Sequence Stratigraphy and Carbonate Platform Organization of The Devonian Santa Lucia Formation, Cantabrian M...

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Sequence stratigraphy and carbonate platform

organization of the Devonian Santa Lucia
Formation, Cantabrian M....
Article in Facies · February 2006

DOI: 10.1007/s10347-005-0030-4
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Facies (2005)
DOI 10.1007/s10347-005-0030-4
ORIGINAL PAPER
Michael H. Hofmann · Martin Keller
Sequence stratigraphy and carbonate platform organization

of the Devonian Santa Lucia Formation, Cantabrian Mountains,
NW-Spain
Received: 10 January 2005 / Accepted: 8 September 2005

C Springer-Verlag 2005
Abstract In this paper, the sedimentology and the strati- Introduction

graphic architecture of the Devonian Santa Lucia Forma-
tion in the Cantabrian Mountains of NW-Spain are de- The Cantabrian Mountains of Northern Spain (Fig. 1)
scribed. The Santa Lucia Formation consists of 11 different have long been known for their excellent outcrops of
facies that can be attributed to peritidal/lagoonal, intertidal Palaeozoic siliciclastic and carbonate rocks. A wealth
and subtidal facies associations. These facies associations of lithostratigraphic data was accumulated during the
are arranged in small-scale sedimentary cycles. Three dif- late 19th and the 20th century. Sequence stratigraphic
ferent settings of small-scale sedimentary cycles are recog- approaches to the succession, however, are rare (Fernández
nized: intertidal/supratidal, shallow subtidal/intertidal and et al. 1997; Keller 1997).
subtidal cycles. These cycles reflect spatial differences in The present study is part of a larger project to reconstruct
the reaction of the depositional system to small-scale rel- depositional facies and environments during the Silurian,
ative sea-level changes. Small-scale stratigraphic cycles Devonian and Carboniferous of the southern Cantabrian
are stacked into seven medium-scale cycles that in turn Mountains. These studies are a basis for the reconstruction
are integral parts of three larger-scale cycles. Most of the of the geodynamic processes that acted at the transition
Santa Lucia Formation (sequences 2–6) forms one major from a passive-margin stage towards the onset of orogeny
large-scale cycle, whereas sequences 1 and 7 are part of an in the foreland thrust-and-fold belt of a relatively small
underlying and an overlying cycle, respectively. Eustatic continental fragment, Iberia, as part of the Armorican
sea-level changes exerted major control on the formation terrane assemblage (Tait et al. 1997, 2000).
of these large-scale sequences, whereas the medium-scale The present study focuses on the Emsian/Eifelian
cycles seem to be co-controlled by regional tectonism and carbonate platform of the Santa Lucia Formation (Fig. 1).
eustasy. Small-scale cycles seem to be the product of high The Emsian/Eifelian is a crucial interval in the history of
frequency, eustatic sea-level changes. During the deposi- the Cantabrian Mountains. On a regional scale, the Silurian
tion of the Santa Lucia Formation, the morphology of the and Early Devonian sedimentation is interpreted to be
carbonate platform changed from a gently south-dipping exclusively eustatically-driven. In contrast, the Eifelian
ramp to a rimmed shelf and back to a gently dipping and Givetian are predominantly eustatically dominated,
ramp. however, the influence of a tectonic component is well
recognized.
Keywords Sequence stratigraphy . Stratigraphic cycles . The goals of this study are to describe the facies and
Cantabrian Mountains . Devonian . Carbonate platform facies distribution of the Santa Lucia Formation (Emsian/
evolution . Spain Eifelian) in the south-central part of the Cantabrian Zone,
to document the evolution of the carbonate shelf in this
M. H. Hofmann · M. Keller () area, and to develop a sequence-stratigraphic framework
Institut für Geologie und Paläontologie, Universität
Erlangen-Nürnberg, for the Santa Lucia Formation. In this study, we apply a
91054 Erlangen, Germany process-oriented subdivision to the Santa Lucia Formation
e-mail: keller@geol.uni-erlangen.de incorporating the data of the landmark studies of De Coo
Tel.: +49-09131-852-2632 (1974), Méndez Bedia (1976) and Buggisch et al. (1982).
Fax: +49-09131-852-9295 The (litho-) facies types described below each reflect dis-
Present address: tinct physical conditions such as mechanical deposition
M. H. Hofmann from either suspension or storms or microbially-induced
Department of Geology, University of Montana, structures or binding. We will then show that most of the
Missoula, MT, 59812 USA
Fig. 1 a Map of the Iberian
Peninsula; shaded areas
represent outcrops of Palaeozoic
rocks. The Iberian Massif is part
of the European Variscan Massif
that continues from Spain in the
west to the Bohemian Massif in
Eastern Europe. The Cantabrian
Zone is the northeastern
foreland thrust and fold belt of
the Iberian Massif. b Map of the
Cantabrian Zone showing the
different structural provinces
mentioned in the text. (c)
Distribution of the Santa
Lucia/Caldas Formation in the
southern Asturo Leonese basin
and location of the measured
sections
lithofacies are arranged in a predictable fashion and will

use the facies arrangements for a cyclo- and sequence-
stratigraphic interpretation. In this study, the sediments
of the Santa Lucia Formation are subdivided into a hi-
erarchy of cycles of three orders of magnitude: small-
scale cycles, medium-scale cycles and large-scale cycles.
With this approach, the discussion about the hierarchy
of cycles and their attribution to distinct causing mecha-
nisms, e.g., 3rd-order sequences to global, eustatic sea-level
changes (Vail et al. 1977) is avoided. In addition, incongru-
ence with other sequence-stratigraphic approaches, which
may lead to a different scheme of hierarchies, is avoided
too.
Regional setting
The Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain are composed

