra also known as Vedanta Sutra, Sririka Sutra, Bikshu Sutra,
Uttarmimamsa Sutra which contains essence of Vedanta.
With Upanishads, The Brahmans and Aryakas, complete the
three tier commentaries of Vedas which otherwise contain hymns or
Samithas.9 As far its oral tradition or Shruti Parampara, shruti denotes,
“What is heard” and smirti means “ What is remembered”.
Aphoristic and metaphorical style of vedic texts on one hand and the
time gaps for commentaries and exegetical works on the other, result in
the varied interpretations, often contradictory. The exercise developed
into different schools of thought (Darshan) in Indian philosophy.
Upanishads turned into an Umbrella term for many sub traditions
and doctrines ranging from dualism to non-dualism. However, all the
schools built upon “Prasthantrayi” principle where there is a consensus
that the Vedas are the revealed verse and the ultimate source of
knowledge. Prasthantrayi is a collective term for principle Upanishads,
the Brahama Sutra and Bhagwat Gita. Out of well established six
schools (Dasshans, Astika) Advaita Vedanta presents striking similarity
in doctrine, metaphysics and practices with Islamic mysticism tradition
Sufism. Other schools are Dvaita, Daitadvaita, Shudhadvaita, Nyaya,
Sambhya, Yoga.
The similarity in thought process has strengthened critique with
regard to Sufism that the latter was influenced significantly by the
former. Western and orthodox muslim scholarship is replete with this
mindset and vedant connection to Sufism is the important component
of their tirade against Sufism as un Islamic. Infact before constructing
analogies, it is imperative that there must be something similar in the
state of knowledge and of society where the same causes produce the
same effects. The term Advaita first occurs in vedanti.e context of
Mundubya Upanishad.10 others consider the term from Vedic era and
the sage Vayanavalkya (8-7th CE) told to have coined it in connection
to the verse of Bhidranyaka Upanishad. Its central philosophy that what
9 Klostemaine Klaus, K., a Survey of Hinduism, State University of New York
Press 2007, P.46.
10 Richard King 1995.P.268,
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created all existence is also present in all; reflected in all beings and
inert matter and that (Brahman) is both efficient and instrumental cause
of the creation, that creative principle was and is everywhere, always.11
Apparently Wahdatul Wajood term appears to be the carbon copy of
this philosophical derivative. The source of Sufism is Quran and Hadith
(theaying of the prophet). Quran by all believers is regarded as sacred
scripture of islam considered as infallible word of god revealed to
His messenger Mohammad. The text first compiled in its authorative
form in the 7th century consisting of 114 Suras composed of Ayats of
varying length in Arabic. By virtue of being sacred it is regarded as
immutable in both form and content. Traditionally its translations were
forbidden and even today translations and commentaries are termed
as paraphrases, in vogue to facilitate understanding. Besides there are
dozens of exegetical works of the Quran and collections of sayings of
the prophet which are equally revered and referred by the Sufis and
non sufis alike. The interpretative aspect of the scripture turns into a
fault line between sufi masters and orthodox established schools. The
historical obscure controversial development of Sufism too was a factor
to draw a wedge between exoteric and ecsotatic dimensions of Islam.
The former emphasizing outward observance of scripture and ritual and
latter for deep insight into scripture and essence of ritual. The growth and
development of Sufism has been summoned by Ibn Khaldun as Sufism
belongs to the sciences of the religious law that originated in Islam. It is
based on the assumption that the practices its adherents had always been
considered by the important early Muslims, the men around Mohammad
and the men of second generation, as well as those who cave after them,
as the path of truth and right guidance. The Sufi approach is based
upon constant application to divine worship, complete devotion to god,
aversion to false splendor of the world, abstinence from the pleasure,
retirement from the world to solitude for divine worship. These things
were general among men around Mohammed and the early muslims.
The special name was given to those who aspired to divine worship.12
Ever since not a single Sufi master (and there is a long list) be it early
ones or the late comers, has challenged the authenticity of Quran or
Hadith as guiding principles. Revelation however is taken by a sufi; a
11 Frits Staal, Discovering the Vedas, Origins, Mantaras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin
Books,2008, P.365.alsoMayeda ,1999, PP.18-20
12 Ibn Khaldun; The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History trans. Franz Rosen-
thal, ed. N. J. Dawood, Bollingen Series, Princeton University Press, 1969.
PP.358,359-367.
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locus of divine-human encounter. An emphasis on religious credentials

