Unit and Dimension & Basic Mathematics: Theory and Exercise Booklet

UNIT AND DIMENSION
&
BASIC MATHEMATICS
THEORY AND EXERCISE BOOKLET
CONTENTS
S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
♦ THEORY WITH SOLVED EXAMPLES ........................................ 3 – 23
♦ EXERCISE - I ......................................................................... 24 – 34
♦ EXERCISE - II ........................................................................ 35 – 36
♦ EXERCISE - III ........................................................................ 37 – 39
♦ ANSWER KEY ............................................................................40
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Page # 2 UNIT AND DIMENSION
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UNIT AND DIMENSION Page # 3
1. PHYSICAL QUANTITY
The quantites which can be measured by an instrument and by means of which we can describe the
laws of physics are called physical quantities.
Types of physical quantities :
Fundamental Derived Supplementry
1.1 Fundamental
Although the number of physical quantities that we measure is very large, we need only a limited
number of units for expressing all the physical quantities since they are interrelated with one another.
So, certain physical quantities have been chosen arbitrarily and their units are used for expressing all
the physical quantities, such quantities are known as Fundamental, Absolute or Base Quantities
(such as length, time and mass in mechanics)
(i) All other quantites may be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities.
(ii) They are independent of each other and cannot be obtained from one another.
An international body named General Conference on Weights and Measures chose seven physical
quantities as fundamental :
(1) length (2) mass (3) time (4) electric current,
(5) thermodynamic temperature (6) amount of substance
(7) luminous intensity.
Note : These are also called as absolute or base quantities.
In mechanics, we treat length, mass and time as the three basic or fundamental quantities.
1.2 Derived : Physical quantities which can be expressed as combination of base quantities are called as
derived quantities.
For example : Speed, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, pressure, energy etc.
dis tan ce length

Ex.1 Speed = =
time time
1.3 Supplementary : Beside the seven fundamental physical quantities two supplementary quantities are
also defined, they are :
(1) Plane angle (2) Solid angle.
Note : The supplementary quantities have only units but no dimensions.
2. MAGNITUDE :
Magnitude of physical quantity = (numerical value) × (unit)
Magnitude of a physical quantity is always constant. It is independent of the type of unit.
1
⇒ numerical value ∝
unit
or n1u1 = n2u2 = constant
Ex.2 Length of a metal rod bar is unchanged whether it is measured as 2 metre or 200 cm.
Observe the change in the Numerical value (from 2 to 200) as unit is changed from metre to
cm.

3. UNIT :
Measurement of any physical quantity is expressed in terms of an internationally accepted certain
basic reference standard called unit.
The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base unit. Other physical
quantities are expressed as combination of these base units and hence, called derived units.
A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived is called a system of unit.
3.1. Principle systems of Unit

There are various system in use over the world : CGS, FPS, SI (MKS) etc
Table 1 : Units of some physical quantities in different systems.
System
Physica l
Qua ntity CGS MKS FPS
(Ga ussia n) (SI) (British)
Length centimeter meter foot
Fundame ntal Mass gram kilogram pound
Time second second second

Force dyne newton → N poundal
De rived W ork or Energy erg joule → J ft-poundal
Power erg/s watt → W ft-poundal/s
3.2 Supplementary units :

(1) Plane angle : radian (rad)
(2) Solid angle : steradian (sr)
* The SI system is at present widely used throughout the world. In IIT JEE only SI system is followed.
3.3 Definitions of some important SI Units

(i) Metre : 1 m = 1,650, 763.73 wavelengths in vaccum, of radiation corresponding to organ-red light of
krypton-86.
(ii) Second : 1 s = 9,192, 631,770 time periods of a particular from Ceasium - 133 atom.
(iii) Kilogram : 1kg = mass of 1 litre volume of water at 4°C
(iv) Ampere : It is the current which when flows through two infinitely long straight conductors of
negligible cross-section placed at a distance of one metre in vacuum produces a force of 2 × 10–7 N/m
between them.
(v) Kelvin : 1 K = 1/273.16 part of the thermodynamic temperature of triple point of water.
(vi) Mole : It is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary particles
(atoms, molecules, ions etc.) as there are atoms in 12g of carbon - 12.
 1  2
(vii) Candela : It is luminous intensity in a perpendicular direction of a surface of  m of a
 600000 
black body at the temperature of freezing point under a pressure of 1.013 × 105 N/m2.
(viii) Radian : It is the plane angle between two radiia of a circle which cut-off on the circumference,
an arc equal in length to the radius.
(ix) Steradian : The steradian is the solid angle which having its vertex at the centre of the sphere,
cut-off an area of the surface of sphere equal to that of a square with sides of length equal to the
radius of the sphere.

Ex.3 Find the SI unit of speed, acceleration

dis tan ce meter(m)
Sol. speed = = = m/s (called as meter per second)
time sec ond(s)
velocity displacement / time
acceleration = =
time time
displacement meter
= = = m/s2 (called as meter per second square)
( time) 2 sec ond2
4. S I PREFIXES
The magnitudes of physical quantities vary order a wide range. The CGPM recommended standard
prefixes for magnitude too large or too small to be expressed more compactly for certain power of 10.
Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

18 –1
10 exa E 10 deci d
15 –2
10 peta P 10 centi c
12 –3
10 tera T 10 milli m
9 –6
10 giga G 10 micro µ
6 –9
10 mega M 10 nano n
3 –12
10 kilo k 10 pico p
2 –15
10 hecto h 10 femto f
1 –18
10 deca da 10 atto a
5. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR SI UNITS, SOME OTHER UNITS, SOME
OTHER UNITS, AND SI PREFIXES
(a) Symbols for units of physical quantities are printed/written in Roman (upright type), and not in
italics
For example : 1 N is correct but 1 N is incorrect
(b) (i) Unit is never written with capital initial letter even if it is named after a scientist.
For example : SI unit of force is newton (correct) Newton (incorrect)
(ii) For a unit named after a scientist, the symbol is a capital letter.
But for other units, the symbol is NOT a capital letter.
For example :
force → newton (N)
energy → joule (J)
electric current → ampere (A)
temperature → kelvin (K)
frequency → hertz (Hz)
For example :
length → meter (m)
mass → kilogram (kg)
luminous intensity → candela (cd)
time → second (s)
Note : The single exception is L, for the unit litre.
(c) Symbols for units do not contain any final full stop all the end of recommended letter and remain
unaltered in the plural, using only singular form of the unit.

For example :
Quantity Correct Incorrect

25 c m
25 centimeters 25 cm
25 cms.
(d) Use of solidus ( / ) is recommended only for indicating a division of one letter unit symbol by another unit
symbol. Not more than one solidus is used.
For example :
Correct Incorrect
2
m/s m/s/s
2
N s/m N s / m/ m
J/K mol J / K / mol
kg/m s kg / m / s
(e) Prefix symbols are printed in roman (upright) type without spacing between the prefix symbol and the
unit symbol. Thus certain approved prefixes written very close to the unit symbol are used to indicate
decimal fractions or multiples of a SI unit, when it is inconveniently small or large.
For example
megawatt 1 MW = 10 6 W
centimetre 1 cm = 10 –2 m
kilometre 1 km = 10 3 m
millivolt 1 mV = 10 –3 V
kilowatt-hour 1 kW h = 10 3 W h = 3.6 M J = 3.6 × 10 6 J
microampere 1 µ A = 1 0 –6 A
angstrom 1 Å = 0 .1nm = = 1 0
– 10
m
–9
nanosecond 1 ns = 10 s
picofarad 1 pF = 10 –12 F
microsecond 1 µs = 1 0 – 6 s
gigahertz 1 GHz = 10 9 Hz
micron 1 µm = 1 0 –6 m
The unit 'fermi', equal to a femtometre or 10–15 m has been used as the convenient length unit in
nuclear studies.
(f) When a prefix is placed before the symbol of a unit, the combination of prefix and symbol is considered
as a new symbol, for the unit, which can be raised to a positive or negative power without using
brackets. These can be combined with other unit symbols to form compound unit.

For example :
cm3 (cm)3 = (0.01 m)3 = (10–2m)3 = 10–6 m3 0.01 m3 or 10–2 m3
mA2 (mA)2 = (0.001 A)2 = (10–3A)2 = 10–6 A2 0.001 A2
(g) A prefix is never used alone. It is always attached to a unit symbol and written or fixed before the unit
symbol.
For example :
103/m3 = 1000/m3 or 1000 m–3, but not k/m3 or k m–3.
(h) Prefix symbol is written very close to the unit symbol without spacing between them, while unit symbols
are written separately with spacing with units are multiplied together.
For example :

–1
1 ms 1 metre per second 1 milli per second
1 ms 1 millisecond 1 metre second
1Cm 1 coulomb metre 1 centimetre
1 cm 1 centimetre 1 coulomb metre
(i) The use of double profixes is avoided when single prefixes are available.
For example :

10–9 m 1 nm (nanometre) 1 mµ m (milli micrometre)
10–6 m 1µm (micron) 1 m m m (milli millimetre)
10–12 F 1 pF (picofarad) 1 µ µ F (micro microfarad)
109 F 1 GW (giga watt) 1 kM W (kilo megawatt)
(j) The use of a combination of unit and the symbols for unit is avoided when the physical quantity is
expressed by combining two or more units.
J/mol K Joule / mole K

joule per mole Kelvin or J mol–1 K–1 or J/mol Kelvin
or J/mole K
newton m second
newton metre second Nms or N m second
or N metre s
or newton metre s

5.1. Characteristics of base units or standards :

(A) Well defined (B) Accessibility (C) Invariability (D) Convenience in use
5.2 Some special types of units :

1. 1 Micron (1µ) = 10–4 cm = 10–6 m (length)
2. 1 Angstrom(1 Å) = 10–8 cm = 10–10m (length)
3. 1 fermi (1f) = 10–13 cm = 10–15 m (length)
4. 1 inch = 2.54 cm (length)
5. 1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.609 km (length)
6. 1 atmosphere = 105 N/m2 = 76 torr = 76 mm of Hg pressure (pressure)
7. 1 litre = 10 m = 1000 cm
–3 3 3
(volume)
8. 1 carat = 0.0002 kg (weight)
9. 1 pound (Ib) = 0.4536 kg (weight)
6. DIMENSIONS
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the fundamental quantities must be raised to
represent the given physical quantity.
mass mass
For example, density = =
volume (length )3
or density = (mass) (length)–3 ...(i)
Thus, the dimensions of density are 1 in mass and –3 in length. The dimensions of all other fundamental
quantities are zero.
For convenience, the fundamental quantities are represented by one letter symbols. Generally mass is
denoted by M, length by L, time by T and electric current by A.
The thermodynamic temperature, the amount of substance and the luminous intensity are denoted by
the symbols of their units K, mol and cd respectively. The physical quantity that is expressed in terms
of the base quantities is enclosed in square brackets.
[sinθ] = [cosθ] = [tanθ] = [ex] = [M0L0T0]
7. DIMENSIONAL FORMULA
It is an expression which shows how and which of the fundalmental units are required to represent the
unit of physical quantity.
Different quantities with units. symbol and dimensional formula.
Quantity Symbol Formula S.I. Unit D.F.

Displacement s Metre or m M0LT0
Area A ×b (Metre)2 or m2 M0L2T0
Volume V ×b×h (Metre)3 or m3 M0L3T0
∆s
Velocity v v= m/s M0LT–1
∆t
Momentum p p = mv kgm/s MLT–1
∆v
Acceleration a a= m/s2 M0LT–2
∆t
Force F F = ma Newton or N MLT–2
Impulse - F × t N.sec MLT–1
Work W F.d N.m ML2T–2

1
Energy KE or U K.E. = mv 2 Joule or J ML2T–2
2
P.E. = mgh
W
Power P P= watt or W ML2T–3
t
Density d d = mass/volume kg/m3 ML–3T0
Pressure P P = F/A Pascal or Pa ML–1T–2
Torque τ τ=r×F N.m. ML2T–2
arc
Angular displacement θ θ= radian or rad M0L0T0
radius
θ
Angular velocity ω ω= rad/sec M0L0T–1
t
∆ω
Angular acceleration α α= rad/sec2 M0L0T–2
∆t
Moment of Inertia I I = mr2 kg-m2 ML2T0
1
Frequency v or f f= hertz or Hz M0L0T–1
T
Stress - F/A N/m2 ML–1T–2
∆ ∆A ∆V
Strain - ; ; - M0L0T0
A V
F/A
Youngs modulus Y Y= N/m2 ML–1T–2
∆ /
(Bulk modulus of rigidity)
F W N J
Surface tension T or ; ML0T–2
A m m2
Force constant (spring) k F = kx N/m ML0T–2
 dv 
Coefficient of viscosity η F = η A kg/ms(poise in C.G.S.) ML–1T–1
 dx 
Gm1 m 2 N − m2
Gravitation constant G F= M–1L3T–2
r2 kg 2
PE J
Gravitational potential Vg Vg = M0L2T–2
m kg
Temperature θ - Kelvin or K M0L0T0θ+1
Heat Q Q = m × S × ∆t Joule or Calorie ML2T–2
Joule
Specific heat S Q = m × S × ∆t kg .Kelvin M0L2T–2θ–1
Joule
Latent heat L Q = mL kg M0L2T–2
KA( θ1 − θ2 )t Joule
Coefficient of thermal K Q= MLT–3θ–1
d m sec K
conductivity

Joule
Universal gas constant R PV = nRT ML2T–2θ–1
mol.K
Mechanical equivalent J W = JH - M0L0T0
of heat
Q
Charge Q or q I= Coulomb or C M0L0TA
t
Current I - Ampere or A M0L0T0A
1 q1q2 (coul.)2 C2
Electric permittivity ε0 ε0 = . or M–1L–3T4A2
4πF r 2 N.m 2 N − m2
∆W
Electric potential V V= Joule/coul ML2T–3A–1
q
F
Intensity of electric field E E= N/coul. MLT–3A–1
q
Capacitance C Q = CV Farad M–1L–2T4A2
ε
Dielectric constant εr εr = - M0L0T0
ε0
or relative permittivity
Resistance R V = IR Ohm ML2T–3A–2
1
Conductance S S= Mho M–1L–2T–3A2
R
RA
Specific resistance ρ ρ= Ohm × meter ML3T–3A–2

or resistivity
1
Conductivity or s σ= Mho/meter M–1L–3T3A2
ρ
specific conductance
Magnetic induction B F = qvBsinθ Tesla or weber/m2 MT–2A–1
or F = BIL
dφ
Magnetic flux φ e= Weber ML2T–2A–1
dt
Magnetic intensity H B=µH A/m M0L–1T0A
µ 0 Idl sin θ N
Magnetic permeability µ0 B= MLT–2A–2
4π r 2 amp 2
of free space or medium
dI
Coefficient of self or L e = L. Henery ML2T–2A–2
dt
Mutual inductance
Electric dipole moment p p = q × 2 C.m. M0LTA
Magnetic dipole moment M M = NIA amp.m2 M0L2AT0