of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata. The Palaeo-
zoic deposits are attributed to the Cantabrian Zone (Fig. 1:
Lotze 1945), the northeastern foreland thrust-and-fold belt
of the Iberian Variscan Autochthon (Quesada 1992). During
the Silurian and Devonian, the sediments of the Cantabrian Fig. 2 Comparison of thicknesses and distribution of Palaeozoic
Zone were deposited across a stable shelf area. The cor- rocks in the Cantabrian Zone and the West Asturian Leonese Zone
responding hinterland to the north and east is known as (WALZ). The Narcea Anticlinorium is a zone of Precambrian rocks
“Cantabrian Block” (Radig 1963: Fig. 1). The shelf, on the between the two Palaeozoic sedimentary provinces. The WALZ rep-
resents the deeper open-marine Palaeozoic basin to the south and
other hand, was bound by the West Asturian Leonese Zone west of the Cantabrian Zone with thick sediment accumulation. The
(Lotze 1945). This is an area of much higher subsidence to Asturo Leonese basin was the shelf area during most of the Palaeo-
the south and west, where rather thick Lower Palaeozoic zoic; the Cantabrian Block acted as the source area during most
successions accumulated (Fig. 2). of the Silurian and Devonian (modified from Pérez-Estaun et al.
During the Silurian and Devonian, three major palaeo- 1994 and Van den Bosch 1969b)
geographic entities are recognized in the Cantabrian Zone
(Fig. 1). The aforementioned Cantabrian Block delivered as allochthonous units in a Carboniferous flysch basin in
terrigenous detritus to the shelf area; the Asturo Leonese the southeastern part of the Cantabrian Zone, known as
Basin or Asturo Leonese shelf that received this detritus; Pisuerga Carrión structural unit (Julivert 1971).
and the Palencian Basin or facies (Brouwer 1964), a pelagic During the Silurian, the Asturo Leonese shelf was dom-
equivalent to the shelf facies. This Palencian facies is found inated by siliciclastic deposition (Formigoso and San Pe-
dro Formations). During the Lochkovian and Pragian, a in the off-reef facies. Conodont data from the reef belt
carbonate ramp was established (Keller 1988, 1997) that and the off-reef facies indicate that the Santa Lucia was de-
shows the first signs of syn-depositional tectonics. The posited from the serotinus through the partitus zone (Fig. 5;
Emsian is characterized by deposition of pelagic shales Buggisch et al. 1982; Garcı́a López and Sanz López 2002)
that up-section grade into variegated marlstones, lime- that is from the Upper Emsian through the basal Eifelian.
stones and shales (Esla Formation with Villayandre Mem- Chronostratigraphic data provided by Tucker et al. (1998)
ber; Keller 1988) reflecting a successive shallowing of show that deposition of the Santa Lucia Formation took
the depositional environment. Above this succession, the between 6.5 and 10 My and that the average accumulation
carbonate platform of the Santa Lucia Formation was rate was on the order of 27–40 mm/1,000 y.
established.
After drowning of the Santa Lucia Formation, another
siliciclastic unit, the Huergas Formation was deposited as
Facies
an intercalation between the two major carbonate forma-
tions of Devonian age. The younger one, the Portilla For-
The Santa Lucia Formation consists of 11 different facies
mation, is of Givetian age and reflects complex interactions
(Table 1). Previous authors suggested subdividing the Santa
between sea-level changes and tectonic movements (Rei-
Lucia Formation into two, three or four facies zones, re-
jers 1972, 1974; Raven 1983). The Upper Devonian shows
spectively (De Coo 1974; Méndez Bedia 1976; Buggisch
the first major subdivision of the preserved sedimentary
et al. 1982). For the purpose of this study, however, the
basin along the “Intra Asturo Leonesian Faciesline” (IALF;
different facies were combined into three facies associa-
Raven 1983), a feature separating an area of repeated uplift
tions that represent major depositional systems (Fig. 3).
and erosion to the north from a rapidly subsiding basin to its
Although these facies associations are found across the en-
south. Tilting and erosion led to the formation of a regional
tire Asturo Leonese basin, the northern part of the shelf
angular unconformity prior to the latest Upper Devonian
was dominated by a back-reef, peritidal/lagoonal and shal-
(pre-Ermita unconformity) with the effect that there is a
low subtidal environment with locally high terrigenous
successive cut-out of strata from S to N until eventually Up-
siliciclastic input. The southern part of the shelf is dom-
per Devonian rocks rest on Ordovician strata. In the transect
inated by reef carbonates and subtidal open-marine envi-
discussed here, this erosion affected the sections around
ronments. Conodont data by Garcı́a Alcalde et al. (1979a,b)
Caldas de Luna which therefore are incomplete towards the
and Buggisch et al. (1982) confirmed that the different fa-
top.
cies zones are laterally interfingering and are, indeed, time
conform.
The Santa Lucia Formation
Intertidal to supratidal facies association
The Santa Lucia Formation is a major carbonate platform
unit within the Palaeozoic succession of the Cantabrian
Description
Zone. It was originally defined by Comte (1959) who de-
scribed the “calcaire de Santa Lucia” from its type lo-
This facies consists mainly of 0.5-m to 1.0-m-thick beds
cality in the Bernesga valley. De Smits (1965) described
of finely laminated mudstones that contain bird’s-eyes and
a succession of Devonian lagoonal carbonates, which he
laminoid-fenestral fabrics (LF-fabrics). Peloids (0.5 mm to
correlated to the upper part of the La Vid Group (Esla For-
1.5 mm in diameter) are widely scattered throughout the
mation of Keller (1988)), the Santa Lucia Formation and
mudstones. Ostracods and calcispheres represent the rare
the Huergas Formation. Subsequent studies (e.g. De Coo
autochthonous fauna. In this facies, fragments of aulopores,
1974; Buggisch et al. 1982) have shown that these lagoonal
gastropods, brachiopods and crinoids are rarely found. Sev-
deposits are much more widespread than assumed by De
eral beds are dolomitic with casts of evaporite minerals
Smits (1965). In fact, they correlate entirely with the Santa
(mainly gypsum) and desiccation cracks cap many of the
Lucia Formation as defined by Comte (1959) and Buggisch
beds. Marlstone beds and siltstone-shale layers are present
et al. (1982) for the Leonese part of the shelf, and Méndez
(Fig. 6).
Bedia (1976) for the Asturian part of the Cantabrian Zone.
The basic picture that evolved from these studies is that
the Santa Lucia Formation (including the lagoonal deposits
Interpretation
as described by De Smits 1965) represents a carbonate shelf
with a well-developed lagoon, a reef belt and an off-reef
These facies were deposited in an intertidal to supratidal
facies (Fig. 3). Transitional facies between the individual
environment with restricted conditions. This is inferred
facies belts are common (Buggisch et al. 1982).
from the presence of bird’s-eyes, LF-fabrics, calcipheres,
This study is based on the sections and biostratigraphic
peloids, desiccation cracks and casts of evaporites.
data provided by Buggisch et al. (1982). The transect dis-
Fragments of brachiopods, crinoids and aulopores were
cussed in this paper (Fig. 4) covers lagoonal facies and their
transported by waves or slow currents into the lagoon.
transition into the reef belt proper in the north. Towards the
Alternatively, the fragments may be the product of storm
south, the transect crosses the reef belt proper and ends
Fig. 3 Lithofacies, facies associations and their general distribu- dal cycles are most common in the northern parts of the study area,
tions across the Santa Lucia shelf/ramp. Descriptions of the individ- whereas subtidal small cycles dominate in the southern sections. See
ual lithofacies types are given in Table 1. The primary sedimentary text for further details
cycles are typical successions for these facies associations. Periti-
reworking of the lagoonal deposits. The dolomites are Shallow subtidal to lower intertidal facies association
early diagenetic in origin and are a common feature in
arid supratidal environment. Thin beds of fine-grained Description
wackestones with a sharp base represent storm-deposits.
The siltstone-shale facies generally alternate with finely This facies association generally consists of Aulopora-
laminated microbial limestones. Thicker beds of this boundstone facies and peloidal-grainstone facies, locally
terrigenous facies might be related to an alluvial-fan alternating with beds of fine-grained wackestone facies.
system entering the restricted lagoon, whereas thinner The aulopores are the main constituents of small, lat-
shale covers might be windblown dust from the hinterland. erally discontinuous patch-reefs, which are arranged to
A more detailed discussion of these sediments is a work in form biostromes. Sporadically, they are associated with
progress and will be published elsewhere. stromatoporoids and alternate with peloidal grainstones be-
From a larger-scale perspective of the shelf, De Coo tween the patch reefs. The diameter of the peloids changes
(1974), Méndez Bedia (1976) and Buggisch et al. (1982) between 20 and 200 µm and they lack internal structures.
all inferred a lagoonal setting for these deposits. This la- Lithoclasts, fragments of ostracods, calcispheres and
goon was bounded to the north by the Cantabrian Block brachiopods are present. Bird’s-eyes and LF-fabrics are
and towards the south by a reef belt. abundant in the peloidal-grainstone facies (Fig. 6).
Table 1 Lithofacies distinguished in the Santa Lucia Formation with detailed lithologic description and interpretation
Lithofacies type Mineralogy, Sedimentary Sorting and Components and organisms Thickness Interpretation
(LFT) texture and and biogenic grain size
color structures
Bird’s-eyes mud- Medium gray Desiccation Poor in Peloids, ostracods, 0.5–1.0 m Intertidal to supratidal
stone/microbial lime- cracks, grains, calcispheres, fragmented environment colonised
laminites mudstone LF-fabrics, grains auloporoids, gastropods, by microbial mats.
(LFT1) with microbial <1 mm brachiopods and crinoids Fragments of different
abundant laminae, organisms record the
calcite bird’s-eyes occasional influence of
cements structures storms
Textureless Blue-gray Large voids Poor in Few gypsum minerals, 1.0–20.0 cm Supratidal low-energy
mudstone/ lime- filled by grains ostracods and calcispheres sediments, restrictive
dolomite mudstone, calcite conditions within a
(LFT2) locally lagoon
dolomitized
Fine-grained, Brownish- Bird’s-eyes, Well-sorted LITHOCLASTS, 1.0–50.0 cm Intertidal to shallow
well- sorted gray fenestral and calcispheres, ostracodes, subtidal intermediate
wackestone wackestone fabrics, rounded fragments of brachiopods, energy environment with
(LFT3) bioturbation, crinoids, gastropods and normal marine, well
wavy to corals (Favosites, aerated conditions
nodular auloporoids)
texture
Poorly sorted Medium to Oscillation Poor sorting Plasticlasts, fragments of 30–40 cm Shallow subtidal normal
wackestone dark gray ripples (crest and gastropods (dominant), marine environment right
(LFT4) wackestone distance rounding, corals (Favosites, above normal wave base
10.0–14.0 cm) fragments auloporoids, between low-energy and
between thamnoporoids), trilobites high-energy conditions
1.0 and (rare) and sponge spicules (transition zone)