has always been on a prerogative to its masters and adherents and works
of sufis like Saraj. Sulami Kalabadhi, Suharwandi and others took pains
to link sufi doctrine to Quran and the prophet to demonstrate their close
relation to revelation and its messenger.13 Sufis practice ritual and their
rites the same way and in the same direction, but for them this outward
symbolic concentration serves as a support for inward concentration.
Those making all ritualistic movements during prayers however, are
symbolic representation of revelation which says that remembrance of
god is greater than ritual. QXXIX:45, firmly believing that the inward
turning towards centre is greater than turning towards outer centre.14
Same applies to almost all verses of Quran and the sayings. That Sufism
simultaneously excludes atheism and agnostism but also exoterism for
being exonable and which claims to be self sufficient with its narrow
vision while taking a aphorism of Quran and other verses in their literal
sense. The casual Exoteric interpretations have turned sacred into the
domain of profanity by virtue of tendency to take revelations at their
face value. Although Sufism does not exclude outward as such as
outward too is one of divine names.
He is the first
and the last
The evident
And the hidden
And He has full knowledge
Of all things.
(Q. LVII. 3)
As the outward is one with the inward, the outward for Sufi
becomes symbolic but the essence lies in the inward centre. The Quran
is the book of the whole community yet ironically it has turned into
the book of minority.15 The spiritual elect only adhere to its message
in essence. In its practical applications also it is Sufi who turns into the
real straight path seeker, invoked in most often repeated customary five
time prayers. Quran.1:6.
Show us the straight path.
The exoteric interpretation for straight path regulated by Sharia
13 Carl.W.Earnest, Sufism; An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition of Islam.
14 Martin Lings, what is Sufism. Reprint Kitab Mahal Srinagar 2016.p.31.
15 Quran Majeed LVII. 30.
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(legal code drawn from the quran). While as Sufi Interprets it is a path
leading to Him and His Divnity. Emphasis on essence of revelation and
hadith separates sufisecsoterism from exoterism, widening meanwhile
a gap of the doctrinal and metaphysical derivatives. However, this
emphasis establishes a special affinity between sufi and the revelation.
Sufi’s decision to seek the right path pushes him to eternal instead of
ephemeral. His practices turn his belief into action and which is not
only mental but painstakingly vigorous which ultimately leads to Him.
Adherence to their essence instead of outward literal places sufi at
the citadel of foremost who by virtue of his practices presses eagerly
forward on the straight path as compared to majority.
Unto all (in faith)
Hath Allah promised good
But those who strived and fight
Hath he distinguished
Above those who sit at home
By a great reward.
(Q. VI. 95)
Same is revealed and interpreted in verses LVI.8.40, LXXVI.5-6,
LXXXIII:8-28. Taking Quran as Al-furqan meaning criterion of
values and discernment, laying foundations for a hierarchy in virtues.
Difference on the emphasis of certain attributes of Allah appears
to be the second most important factor for the wedge between
customary Islam and Sufism. The orthodox scholarship reduces God-
Man relationship to a Sovereign-Subject Relationship to the utter
disregard to the other attributes of Allah. Although Allah Almighty is
undoubtedly the sovereign and supreme authority of the universe, but
the relationship is much wider, deeper and fuller and there is an ethereal
quality about it.16 Before obeying His commands as revealed in Quran,
he must know Him in essence through his attributes and sacred names
also revealed in the Book. Through his understanding He is his Friend
(Habib), guardian, protector, sustainer and preserver besides supreme
authority. The relationship is to be felt and experienced and this is
not physical but falls in the domain of spirituality, to attain proximity
to Him and become entirely His. The mere interpretation not akin to
established explanation does not amount to heresy and apostasy which
16 Syed Ahrar Hussain “Translations Note” in abdul Hasan ali Nadvi, Appreciation
and Interpretation of Religion in the Modern Age, Academy of Islamic research
and publications, Delhi,1982.PP.1-8.
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unfortunately it did. It should have been taken as enrichment instead