8. USE OF DIMENSIONS
Theory of dimensions have following main uses :

8.1 Conversion of units :
This is based on the fact that the product of the numerical value (n) and its corresponding unit (u) is a
constant, i.e.,
n[u] = constant
or n1[u1] = n2 [u2]
Suppose the dimensions of a physical quantity are a in mass, b in length and c in time. If the fundamental
units in one system are M1, L1 and T1 and in the other system are M2, L2 and T2 respectively. Then we
can write.
n1[M1a Lb1 T1c ] = n 2 [Ma2 Lb2 T2c ] ...(i)
Here n1 and n2 are the numerical values in two system of units respectively. Using Eq. (i), we can
convert the numerical value of a physical quantity from one system of units into the other system.
Ex.4 The value of gravitation constant is G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2 in SI units. Convert it into CGS
system of units.
Sol. The dimensional formula of G is [M–1 L3 T–2].
Using equation number (i), i.e.,
n1[M1–1 L31 T1–2 ] = n 2 [M2–1 L32 T2–2 ]
–1 3 –2
M  L   T 
n 2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M2   L 2   T2 
Here, n1 = 6.67 × 10–11
M1 = 1 kg, M2 = 1 g = 10–3 kg L1 = 1 m, L2 = 1cm = 10–2 m, T1 = T2 = 1s
Substituting in the above equation, we get
–1 3 –2
 1kg   1m  1s 
n2 = 6.67 × 10 –11  –3   – 2   
 10 kg  10 m  1s 
or n2 = 6.67 × 10–8
Thus, value of G in CGS system of units is 6.67 × 10–8 dyne cm2/g2.
8.2 To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical equation :
Every physical equation should be dimensionally balanced. This is called the 'Principle of Homogeneity'.
The dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be the same. On this basis we can
judge whether a given equation is correct or not. But a dimensionally correct equation may or may not
be physically correct.
Ex.5 Show that the expression of the time period T of a simple pendulum of length l given by T =
l
2π is dimensionally correct.
g
l
Sol. T = 2π
g
[L]
Dimensionally [T ] = = [T ]
[LT – 2 ]
As in the above equation, the dimensions of both sides are same. The given formula is dimensionally
correct.

8.3 Principle of Homogeneity of Dimensions.

This principle states that the dimensions of all the terms in a physical expression should be same. For
1 2 1
example, in the physical expression s = ut + at , the dimensions of s, ut and at2 all are same.
2 2
Note : The physical quantities separated by the symbols +, –, =, >, < etc., have the same dimensions.
c
Ex.6 The velocity v of a particle depends upon the time t according to the equation v = a + bt + .
d+ t
Write the dimensions of a, b, c and d.
Sol. From principle of homogeneity
[a] = [v]
or [a] = [LT–1] Ans.
[bt] = [v]
[v ] [LT –1]
or [b] = =
[ t] [T ]
or [b] = [LT–2]
Similarly, [d] = [t] = [T] Ans.
[c ]
Further, = [v ]
[d + t ]
or [c] = [v] [d + t]
or [c] = [LT–1] [T]
or [c] = [L] Ans.
8.4 To establish the relation among various physical quantities :

If we know the factors on which a given physical quantity may depend, we can find a formula relating
the quantity with those factors. Let us take an example.
Ex.7 The frequency (f) of a stretched string depends upon the tension F (dimensions of force), length
l of the string and the mass per unit length µ of string. Derive the formula for frequency.
Sol. Suppose, that the frequency f depends on the tension raised to the power a, length raised to the power
b and mass per unit length raised to the power c. Then.
f ∝ [F]a [l ]b [µ]c
or f = k [F]a [l ]b [µ]c
Here, k is a dimensionless constant. Thus,
[f ] = [F]0 [l]b [µ]c
or [M0 L0 T–1] = [MLT–2]a [L]b [ML–1]c
or [M0L0T–1] = [Ma + c La + b – c T–2a]
For dimensional balance, the dimension on both sides should be same.
Thus, a+c=0 ...(ii)
a+b–c=0 ...(iii)
and – 2a = – 1 ...(iv)

Solving these three equations, we get
1 1
a= , c=– and b = – 1
2 2
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get
f = k(F)1/ 2 (l ) –1(µ ) –1/ 2
k F
or f =
l µ
1
Experimentally, the value of k is found to be
2
1 F
Hence, f =
2l µ
8.5 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

The method of dimensions has the following limitations :
(i) By this method the value of dimensionless constant can not be calculated.
(ii) By this method the equation containing trigonometrical, exponential and logarithmic terms cannot be
analysed.
(iii) If a physical quantity depends on more than three factors, then relation among them cannot be
established because we can have only three equations by equalising the powers of M, L and T.

BASIC MATHEMATICS
9. MENSURATION FORMULAS :
r : radius ; d = diameter ;
V = Volume S.A = surface area
(a) Circle
1 2
Perameter : 2πr = πd, Area : πr2 = πd
4
(b) Sphere
4 3 1
Surface area = 4πr2 = πd2 , Volume = πr = πd3
3 6
(c) Spherical Shell (Hollow sphere)
Surface area = 4πr2 = πd2
Volume of material used = (4πr2)(dr), dr = thickness
(d) Cylinder
Lateral area = 2πrh
V = πr2h
Total area = 2πrh + 2πr2 = 2πr (h + r)
(e) Cone
Lateral area = πr r 2 + h2 h = height
 2 2  1 2
Total area = π r  r + h + r  V = πr h
  3
(f) Ellipse
a2 + b2
Circumference ≈ 2π
2
b
area = πab
a = semi major axis a
b = semi minor axis
(g) Parallelogram a
h
A = bh = ab sin θ θ
a = side ; h = height ; b = base b
θ = angle between sides a and b b
(h) Trapezoid
h
h
area = (a + b)
2 a
a and b parallel sides
(i) Triangle h = height
bh ab
area = = sin γ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c ) α
2 2 c
b
a, b, c sides are opposite to angles α, β , γ
b = base ; h = height γ β
a
1
s= (a + b + c )
2

(j) Rectangular container h

lateral area = 2(b + bh + h )
V = bh b

side , b, h
Mathematics is the language of physics. It becomes easier to describe, understand and apply the
physical principles, if one has a good knowledge of mathematics.
10. LOGARITHMS :
(i) e ≈ 2.7183 (ii) If ex = y, then x = loge y = ln y (iii) If 10x = y, then x = log10y

(iv) log10y = 0.4343 loge y = 2.303 log10 y (v) log (ab) = log (a) + log (b)
a
(vi) log  = log (a) – log (b) (vii) log an = n log (a)
b
11. TRIGONOMETRIC PROPERTIES :
(i) Measurement of angle & relationship between degrees & radian

In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus it is best to use units
called radians because of they simplify later calculations.
Let ACB be a central angle in circle of radius r, as in figure. B
Then the angle ACB or θ is defined in radius as -
θ
A
Arc length AB r
θ= ⇒ θ= C
Radius r
If r = 1 then θ = AB
The radian measure for a circle of unit radius of angle ABC is defined to be the length of the circular
arc AB. since the circumference of the cirlce is 2π and one complete revolution of a cicle is 360°, the
relation between radians and degrees is given by the following equation.
π radians = 180°
ANGLE CONVERSION FORMULAS
π π
1 degree = (≈ 0.02) radian Degrees to radians : multiply by
180° 180°
180°
1 radian ≈ 57 degrees Radians to degrees : multiply by
π
π π
Ex.15 Covert 45° to radians : 45 • = rad
180 4
π π 180
Convert rad to degrees : • = 30°
6 6 π
Ex.16 Convert 30º to radians :
π π
Sol. 30 º× = rad
180 º 6

π
Ex.17 Convert rad to degrees.
3
π 180
Sol. × = 60
3 π
Standard values
π π π
(1) 30° = rad (2) 45° = rad (3) 60° = rad
6 4 3
π 2π 3π
(4) 90° = rad (5) 120° = rad (6) 135° = rad
2 3 4
5π
(7) 150° = rad (8) 180° = π rad (9) 360° = 2π rad
6
(Check these values yourself to see that the satisfy the conversion formulaes)
(ii) Measurement of positive & Negative Angles :

y
x
Positive Negative
measure Measure
x
An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray
lies along the positive x-axis (Fig). Angles measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are
assigned positive measures; angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures.
y y y y
5π
–
2
x x x x
3π 3π
9π –
4
4
(iii) Six Basic Trigonometric Functions :

y
P(x,y)
se
nu
r
te
oppsite
y
po
hy
side
θ x
O adjacent side
P(x,y)
The trigonometric fucntion of a general angle θ are defined in tems of x, y and r.

opp y hyp r
Sine : sin θ = = Cosecant : cos ecθ = opp = y
hyp r
adj x hyp r
Cosine: cos θ = = Secant : sec θ = =
hyp r adj x
opp y adj x
Tangent: tan θ = adj = x Cotangent: cot θ = opp = y
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
If the circle in (Fig. above) has radius r = 1, the equations defining sin θ and cos θ become
cosθ = x, sinθ = y
We can then calculate the values of the cosine and sine directly from the coordinates of P.
Ex.18 Find the six trigonometric ratios from given fig. (see above)
5
opp 4 adj 3 4
Sol. sinθ = hyp = 5 cosθ = hyp = 5
θ
opp 4 adj 3 3
tanθ = adj = 3 cot θ = =
opp 4
hyp 5 hyp 5
sec θ = = cosec θ = =
opp 3 opp 4
Ex.19 Find the sine and cosine of angle θ shown in the unit circle if coordinate of point p are as shown.
 
y
 – 1, 3 
 2 2 
 
3
2
1 θ
Sol. 1 x
2
1 3
cos θ = x-coordinate of P = – sin θ = y-coordinate of P =
2 2
12. Values of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ for some standard angles.
Degree 0 30 37 45 53 60 90 120 135 180
Radians 0 π/6 37π / 180 π/ 4 53π / 180 π/3 π/2 2π / 3 3π / 4 π
sin θ 0 1/2 3/5 1/ 2 4/5 3 /2 1 3 /2 1/ 2 0
cos θ 1 3 /2 4/5 1/ 2 3/5 1/2 0 –1/2 – 1/ 2 –1
tan θ 0 1/ 3 3/4 1 4/3 3 ∞ – 3 –1 0

A useful rule for remembering when the basic trigonometric funcions are positive and negative is the
CAST rule. If you are not very enthusiastic about CAST. You can remember it as ASTC (After school to
college)
y
nd nd
II Quadrant I Quadrant
S A
sin positive all positive
T C
Tan positive cos positive
IIInd Quadrant IVnd Quadrant
The CAST rule

RULES FOR FINDING TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO OF ANGLES GREATER THAN 90°.
Step 1 → Identify the quadrant in which angle lies.
Step 2 → (a) If angle = (nπ ± θ) where n is an integer. Then
 π 
(b) If angle = ( 2n + 1) + θ where n is in interger. Then
 2 
 π 
trigonometric function of ( 2n + 1) ± θ = complimentry trignometric function of θ and
 2 
sign will be decided by CAST Rule.
Ex.20 Evaluate sin 120°
3
Sol. sin 120° = sin (90° + 30°) = cos 30° =
2
3
Aliter sin 120° = sin (180° – 60°) = sin 60° =
2
Ex.21 Evaluate cos 210°
3
Sol. cos 210° = cos (180° + 30°) = – cos 30° = –
2
1
Ex.22 tan 210° = tan (180° + 30°) = tan 30° = +
3
13. IMPORTANT FORMULAS
(i) sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 (ii) 1 + tan2θ = sec2θ

(iii) 1 + cot θ = cosec θ
2 2
(iv) sin2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
(v) cos 2θ = 2 cos2θ – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2θ = cos2θ – sin2θ
(vi) sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B (vii) cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
C+D C–D C–D C+D

(viii) sin C + sin D = 2 sin  cos  (ix) sinC – sin D = 2 sin  cos 
 2   2   2   2 
C+D C–D D–C C+D

(x) cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos (xi) cos C – cos D = 2 sin sin
2 2 2 2
2 tan θ tan A ± tan B
(xii) tan 2θ = 2 (xiii) tan(A ± B) = 1 ∓ tan A tan B
1 – tan θ

(xiv) sin(90° + θ) = cos θ (xv) cos (90° + θ) = – sin θ

(xvi) tan (90° + θ) = – cot θ (xvii) sin(90° – θ) = cos θ
(xviii) cos(90° – θ) = sinθ (xix) cos (180° – θ) = – cos θ
(xx) sin(180° – θ) = sin θ (xxi) cos (180° + θ) = – cos θ
(xxii) tan (180° + θ) = tan θ (xxiii) sin(– θ) = – sin θ
(xxiv) cos (–θ) = cos θ (xxv) tan (–θ) = – tan θ
sin A sin B sin C

• Sine Rule = = B
a b c
c a
• Cosine rule a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
A C
b
4 3
90°
Ex.23 37° 53°
x
Find x :
sin 90° sin 53°
. =
x 4
S o l
x= 5
14. SMALL ANGLE APPROXIMATION
It is a useful simplification which is only approximately true for finite angles. It involves linerarization of
the trigonometric functions so that, when the angle θ is measured in radians.
sin θ ~ θ
θ2
cosθ ~ 1 or cos θ ~ 1 – for the second - order approximation
2
tan θ ~ θ
Geometric justification
tan Object
tan
arc arc
D
θ θ
d
Small angle approximation. The value of the small angle X in radians is
approximately equal to its tangent.
• When one angle of a right triangle is small, is hypotenuse in approximately equal in length to the leg
adjacent
to the small angle, so the cosine is approximately 1.
• The short leg is approximately equal to the arc from the long leg to the hypotenuse, so the sine and
tangent are
both approximated by the value of the angle in radians.