7.0 mm (rare)
Peloidal Medium gray Bird’s-eyes and Well-sorted Abundant peloids, cm to dm Intertidal to shallow
grainstone to brown fenestral and lithoclasts, calcispheres, subtidal intermedium
(LFT5) pack/ fabrics, rare rounded fragments of ostracods, energy sediments,
grainstone bioturbation brachiopods restrictive conditions
Aulopora- Medium gray Patch-reef like Poorly Auloporoids, rare 5.0–20.0 cm Shallow subtidal to
boundstone boundstone structures sorted stromatoporoids, peloids laterally intertidal restricted,
(LFT6) associated not lagoonal environment
with continues with occasional storm
grainstones events
Well-sorted, fine Light gray Abundant Well-sorted,
Crinoids dominant, 30–80 cm Subtidal intermediate
grained grainstone bioturbation grains brachiopods common, energy sediments, deposit
grainstone with chert between fragments of trilobites, near normal wave base
(LFT7) nodules 0.5 and bryozoans, corals
1.0 mm (thamnoporoids,
Favosites),
stromatoporoids and rare
tentaculites
Well-sorted, Light gray Rare Well-sorted, Crinoids dominant; dm Subtidal high-energy
coarse grained grainstone bioturbation grains up to brachiopods, bryozoans sediments indicating
grainstone 5.0 mm and corals (thamnoporoids, normal marine conditions
(LFT8) Favosites) are rare
Poorly sorted Medium gray Not recognized Poorly Crinoids are dominant; dm Subtidal storm-generated
pack-/ pack-/ sorted, bryozoans, brachiopods sediments accumulated
grainstone grainstone grains and stromatoporoids are in a fore-reef zone and
(LFT9) with beween common; fragments of recording normal marine
siliceous 0.5 mm and trilobites, tentaculites and conditions
nodules 2.0 cm auloporoids are rare
Table 1 Continued
Lithofacies Mineralogy, texture Sedimentary and Sorting and Components and organisms Thickness Interpretation
type (LFT) and color biogenic grain size
structures
Highly diverse Medium gray Bioherm buildups Poorly Colonial and solitary rugose m Shallow subtidal
boundstone boundstone sorted corals, Favosites, buildups display
(LFT10) thamnoporoids, bryozoans changing energy
and stromatoporoids conditions and
record reef
development in a
normal marine
environment
Marlstone and Yellowish tan marly mm-thick Mostly Rare crinoids, brachiopods mm to cm Subtidal low energy
marly lime mudstone to laminae, small well-sorted and bryozoans accumulations
limestone marlstone wave ripples
(LFT11) (rare)
Shales Reddish to light tan mm-thick laminae Well-sorted Not recognized cm Subtidal low energy
(LFT12) colored shales and sediments
siltstones
Irregularly distributed among these facies are 1 to 50 cm are characterized as bafflestones. Colonial rugose corals
thick beds of well-sorted brown-grey wackestone facies. and massive tabulate corals (Favosites) form framestones;
These beds contain calcispheres, ostracods, brachiopod stromatoporoid build-ups are typically bindstones. Succes-
fragments, crinoids and rare fragments of gastropods, dif- sive stages of reef evolution as described by Walker and
ferent corals and mud chips. Alberstadt (1975) and James (1983) have not yet been ob-
served in these reef complexes. The reef build-ups are lat-
erally discontinuous and alternate with beds of reef debris
Interpretation and crinoidal pack-/grainstones. Wackestone facies are un-
common as are marlstone facies and siltstone-shale facies
This facies association reflects intertidal to shallow subtidal (Fig. 6).
environments. Buggisch et al. (1982) pointed out that small
Aulopora-biostromes typically occur in the Santa Lucia la-
goon close to the main reef belt. Flügel (1978) described Interpretation
peloids as most common in intertidal and shallow subti-
dal environments. The lack of bioturbation in these beds The highly diverse boundstone facies were formed in
indicates that the peloids are a decay product of different a normal-marine environment. Build-ups dominated by
algae rather than faecal pellets. Such peloids are mostly Favosites and stromatoporoids are typical along the sea-
formed in shallow subtidal to intertidal environments with ward, high-energy margin of reef complexes. Dendroid
slight wave-induced current activity. Beds of fine-grained tabulate and rugose corals (Synaptophyllum, Mesophyllum)
wackestone facies are interpreted as storm deposits. are common in the low-energy environment of the back-reef
(Méndez Bedia et al. 1994). Similar growth positions for
Subtidal facies association these organisms have been described in many Devonian
reefs (e.g. Machel and Hunter 1994). The poorly sorted
Description grainstones are interpreted as storm deposits whereas well-
sorted grainstones are inferred to be barrier (shoal) deposits.
This facies association is mainly composed of well-sorted, These facies accumulated in a shallow-subtidal environ-
fine-grained grainstone facies, well-sorted coarse-grained ment. Fine-grained grainstone facies locally alternates with
grainstone facies, poorly sorted pack-/grainstone facies and marly limestone beds and were more likely accumulated in
highly diverse boundstone facies. Poorly-sorted wacke- a subtidal low-energy environment probably farther down
stones, marlstones and siltstone-shale facies are only found the reef slope or in protected areas within the back-reef area.
locally. Main reef builders of the highly diverse bound-
stone facies are solitary rugose corals and different tab-
ulate corals and stromatoporoids. Important bafflers and Cycles and sequences
binders are bryozoans and dendroid or massive stromato-
poroids. Beds with mainly rugose corals (Synaptophyl- The fundamental depositional units of the Santa Lucia
lum, Mesophyllum), Thamnopora and dendroid bryozoans Formation are small-scale cycles or primary stratigraphic
units (see Fig. 3). These units are similar to Sonnenfeld’s Intertidal/supratidal cycles are the basic depositional
“fundamental cycles” in the Mississippian of western units of major parts of the Valporquero/Felmı́n section in
North America (Sonnenfeld 1996). Vail et al. (1977, 1991) the eastern part of the study area. In the Caldas de Luna
referred to similar genetically related cyclic stratigraphic section, the basal wackestone unit is commonly missing
packages as 5th order cycles and, in siliciclastic succes- and cycles are thinner there. In the latter section, dolomitic
sions, called them parasequences. Primary stratigraphic mudstones overlie basal marlstone beds. Symmetric inter-
units or cycles are common in Earth history and are the tidal/supratidal cycles are rarely developed and are gener-
basic modules of larger-scale cycles of many carbonate ally marked by fining-upward successions within the basal
platforms (e.g. Anderson et al. 1984; Goodwin and wackestone unit.
Anderson 1985; Elrick 1995; Sonnenfeld 1996).
The boundary between individual small-scale cycles is
generally marked by an abrupt facies change (flooding, Shallow-subtidal to lower intertidal cycles
landward shift of facies) whereas internally gradual facies
changes are observed up-section (see Fig. 3). These succes- Asymmetric small-scale cycles (between 1 and 7 m thick)
sions with a lack of transgressive sediments but a distinctive are found in the back-reef area (Fig. 3). They are com-
progradational trend are commonly described as asymmet- posed of biostromal boundstone facies overlain by peloidal
ric cycles (Wright 1984). Cycles with an additional, basal grainstone facies or wackestone facies. Finely laminated
retrogradational succession are referred to as symmetric or mudstones or nodular wackestones are abundant at the top
complete cycles. of an individual cycle. Aulopores, colonizing hardgrounds,
are the most common organisms in the basal boundstone
facies. The Aulopora boundstone facies laterally can be
traced into peloidal grainstone facies or bird’s-eye mud-
Small-scale cycles (or units)
stone facies. At Caldas de Luna, Thamnopora, Favosites
and bryozoans are common frame-builders indicating a
We identified small-scale cycles by their vertical facies suc-
more open-marine environment in this part of the study
cessions and bounding surfaces. Most of the cycles only
area. Peloidal grainstones were deposited in the shallow
show the progradational components typical of shallow-
subtidal to deep intertidal between small patch reefs be-
water, high-frequency cycles in peritidal environments
hind a large barrier reef. Microbial mudstone facies cap the
(James 1983; Wright 1984) and consequently represent
intertidal cycles indicating a decrease in accommodation
asymmetrical cycles. Three basic types of cycles are present
toward the end of each cycle. However, there is no evidence
in the Santa Lucia Formation: (1) intertidal/supratidal cy-
of subaerial exposure at the top of these cycles. Thin trans-
cles, (2) shallow subtidal/intertidal, restrictive cycles and
gressive units with rip-up lithoclasts covering the microbial
(3) subtidal cycles (see Fig. 3). Supratidal cycles occur in
mudstones along a sharp boundary are indicative of trans-
the tidal flat, shallow subtidal restrictive cycles are dom-
gressive ravinement and the ensuing relative sea-level rise.
inant on the proximal shelf, and subtidal cycles are most
common on the distal shelf. The regional distribution of
these cycles indicates that all three types can occur within
Subtidal cycles
an individual depositional system and that they, dependent
on different positions across the extensive carbonate plat-
Most of the massive carbonate beds of the sections near
form, reflect different responses to a single sea-level event.
Mallo consist of subtidal cycles. They are also present
in parts of the lagoonal sections. The basal unit consists
of packstone or wackestone facies overlain by coarse-
Intertidal/supratidal cycles
grained grainstone facies of a high-energy environment
indicating progradation of higher energy environments
The thickness of these generally asymmetric units ranges
(Fig. 3). Crinoids, bryozoans, brachiopods and different
between a few centimetres and 6 m. A complete asymmet-
species of corals are the most common organisms of this
ric unit consists of a thin layer of wackestones facies at
open-marine fauna. The top of subtidal cycles is formed
the base. Abundant lithoclasts in this basal unit record re-
by poorly-sorted grainstone facies. Many of the cycles
working by strong currents or waves during a fast relative
miss the basal unit of wackestone/packstone. They are
sea-level rise and are similar to transgressive surfaces of
then identified by coarsening-upward of bioclasts within
erosion (Plint 1988, 1991). Bird’s-eye mudstones and thin
the grainstone facies.
marly layers are found in the middle part of these cycles.
Subtidal small-scale cycles are between 2 and 18 m thick
Microbial mudstone facies form the upper part of complete
and are mostly progradational. Facies changes between in-
cycles. Some cycles have desiccation cracks on their top in-
dividual cycles are commonly rather gradual and individual
dicating subaerial exposure. These shoaling-upward cycles
cycles are sometimes hard to distinguish. Consequently, it
were formed in a low-energy peritidal environment. De-
is possible that some of the thicker small-scale units are in
creasing accommodation is indicated by thinning upward
fact medium-scale cycles consisting of amalgamated small-
of beds within the individual units.
scale units.
Interpretation and development of small-scale cycles
Although autocyclic processes (Ginsburg 1971) might have