of aberations. Infact if Quran is taken as a word (last word) of God,
it would be periodically interpreted and newer explanations would
come forth till dooms day. Secondly exoterist interpretations take their
conclusions as fixed points, which otherwise is itself subject to changes
by way of new explanations and even changes in the meanings of the
words of scripture. The exoterist narrative closes the doors of discourse
on one hand and down grade the spiritual or mystical dimension of life,
the very foundation of all religions including Islam.
Arguments and counter arguments which resulted in the exegetics of
Vedas, flourished in different schools of though but in case of muslims,
it turned into aberations. When an advaitini reaches mokhsa (liberation)
and his self merges with Brahman (supreme self) he declares:
AhmBrahmansmi
I am Brahman
Or
Tat tvasmasi
That Thou Art
Or
AyatamaBrahaman
This atman is Brahman
Or
Pragananenu Brahmana
Prajajanum is Brahmana.
But sufihistory is replete with trials of apostasy. Hallaj pays for
uttering:
Anal Huq
I am God.
So paid the noble souls of Suharwardi, Sarmad, Darashikoh and
others. The intellects of all time Imam Gazali, Ibn Arabi, Shams Tabrez
were spared , but faced literal tirade. An array of Sufi poets not only
Persian but Syrian, Arabs, Spaniads and many more if not executed
in person but were repeatedly murdered in anti sufi tirades on pulpits.
The discourses with regard to verse and hadith by Abdul Qadir Jedani,
Ibn Farid, Ibn Farabi and the like are superb commentaries. Hujwiri,
depicting their faith in Quran and sayings of the prophet on one hand
and giving a rebuttal to the argument that muslim community had lost
creative potential and nothing but darkness and apostasy prevails in
muslim history. Sufis emerge as torch bearers of Islamic spirit and
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growth. As the prophet’s sayings has always been an inspiration to

strength his resolve to tread the path of righteous.
1. Some people of my community will always be supreme and
their success and dominance will continue till dooms day.1
Bukhari, Sahih, Kitab al-Munaqi

2. A group in my community will always be successful and those who

will not support them, can put them to no loss….till the end of the
world.
Jam-e-Jirmidhi, Kitab Al-Fitan

3. A group in my community will always be successful and victorious

in the matter of truth till the end of the world.
Hakim, Mustadarak

With regard to unresolved exoteric/esoteric dilemma Martin Lings

symbolically states:
Considering revelation (Quran) a flowing tidal wave from the ocean
of eternal infinitude to the shores of our finite world. Sufis endeavor is
to plunge into the ebb of one of these waves and to be drawn back with
it to its eternal and finite source. The outhoxy are exclusively concerned
with the water, which the waves deposit in recepticles-which constitutes
the formal aspect of religion. By comparison sufi is interested in ebbing
wave.
Sharing all those rites with the Orthodoxy although performed
esoterically but with the firm belief that the waters left in the recepticles
by the tidal wave is the same water that ebbs. This way his outward
symbolic concentration serves as a support for inward concentration!17

References & Notes

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Mysticism , Adam Publisher ,2015.
2. Aditya.K. Gupta, Vedanta and Society : A Reflection on Vivekananda Philosophy,
Swrup Publishers , New Delhi, 2013.
3. Afifi Abul Ala , The Mystical Philosophy of Muhyid-Din-Ibnul Arabi, Cambridge,
1939.
4. Al Hujwiri, The Kashp Al Mahjoob, Trans. R. A. Nicholson, Adam Pubishers
and Disstributors,2009.
5. Al Sarraj, Kitab Al Luma , Trans, Nicholson…………
17 Martin Lings, what is Sufism. (Reprint) Kitab Mahal Srinagar, 2016, p.3.
220
 The Journal of Central Asian Studies, Vol. XXIV, 2017
6. Andrew O Fort and Patricia Mumme (ed) Living Liberation In Hindu Thought.
7. ArberryA.J.,An Introduction to the history of Sufism, Orient Longman , London,
1950.
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