15. BINOMIAL THEOREM :
n(n – 1)x 2
(1 ± x)n = 1 ± nx + ...........
2!
n(n + 1) 2
(1 ± x)–n = 1 ∓ nx + x .........
2!
If x << 1 ; then
(1 ± x)n = 1 ± nx (neglecting higher terms)
(1 ± x)–n = 1 ± (–n)x = 1 ∓ nx
(1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x+ x2
(1 + x)3 = 1 + 3x + x3 – 3x2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx ..............
if x << 1
Note : (1) When n is a positive integer, then expansion will have (n + 1) terms
(2) When n is a negative integer, expansion will have infinite terms.
(3) When n is a fraction expansion will have infinite terms.
Ex. 24 Calculate (1001)1/3.
 1 
Sol. We can write 1001 as : 1001 = 1000 1 +  , so that we have
e
 1000 
1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3   1   1 
(1001) = 10001 +  = 10 1 + 
  1000   1000 
1
= 10(1 + 0.001)1/ 3 = 10(1 + × 0.001)
3
= 10.003333
Ex.25 Expand (1+x)–3.
( −3)( −3 − 1)x 2 ( −3)( −3 − 1)( −3 − 2) 3

Sol. (1 + x ) −3 = 1 + ( −3)x + + x +
2! 3!
12 2 60 3
= 1 − 3x + x − x + .......
2 3×2
= 1 − 3 x + 6 x 2 − 10 x 3 + .......
16. GRAPHS :
Following graphs and their corresponding equations are frequently used in Physics.
(i) y = mx, represents a straight line passing through origin. Here, m = tan θ is also called the slope of
line, where θ is the angle which the line makes with positive x-axis, when drawn in anticlockwise
direction from the positive x-axis towards the line.

y y
θ θ
x x
(i) (ii)
The two possible cases are shown in figure 1.1 (i) θ < 90°. Therefore, tan θ or slope of line is positive.
In fig. 1.1 (ii), 90° < θ < 180°. Therefore, tan θ or slope of line is negative.
1
Note : That y = mx of y ∝ x also means that value of y becomes 2 time if x is doubled. Or it becomes th if x
4
x
becomes , and c the intercept on y-axis.
4
y y
c=+ve c=+ve θ θ
θ x x
x
c=–ve
(i) (ii) (iii)
In figure (i) : slope and intercept both are positive.

In figure (ii) : slope is negative but intercept is positive and
In figure (iii) : slope is positive but intercept is negative.
Note : That in y = mx + c, y does not become two times if x is doubled
Ex.26 v = u + at
t
.
Ex.27 P = mv
p
O v
Ex.28 Draw the graph for the equation : 2y = 3x + 2

3 (0,1)
Sol. 2y = 3x + 2 ⇒ y = x + 1 3
2 tan θ =
3 θ 2
m= > 0 ⇒ θ < 90°
2
c = +1 > 0
⇒ The line will pass through (0, 1)

Ex.29 Draw the graph for the equation : 2y + 4x + 2 = 0 tanθ = –2

Sol. 2y + 4x + 2 = 0 ⇒ y = – 2x – 1 θ
m = – 2 < 0 i.e., θ > 90°
c = – 1 i.e.,
line will pass through (0, –1) (0,–1)
: (i) If c = 0 line will pass through origin.

(ii) y = c will be a line parallel to x axis.
(0,c)
(0,0)
(iii) x = c will be a line perpendicular to y axis
(c,0)
(0,0)
(ii) Parabola
A general quadratic equation represents a parabola.
y = ax2 + bx + c a≠0
if a > 0 ; It will be a opening upwards parabola.
if a < 0 ; It will be a opening downwards parabola.
if c = 0 ; It will pass through origin.
y ∝ x2 or y = 2x2, etc. represents a parabola passing through origin as shown in figure shown.
y y
x ∝ y2
y ∝ x2
x x
2
k = 1/2mv
(i) (ii)
1
e.g. y = 4 x2 + 3x e.g. k= mv2
2
y=4x2+3x
v
2
y=–4x +3x
Note : That in the parabola y = 2x2 or y ∝ x2, if x is doubled, y will beome four times.
Graph x ∝ y2 or x = 4 y2 is again a parabola passing through origin as shown in figure shown. In this cae
if y is doubled, x will become four times.
y = x2 + 4 or x = y2 – 6 will represent a parabola but not passing through origin. In the first equation
(y = x2 + 4), if x doubled, y will not become four times.

17. SIMILAR TRIANGLE

Two given triangle are said to be similar if
(1) All respective angle are same
or
(2) All respective side ratio are same.
P
A
B C Q R
As example, ABC, PQR are two triangle as shown in figure.
If they are similar triangle then
(1) ∠A=∠P
∠B=∠Q
∠C=∠R
OR
AB BC AC
(2) = =
PQ QR PR
A
P
5
3
Ex.30 O
B Q x
6
Find x :
Sol. By similar triangle concept
AB OB
=
PQ OQ
5 6 18
= ⇒ x=
3 x 5

Exercise - I (ONLY ONE OPTION IS CORRECT)

SECTION A : UNITS
1. Which of the following sets cannot enter into the 5. Which of the following is not the unit of time
list of fundamental quantities in any system of units ? (A) solar day (B) parallactic second
(A) length, mass and velocity (C) leap year (D) lunar month
(B) length, time and velocity Sol.
(C) mass, time and velocity
(D) length, time and mass
Sol.
6. Which of the following system of units is NOT based

on the unit of mass, length and time alone
2. Which of the following is not the name of a physical (A) FPS (B) SI
quantity ? (C) CGS (D) MKS
(A) kilogram (B) impulse Sol.
(C) energy (D) density
Sol.
7. The SI unit of the universal gravitational constant

3. Light year is the unit of G is
(A) speed (B) mass (A) Nm kg–2 (B) Nm2kg–2
(C) distance (D) time (C) Nm2 kg–1 (D) Nmkg–1
Sol. Sol.
4. PARSEC is a unit of
(A) Time (B) Angle
(C) Distance (D) Velocity 8. The SI unit of the universal gas constant R is :
Sol. (A) erg K–1 mol–1 (B) watt K–1 mol–1
–1
(C) newton K mol –1
(D) joule K–1 mol–1
Sol.

9. The unit of impulse is the same as that of : 13. One watt-hour is equivalent to
(A) moment force (A) 6.3 × 103 Joule (B) 6.3 × 10–7 Joule
(B) linear momentum (C) 3.6 × 103 Joule (D) 3.6 × 10–3 Joule
(C) rate of change of linear momentum Sol.
(D) force
Sol.
10. Which of the following is not the unit of energy? SECTION : B DIMENSIONS
(A) watt-hour (B) electron-volt 14. What are the dimensions of lenth in force ×
(C) N × m (D) kg × m/sec2 displacement/time
Sol. (A) –2 (B) 0 (C) 2 (D) none of these
Sol.
11. A physical quantity is measured and the result is

expressed as nu where u is the unit used and n is the
numerical value. If the result is expressed in various
units then 15. The angular frequency is measured in rad s–1. Its
(A) n ∝ size of u (B) n ∝ u2 dimension in length are :
(C) n ∝ √u (D) n ∝ 1/u (A) – 2 (B) –1 (C) 0 (D) 2
Sol. Sol.
12. If the unit of length is micrometer and the unit of 16. A dimensionless quantity :
time is microsecond, the unit of velcoity will be : (A) never has a unit (B) always has a unit
(A) 100 m/s (B) 10 m/s (C) may have a unit (D) does not exit
(C) micrometers (D) m/s Sol.
Sol.

17. A unitless quantity : Sol.

(A) never has a nonzero dimension
(B) always has a nonzero dimension
(C) may have a nonzero dimension
(D) does not exit
Sol.
21. The dimensions of universal gravitational constant

are
18. If a and b are two physical quantities having (A) M–1 L3 T–2 (B) M–1 L3 T–1
different dimensions then which of the following can –1 –1
(C) M L T –2
(D) M–2 L2 T–2
denote a new physical quantity Sol.
(A) a + b (B) a – b
(C) a/b (D) ea/b (E) sin (a/b)
Sol.
22. The SI unit of Stefan's constant is :

(A) Ws–1 m–2 K–4 (B) J s m–1 K–1
–1 –2
(C) J s m K –1
(D) W m–2 K–4
19. Two physical quantities whose dimensions are not Sol.
same, cannot be :
(A) multiplied with each other
(B) divided
(C) added or substracted in the same expression
(D) added together
Sol.
23. What are the dimensions of Boltzmann's constant?

(A) MLT–2K–1 (B) ML2T–2K–1
0
(C) M LT –2
(D) M0L2T–2K–1
Sol.
20. Choose the correct statement(s) :

(A) All quantities may be represented dimensionally in
terms of the base quantities.
(B) A base q uant i t y cannot b e re pres ente d
dimensionally in terms of the rest of the base
quantities.
(C) The dimension of a base quantity in other base
quantities is always zero.
(D) The dimension of a derived quantity is never zero
in any base quantity.

24. Planck's constant has the dimensions of :

(A) force (B) energy
(C) linear momentum (D) angular momentum
Sol.
27. The time dependence of a physical quantity ?

P = P0exp(–α t2)
where α is a constant and t is time
The constant α
25. The velocity 'v' (in cm/s) of a particle is given in (A) will be dimensionless
terms of time 't' (in s) by the equation (B) will have dimensions of T–2
(C) will have dimensions as that of P
b
v = at + (D) will have dimensions equal to the dimension of P
t+c multiplied by T–2
The dimensions of a, b and c are Sol.
a b c a b c
(A) L2 T LT2 (B) LT2 LT L
(C) LT–2 L T (D) L LT T2
Sol.
28. Force F is given in terms of time t and distance x

by
F = A sin C t + B cos D x
A C
Then the dimensions of and are given by
B D
–2 0 0 –1
(A) MLT , M L T (B) MLT , M0L–1T0
–2
0 0 0 0 1 –1
(C) M L T , M L T (D) M0L1T–1, M0L0T0
Sol.
26. The position of a particle at time 't' is given by
the relation
V0
x(t) = [1 – e – αt ]
α
where V0 is a constant and α > 0. The dimensions of
V0 and α are respectively.
(A) M0L1T0 and T–1 (B) M0L1T0 and T–2
(C) M0L1T–1 and T–1 (D) M0L1T–1 and T–2
Sol.

29. The Van der Waal equation for 1 mole of a real gas
is
 a 
 P + 2  ( V – b) = RT
 V 
where P is the pressure, V is the volume, T is the 33. Which pair of following quantities has dimensions
absolute temperature, R is the molar gas constant different from each other.
and a, b are Van dar Waal constants. The dimensions (A) Impulse and linear momentum
of a are the same as those of (B) Plank's constant and angular momentum
(A) PV (B) PV2 (C) P2V (D) P/V (C) Moment of inertia and moment of force
Sol. (D) Young's modulus and pressure
Sol.
30. In above question 29, the dimensions of b are the 34. A pair of physical quantities having the same
same as those of dimensional formula is :
(A) P (B) V (C) PV (D) nRT (A) angular momentum and torque
Sol. (B) torque and energy
(C) force and power
(D) power and angular momentum
Sol.
31. In above question 29, the dimensions of nRT are

the same as those of
(A) energy (B) force
(C) pressure (D) specific heat
Sol.
35. If force (F) is given by F = Pt–1 + α t, where t is
time. The unit of P is same as that of
(A) velocity (B) displacement
(C) acceleration (D) momentum
Sol.
32. In above question 29, the dimensional formula for

ab is
(A) ML2T–2 (B) ML4T–2 (C) ML6T–2 (D) ML8T–2
Sol.

36. The product of energy and time is called action. b

The dimensional formula for action is same as that for 39. In the above question dimensions of are the
c
(A) power (B) angular energy same as those of
(C) force × velocity (D) impulse × distance (A) wave velocity (B) wavelength
Sol. (C) wave amplitude (D) wave frequency
Sol.
40. What is the physical quantity whose dimensions

are M L2 T–2 ?
(A) kinetic energy (B) pressure
37. Dimensions of pressure are the same as that of (C) momentum (D) power
(A) force per unit volume Sol.
(B) energy per unit volume
(C) force
(D) energy
Sol.
41. Which one of the following has the dimensions of

ML–1T–2 ?
(A) torque (B) surface tension
(C) viscosity (D) stress
Sol.
38. When a wave traverses a medium, the displacement

of a particle located at x at time t is given by
y = a sin (bt – cx)
where a, b and c are constants of the wave. The
dimensions of b are the same as those of
(A) wave velocity (B) amplitude
42. If force, acceleration and time are taken as
(C) wavelength (D) wave frequency
fundamental quantities, then the dimensions of length
Sol.
will be :
(A) FT2 (B) F–1 A2 T–1 (C) FA2T (D) AT2
Sol.

43. The dimensions ML–1T–2 can correspond to

(A) moment of a force or torque
(B) surface tension
(C) pressure
(D) co-efficient of viscosity

(useful relation are τ = r × F , S = F/l, F = 6 π η r v,,
where symbols have usual meaning)
Sol. 47. In a certain system of units, 1 unit of time is 5
sec, 1 unit of mass is 20 kg and unit of length is 10m.
In this system, one unit of power will correspond to
(A) 16 watts (B) 1/16 watts
(C) 25 watts (D) none of these
Sol.
44. Which of the following can be a set of fundamental

quantities
(A) length, velocity, time
(B) momentum, mass, velocity
(C) force, mass, velocity 48. In a book, the answer for a particular question is
(D) momentum, time, frequency
ma  2kl 
Sol. expressed as b =  1+  here m represents
k  ma 
mass, a represents accelerations, l represents length.
The unit of b should be
(A) m/s (B) m/s2 (C) meter (D) /sec
Sol.
45. If area (A) velocity (v) and density (ρ) are base
units, then the dimensional formula of force can be
represented as
(A) Avρ (B) Av2ρ (C) Avρ2 (D) A2vρ
Sol. 49. ρ = 2 g/cm3 convert it into MKS system -
kg kg
(A) 2 × 10–3 3 (B) 2 × 103 3
m m
kg kg
(C) 4 × 103 3 (D) 2 × 106 3
m m
Sol.
46. The pressure of 106 dyne/cm2 is equivalent to

(A) 105 N/m2 (B) 106 N/m2
7
(C) 10 N/m 2
(D) 108 N/m2
Sol.

F Sol.
50. α = sin(βt) (here V = velocity, F = force, t =
V2
time) : Find the dimension of α and β -
(A) α = [M1L1T0], β = [T–1]
(B) α = [M1L1T–1], β = [T1]
(C) α = [M1L1T–1], β = [T–1]
(D) α = [M1L–1T0], β = [T–1]
Sol.
54. The velocity of water waves may dpend on their

wavelength λ , the density of water ρ and the
acceleration due to gravity g. The method of
dimensions gives the relation between these quantities
as
(A) v2 = kλ–1 g–1 ρ–1
(B) v2 = k g λ
51. Given that v is the speed, r is radius and g is (C) v2 = k g λ ρ
acceleration due to gravity. Which of the following is (D) v2 = k λ3 g–1 ρ–1 where k i s a di mensi onl e ss
dimension less constant
Sol.
v 2g v2
(A) (B) v2rg (C) vr2g (D)
r rg
Sol.
52. If E, M, J and G denote energy, mass, angular

momentum and gravitational constant respectively,
EJ2
then has the dimensions of 55. If the unit of force is 1 kilonewton, the length is 1
M5 G2 km and time is 100 second, what will be the unit of
(A) length (B) angle (C) mass (D) time mass :
Sol. (A) 1000 kg (B) 10 kg
(C) 10000 kg (D) 100 kg
Sol.
53. The dimensions ML–1T–2 may correspond to

(A) work done by a force (B) linear momentum
(C) pressure (D) energy per unit volume

56. A body moving through air at a high speed 'v' 59. The value of G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2. Its
experiences a retarding force 'F' given by F = K A d vx numerical value in CGS system will be :
where 'A' is the surface area of the body, 'd' is the (A) 6.67 × 10–8 (B) 6.67 × 10–6
density of air and 'K' is a numerical constant. The value (C) 6.67 (D) 6.67 × 10–5
of 'x' is : Sol.
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Sol.
60. The density of mercury is 13600 kg m–3. Its value

57. The velocity of a freely falling body changes as g p
of CGS system will be :
hq where g is acceleration due to gravity and h is the (A) 13.6 g cm–3 (B) 1360 g cm–3
height. The values of p and q are : (C) 136 g cm –3
(D) 1.36 g cm–3
Sol.
1 1 1
(A) 1, (B) ,
2 2 2
1
(C) ,1 (D) 1, 1
2
Sol.
61. If the acceleration due to gravity is 10 ms–2 and

the units of length and time are changed to kilometre
and hour, respectively, the numerical value of the
acceleration is :
(A) 360000 (B) 72000
(C) 36000 (D) 129600
Sol.
58. Choose the correct statement(s) :
(A) A dimensionally correct equation must be correct.
(B) A dimensionally correct equation may be correct.
(C) A dimensionally incorrect equation may be correct.
(D) A dimensionally incorrect equation may be
incorrect.
Sol.