caused peritidal cycles without any evidence of subaerial
exposure, these processes cannot explain the whole suite
of features observed in the small-scale cycles present. Es-
pecially, they fail to explain the abundance of exposure
features over vast parts of the platform.
A tectonic origin for these cycles (both retrogradational–
progradational or only progradational) is also rather un-
likely. A tectonic model, as described by Cisne (1986) and
Hardie et al. (1991) requires rapid and continuous itera-
tions of subsidence along a fault and times of sediment
accumulation without movement along the fault to form
progradational cycles. Additionally, in order to get sub-
aerial exposure, an alternation between subsidence along
the fault, subsequent uplift and renewed subsidence is re-
quired. Reversal of moving direction along faults with such
a high frequency is rather impossible (Strasser 1991; Pratt
et al. 1992).
Consequently, the small-scale cycles described here most
likely reflect high-frequency eustatic sea-level changes. A
fall of sea level forced the progradation of the tidal flats atop
the subtidal facies as described for peritidal/lagoonal cy-
cles. The subtidal cycles contain facies successions shifting
from deep subtidal facies to shallow subtidal facies. The
lack of small-scale units in greater water depth, however,
can be explained by smaller-scale sea-level fluctuations
that never affected the deeper water areas, because facies
changes occur only above a critical water depth. Rapid
rise of sea level and a slow sea-level fall, both typical for
glacio-eustatic cycles (Pisias and Imbrie 1986), forced the
formation of asymmetric (regressive) progradational cy-
cles in peritidal or restricted shallow subtidal environment.
During a fast relative sea-level rise across a subaerially
exposed surface, sediment production is reduced and sedi-
ment is reworked forming a thin transgressive lag (wacke-
stone). Symmetric cycles therefore have formed in deeper
water environments with reduced carbonate production or Fig. 5 Conodont zones and T-R cycles (Johnson et al. 1985) for
the Devonian. The shaded area highlights the conodont zones and
during times of high subsidence rates. Glacio-eustatic sea- corresponding T-R cycles for the Santa Lucia Formation
level changes imply huge fresh-water reservoirs to bind and
release water. Best known are continental ice-sheets dur-
ing “icehouse” times. However, Read and Horbury (1993) Medium-scale cycles
and Elrick (1995) suggested that small-scale cycles could
also be formed through glacio-eustatic sea-level changes The small-scale units are stacked into medium-scale
during “greenhouse” times such as the Emsian. Impor- successions (Fig. 4). Medium-scale cycles and especially
tantly, greenhouse cycles are thinner because of climatic large-scale cycles reflect accommodation changes with
sea-level changes of lower magnitude during greenhouse more regional significance than the small-scale units do.
times. The boundaries between the medium-scale successions are
generally defined by discontinuity surfaces that can often
Fig. 4 Sequence stratigraphic correlation of the five measured sec- be interpreted either as maximum flooding surfaces (mfs)
or as combined sequence boundaries/transgressive surfaces
tions discussed in this study. Sections Caldas de Luna, Valporquero
and Felmin are predominantly influenced by the lagoonal and in- (sb/ts; Van Wagoner et al. 1988). With the identification
tertidal facies associations. Mallo N and Mallo S are dominated by of mfs and sb/ts as bounding surfaces of the medium-scale
open-marine facies associations. In the lagoonal sections, the con- cycles, it is possible to assign the medium-scale cycles
tact between the Esla and the Santa Lucia Formation coincides with to sequences in a sequence stratigraphic framework
the first sequence boundary, whereas in the two southern sections (Mitchum et al. 1977; Van Wagoner et al. 1988). Systems
the second sequence boundary coincides with the contact of the two
stratigraphic units. The development of each of the sequences is tracts within these sequences were identified as “highstand
discussed in the text. For location of sections see Fig. 1 systems tracts” (HST) or “transgressive systems tracts”
(TST; Van Wagoner et al. 1988). “Lowstand systems tracts in sea level, this material is reworked from its temporary
(LST)” were not recognized in the sections because of the storage and incorporated into the transgressive sediments.
relative landward position of the measured sections on the The mfs is at the transition from retrogradational stacking
shelf. Sections of the deeper basin, which are favourable patterns of small-scale units to aggrading stacking patterns
for the deposition and preservation of LST-sediments, are during the early HST. In the higher part of sequence
not exposed in the SW-Cantabrian Mountains. 1, supratidal cycles prograde basinward atop shallow
Within the Santa Lucia Formation, seven medium-scale subtidal/intertidal cycles and multiple mud cracked
cycles have been identified and labelled sequences 1–7 surfaces and erosional surfaces point toward repeated
(Fig. 4). These cycles correspond to sequences in the se- subaerial exposure in the proximal sections. Birds’-eyes
quence stratigraphic nomenclature. Additionally, the differ- mudstone facies and slightly dolomitic mudstones with
ent stages of platform development are discussed, following evaporites are the dominant facies. Progradation of these
Wright and Burchette’s (1996) descriptions of carbonate supratidal small-scale cycles above shallow subtidal units
platform morphologies. marks the onset of the late HST and the last subaerially
Lithostratigraphically, the base of the Santa Lucia For- exposed surface marks the top of the basal medium-scale
mation coincides with the top of the last thick brown shale cycle (sequence 1) within the Santa Lucia Formation.
bed above open-marine limestones in the lagoonal sec- This first medium-scale cycle is only recognized in the
tions. Above these are thin-bedded intertidal to supratidal northern sections (Fig. 4). In the southern, open-marine
limestones which alternate with dolomitic marlstones and sections it could not be distinguished in the correspond-
variegated shales. ing strata of the Villayandre Member. The red crinoidal
In the southern, open-marine sections (Fig. 4) the tran- limestones at the top of the Esla Formation were deposited
sition from the underlying Esla Formation to the Santa during a decrease in the rate of relative sea level rise and
Lucia Formation is fairly gradual. Limestone beds become represent the late HST. However, this HST belongs to a
already abundant in the uppermost part (Villayandre Mem- large-scale cycle and will be discussed below.
ber, Keller 1988) of the primarily shaly Esla Formation. Palaeogeography: The northern shelf area (Caldas
The top of the Villayandre Member Esla Formation and de Luna and Valporquero) was occupied by sabkha
the base of the Santa Lucia Formation are at the sud- environments, marked by alternating inter- and supratidal
den change from reddish, crinoidal limestones (Villayan- conditions, whereas the southern areas were dominated
dre Member) towards pure grey limestones deposited under by open-marine conditions and the deposition of crinoidal
normal-marine conditions. limestones. The basin deepened to the south (sections
Mallo N and S) along a very gently dipping, almost hor-
izontal ramp that mimics the geometry of the previously
Sequence 0 present Abelgas carbonate ramp (Fig. 7).
In the lagoonal sections, the basal package of the Santa
Lucia Formation consists of peritidal limestones that up- Sequence 2
section grades into dolomitic marlstones and terrigenous
shales. This cycle starts in the underlying Esla Formation In the southern sections, establishment of reefs marked the
and ends within the basal Santa Lucia Formation. The tran- beginning of the next medium-scale cycle (sequence 2).
sition from subtidal shales of the Esla Formation towards The base of this cycle coincides with the base of the Santa
peritidal limestones of the Santa Lucia Formation coin- Lucia Formation. The construction of reefs was favoured
cides with the mfs (Fig. 4). Consequently, the formational by the almost total loss of terrigenous input reflected in the
boundary marks the transition from the TST to the HST of change from reddish to grey pure limestones.
this large-scale cycle. The northern sections record a major increase in