62. If 'c' the velocity of light 'g' the acceleration due

to gravity and 'P" the atmospheric pressure are
fundamental units, then the dimensions of length will
be
(A) c/g (B) P × c × g (C) c/P (D) c2/g
Sol. 65. If the units of M, L are doubled then the unit of
kinetic energy will become
(A) 2 times (B) 4 times
(C) 8 times (D) 16 times
Sol.
63. The units of length, velocity and force are doubled.

Which of the following is the correct change in the
other units ? BASIC MATHEMATICS
(A) unit of time is doubled 66. The radius of two circles are r and 4r what will be
(B) unit of mass is doubled the ratio of their Area and perimeter.
(C) unit of momentum is doubled Sol.
(D) unit of energy is doubled
Sol.
67. Internal radius of a ball is 3 cm and external radius

is 4 cm. What will be the volume of the material used.
Sol.
64. If the units of force and that of length are doubled,

the unit of energy will be :
(A) 1/4 times (B) 1/2 times
(C) 2 times (D) 4 times
Sol.
68. Binomial
(a) (99)1/2 (b) (120)1/2 (c) (126)1/3
Sol.

4
x 2
71. Find x and y :

y
69. A normal human eye can see an object making an
2
angle of 1.8° at the eye. What is the approximate
height of object which can be seen by an eye placed 3
at a distance of 1 m from the eye. Sol.
h
1.8°
1m
Sol.
70. Draw graph for following equations :

(i) v = v0 – at (ii) x = 4t – 3
(iii) x = 4 at2 (iv) v = – gt
Sol.

Exercise - II
1*. Which of the following is not the unit length : 4. The equation of state for a real gas at high
(A) micron (B) light year nRT a
(C) angstrom (D) radian temperature is given by P = − 1/ 2 where
V − b T V( V + b)
Sol.
n, P V & T are number of moles, pressure, volume &
temperature respectively & R is the universal gas
constant. Find the dimensions of constant ‘a’ in the
above equation.
Sol.
2. A particle is in a uni-directional potential field where

the potential energy (U) of a particle depends on the
x-coordinate given by Ux = k(1 – cos ax) & k and ‘a’
are constants. Find the physical dimensions of ‘a’ & k.
Sol.
5. The distance moved by a particle in time t from
centre of a ring under the influence of its gravity is
given by x = a sinωt where a & ω are constants. If ω is
found to depend on the radius of the ring (r), its mass
(m) and universal gravitational constant (G), find using
dimensional analysis an expression for ω in terms of r, m
and G.
Sol.
3. The time period (T) of a spring mass system

depends upon mass (m) & spring constant (k) & length
Force
of the spring (l) [k = ] . Find the relation among,
length
(T), (m), (l) & (k) using dimensional method.
Sol.
6. If the velocity of light c, Gravitational constant G &

Plank’s constant h be chosen as fundamental units,
find the dimension of mass, length & time in the new
system.
Sol.

7. A satellite is orbiting around a planet. Its orbital

velocity (v0) is found to depend upon
(a) Radius of orbit (R)
(b) Mass of planet (M)
(c) Universal gravitation constant (G) 10. Use the small angle approximations to find
Using dimensional analysis find an expression relating approximate values for
orbital velocity (v0) to the above physical quantities.
Sol. (a) sin 8° and (b) tan 5°
Sol.
8. The angle subtended by the moon's diameter at a

point on the earth is about 0.50°. Use this and the
act that the moon is about 384000 km away to find
the approximate diameter of the moon.
θ D
rm
(A) 192000 km (B) 3350 km

(C) 1600 km (D) 1920 km
Sol.
9. Use the approximation (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx, |x| << 1,

to find approximate value for
1
(a) 99 (b)
1.01
Sol.

Exercise - III (JEE QUESTIONS)

Note : (*) means not for speed batch 3*. Which of the following pairs have same dimensions :
1*. The pairs of physical quantities that have the (A) Torque and work
same dimensions are : (B) Angular momentum and work
(A) Raynolds number and coefficient of friction (C) Energy and young's modulus
(B) Latent heat and gravitational potential (D) Light year and wavelength [JEE-1996' 2/100]
(C) curie and frequency of light wave Sol.
(D) Planck's constant and torque
[JEE - 1995'2/100]
Sol.
4*. The SI unit of inductance, the henry can be written

as : [JEE-1998' 2/200]
2*. In the formula X = 3YZ2, X and Z have dimensions (A) weber/ampere (B) volt-second/ampere
of capacitance and magnetic induction respectively. (C) joule/(ampere)2 (D) ohm-second
What are the dimensions of Y in MKSQ system ? Sol.
[JEE-1995,2/100]
(A) [M–3 L–1 T3 Q4] (B) [M–3 L–2 T4 Q4]
(C) [M–2 L–2 T4 Q4] (D) [Mß L–2 T4 Q1]
Sol.

5*. Let [ε0] denote the dimensional formula of the Sol.

permittivity of the vaccum, and [µ0 ] that of the
permeability of the vacuum. If M = mass, L = length,
T = time and I = electric current :[JEE-1998' 2/200]
(A) [ε0] = M–1 L–3 T2 I (B) [ε0] = M–1 L–3 T4 I2
(C) [µ0] = M LT–2 I–2 (D) [µ0] = M L2 T–1 I
Sol.
α  αz 
8*. Pressure depends on distance as, P = exp –  ,
β  kβ 
where α, β are constants, z is distance, k is Boltzmann's
constant and θ is temperature. The dimension of β are
[JEE-2004s '3/84]
(A) M0 L0 T0 (B) M–1 L–1 T–1
(C) M0 L2 T0 (D) M–1 L1 T2
Sol.
 1
6*. The dimensions of   ε0 E2 (ε0 : permittivity of
2
free space, E : electric field) is :
[JEE Sc 2000' 2/200]
(A) MLT–1 (B) ML2T–2 (C) ML–1T–2 (D) ML2T–1
Sol.
9*. Which of the following set have different dimensions ?

[JEE-2005s ; 3/60]
(A) Pressure, Young's modulus, Stress
(B) Emf, Potential difference, Electric potential
(C) Heat, Work done, Energy
(D) Dipole moment, Electric flux, Electric field
Sol.
∆V
7*. A quantity X is given by ε0L . where ε0 is the
∆t
permittivity of free space, L is length, ∆V is potential
difference and ∆t is time interval. The dimensional
formula for X is the same as that of
[JEE Sc.2000'3/105]
(A) resistance (B) charge
(C) voltage (D) current

Paragraph for Question No. 10-11

A dense collection of equal number of electrons and
positive ions is called neutral plasma. Certain solids
containing fixed positive ions surrounded by free
electrons can be treated as neutral plasma. Let 'N' be
the number density of free electrons, each of mass
'm'. When the electrons are subjected to an electric
field, they are displaced relatively away from the heavy
positive ions. If the electric field becomes zero, the
electrons begin to oscillate about the positive ions
with a natural angular frequency 'ωP' which is called
the plasma frequency. To sustain the oscillations, a
time varying electric field needs to be applied that
has an angular frequency ω, where a part of the energy
is absorbed and a part of it is reflected. As ω
approaches ωP, all the free electrons are set to
resonance together and all the energy is reflected.
This is the explanation of high reflectivity of metals.
10. Taking the electronic charge as 'e' and the

permittivity as 'ε0', use dimensional analysis to determine
the correct expression for ωP. [JEE-2011]
2
Ne mε0 Ne mε0
(A) mε0 (B) (C) mε0 (D) 2
Ne Ne
11. Estimate the wavelength at which plasma reflection

will occur for a metal having the density of electrons
N ≈ 4 × 1027 m–3. Take ε0 = 10–11 and m = 10–30, where
these quantities are in proper SI units [JEE-2011]
(A) 800 nm (B) 600 nm (C) 300 nm (D) 200 nm

ANSWER KEY EXERCISE-1
1. B 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. B 7. B 8. D
9. B 10. D 11. D 12. D 13. C 14. C 15. C 16. C
17. A 18. C 19. C 20. ABC 21. A 22. D 23. B 24. D
25. C 26. C 27. B 28. C 29. B 30. B 31. A 32. D
33. C 34. B 35. D 36. D 37. B 38. D 39. A 40. A
41. D 42. D 43. C 44. C 45. B 46. A 47. A 48. C
49. Β 50. D 51. D 52. B 53. CD 54. B 55. C 56. B
57. B 58. ABD 59. A 60. A 61. D 62. D 63. C 64. D
65. C
1 1 148 π
66. , 67. 68. (a) 9.9498 (b) 10.954 (c) 5.0132 69. π cm
16 4 3
v v
v0 x x
70. (i) t (ii) t (iii) (iv) t

t
–3
8 3
71. x= ,y=
3 2
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE-2
m Gm
1. D 2. L–1, ML2T–2 3. T = a 4. ML5T–2K1/2 5. ω = K
k r3
Gm
6. [M] = [h1/2.c1/2.G–1/2] ; [L] = [h1/2.c–3/2.G1/2] ; [T] = [h1/2.c–5/2.G1/2] 7. v0 = k
R
8. B 9. (a) 9.95, (b) 0.99 10. 0.14, 0.09
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE-3 (JEE PROBLEMS)

1. A,B,C 2. B 3. A,D 4. A,B,C,D 5. B,C
6. C 7. D 8. C 9. D 10. C
11. B

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
Nurturing potential through education
ERRORS
CONTENTS
1. Error ............................................................................................................... 3 – 6
2. Experiment ..................................................................................................... 7 – 14
3. Exercise - I .................................................................................................... 15 – 16
4. Exercise - II ................................................................................................... 16 – 19
5. Exercise - III .................................................................................................... 20 –23
6. Answer key ....................................................................................................... 24

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Page # 2 ERRORS
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ERRORS Page # 3
ERRORS
Whenever an experiment is performed, two kinds of errors can appear in the measured quantity.
(1) random and (2) systematic errors
1. Random errors appear randomly because of operator, fluctuations in external conditions and variability of measuring
instruments. The effect of random error can be some what reduced by taking the average of measured values.
Random errors have no fixed sign or size.
2. Systematic error occur due to error in the procedure, or miscalibration of the instrument etc. Such errors have
same size and sign for all measurements. Such errors can be determined.
A measurement with relatively small random error is said to have high precision. A measurement with small
random error and small systematic error is said to have high accuracy.
The experimental error [uncertainty] can be expressed in several standard ways.

Error limits Q ± Q is the measured quantity and Q is the magnitude of its limit of error. This expresses the
experimenter's judgement that the 'true' value of Q lies between Q – Q and Q + Q. This entire interval within
which the measurement lies is called the range of error. Random errors are expressed in this form.
Absolute Error
Error may be expressed as absolute measures, giving the size of the error in a quantity in the same units as the
quantity itself.
Least Count Error :- If the instrument has known least count, the absolute error is taken to be half of the least
count unless otherwise stated.
Relative (or Fractional) Error

Error may be expressed as relative measures, giving the ratio of the quantity’s error to the quantity itself. In
general,
absolute error in a measuremen t
relative error 
size of the measuremen t
We should know the error in the measurement because these errors propagate through the calculations to
produce errors in results.
A. Systematic errors : They have a known sign. The systematic error is removed before begining calculations
bench error and zero error are examples of systematic error.
B. Random error: They have unknown sign. Thus they are represented in the form A ± a.
Here we are only concerned with limits of error. We must assume a “worst-case” combination. In the case of
substraction, A – B, the worst-case deviation of the answer occurs when the errors are either + a and – b or – a
and + b. In either case, the maximum error will be (a + b).
For example in the experiment on finding the focal length of a convex lens, the object distance(u) is found by
subtracting the positions of the object needle and the lens. If the optical bench has a least count of 1 mrn, the error
in each position will be 0.5 mm. So, the error in the value of u will be 1 mm.
1. Addition and subtraction rule : The absolute random errors add.
Thus if R = A + B, r=a+b
and if R = A – B, r=a+b
2. Product and quotient rule : The relative random errors add.
r a b
Thus if R = AB,  
R A B
A r a b
and if R  , then also  
B R A B

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Page # 4 ERRORS
3. Power rule : When a quantity Q is raised to a power P, the relative error in the result is P times the relative error
in Q. This also holds for negative powers.
r q
If R  Qp ,  P
R Q
4. The quotient rule is not applicable if the numerator and denominator are dependent on each other.
XY
e.g. if R  . We cannot apply quotient rule to find the error in R. Instead we write the equation as
XY
1 1 1
follows   . Differentiating both the sides, we get
R X Y
dR dX dY r x y

2

2

2 . Thus 2

2

R X Y R X Y2
Examples
1. A student finds the constant acceleration of a slowly moving object with a stopwatch. The equation used
is S = (l/2) AT2. The time is measured with a stopwatch, the distance, S with a meter stick. What is the
acceleration and its estimated error?
S = 2 ± 0.005 meter.
T = 4.2 ± 0.2 second.
Sol. We use capital letters for quantities, lower case for errors. Solve the equation for the result, a.
a t s
A = 2S/T2 . Its random-error equation is 2 
A T S
Thus A = 0.23 ± 0.02 m/s2.
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Significant figures are digits that are statistically significant. There are two kinds of values in science:
1. Measured Values
2. Computed Values
The way that we identify the proper number of significant figures in science are different for these two types.
MEASURED VALUES
Identifying a measured value with the correct number of significant digits requires that the instrument’s calibration
be taken into consideration. The last significant digit in a measured value will be the first estimated position. For
example, a metric ruler is calibrated with numbered calibrations equal to 1 cm. In addition, there will be ten
unnumbered calibration marks between each numbered position. (each equal to 0.1 cm). Then one could with a
little practice estimate between each of those marking. (each equal to 0.05 cm). That first estimated position
would be the last significant digit reported in the measured value. Let’s say that we were measuring the length of
a tube, and it extended past the fourteenth numbered calibration half way between the third and fourth unnumbered
mark. The metric ruler was a meter stick with 100 numbered calibrations. The reported measured length would be
14.35 cm. Here the total number of significant digits will be 4.