bed thickness across the sequence boundary. Microbial
laminites, dolomitic rocks and mud-cracked horizons are
Sequence 1 virtually absent. Instead, a few open-marine small-scale cy-
cles are developed on top of intertidal/supratidal deposits.
In the lagoonal sections, small-scale cycles with open- The main component of this basal succession of sequence
marine facies are stacked on top of intertidal and supratidal 2, however, is thick-bedded bird’s-eye limestone, which
cycles with abundant terrigenous detritus. In general, accumulated in an aggradational stacking pattern.
cycles above the sequence boundary show an increase in The mfs is a condensed interval and characterized by a
carbonate content. This is interpreted as a relative rise in hardground that can be correlated across major parts of
sea level and a rapid retrogradation of the carbonate factory the shelf. Aulopora patch reefs in the northern sections
at the beginning of the TST. Marlstones and some shale indicate a very slow sedimentation rate. The accompanying
intercalations in this part of the succession are consistent sediments of the shallow subtidal – lower intertidal facies
with the law of reciprocal sedimentation (Wilson 1975; association point to a slightly restricted environment behind
Cant 1992) where terrigenous siliciclastic detritus is a well-developed reef in the southern sections.
produced and transported to the nearshore areas during Prograding supratidal facies on top of shallow subti-
sea-level fall and lowstand. With the ensuing relative rise dal/intertidal facies confirm a relative fall of sea level in
these areas and the initiation of the HST of sequence 2. Ter- an environment. These conditions are indicated by the very
rigenous input within small-scale cycles increases and the dark colour of the sediments caused by high concentrations
cycle thickness decreases towards the top of the sequence. of organic matter.
True shale beds were only found at Caldas de Luna, in the During deposition of sequence 2, the morphology chan-
Valporquero/Felmı́n sections; increasing clay content leads ged from a gently dipping carbonate ramp to a rimmed
to the presence of marlstones. carbonate shelf. This is evident from the formation of a
In the southern sections, the TST is marked by the ap- massive barrier reef in the areas near Mallo. In addition,
pearance of open-marine subtidal sediments (Mallo S), or, sedimentation rates are much higher due to high subsidence
the establishment of reefs (Mallo N). These build-ups pro- in the southern, open-marine sections but fairly low and
tected the northern parts of the shelf from open-marine constant in the lagoonal sections (Fig. 8). The development
water circulation and initiated a back-reef environment. from a ramp into a rimmed shelf is a very common feature
Palaeogeography: Although carbonate sedimentation of carbonate platforms throughout geological history and
prevailed, the northern areas were still influenced by sili- has been described by many authors (e.g., Logan et al.
ciclastic input (Fig. 8). This indicates that the Cantabrian 1969; Read 1982; Aigner 1985; Einsele 2000).
Block was probably exposed but that only the most fine-
grained fraction entered the depositional basin. Whether
the clay is of wind-blown origin or was transported and Sequence 3
deposited from an aqueous medium remains speculative.
However, there are indications that the Santa Lucia car- In the northern sections, the base of sequence 3 is char-
bonate lagoon interfingers with relatively thick terrigenous acterized by debris-rich limestone (Fig. 9) that rests upon
deposits farther north (Puerto de la Cubilla, Villamarcel; marly intertidal to supratidal sediments. Deposition of these
Van den Bosch 1969a; and own observations). In this case, open-marine sediments indicates a rapid relative rise in sea
the shale beds at Caldas de Luna reflect the most seaward level and a retrogradation of the depositional systems. Up-
progradation and extension of the nearshore detrital belt. section, thick-bedded peloidal grainstones in stacked aggra-
Production and delivery of thick shale successions is com- dational units, dominate. Towards the top of the sequence,
mon through periods of humid climate (Einsele 2000). As limestones become more marly and thinner-bedded. A
sequence 1 was characterized by evaporites, there might well-developed hardground (bored and iron stained) low
have been a change from a more arid towards a more hu- in the succession and observed in all northern sections has
mid climate from sequence 1 to sequence 2. However, this been taken as evidence of the mfs (Fig. 9). In sequence 3,
topic awaits further research. In the slightly deeper envi- this hardground separates a relatively thin TST from a
ronments farther south, Aulopora patch reefs were able to much thicker HST. The change from aggradation and thick-
survive in probably slightly anoxic, unfavourable condi- bedded sediments to thinner-bedded, marly limestones is
tions making them the only organism to succeed in such taken as the change from the early to the late HST. How-
ever, stacking patterns and facies on either side of the mfs
Fig. 6 Composite figure of some of the most common facies types do not differ significantly and it may well be that it has to
in the study area. (A) Microbial laminite facies—Brown-green mi- be placed higher up in the sequence.
crobial mudstone with a few peloid layers. Carbonate cement filled In the more distal sections, reef growth ended and
vugs are degassing structures (LF-fabric). The wavy fabric might shallow-marine crinoidal grainstone facies buried the build-
also be due to an early stage of desiccation. Peloidal laminae occur ups. This is taken as evidence of a basinward shift of facies
between microbial laminae (section Valporquero, sample 3.23, thin
section). (B) Mudstone and grainstone facies—Carbonate mudstone above a sequence boundary and as the beginning of the
with layers of fine grainstone. Fine grainstone laminae are storm TST of the third medium-scale cycle.
layers. The two tan ellipses to the left are auloporoids filled with cal- Palaeogeography: During deposition of sequence 3, the
cite cement and carbonate mudstone, respectively (section Caldas de reef zone shifted from a position near the Mallo sections to
Luna, sample 1.16b, thin section). (C) Auloporoid boundstone— The
matrix is formed by peloids (brown) and minor amounts of carbon- the north (Fig. 10). Subsequently, all major reef build-ups
ate mudstone. Auloporoids (tan) are either filled by calcite cement were buried by crinoidal grainstones and the rimmed
(white) or carbonate mudstone and peloids. Spaces between peloids shelf vanished. Subsidence rate decreased in the southern
are filled by calcite cement. This sample contains no other frag- sections, manifested by the low sediment thicknesses that
ments. (section Caldas de Luna, sample 1.22, thin section, || Nicols).
(D) Tempestite packstone facies—Packstone with fragments of bra-
imply similar sedimentation rates in the southern and in the
chiopods, crinoids and bryozoans. These layers represent proximal northern sections. Subsequently, the platform morphology
storm deposits in a lagoon. The spaces between the coarser frag- changed again from a rimmed shelf back to a distally
ments were filled by fine carbonate mudstone (normal background steepened ramp (Fig. 10).
sedimentation) after the storm. Calcite cements have not been ob-
served in this facies. (section Caldas de Luna, Sample 1.05, thin sec-
tion, || Nicols). (E) Highly diverse boundstone (rudstone)—Coarse-
grained, poorly-sorted grainstone (rudstone). Thamnopores (center), Sequence 4
fragments of crinoids and encrusting stromatoporoids (arrow) are
the main components. (section Mallo N, sample 2.10, thin section). In the northern sections, a prominent unit of small patch
(F) Grainstone—Moderately sorted, sub-rounded, coarse crinoidal
grainstone. Space between the crinoid fragments is well cemented reefs on a well-developed hardground defines the base of
by calcite (white). (section Mallo N, sample 2.14, thin section) this medium-scale cycle (sequence 4). Laterally, these patch
reefs are embedded within peloidal grainstones and pack-
Fig. 7 Palaeogeography of the
Santa Lucia platform during
sequence 2. The section Mallo
N is occupied by a reef during
this time. South of the reef,
crinoidal limestones are the
dominant sediments, whereas
the lagoonal sections north of
the reef are influenced by
siliciclastic terrestrial sediments
Fig. 8 S-N transect across the