ERRORS Page # 5
COMPUTED VALUE
The other type of value is a computed value. The proper number of significant figures that a computed value should
have is decided by a set of conventional rules. However before we get to those rules for computed values we have
to consider how to determine how many significant digits are indicated in the numbers being used in the math
computation.
A. Rules for determining the number of significant digits in number with indicated decimals.
1. All non-zero digits (1-9) are to be counted as significant.
2. Zeros that have any non-zero digits anywhere to the LEFT of them are considered significant zeros.
3. All other zeros not covered in rule (ii) above are NOT be considered significant digits.
For example: 0.0040000
The 4 is obviously to be counted significant (Rule-1), but what about the zeros ? The first three zeros would not be
considered significant since they have no non-zero digits anywhere to their left (Rule-3). The last four zeros would
all be considered significant since each of them has the non-zero digit 4 to their left (Rule-2). Therefore the number
has a total of five significant digits.
Here is another example: 120.00420
The digit 1, 2, 4 and 2 are all considered significant (Rule-1). All zeros are considered significant since they have
non-zero digits somewhere to their left (Rule-2). So there are a total of eight significant digits. If in the question, we
are given a number like 100, we will treat that the number has only one significant digit by convention.
B. Determining the number of significant digits if number is not having an indicated decimal.
The decimal indicated in a number tells us to what position of estimation the number has been indicated.
But what about 1,000,000 ?
Notice that there is no decimal indicated in the number. In other words, there is an ambiguity concerning the
estimated position. This ambiguity can only be clarified by placing the number in exponential notation.
For example: If! write the number above in this manner.
1.00 × 106
I have indicated that the number has been recorded with three significant digits. On the other hand, if write the
same number as : 1.0000 × 106
I have identified the number to have 5 significant digits. Once the number has been expressed in exponential
notation form then the digits that appear before the power of ten will all be considered significant.
So for example : 2.0040 x 104 will have five significant digits. Thus means that unit conversion will not change the
–2 –5
number of significant digits. Thus 0.000010 km = 1.0 cm = 0.010 m = 1.0 × 10 m = 1.0 × 10 km
Rule for expressing proper number of significant digits in an answer from multiplication or division
For multiplication AND division there is the following rule for expressing a computed product or quotient with the
proper number of significant digits.
The product or quotient will be reported as having as many significant digits as the number involved in the
operation with the least number of significant digits.
For example : 0.000170 × 100.40 = 0.017068
The product could be expressed with no more that three significant digits since 0.000170 has only three significant
digits, and 100.40 has five. So according to the rule the product answer could only be expressed with three
significant digits. Thus the answer should be 0.0 171 (after rounding off)
Another example : 2.000 × 104 / 6.0 × 10–3 = 0.33 × 107
The answer could be expressed with no more that two significant digits since the least digited number involved in
the operation has two significant digits.

Page # 6 ERRORS
Sometimes this would required expressing the answer in exponential notation.

3
For example : 3.0 × 800.0 = 2.4 × 10
The number 3.0 has two significant digits and then number 800.0 has four. The rule states that the answer can
have no more than two digits expressed. However the answer as we can all see would be 2400. How do we
express the answer 2400 while obeying the rules ? The only way is to express the answer in exponential notation
3
so 2400 could be expressed as : 2.4 × 10 .
Rule for expressing the correct number of significant digits in an addition or substraction :
The rule for expressing a sum or difference is considerably different than the one for multiplication of division. The
sum or difference can be no more precise than the least precise number involved in the mathematical operation.
Precision has to do with the number of positions to the RIGHT of the decimal. The more position to the right of the
decimal, the more precise the number. So a sum or difference can have ho more indicated positions to the right of
the decimal as the number involved in the operation with the LEAST indicated positions to the right of its decimal.
For example : 160.45 + 6.732 = 167.18 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to two positions to the right of the decimal, since 160.45 is the least precise.
Another example : 45.621 + 4.3 – 6.41 = 43.5 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to one position to the right of the decimal, since the number 4.3 is the least
precise number (i.e. having only one position to the right of its decimal). Notice we aren’t really determining the
total number of significant digits in the answer with this rule.
Rules for rounding off digits :
There are a set of conventional rules for rounding off.
1. Determine according to the rule what the last reported digit should be.
2. Consider the digit to the right of the last reported digit.
3. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is less than 5 round it and all digits to its right off.
4. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is greater than 5 round it and all digits to its right off and increased
the last reported digit by one.
5. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is a 5 followed by either no other digits or all zeros, round it and all
digits to its right off and if the last reported digit is odd round up to the next even digit. If the last reported digit is
even then leave it as is.
For example if we wish to round off the following number to 3 significant digits : 18.3682
The last reported digits would be the 3. The digit to its right is a 6 which is greater than 5. According to the
Rule-4 above, the digit 3 is increased by one and the answer is : 18.4
Another example : Round off 4.565 to three significant digits.
The last reported digit would be the 6. The digit to the right is a 5 followed by nothing. Therefore according to
Rule-5 above since the 6 is even it remains so and the answer would be 4.56.

ERRORS Page # 7
EXPERIMENT
(i) MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH(I) MEASUREMENT
The simplest method measuring the length of a straight line by means of a meter scale. But there exists some
limitation in the accuracy of the result :
(i) the dividing line .........finite thickness
(ii) naked eye cannot correctly estimate less than 0.5 mm
For greater accuracy devices like
(a) Vernier callipers
(b) micrometer scales (screw gauge) are used
VERNIER CALLIPERS :
Vernier Callipers
Principle of Vernier Reading a vernier with 4th division coinciding
90 100 mm scale 50 60 mm scale
5 vernier 5 vernier
Object scale Object scale
It consists of a main scale graduated in cm/mm over which an auxiliary scale (or Vernier scale) can slide along the
length. The division of the Vernier scale being shorter than the divisions of the main scale.
Least count of Vernier Callipers
The least count of Vernier Constant (v.c) is the minimum value of correct estimation of length without eye estimation.
If N division of vernier coincides with (N-1) division of main scale, then
N 1
N(VS) = (N – 1) ms 1VS = ms
N
 N  1 1ms
Vernier constant = 1 ms – 1 vs =  1   ms = , which is equal to the value of the smallest division on the
 N  N
main scale divided by total number of divisions on the vernier scale.
Length as measured by Vernier Callipers
The formula for measuing the length is L= main scale reading + least count of vernier scale × Vernier scale division
coinciding with a main scale division Main scale reading is given by the zeroth division of the vernier scale as
shown in the figure.
Page # 8 ERRORS
Zero error :
Main scale Main scale Main scale

0 1 0 1 0 1
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
Vernier scale Vernier scale Vernier scale
without zero error with positive zero error with negative zero error
(i) (ii)
6th division
4th division coinciding
coinciding
Positive zero error(+0.04cm) Negative zero error = (–0.04cm)
and its correction and its correction
If the zero marking of main scale and vernier callipers do not coincide, necessary correction has to be made for
this error which is known as zero error of the instrument.
If the zero of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale the zero error is said to be positive and
the correction will be negative and vice versa.
The zero error is always subtracted from the reading to get the corrected value.
If the zero error is positive, its value is calculated as we take any normal reading. If the zero error negative (the zero
of vernier scale lies to the left of the zero of main scale),
negative zero error = – [Total no. of vsd – vsd coinciding] × L.C.
Do not try to read the main scale at the point where the lines match best. This has no meaning. Read from the
vernier scale instead. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the best match of liners is for vernier marks 9, 0 or 1.
Make your best estimate, but realize that the final result including the vernier must round off to the result you best
estimate, but realize that the final result including the vernier must round off to the result you would choose if there
was no vernier. If the mark is close to 3.20 on the main scale and the vernier is 9, the length is 3.19 cm. If the mark
is close to 3.2 on the main scale and vernier 1, the length is 3.21 cm.
SCREW GAUGE (OR MICROMETER SCREW)

In general vernier callipers can measure accurately upto 0.01 T M
P QS
cm and for greater accuracy micrometer screw devices e.g.
screw gauge, spherometer are used. These consist of accurately Spindle
Sleeve Thimble
cut screw which can be moved in a closely fitting fixed nut by
running it axially.
The instrument is provided with two scales :

ERRORS Page # 9
(i) The main scale or pitch scale M graduated along the axis of screw.
(ii) The cap-scale or head scale H round the edge of the screw head.
Constants of the Screw Gauge
(a) Pitch : The translational motion of the screw is directly proportional to the total rotation of the head. The pitch of
the instrument is distance between two consecutive threads of the screw which is equal to the distance moved by
the screw due to one complete rotation of the cap. Thus for 10 rotation of cap = 5 mm, then pitch = 0.5 mm.
(b) Least count : In this case also, the minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is equal to one division
on the head scale which is equal to pitch divided by the total cap divisions. Thus in the Afore said Illustration.; if
the total cap division is 100, then least count = 0.5 mm/100 =0.005 mm
(c) Measurement of length by screw gauge :
L = n × pitch + f × least count, where n = main scale reading & f = caps scale reading
Zero Error : In a perfect instrument the zero of the heat scale coincides with the line of gradiation along the screw
axis with no zero-error, otherwise the instrument is said to have zero-error which is equal to the cap reading with
the gap closed. This error is positive when zero line of reference line of the cap lies below the line of graduation
and versa. The corresponding corrections will be just opposite.
(II) MEASUREMENT OF G USING A SIMPLE PENDULM
A small spherical bob is attached to a cotton thread and the combination is suspended from a point A. The length
of the thread (L) is read off on a meter scale. A correction is added to L to include the finite size of the bob and the
hook. The corrected value of L is used for futher calculation.
The bob is displaced slightly to one side and is alloswed to oscillate, and the A
total time taken for 50 complete oscillations is noted on a stop-watch. The time
period (T) of a single oscillation is now calculated by division.
B
Observations are now taken by using different lenghts for the cotton thread (L)
and pairs of values of L and T are taken. A plot of L v/s T2, on a graph, is linear. 
L 

2 L 
g is given by g  4 
T2
T2

Page # 10 ERRORS
The major errors in this experiment are

(a) Systematic : Error due to finite amplitude of the pendulum (as the motion is not exactly SHM). This may be
corrected for by using the correct numberical estimate for the time period. However the parctice is to ensure that
the amplitude is small.
(b) Statistical : Errors arising from measurement of length and time.
g L  T 
  2 
g L  T 
The contributions to L, T are both statistical and systematic. These are reduced by the process of averaging.
The systematic error in L can be reduced by plotting several values of L vs T2 and fitting to a straight line.
The slope of this fit gives the correct value of L/T2
(III) DTERMINATION OF YOUNG'S MODULUS BY SERALE'S METHOD

The experimental set up consists of two identical wires P and Q
of uniform cross section suspended from a fixed rigid support.
The free ends of these parallel wires are connected to a frame F
as shown in the figure. The length of the wire Q remains fixed
while the load L attached to the wire P through the frame F is
varied in equal steps so as to produce extension along the length.
The extension thus produced is measured with the help of spirit
level SL and micrometer screw M attached to the F frame on
the the side of experimental wire. On palacing the slotted weights
on the hanger H upto a permissible value (half of the breaking
force) the wire gets extended by small amount and the spirit
level gets distrubed from horizontal setting. This increase in
length is measured by turning the micrometer screw M upwards
so as to restore the balance of the spirit level. If n be the number
of turns of the micrometer screw and f be the difference in the
cap reading, the increase in length M is obtained by
l  n  pitch  f  least count
In some situations, the change in length is obtained by vernier arrangment instead of the screw gauge. The load on
the hanger is reduced in the same steps and spirit level is restored to horizontal position. The mean of these two
observations gives the ture increase in length of the wire corresponding to the given value of load. This is to
eliminate the effect of hysterisis.
From the data obtained, a graph showing extension (l) against the load (W) is plotted which is obtained as a
straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line gives
l l
tan   
W Mg l
Mg l l
Now, stress  and strain 
r 2 L
MgL L w Mg
Y = Stress / strain  2

2
r l  r tan 
With known values of initial length L, radius r of the experimental wire and tan , Young's modulus Y can be
calculated.
(IV) SPECIFIC HEAT OF A LIQUID USING A CALORIMETER :

The principle is to take a known quantity of liquid in an insulated calorimeter and heat it by passing a known
current (i) though a heating coil immersed within the liquid for a known length of time (t). The mass of the calorimeter
(m1) and, the combined mass of the calorimeter and the liquid (m2) are measured. The potential drop across the
heating coil is V and the maximum temperature of the liquid is measured to 2.
The specific heat of the liquid (Sl) is found by using the relation

ERRORS Page # 11
(m 2  m1 ) S l ( 2   0 )  m1S c ( 2  0 )  i. V. t
or (m 2  m1 ) S l  m1S c  i. V. t / (  2   0 ) ....(i)
Here, 0 is the room temeperature, while Sc is the specific heat of the material of the calorimeter and the stirrer. If
Sc is known, then Sl can be determined.
On the other hand, if Sc is unknown : one can either repeat the experiment with water or a different mass of the
liquid and use the two equations to eliminate m1Sc.
The sources of error in this experiment are errors due to improper connection of the heating coil, radiation, apart
from statistical errors in measurement.
Error analysis :
After correcting for systematic errors, equation (i) is used to estimate the remaining errors.
(V) FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR AND A CONVEX LENS USING THE U-V METHOD.
In this method one uses an optical bench and the convex lens (or the concave mirror) is placed on the holder. The
position of the lens is noted by reading the scale at the bottom of the holder. A bright object (a filament lamp or
some similar object) is placed at a fixed distance (u) in front of the lens (mirror).
The position of the image (v) is determined by moving a white screen behind the lens until a sharp image is
obtained (for real images).
For the concave mirror, the position of the image is determined by placing a sharp object (a pin) on the optical
bench such that the parallax between the object pin and the image is nil.
1 1 1/|v|
A plot of |u| versus |v| gives a rectangular hyperbola. A plot or | v | vs | u | 


gives a straight line. 