Santa Lucia platform during
sequence 2. The southern
sections accumulated
significantly more sediment
than the section to the north.
This suggests that this is due to
the rimmed shelf morphology
with a confined lagoon in the
northern areas and some
differential subsidence
Fig. 9 N-S transect across the

Santa Lucia carbonate platform
during sequence 3. We suggest
that almost similar
accumulation rates in the
sections Caldas de Luna and
Mallo N reflect a change in
morphology back to a very flat
ramp. South of the Mallo N
section the slopes are
significantly steeper with
slightly higher accumulation
rates at the Mallo S section due
to increased accommodation
and higher subsidence rate
Fig. 10 Box model showing

the palaeogeography of the
carbonate platform during
sequence 3. The southern shelf
is dominated by crinoidal
limestones; in the central part
some reef bodies occur, and the
northern area is dominated by
deposits of the lagoonal facies
association
stones with abundant fragments of open-marine organisms. a significant decrease in carbonate/clastic ratio forms the
However, mudstones are the main facies in these sections basal layer of the sixth medium-scale cycle. This is fol-
and make up the majority of the rocks above the basal patch lowed by bird’s-eyes mudstone and two additional small-
reefs. In contrast, the southern sections are dominated by scale units with red-beds at the base and wackestone facies
massive crinoidal grainstones above the more marly lime- on top. Aggradational stacking patterns again suggest that
stones of the third secondary sequence. We suggest that the sequence 6 consists just of a HST formed during contin-
hardground represents a combined sequence boundary and uing sea-level rise. Importantly, the increase of siliciclas-
mfs. The massive mudstones that overlie the basal patch tic sediments reflects the beginning of a last major basin-
reef beds were most likely deposited during a period of ward shift of facies and the launch of the termination of
aggradation rather than retrogradation or progradation of the carbonate production and the Santa Lucia Formation,
facies belts. Consequently, this sequence four is just repre- respectively.
sented by a HST. Palaeogeography: Due to the limited representation
Palaeogeography: During the sedimentation of se- of this sequence in the transect studied no palaeogeo-
quence 4, there is no more evidence for a nearby hinter- graphic scenario for this time slice could be worked
land to the north of the sedimentary basin. Siliciclastic out.
influx disappeared and carbonate sedimentation dominated
throughout this sequence. The morphology did not change
since sequence 3 and still imitated most likely a gently Sequence 7
dipping ramp. Nevertheless, the small patch reefs close to
the northern sections might have formed some local highs Sequence 7 starts with thick-bedded crinoidal limestones
that separated the northern sections from the open-marine and brachiopod coquinas. Many of the beds show large-
water circulation, resulting in the deposition of bird’s-eyes scale cross bedding and, although hummocky cross strati-
mudstone facies. fication has been identified only locally, seem to be storm
induced. Amalgamation of cross-bedding is quite common.
Variegated fossiliferous shales and marlstones become in-
Sequence 5 creasingly abundant towards the base of the overlying
Huergas Formation. The formational boundary is marked
Massive reef bodies make up the basal layers of sequence 5 by a thin iron-oolite above which abiotic dark shales are
in the southern sections. They are commonly associated present.
with open-marine crinoidal grainstone facies. The upper The contact between the last thick peritidal carbonate
parts of this sequence are not exposed in these southern unit of sequence 6 and the overlying crinoidal limestones
sections. marks the last combined sequence boundary/transgressive
In the lagoonal sections, open-marine fauna and crinoidal surface within the Santa Lucia Formation. The rapid deep-
grainstone facies became more abundant above the se- ening within the TST is documented by the increase of
quence boundary, while the previously dominant bird’s- marine shales. Deepening culminated with the formation
eye mudstone facies vanished. This suggests a rapid rela- of an iron oolite, which represents a condensed interval.
tive sea-level rise at the base of this medium-scale cycle 5. This deepening led to a drowning of the carbonate platform,
Small-scale cycles still mainly consist of crinoidal grain- the formational contact between the Santa Lucia Formation
stone facies and show an aggradational stacking pattern, and the Huergas Formation being the drowning unconfor-
indicating that sequence 5 represents another HST without mity. Buggisch et al. (1982) described this surface as a
accompanying TST deposits. regional condensed horizon that can be found between the
Palaeogeography: In contrast to the previous two two formations all across the southern Cantabrian Moun-
sequences, this sequence is characterized by a com- tains. Consequently, the upper part of the Santa Lucia For-
plete change in depositional environment. Open-marine mation forms a TST of a sequence that continues into the
crinoidal limestone facies prograded landward into the for- Huergas Formation.
mer lagoon representing the beginning of a major trans- Palaeogeography: During sequence 7 times, vast parts
gression that continues throughout the upper parts of the of the carbonate shelf were the site of accumulation of
Santa Lucia succession. However, no evidence was found thick successions of storm-induced crinoidal grainstones.
that the morphology of the gently dipping ramp changed No barrier existed between the northern and the southern
during deposition of sequence 5. This lack of evidence parts of the shelf (Fig. 11). The increase of thin pelagic
may result from the limited number of outcrops of this shale intercalations in the southern sections indicates that
sequence. the top of the Santa Lucia Formation was deposited across
a carbonate ramp, which was gently dipping towards the
south. The drowning of the carbonate shelf was caused
Sequence 6 by a rapid relative sea-level rise during the TST and
an increase in siliciclastic influx from the open-marine
Sequence 6 is only recorded in the Felmı́n section of the environment. Pelagic shales of the Huergas Formation cov-
northern outcrop area. Here, a distinct red-bed along with ered the drowned Santa Lucia ramp.
Fig. 11 Box model of the
palaeogeography of the study
area for sequence 7. Note the
flat ramp morphology that
steepened slightly to the south.
Sections in the study area are
dominated by rocks of the
subtidal facies association.
Pelagic shale intercalations are
already observed on the deeper
ramp during this time
Large-scale cycles Control mechanisms of platform evolution