1
The intercepts are equal to | f | , where f is the focal length. 1/|u|
Error : The systematic error in this experiment is mostly due to improper position of the object on the holder. This
error may be eliminated by reversing the holder (rotating the holder by 180º about the vertical) and the taking the
reading again. Averages are then taken.
f u v
The equation for random errors gives : 2  2  2
f u v
The error u, v correspond to the error in the measurement of u and v. A ctually, we know the errors in the object
position, lens position & image position. So, the errors in u & v too be estimated as described before.
Index Error or Bench Error and its correction : In an experiment using an optical bench we are requied to
measure the object and image distances from the pole or vertex on the mirror. The distance between the tip of the
needles and the pole of the mirror is the actual distance. But we practically measure distance between the indices
with the help of the scale engraved on the bench. These distance are called the observed distances. The actual
distances may not be equal to the observed distances and due to this reason an error creeps in the measurement
of the distances. This error is called the index or the bench error. This error is estimated with the help of a needle
of known length placed horizontally between the tip of the needle and the pole.
Index Error = Observed distance - actual distance and
Index Correction = Actual - observed distance
Note : Index correction whether position or negative, is always added algebraically to the observed distance to get
the corrected distance.

Page # 12 ERRORS
Parallax
When two object O1 and O2 are placed in such a way that both of them lie in the same line of sight as shown in
figure, then the object nearer to the eye covers the object farther from it. Their image on the retina are superimposed
and therefore, it is impossible to decide which is the nearer object. To identify this fact, the observer displaces his
eye to a position E1 or E2 until he is able to see two distinct objecs.
E1
O2 E
O1
E2
The more distant object O2 apparently moves in the direction opposite to the displacement of the observer's eye
with respect the nearer object O1. This relative shift in the position of two object due to the shift in the position of
the observer's eye is called parallax.
Parallax between the two objects disappear if they are at the same position.
The figure shows the tips of two pins P1 and P2 kept in the upright positions. The parallax between P1 and P2 is
removed by shifting the position of observer's eye sideways. As the farther pin P1 is displaced towards the pin P2
the relative shift (parallax) between their position decreases as the position of eye is displaced sideways. The
relative shift vanishes when the pin P1 occupies the position P1, that is, when the tips of the two are just coincident.
At this position there is no parallax between the tips of the two pins.
P1 P1’
P2
(VI) SPEED OF SOUND USING RESONANCE COLUMN
A tuning fork of known frequency (f) is held at the mouth of a long tube, which is
dipped into water as shown in the figure. The length (l1) of the air column in the
l
tube is adjusted until it reasonance with the tuning fork. The air temperature and
humidity are noted. The length of the tube is adjusted again untile a second
reasonace length (l2) is found (provided the tube is long)
Then l2  l1   / 2 , provided l1,l2 are resonance lengths for adjacent resonaces.
   2( l2  l1 ) , is the wavelength of sound.
Since the frequency f, is known; the velocity of sound in air at the temperature () and humidity (h) is given by
C  f   2 ( l2  l1 ) f
It is also possible to use a single measurement of the resonant length directly, but, then it has to be corrected for
the "end effect".
 ( fundamenta l)  4(l1  0.3d) , where d = diameter
Errors : The major systematic error introduced are due to end effects in (end correction) and also due to excessive
humidity.
Random errors are given by
C ( l2  l1 )  l2  l1
 
C l2  l1 l2  l1
(vii) Verification of Ohm's law using voltmeter and ammeter
A voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are connected in a circuit along with a resistance R as shown in the figure,
along with a battery B and a rheostat, Rh
Simultaneous readings of the current i and the potential drop V are taken by
chaning the resistance in the rheostat (Rh). A graph of V vs i is plotted and it is
i
found to be linear (within errors). The magnitude of R is determined by either A
Rh
V B R
(a) taking the ratio and then V
i
(b) fitting to a straight line : V = iR, and determining the slope R.
ERRORS Page # 13
Errors :
Systematic errors in this experiment arise from the current flowing through V (finite resistance of the voltmeter),
the Joule heating effect in the circuit and the resistance of the connecting wires/ connections of the resistance.
The effect of Joule heating may be minimsed by switching on the circuit for a short while only, while the effect of
finite resistance of the voltameter can be overcome by using a high resistance insrument or a potentiometer. The
lengths of connecting wires should be minimised as much as possible.
Error analysis :
V R V i
The error in computing the ratio R  is given by  
i R V i
where V and i are of the order of the least count of the instruments used.
(VIII) SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL OF A WIRE USING A METER BRIDGE :
R. Box
A known length (l) of a wire is connected in one of the gaps (P)
of a meter bridge, while a Resistance Box is inserted into the P Q
other gap (Q). The circuit is completer by using a battery (B), a G
Rheostat (Rh), a Key (K) and a galvanometer (G). The balance
A 1 B
length (l) is found by closing key k and momentrily connecting
the galvanometer until it gives zero deflection (null point).
P l
Then,  ...(i)
Q 100  l B Rh k
using the expression for the meter bridge at balance. Here, represents the resistance of the wire while Q represents
the resistance in the resistanc box. The key K is open when the circuit is not in use.
L r 2
The resistance of the wire, P     P ....(ii)
r 2 L
Where r is the radius or wire and L is the length of the wire, r is meaused using a screw gauge while L is measured
with a scale.
Errors : The major systematic errors in this experiment are due to the heating effect, end correction inturoduced
due to shift of the zero fo the scale at A and B, and stray resistances in P and Q,are errors due to non-uniformity
of the meter bridge wire.
Error analysis : End corrections can be estimated by including know resistance P1 and Q1 in the two ends and
finding the null point :
P1 l1  
 ...(ii), where  and  are the end corrections.
Q1 100  l1  
When the resistance Q1 is placed in the left gap and P1 in the right gap,
Q1 l2  
 ...(iii)
P1 100  l2  
which give two linear equation for finding  and .
In order that  and  be measured accurately, P1 and Q1 should be as different from each other as possible. For
the actual balance point,
P a l'
  1
Q 100 –    l2 '
Error due to non-uniformity of the meter bridge wire can be minimised by interchanging the resistances in the gaps
P and Q.
Page # 14 ERRORS
P l '1 l ' 2
  
P l '1 l '2
where l '1 and l ' 2 are of the order of the least count of the scale.
The error is, therefore, minimum if l '1  l ' 2 i.e., when the balance point is in the middle of the bridge. The error is
 is
P 2r L P
  
P r L P
(IX) MEASUREMENT OF UNKNOWN RESISTANC USING A P.O. BOX
A P.O. Box can also be used to measure an unknown resistance.

It is a Wheatstone Bridge with three arms P, Q and R; while the
fourth arm(s) is the unknown resistance. P and Q are known as
the ratio arms while R is known at the rheostat arm.
At balance, the unknown resistance
P
S  R ...(i)
Q
The ratio arms are first adjusted so that they carry 100  each. The resistance in the rheostat arm is now adjusted
so that the galvanometer deflection is in one direction, if R = R0(Ohm) and in the opposite direction when
R = R0 + 1 (Ohm).
This implies that the unknown resisttance, S lies between R0 and R0 + 1 (ohm). Now, the resistance in P and Q
are made 100  and 1000  respecitlvey, and the process is repeated.
Equation (i) is used to compute S.
The ratio P/Q is progressively made 1 : 10, and then 1 : 100. The resistance S can be accurately measured.
Errors : The major sources of error are the connecting wires, unclear resistance plugs, change in resistance due
to Joule heating, and the insensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge,
These may be removed by using thick connecting wires, clean plugs, keeping the circuit on for very brief periods
(to avoid Joule heating) and calculating the sensitivity.
In order that the sensitivity is maximum, the resistance in the arm P is close to the value of the resistance S.

ERRORS Page # 15
Exercise - I (OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS )
Q.1 A vernier callipers having 1 main scale division = 0.1 cm marked in the graph. Find the value of unknown resistance.
is designed to have least count of 0.02 cm. If n be the number
of divisions on veriner scale and m be the length of vernier Deflection (in division)
scale, then
(A) n = 10, m = 0.5 cm (B) n = 9, m = 0.4 cm 5
(C) n = 10, m = 0.8 cm (D)n = 10, m = 0.2 cm
3.26
R
Q.2 In a Verniner Calipers (VC), N divisons of the main scale 3.20
–3
coincide with N + m division of the vernier scale. What is the
value of m for which the instrument has minimum least count
? (N > 2) (A) 3.2 ohm (B) 3.24 ohm
(A) 1 (B) N (C) 3.206 (D) 3.26
(C) Infinity (D) N/2 Q.7 Identify which of the following diagrams represent the
Q.3 In the Searle's experiment, after every step of loading, internal construction of the coils wound in a resistance box
why should we wait for two minutes before taking the readings or PO box ?
? (More than one correct.)
(A) So that the wire can have its desired change in length
(B) So that the wire can attain room temeprature.
(C) So that vertical oscillations can get subsided.
(D) So that the wire has no change in its radius.
Q.4 In a meter bridge set up, which of the following should
(A) (B)
be the properties of the one meter long wire ?
(A) High resistivity and low temperature coefficient
(B) Low resistivity and low temeprature coefficient
(C) Low resistivity and high temperature coefficient
(D) High resistivity and high temperature coefficient
Q.5 Consider the MB shown in the diagram, let the resistance
X have temperature coefficient 1 and the resitance from the
RB have the temperature coefficient 2. Let the reading of
the meter scale be 10cm from the LHS. If the temperature of
the two resistance increase by small temperature T then
what is the shift in the position of the null point ? (C) (D)
Neglect all the other changes in the bridge due to
temperature rise.
A X B C 9 D
E O
10 cm
(A) 9(1 – 2)T (B) 9(1 + 2)T
1 1
(C) ( + 2)T (D) ( – 2)T
9 1 9 1
Q.6 For a post office Box, the graph of galvanometer deflection

versus R (resistance pulled out of RB) is given as shown. A
carelesss student pulls out two non consecutive values R

Page # 16 ERRORS
Exercise - II Problems
Q.1 How many signfiicant figures are given in the following Q.7 The pitch of a screw gauge is 0.5 mm and there are 50
quantities ? divisions on the circular scale. In measuring the thickness
(A) 343 g (B) 2.20 of a metal plate, there are five divisions on the pitch scale
(C) 1.103 N (D) 0.4142 s (or main scale) and thirty fourth division coincides with the
(E) 0.0145 m (F) 1.0080 V reference line. Calculate the thickness of the metal plate.
(G) 9.1 × 104 km (H) 1.124 × 10–3 V
Q.8 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 50
Q.2 Perform the following operations : divisions on its cap. When nothing is put in between the
(A) 703 + 7 + 0.66 (B) 2.21 × 0.3 studs, 44th division of the circular scale coincides with the
(C) 12.4 × 84 (D) 14.28/0.714 reference line zero of the main scale is not visible. When a
Q.3 Solve with due regard to significant digits glass plate is placed between the studs, the main scale
reads three divisions and the circular scale reads 26 divisions.
2.91 0.3842 Calculate the thickness of the plate.
(i) 6.5  6.32 (ii)
0.080
Q.9 In a given optical bench, a needle of length 10 cm is
Q.4 The main scale of a vernier calipers reads in millimeter used in between (object & lens) and lens and image to
and its vernier is divided into 10 divisions which coincide estimate bench error. The object needle, image needle &
with 9 divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the lens holder have their reading as shown.
instrument touch each other the seventh divison of the vernier x0 = 1.1 cm, x1 = 21.0 cm, xL = 10.9 cm
scale coincide with a scale division and the zero of the vernier Estimate the bench errors which are present in image needle
lies to the right of the zero of main scale. Furthermore, when holder and object needle holder. Also find the focal length of
a cylinder is tightly placed along its length between the two the convex lens when.
jaws, the zero of the vernier scale lies slightly to the left of x0 = 0.6 cm, x1 = 22.5 cm, xL = 11.4 cm
3.2 cm; and the fourth vernier division conicdes with a scale
Q.10 Make the appropriate connections in the meter bridge
division. Calculate the measured length of the cylinder.
set up shown. Resistance box is connected between___.
Q.5 The VC shown in the diagram has zero error in it (a you Unknown resistance is connected between_____. Battery
can see). is connected between_____.
It is given that 9 msd = 10 vsd.
A B C D
(i) What is the magnitude of the zero error ? (1 msd = 1 mm)
(ii) The observed reading of the length of a rod measured by
this VC comes out to be 5.4 mm. If the vernier had been
error free then reading of main scale would be ____ and the
E F
division of vernier scale coinciding would be ____.
Q.11 A body travels uniformly a distance of (13.8 ± 0.2)m in
zero of vernier scale
time (4.0 ± 0.3) sec. Calculate its velcoity.

Q.12 Consider S = x cos () for x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm,  = 53 ±
2º. Find S.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q.13 Two resistance R1 and R2 are connected in (i) series
and (ii) parallel. What is the equivalent resistance with limit
of possible percentage error in each case of R1 = 5.0 ± 0.2
 and R2 = 10.0 ± 0.1 .
Q.6 Consider a home made vernier scale as shown in the Q.14 5.74 gm of a substance occupies a volume of 1.2 cm3.
figure.In this diagram, we are interested in measuring the Calculate its density with due regard for significant figures.
length of the line PQ. If both the inclines are identical and
their angles are equal to  then what is the least count of Q.15 The time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is
the instrument. given by T = 2 l / g The length of the pendulum is measured
as l = 10 ± 0.1cm and the time periods as T = 0.5 ± 0.02 s.
Determine percentage error in the value of g.
Q.16 A physical quantity P is related to four observables A,
B, C and D as P = 42A3B2 ( C D) The percentage error of
P the measurment in A, B, C and D are 1%, 3% and 2%, 4%
l respectively. Determien the percentage error & absolute error
Q
in the quantity P. Value of P is calculated 3.763.

ERRORS Page # 17
Q.17 A glass prism of angle A = 60º (exact) gives minimum

angle of deviation  = 30º with the max. error of 1º when a
beam of parallel light is passed through the prism during an
experiment.Find the maximum permissible percentage error
in the measurment of refractive index  of the material of the
prism.
Q.18 In a vemier calipers the main scale and the vernier
scale are made up different materials. When the room
temperature increases by TºC, it is found the reading of
the instrument remains the same. Earliner it was observed
that the front edge of the wooden rod placed for measurment
crossed the Nth main scale division and N + 2 msd coincided
with the 2nd vsd. Initially, 10 vsd coincided with 9 msd. If
coefficient of linear expansion of the main scale is 1 and
that of the vermier scale is 2 then what is the value of 1/2
? (Ignore the expansion of the rod on heating)
(A) 1.8 / (N) (B) 1.8 / (N + 2)
(C) 1.8 / (N – 2) (D) None

Page # 18 ERRORS
Exercise - III JEE Problems
Q.1 The edge of a cube is a = 1.2 × 10–2 m. Then its volume

will be recorded as : [JEE 2003] 31
(A) 1.7 × 10–6 m3 (B) 1.70 × 10–6 m3 v cm
(C) 1.70 × 10–7 m3 (D) 1.78 × 10–6 m3 30
Q.2 In a vernier callipers, n divisions of its main scale match
with (n + 1) divisions on its vernier scale. Each division of 20
the main scale is a units Using the vernier principle, calculate
its least count. [JEE 2003] 10
Q.3 A wire has a mass 0.3 ± 0.003 g, radius 0.5 ± 0.005 mm u cm 0 (–9, +9)
and length 6 ± 0.06 cm. The maximum percentage error in –31 –30 –20 –10
the measurment of its density is [JEE 2004]
(A) 1 (B) 2 (A) 0.50 ± 0.05 cm (B) 0.50 ± 0.10 cm
(C) 3 (D) 4 (C) 5.00 ± 0.05 cm (D) 5.00 ± 0.10 cm
Q.4 In a Searle's experiment, the diameter of the wire as Q.10 The circular divisions of shown screw gauge are 50. It
measured by a screw gauge of least count 0.001 cm is moves 0.5 mm on main scale in one rotation. The diameter
0.050 cm. The length, measured by a scale of least count of the ball is [JEE 2006]
0.1 cm, is 110.0 cm. When a weight of exactly 50 N is
suspended from the wire, the extension is measured to be
0.125 cm by a micrometer of least count 0.001 cm. Find
the maximum error in the measurment of Young's modulus
of the material of the wire from these data. [JEE 2004]
Q.5 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 (A) 2.25 mm (B) 2.20 mm
divisions on the circular scale. While measuiring the diameter (C) 1.20 mm (D) 1.25 mm
of a wire, the linear scale reads 1 mm and 47th division on the Q.11 A student performs an experiment for determination of
circular scale coincides with the reference line. The length of
the wire is 5.6 cm. Find the curved surface area (in cm2) of the  4 2l 
wire in appropriate number of significant figures. [JEE 2004] g   2  l = 1m and he commits an error of l. For the
 T 
Q.6 Draw the circuit for experimental verification of Ohm's experiment takes the time of n oscillations with the stop
law using a source of variable D.C. voltage, a main resistance watch of least count T and he commits a human error of
of 100 , two galvanometers and two resistances of values 0.1 sec. For which of the following data, the measurement
106  and 10–3  respectively. Clearly show the positions of g will be most accurate ? l Tn Amplitude of
of the voltmeter and the ammeter. [JEE 2004] oscillation [JEE 2006]
Q.7 In a resonance column method, resonance occurs at (A)5 mm 0.2 sec 10 5 mm (B) 5 mm 0.2 sec 20 5 mm
two successive level of l1 = 30.7 cm and l2 = 63.2 cm using (C) 5 mm 0.1 sec 20 1 mm (D) 1 mm 0.1 sec 50 1 mm
a tuning fork of f = 512 Hz(exact). What is the maximum Q.12 In an experiment of determine the focval length (f) a
error in measuring speed of sound using relations v = f  concave mirror by the u-v method, a student places the object
&  = 2(l2 – l1) [JEE 2005] pin A on the principal axis at a distance x from the pole P.
(A) 256 cm/sec (B) 92 cm/sec The student looks at the pin and its inverted image from a
(C) 128 cm/sec (D) 204.8 cm/sec distance keeping his/her eye in line iwth PA. When the
Q.8 The side of a cube is measured by vernier callipers (10 student shifts his/her eye towards left, the image appears
divisions of a vernier scale coincide with 9 divisions of main to the right of the object pin. Then, [JEE 2007]
scale, where 1 division of main scale is 1mm). The main scale (A) x < f (B) f < x < 2f
reads 10 mm and first division of vernier scale coincides with (C) x = 2f (D) x > 2f
the main scale. Mass of the cube is 2.736 g. Find the density Q.13 Some physical quantities are given in Column I and
of the cube in appropriate significant figures. [JEE 2005] some possible SI units in which these quantities may be
Q.9 Graph of position of image vs position of point object expressed are given in Column II. Match the physical
from a convex lens is shown. Then, focal lnegth of the lens is quantities in Column I with the units in Column II and indicate
your answer by darkening appropriate bubbles in the 4 × 4
matrix given in the ORS. [JEE 2007]
Q.14 A student performs an experiment to determine the
Young's modulus of a wire, exactly 2 m long, by Searle's

ERRORS Page # 19
method. In a particular reading, the student measures the 16 main scale division. For this Vernier calipers the least
extension in the length of the wire to be 0.8 mm with an count is
uncertainty of ± 0.05 mm at a load of exactly 1.0 kg. The (A) 0.02 mm (B) 0.05 mm
student also measures the diameter of the wire to be 0.4 (C) 0.1 mm (D) 0.2 mm
mm with an uncertainty of ± 0.01 mm. Take g = 9.8 m/s2
(exact). The Young's modulus obtained from the reading is 19. The density of a solid ball is to be determined in
[JEE 2007] an experiment. The diameter of the ball is measured
(A) (2.0 ± 0.3) × 1011 N/m2 with a screw gauge. whose pitch is 0.5 mm and
(B) (2.0 ± 0.2) × 1011 N/m2 there are 50 divisions on the circular scale. The
(C) (2.0 ± 0.1) × 1011 N/m2 reading on the main scale is 2.5 mm and that on the
(D) (2.0 ± 0.05) × 1011 N/m2 circular scale is 20 divisions. If the measured mass
of the ball has a relative error of 2% the relative
Q.15 Students I, II and III perform an experiment for measuring percentage error in the density is:
the acceleration due to gravity (g) using pendulum. They (A) 0.9 % (B) 2.4 %
use different lengths of the pendulum and/or record time for (C) 3.1 % (D) 4.2 %
different number of oscillations. The observations are shown
in the table. 20. In the determination of young's modulus
Least count for length = 0.1 cm  4MLg 
Least count for time = 0.1 s Y   by using Searle's method, a wire of
 d 
Length of the Number of Total time for (n) Time length L= 2 m and diameter d = 0.5 mm is used. For
Student
Pendulum (cm) oscilltions (n) oscillations (s) period (s) a load M = 2.5 kg, an extension l = 0.25 mm in the
length of the wire is observed. Quantities d and l
I 64.0 8 128.0 16.0
are measured using a screw gauge and a micrometer,
II 64.0 4 64.0 16.0 respectively. The have the same pitch of 0.5 mm.
III 20.0 4 36.0 9.0 The number of divisions on their circular scale is
100. The contributions to the maximum probable error
 g  of the Y measurement
If EI, EII and EIII are the percentage error in g, i.e.,   100  (A) due to the errors in the measurements of d and
 g  l are the same
for student I, II and III, respectively, (B) due to the error in the measurement of d is
(A) E1 = 0 twice that due to the error in the measurement of l.
(B) E1 is minimum (C) due to the error in the measurement of l is twice
(C) EI = EII that due to the error in the measurement of d.
(D) EII is maximum (D) due to the error in the measurement of d is four
16. A student performed the experiment of determination of times that due to the error in the measurement of l.
focal length of a concave mirror by u–v method using an
optical bench of length 1.5 meter. The focal length of the
mirror used is 24 cm. The maximum error in the location of
the image can be 0.2 cm. The 5 sets of (u, v) values re-
corded by the student (in cm) are (42,56) (48,48), (60,40),
(66, 33) (78,39). The data set(s) that cannot come from ex-
periment and is (are) incorrectly recorded, is (are)
(A) (42,56) (B) (48,48)
(C) (66,38) (D) (78,39)
17. A student uses a simple pendulum of exactly 1 m length
to determine g, the acceleration due to gravity. He uses a
stop watch with the least count of 1 sec for this and records
40 seconds for 20 oscillations. For this observation which of
the following statement(s) is (are) true ?
(A) Error T in measuring T, the time period, is 0.05 seconds
(B) Error T in measuring T, the time period, is 1 second
(C) Percentage error in the the determination of g is 5 %
(D) Percentage error in the determination of g is 2.5 %
18. A Vernier callpers has 1 mm marks on the main scale. It
has 20 equal divisions on the Vernier scale which match with

Page # 20 ERRORS
EXERCISE – I
Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 A,B,C Q.4 A Q.5 A Q.6 B Q.7 D
EXERCISE – II
Q.1 (A) 3, (B) 3, (C) 4, (D) 4, (E) 3, (F) 5, (G) 2, (H) 4
Q.2 (A) 711, (B) 0.7, (C) 1.0 × 103 , (D) 20.0
Q.3 (i) 0.4, (ii) 14 Q.4 3.07 cm
1  cos  
Q.5 (i) x = – 0.7 msd, (ii) 6, 1 Q.6 L.C. = l  
 cos  
Q.7 2.84 mm Q.8 Rt = 3.64 mm
Q.9 5.5 ± 0.05 cm Q.10 CD, AB, EF
Q.11 v = (3.4 ± 0.31) m/s Q.12 S = (1.20 ± 0.18) cm
Q.13 R8 = 15  ± 2%, Rp = 3.3  ± 3% Q.14 4.8 g/cm3
Q.15 9% Q.16 14%, 0.53
Q.17 5/18% Q.18 B
EXERCISE – III
a
Q.1 A Q.2 Q.3 D
n 1
Q.4 Y = 6.47 × 109 N/m2 Y = 2.24 × 1011 N/m2
Q.5 2.6 cm2 (in two significant figures)
Voltmeter
6
10 
G1
100 
Ammeter
Q.6 G2 10 3  Q.7 D Q.8 2.66 g/cm3
Q.9 C Q.10 C
Q.11 D Q.12 B Q.13 (A) P, Q; (B) R, S; (C) R, S; (D) R, S
Q.14 B Q.15 B 16. CD 17. A,C 18. D
Q.19. C Q.20 A

VECTOR
VECTOR & CALCUL
CALCULUS
CULUS
CONTENTS
♦ VECTOR ....................................................................................................... 2 – 19
♦ CALCULUS ................................................................................................ 20 – 37
♦ EXERCISE - I ............................................................................................. 38 – 52
♦ EXERCISE - II ............................................................................................ 53 – 63
♦ EXERCISE - III ............................................................................................. 64 – 68
♦ EXERCISE - IV ............................................................................................ 69 – 73
♦ EXERCISE - V ............................................................................................. 74 – 76
♦ ANSWER KEY ............................................................................................ 77 – 80
Page # 2 VECTOR & CALCULUS
VECTOR
1. SCALAR :
In physics we deal with two type of physical quantity one is scalar and other is vector. Each scalar
quantity has a magnitude and a unit.
For example mass = 4kg
Magnitude of mass =4
and unit of mass = kg
Example of scalar quantities : mass, speed, distance etc.
Scalar quantities can be added, subtracted and multiplied by simple laws of algebra.
2. VECTOR :
Vector are the physical quantites having magnitude as well as specified direction.
For example :
Speed = 4 m/s (is a scalar)
Velocity = 4 m/s toward north (is a vector)
If someone wants to reach some location then it is not sufficient to provide information about the
distance of that location it is also essential to tell him about the proper direction from the initial
location to the destination.

The magnitude of a vector ( A ) is the absolute value of a vector and is indicated by | A | or A.
Example of vector quantity : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
Knowledge of direction
N
W E
S
3. GENERAL POINTS REGARDING VECTORS :
3.1 Representation of vector :

Geometrically, the vector is represented by a line with an arrow indicating the direction of vector as
Tail Head
Length
(magnitude)
Y →

Mathematically, vector is represented by A . A
Sometimes it is represented by bold letter A.

θ
→
Thus, the arrow in abow figure represents a vector A
X
in xy-plane making an angle θ with x-axis.
A representation of vector will be complete if it gives us direction and magnitude.

VECTOR & CALCULUS Page # 3

Symbolic form : v, a,F, s used to separate a vector quantity from scalar quantities (u, i, m)
Graphical form : A vector is represented by a directed straight line,

N
having the magnitude and direction of the quantity represented by it. B
5cm
e.g. if we want to represent a force of 5 N acting 45° N of E Head
(i) We choose direction co-ordinates. 45°
W E
(ii) We choose a convenient scale like 1 cm ≡ 1 N A
(iii) We draw a line of length equal in magnitude and in the direction
tail
of vector to the chosen quantity.
S
(iv) We put arrow in the direction of vector. 1cm ≡1N
AB
Magnitude of vector :
| A B |= 5 N
3.2 Angle between two Vectors (θ

θ)
Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are
placed tail to tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e 0 ≤ θ ≤ π).

B B

B
θ ⇒ θ
θ
A A A

Ex.1 Three vectors A, B, C are shown in the figure. Find angle between (i) A and B , (ii) B and C , (iii) A

and C .
x x
30º 45º
A
B C
30º x

Sol. To find the angle between two vectors we connect the tails of the two vectors. We can shift B &

C such that

tails of A,B and C are connected as shown in figure. A
30º x
Now we can easily observe that angle between A and B is 60º, 30º
45º

B and C is 15º and between A and C is 75º. C B
3.3 Negative of Vector

It implies vector of same magnitude but opposite in direction.
→ →
A –A

3.4 Equality of Vectors.

Vectors having equal magnitude and same direction are called equal vectors

C

A
B

if | A| =|B| =| C|
and A = B = C

then A = B = C
3.5 Collinear vectors :

Any two vectors are co-linear then one can be express in the term of other.

a = λb (where λ is a constant)
3.6 Co-initial vector : If two or more vector start from same point then they called co-initial vector.
A

A B
B
C

e.g. C
O D
D
here A, B, C, D are co-initial.
3.7 Coplanar vectors :

Three (or more) vectors are called coplanar vectors if they lie in the same plane or are parallel to the
same plane. Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
Important points
If the frame of reference is translated or rotated the vector does not change (though its components
may change).
or

ct
B A S'
ve
O'
S
O
Two vectors are called equal if their magnitudes and directions are same, and they represent values of
same physical quantity.
3.8 Multiplication and division of a vector by a scalar

Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ gives a vector (B = λ A ) whose magnitude become λ

times but the direction is the same as that of A . Multiplying a vector A by a negative number λ gives

a vector B whose direction is opposite to the direction of A and whose magnitude is –λ times | A | .
1
The division of vector A by a non-zero scalar m is defined as multiplication of A by .
m

At here A and B are co-linear vector


Ex.2 A physical quantity (m = 3kg) is multiplied by a vector a such that F = ma . Find the magnitude

and direction of F if

(i) a = 3m/s2 East wards

(ii) a = –4 m/s2 North wards

Sol. (i) F = ma = 3 × 3 ms −2 East wards
= 9 N East wards

(ii) F = ma = 3 × ( −4 ) N North wards
= –12 N North wards

= 12 N South wards
4. LAWS OF ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS :

4.1 Triangle rule of addition : Steps for additing two vector representing same physical quantity by
triangle law.
(i) Keep vectors s.t. tail of one vector coincides with head of other.
(ii) Join tail of first to head of the other by a line with arrow at head of the second.
(iii) This new vector is the sum of two vectors. (also called reultant)
D
D
CD AD
C
(i) (ii) (iii) AB + CD = AD
A B A C
AB B
Take example here.