The medium-scale cycles (sequences 1–7) described above The development of large-scale cycles is controlled by the
are part of a system of higher rank or large-scale cycles interplay between eustatic sea-level changes, climatic ef-
(see Fig. 4). The transition from the underlying Esla shales fects, thermal subsidence and regional tectonics, respec-
via the Villayandre Member into the basal Santa Lucia For- tively. Climatic changes on a global scale seem to be un-
mation records a loss of accommodation and a relative sea- likely for the development of large-scale cycles as described
level fall. This is evident from the evolution from basinal in this paper. There is apparently no major climatic change
shales through cross-bedded crinoidal limestones and marl- (icehouse-greenhouse) during this Lower through Middle
stones into peritidal limestones and dolomites in the north- Devonian interval. In contrast, the development of small-
ern sections and shallow-marine limestones in the south. A scale cycles may well have been affected by local or re-
similar transition has been described by Borkhataria (2001) gional climatic changes (e.g. regional change from arid to
from the Esla area. In the northern sections, this evolution humid climate during sequence 1 through 3).
culminates at the top of sequence 1 within the Santa Lucia
Formation, which is dominated by evaporites, mud cracks
and dolomitic caps on top of the individual small-scale cy- Eustasy
cles. In addition, nearly all sediments of sequences 0 and 1
are thin-bedded to very thin-bedded as should be expected Johnson et al. (1985, 1996) identified several worldwide
during the late HST. recognized transgressive-regressive (T-R) cycles during
A major change in depositional style is observed above the Devonian that they attributed to eustatic sea-level
sequence boundary 2. Sediments are thick-bedded, much fluctuations (see Fig. 5). During the Lower Devonian,
less marly, mud cracks are absent and many of the small- changing sedimentary patterns during deposition of the
scale cycles were formed in intertidal to shallow-subtidal Abelgas Formation were partly attributed to these fluctu-
environments. This depositional style governed evolution ations (Keller and Grötsch 1990; Keller 1997). During the
of sequences 2 through 6 so that these sequences together Emsian/Eifelian, a marked sea-level fall is observed culmi-
constitute one major depositional episode, a large-scale nating during the serotinus conodont zone (Johnson et al.
cycle. In the lagoonal sections, this large-scale cycle is 1985) and terminating with sea-level cycle Ib. Eustatic
characterized by the repeated presence of thick-bedded sea-level rise at the base of T-R cycle Ic of Johnson et al.
bird’s-eye limestones. Each of the medium-scale cycles (1985) commenced at the base of the subsequent patulus
becomes marly towards its top. Similarly, the total amount zone (see Fig. 5). One of the subcycles yet ends during the
of shale within the individual sequences also increases to- upper patulus zone and is followed by a rapid sea-level
wards sequence 6. This is demonstrated by the presence rise at the base of the subsequent partitus zone (Johnson
of three distinct red shale horizons in cycle 6 (see Fig. 4), et al. 1985).
which have also been found in other places of the Asturo Biostratigraphic data (see Fig. 5) indicate that the basal
Leonese shelf. The Santa Lucia part of sequence 7 is rep- Santa Lucia Formation was deposited during the upper
resented by crinoidal grainstones. This TST is separated serotinus zone (Garcı́a López and Sanz López 2002). The
from the overlying HST in the basal Huergas Formation by bulk of the sediments were formed during the patulus zone
a widespread condensed interval (mfs) with abundant iron and data by Garcı́a López and Sanz López (2002) indi-
oolites. Sequence 7 with its Santa Lucia component and cate that the highest part of the Santa Lucia Formation was
its Huergas component represents yet another large-scale deposited during the partitus conodont zone. Additional
cycle. fieldwork has shown that these conodonts all come from
levels that correspond to sequence 7.
It is suggested here that the final stage of the eustatic ences in sedimentation during the Upper Devonian (Van
sea-level fall during the serotinus zone (end of cycle Ib Loevezijn 1983, 1986). Keller (1988, 1997) documented a
following Johnson et al. 1985) is preserved in sequences strong influence of syn-sedimentary faulting during sedi-
0 and 1 of the Santa Lucia Formation. Apparently, se- mentation of the Abelgas Formation (Lochkovian/Pragian).
quence boundary 2 represents the end of sea-level cycle Movements along the IALF are also responsible for the de-
Ib in the southern Cantabrian Mountains. On a regional velopment of local highs where the limestone members
scale, sequence boundary 7 has many aspects of a type-1 of the Esla Formation were deposited during the Emsian
sequence boundary (Borkhataria 2001), especially where (Keller 1988).
there are incised valleys. Biostratigraphy indicates that for- Similar tectonic activities along the IALF still occurred
mation of this sequence boundary is coeval to the sea-level at the beginning of deposition of the Santa Lucia Forma-
events at the boundary between the patulus and partitus tion. Differences in facies, thickness between the measured
zones. Consequently, formation of the three large-scale cy- sections and change in platform morphology are evidence
cles discussed above was most probably caused by eustatic for a relative uplifted area in the south. The sea-level rise at
events. Sequences 0 and 1 are the top part of a large-scale the beginning of sequence 2 is a worldwide eustatic event
cycle, sequences 2 through 6 form one large-scale cycle (Johnson curve). Superimposed on this sea-level rise are
and sequence 7 represents the basal succession of another movements along the fault zone that caused uplift of the
large-scale cycle. northern block and reef growth in section Mallo N. Uplift
The sequence stratigraphic evolution of the Santa Lucia of the northern block is also reflected by the development of
starts with thin-bedded to very thin-bedded sediments of a sabkha close to section Caldas de Luna, although world-
sequences 0 and 1 that contrast with the underlying shales wide sea level was high. The transition from a shallow ramp
and thick crinoidal limestones of the underyling Esla For- to a rimmed shelf at the beginning of the second cycle was
mation. This argues in favour of these basal Santa Lucia again caused by uplift of the northern block. Reef-growth,
sediments being the late HST of a large-scale sequence. common in the Mallo N section during this time, is typi-
The ensuing relative sea-level rise (basal patulus zone) is cal along fault zones in the southern Cantabrian Mountains
reflected by mainly aggradational stacking patterns of per- as described by Reijers (1974, 1985). Sequence 2 starts
itidal sediments, especially bird’s-eyes limestones in the with a new sea-level rise and high siliciclastic influx into
lagoonal sections and the sudden shut-off of siliciclastic the lagoon. It is not clear whether the development back
supply (sequences 2 through 4). The higher part of this to a ramp-like morphology was tectonically controlled or
cycle (sequences 5 and 6) is characterized by an increase was just controlled by sedimentary mechanisms. On the
in siliciclastic input and an increasing deposition of marl- one hand, thick sediment packages in the lagoonal sections
stones culminating with three well-developed red marl- could have been controlled by rapid subsidence in areas
stones during sequence 6. Another characteristic feature is close to the shore; on the other hand, thinner sediment
that the uppermost sequences only show HST; there are thickness could have been caused by slower subsidence
no indications of TST in sequences 5 through 6. In addi- in the open-marine section. Both possibilities can be ex-
tion, they are much thinner than sequences 3 and 4. All plained by an active fault zone farther to the north (Intra
these data point to a major loss of accommodation towards Asturian Leonese Faciesline of Raven 1983).
the top of sequence 6. Sequences 2–4 are interpreted as a Grainstones and a missing TST at the base of the fourth
TST and sequences 5 through 6 as a HST of a large-scale sequence are evidence for rapid subsidence in the north-
sequence. ern part of the basin. Only tectonic events can cause a
The rapid deposition of crinoidal limestones above se- rapid transgression during a time of worldwide regression.
quence boundary 7, which culminates in the formation of Greater sediment thickness in the northern sections also
a regional condensed interval representing a drowning un- indicates typical subsidence along a fault in the north. A
conformity, is characteristic of a TST. Finally, the basal similar mechanism was responsible for the development of
Huergas Formation shows evidence of HST deposition so cycles 5 and 6.
that this large-scale cycle is a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic
cycle.
Conclusions
Tectonics Five stratigraphic sections of the Santa Lucia Formation

(Emsian/Eifelian) in the Cantabrian Mountains, NW-Spain,
The development of troughs and ridges due to tectonic have been studied in a transect from north to south, from
events has been documented for most of the history of the presumed hinterland to the open-marine environment.
the Asturo-Leonese basin (Reijers 1974, 1985; Buggisch In the present study, the organization of depositional sys-
et al. 1982; Raven 1983; Van Loevezijn 1986; Keller 1988, tems within the Santa Lucia Formation in the south-central
1997; Aramburu et al. 1992 ). Movements along the IALF part of the Cantabrian Zone is described, the evolution of
have strong influence on the sedimentation of the Portilla the carbonate platform in this area is documented, and a se-
Formation during the Givetian (Reijers 1974, 1985). The quence stratigraphic framework for the Santa Lucia Forma-
same fault zone was active during the sedimentation of the tion is developed. The Santa Lucia Formation consists of 11
Nocedo, Fueyo and Ermita Formations and caused differ- different facies that can be attributed to three facies associ-
ations. Each of these facies associations is characteristic of 0 and 1 are part of a large-scale cycle that originated in the
a distinct depositional environment. The peritidal/lagoonal underlying Esla Formation.
facies association and the intertidal facies association are The bulk of the Santa Lucia Formation (sequences 2–
dominant in the northern, more landward sections, whereas 6), however, forms one major large-scale sequence (see
the subtidal facies association is abundant in the southern, Fig. 4). A transition from sequences with TST and HST
more basinward sections. However, interfingering of these (sequences 2 through 3) in the lower part of the large-scale
facies associations provide a clue to the dynamics of the cycle to sequences with just a HST (sequences 5 and 6)
shelf through time. in the upper part suggests a loss in accommodation and
The sedimentary succession of the Santa Lucia Formation a termination of this stratigraphic succession at the top
is subdivided into small-scale, medium-scale and large- of sequence 6. Sequences 2 and 3 form the TST of this
scale cycles. Medium-scale and large-scale cycles corre- large-scale stratigraphic sequence, whereas sequences 4–6
spond to the classical sequences of sequence stratigraphy represent the HST. Sequence boundary 7 is a widely rec-
There is no attempt to attribute these cycles to the “stan- ognized type-1 sequence boundary and coincides with a
dard” hierarchy of cycles (e.g. Vail et al. 1977). The time major flooding surface. Above this surface, another large-
involved in one sequence is the only argument for its attri- scale cycle was initiated that culminates in the big shale
bution to cycle hierarchy (3rd-order vs. 4th-order). Conven- packages of the stratigraphic younger Huergas Formation.
tional wisdom dictates that classical 3rd-order sequences From these interpretations it becomes clear that the lithos-
have a duration in the range of 106 to 107 years, 4th-order tratigraphic boundary between the Esla Formation and the
sequences in the range of 105 to 106 years (Vail et al. Santa Lucia Formation is not a genetic boundary and that
1977; Einsele 2000; Miall 2000). Deposition of the Santa the Santa Lucia Formation is composed of a stack of car-
Lucia Formation lasted between 6 and 10 My, so that both bonate platforms. The main part of the Santa Lucia Forma-
medium-scale cycles and large-scale cycles fall into this tion (sequences 2 through 6) represents a rimmed carbon-
range. From the study of the Santa Lucia Formation alone, ate shelf that was founded on and succeeded by carbonate
it cannot be deduced which of the sets represents the 3rd- ramps.
order pattern. During the deposition of the Santa Lucia Formation, the
The basic building blocks of the Santa Lucia Formation morphology of the platform changed from a gently south-
are metre-scale sedimentary cycles that reflect small-scale dipping ramp to a rimmed shelf and back to a gently dip-
relative changes of sea level. Three different settings of ping ramp before carbonate production was terminated. It
these cycles are distinguished. Intertidal/supratidal cycles is suggested that the control mechanism for the evolution
are dominant in the northern sections and consist of a suc- of depositional environments within the Santa Lucia For-
cession of intertidal facies associations and peritidal facies mation was mainly eustasy and that this control is reflected
associations. Shallow subtidal/lower intertidal cycles show in the formation of the large-scale sequences. Local or re-
deeper lagoonal organisms and facies, and characterize a gional tectonic events were responsible for the fixation of
transitional environment. The subtidal cycles are abundant the main reef belt to a position close to the IALF and for
in the southern sections and are exclusively formed by the shift of differential subsidence between the reef belt
subtidal facies associations. These different cycles all and the lagoon.
occur within one depositional system and each of them
Acknowledgements The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (grant
reflects a distinct position on the carbonate platform from Ke470/6-1) provided financial support for this study which is
onshore to offshore. gratefully acknowledged. We gratefully acknowledge many fruit-
The small-scale units are stacked into medium-scale cy- ful discussions with D. Schumann (Darmstadt) and R. Borkhataria
cles. In contrast to the basic cycles, formation of these (Tübingen) which helped to clarify many aspects of the present
medium-scale cycles was controlled by the general pattern study. Thanks to Jochen Nüster, Alex Wallisch, Tom Schlichter, Moni
Grundner and Tom Moser for their assistance and friendship in the
of eustatic sea-level changes but with a distinct tectonic field. We are grateful for the thoughtful reviews by M. Tucker and O.
component to them. We identified seven medium-scale cy- Catuneanu who helped to improve the paper considerably.
cles or sequences within the Santa Lucia Formation that
can be recognized across most of the shelf. In the northern,
landward sections, all seven cycles are part of the Santa References
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Sequence stratigraphy and carbonate platform

Article in Facies · February 2006

Michael H. Hofmann Martin Keller

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Michael H. Hofmann · Martin Keller

Sequence stratigraphy and carbonate platform organization

Received: 10 January 2005 / Accepted: 8 September 2005

Abstract In this paper, the sedimentology and the strati- Introduction

lithofacies are arranged in a predictable fashion and will

The Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain are composed

Although autocyclic processes (Ginsburg 1971) might have

Fig. 8 S-N transect across the

Fig. 9 N-S transect across the

Fig. 10 Box model showing

Large-scale cycles Control mechanisms of platform evolution

Tectonics Five stratigraphic sections of the Santa Lucia Formation

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