Q. A boy moves 4 m south and then 5 m in direction 37° E of N. Find resultant displacement.
4.2 Polygon Law of addition :

This law is used for adding more than two vectors. This is extension of triangle law of addition. We
keep on arranging vectors s.t. tail of next vector lies on head of former.
When we connect the tail of first vector to head of last we get resultant of all the vectors.

d

a+ c + d
d
b+
+b+
c
P = a

c c
+b
a

b b
a

a

( ) ( )
Note : P = (a + b) + c + d = (c + a + d) + d [Associative Law]

4.3 Parallelogram law of addition :

Steps :
(i) Keep two vectors such that there tails coincide.
(ii) Draw parallel vectors to both of them considering both of them as sides of a parallelogram.
(iii) Then the diagonal drawn from the point where tails coincide represents the sum of two vectors,
with its tail at point of coincidence of the two vectors.

b

a

D a
C
b b b
(i) (ii) (iii) b AC = a + b
a a A
a B

Note : AC = a + b and AC = b + a thus a + b = b + a [Cummutative Law]
Note : Angle between 2 vectors is the angle between their positive directions.

Suppose angle between these two vectors is θ, and | a |= a, | b |= b
(AD)2 = (AE)2 + (DE)2

C a

b D
= (AB + BE)2 + (DE)2
b a+
= (a + b cos θ)2 + (b sin θ)2 θ α θ
A
B E
2 2 2 2 2
= a + b cos θ + 2ab cos θ + b sin θ a
= a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ
Thus,AD = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos θ

or | a + b |= a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos θ
angle α with vector a is
DE b sin θ
tan α = =
AE (a + b cos θ)
Important points :
To a vector, only a vector of same type can be added that represents the same physical quantity and
the resultant
is also a vector of the same type.
As R = [A2 + B2 + 2AB cosθ]1/2 so R will be maximum when, cos θ = max = 1,

i.e., θ = 0º, i.e. vectors are like or parallel and Rmax = A + B.

| A |=| B | and angle between them θ then R = 2A cos θ / 2

| A |=| B | and angle between them π – θ then R = 2 A sin θ / 2
The resultant will be minimum if, cos θ = min = – 1, i.e., θ = 180º, i.e. vectors are antiparallel and Rmin = A – B.
If the vectors A and B are orthogonal, i.e., θ = 90º, R = A 2 + B 2

As previously mentioned that the resultant of two vectors can have any value from (A – B) to (A + B)
depending on the angle between them and the magnitude of resultant decreases as θ increases 0º to
180º.
Minimum number of unequal coplanar vectors whose sum can be zero is three.
The resultant of three non-coplanar vectors can never be zero, or minimum number of non coplanar
vectors whose sum can be zero is four.
5. SUBTRACTION OF VECTOR :
→ →
Negative of a vector say – A is a vector of the same magnitude as vector A but pointing in a
→
direction opposite to that of A .
→ → → → → → → →
Thus, A – B can be written as A + (– B ) or A – B is really the vector addition of A and – B .
→
A
→
–A
→ → → →
Suppose angle between two vectors A and B is θ. Then angle between A and – B will be 180° – θ as
shown in figure.
→
B 180° − θ →
α A
β
→ →
A –B → → →
S = A– B
(a)
(b)
→ → →
Magnitude of S = A – B will be thus given by
→ →
S = | A– B | = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos(180° – θ)
or S= A 2 + B 2 – 2 AB cos θ ...(i)
→
For direction of S we will either calculate angle α or β , where,
B sin(180° – θ) B sin θ
tanα = = ...(ii)
A + B cos(180 ° – θ) A – B cos θ
A sin(180° – θ) A sin θ
or tan β = = ...(iii)
B + A cos(180 ° – θ) B – A cos θ
Ex.3 Two vectors of 10 units & 5 units make an angle of 120° with each other. Find the magnitude &
angle of resultant with vector of 10 unit magnitude.

Sol. | a + b |= a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos θ = 100 + 25 + 2 × 10 × 5(–1/ 2) = 5 3
5 sin120° 5 3 5 3 1
tan α = = = = ⇒ α = 30°
10 + 5 cos120° 20 – 5 5 × 3 3
[Here shows what is angle between both vectors = 120° and not 60°]


Note : A – B or B – A can also be found by making triangles as shown in figure. (a) and (b)
→ → → →
B B B –A
→ →
A–B
Or
→
A →
(a) (b) A
Ex.4 Two vectors of equal magnitude 2 are at an angle of 60° to each other find magnitude of their
sum & difference.

Sol. | a + b |= 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 × 2 × 2 cos 60° = 4 + 4 + 4 = 2 3

b
60°

a

| a − b |= 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 × 2 × 2 cos 120 ° = 4 + 4 − 4 = 2

b
60° a
120°
–b
→ → → →
Ex.5 Find A + B and A – B in the diagram shown in figure. Given A = 4 units and B = 3 units.
→
B
θ = 60°
→
A
Sol. Addition :
R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ
= 16 + 9 + 2 × 4 × 3 cos 60° = 37 units

B sin θ 3 sin 60°
tan α = = = 0.472
A + B cos θ 4 + 3 cos 60°
∴ α = tan–1(0.472) = 25.3°
→ → →
Thus, resultant of A and B is 37 units at angle 25.3° from A in the direction shown in figure.

Subtraction : S = A 2 + B 2 – 2AB cos θ θ →

α A
= 16 + 9 – 2 × 4 × 3 cos 60° = 13 units →
–B
B sin θ
and tan θ =
A – B cos θ
→ → →
3 sin 60° S = A– B
= = 1.04
4 – 3 cos 60°
∴ α = tan–1 (1.04) = 46.1°
→ → →
Thus, A – B is 13 units at 46.1° from A in the direction shown in figure.
6. UNIT VECTOR AND ZERO VECTOR

Unit vector is a vector which has a unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. Any vector ( A )
can be written as the product of unit vector ( Â ) in that direction and magnitude of the given vector..

A
A = A Â or Â =
A
A unit vector has no dimensions and unit. Unit vectors along the positive x-, y-and z-axes of a
rectangular coordinate system are denoted by î, ĵ and k̂ respectively such that | î | = | ĵ | = | k̂ | = 1.
y
ˆj
î x
k̂
z
A vector of zero magnitude is called a zero or a null vector. Its direction is arbitrary.
Ex.6 A unit vector along East is defined as î . A force of 105 dynes acts west wards. Represent the
force in terms of î .

Sol. F = −10 5 î dynes
7. RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

If a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a plane with different directions and A be another vector

in the same plane. A can be expressed as a sum of two vectors-one obtained by multiplying a by a

real number and the other obtained by multiplying b by another real number..

A = λa + µb (where λ and µ are real numbers) → →
b A
We say that A has been resolved into two component vectors namely →
λ b

A = λa + µb (where λ and µ are real number) → →
a λ a
We say that A has been resolved into two component vectors namely

λa and µb
→ → → →
λ a and µ b along a and b respectively. Hence one can resolve a given vector into two component
vectors along a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same plane.

7.1 Resolution along rectangular component : y

It is convenient to resolve a general vector along axes of a
rectangular coordinate system using vectors of unit ĵ
magnitude, which we call as unit vectors. î, ĵ, k̂ are unit
O x
along x, y and z-axis as shown in figure below :
î
k̂
z
7.2 Resolution in two Dimension

Consider a vector A that lies in xy plane as shown in figure,
y
A = A1 + A 2

A 1 = A x î, A 2 = A y ĵ A = A x î + A y ĵ A 2 = A y ĵ →
⇒ A
Ay = A sin θ
The quantities Ax and Ay are called x-and y-components
θ

of the vector A . x
A1 = A x î
Ax is itself not a vector but A x î is a vector and so it A y ĵ . A x = A cos θ
Ax = A cos θ and Ay = A sin θ

It's clear from above equation that a component of a vector can be positive, negative or zero

depending on the value of θ. A vector A can be specified in a plane by two ways :
(a) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes with the x-axis; or
–1
Ay
(b) its components Ax and Ay A= A 2x + A 2y , θ = tan
Ax
Note : If A = Ax ⇒ Ay = 0 and if A = Ay ⇒ Ax = 0 i.e.,

y Bx
components of a vector perpendicular to itself is always Ax By
zero. The rectangular components of each vector and those
B
of the sum C = A + B are shown in figure. We saw that Ay A Cy
C
Cx
C = A + B is equivalent to both
Cx = Ax + Bx x
(a)
and Cy = Ay + By
Refer figure (b)
→
y
Vector R has been resolved in two axes x and y not
perpendicular to each other. Applying sine law in the triangle Ry
Ry R
shown, we have
β
R R Ry β
= x = α
sin[180° – ( α + β)] sin β sin α x
O Rx
(b)
R sin β R sin α
or Rx = and Ry =
sin(α + β) sin(α + β)
If α + β = 90°, Rx = R sin β and Ry = R sin α

Ex.7 Resolve the vector A = A x î + A y ĵ along an perpendicular to the line which make angle 60° with x-
axis.
y
Ay Aycos30°
line y (Aycos30° + Axcos60°)
Axcos60°
Aysin30° 30°
60° x
Sol. Ax x ⇒
(Axsin60° – Aysin30°)
Axsin60°
so the component along line = |Aycos30° + Axcos60°|
and perpendicular to line = |Axsin60° – Aysin30°|
Ex.8 Resolve a weight of 10 N in two directions which are parallel and perpendicular to a slope in-
clined at 30° to the horizontal
Sol. Component perpendicular to the plane
W⊥ = W cos 30°
W||
3 30° W⊥
= (10)
= 5 3 N Ans.
2
W=10 N
and component parallel to the plane 30°
 1
W|| =W sin 30° = (10)   = 5 N
2
Ex.9 Resolve horizontally and vertically a force F = 8 N which makes an angle of 45° with the hori-
zontal.
Sol. Horizontal component of →

F is Fv
 1 
FH = F cos 45° = (8)   = 4 2 N
 2 →
F
→
and vertical component of F is
45°
FH
 1 
Fv = F sin 45° = (8)   = 4 2 N Ans.
 2
8. PROCEDURE TO SOLVE THE VECTOR EQUATION

A = B + C ...(1)
(a) There are 6 variables in this equation which are following :

(1) Magnitude of A and its direction

(2) Magnitude of B and its direction

(3) Magnitude of C and its direction.

(b) We can solve this equation if we know the value of 4 variables [Note : two of them must be directions]
(c) If we know the two direction of any two vectors then we will put them on the same side and other on
the different side.
For example

If we know the directions of A and B and C' s direction is unknown then we make equation as
follows:-

C = A –B
(d) Then we make vector diagram according to the equation and resolve the vectors to know the
unknown values.
Ex.10 Find the net displacement of a particle from its starting point if it undergoes two sucessive

displacement given by S1 = 20m , 37° North of West, S 2 = 50m , 53° North of East
N S
S1 N y
50
S1 20 W x' x
θ =
Sol. 37° 53° E
W E
S y'
S

S = S1 + S2
Sx = S1 x + S2 x
Sy = S1 y + S2 y
= – 20 cos 37° + 50 cos 53° = 20 sin 37° + 50 sin 53°

= 14 = 52
S = S 2x + S2y = (14) 2 + (52)2 = 53.85

Angle from west - east axis (x- axis)
Sy 52 26
tanθ = = =
Sx 14 7
 26 
θ = tan–1  
7

Ex.11 Find magnitude of B and direction of A . If B makes angle 37° and C makes 53° with x axis and

A has magnitude equal to 10 and C has 5. (given A + B + C = 0 )

C
Sol. –A = C + B y'

A = Axi + Ay j 53° B
37°
x
⇒ – A = – A i + – A j
x y x'
Ax = –(Bcos 37° + Ccos 53°)

y
Ay = –(B sin 37° + C cos 53°)
2 2
| A|2 = A x + A y
2 2
 4 3  3 4
A2 =  B × + C ×  +  B × + C × 
 5 5  5 5

2 2
 4B   3B 
102 =  + 3 +  + 4
 5   5 
16 2 9 2  3 × 4 4 × 3
⇒ 100 = B + B + 25 + 2 + B
25 25  5 5 
2 48
⇒ B + B – 75 = 0
5
B = 5 (magnitude can not be negative)
& Angle made by A
20
⇒ Ax = –( + 3) = –12
5
15
Ay = –( + 4) = –7
5
Ay –7
tan θ = =
Ax –12
θ = 180° + 25° = 205°
Ex.12 Find the magnitude of F1 and F2. If F1, F2 make angle 30° and 45° with F3 and magnitude of F3 is

10 N. (given F1 + F2 = F3 )

Sol. |F3 | = F1 cos 30°+F2 cos 45° F3
& F2 sin 45° = F1 sin 30°
F1
F2
3F1 F2 F2 F
⇒ 10 = + , = 1 45° 30°
2 2 2 2
20 20 2
⇒ F1 = & F2 =
3 +1 3 +1
9. SHORT - METHOD

A
C = A +B
α
Asinα β
B
Bsinβ

If their are two vectors A and B and their resultent make an anlge α with A and β with B .
then A sin α = β sin β

Means component of A perpendicular to resultant is equal in magnitude to the component of B
perpendicular to resultant.


Ex.13 If two vectors A and B make angle 30° and 45° with their B

resultant and B has magnitude equal to 10, then find

magnitude of A . 60°
30°
So B sin 60° = A sin 30° Bsin60° A
⇒ 10 sin 60° = A sin 30°
A sin 30°
⇒ A = 10 3

Ex.14 If A and B have angle between them equals to 60° and their resultant make, angle 45° with A

and A have magnitude equal to 10. Then Find magnitude of B .
Sol. here α = 45° and β = 60° – 45° = 15°
B C = A +B
so A sin α = B sin β
10 sin 45° = B sin 45°
10
So B = sin15° 60°
2
45°
A
10 1 – cos(2 × 15) 5
= = 2– 3
2 2 2
10. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN COMPONENT FORM :

Suppose there are two vectors in component form. Then the addition and subtraction between these
two are
A = A x î + A y ĵ + A zk̂
B = B x î + B y ĵ + B zk̂
A ± B = ( A x ± B x ) î + ( A y ± B y ) ĵ + ( A z ± B z ) k̂
Also if we are having a third vector present in component form and this vector is added or subtracted
from the addition or subtraction of above two vectors then
C = C x î + C y ĵ + C z k̂
A ± B ± C = ( A x ± B x ± C x ) î + ( A y ± B y ± C y ) ĵ + ( A z ± B z ± C z ) k̂
Note : Modulus of vector A is given by
| A |= A 2x + A 2y + A 2z
→ →
Ex.15 Obtain the magnitude of 2 A – 3 B if
→ →
A = î + ĵ – 2k̂ and B = 2 î – ĵ + k̂
→ →
Sol. 2 A – 3 B = 2( î + ĵ – 2k̂ ) – 3(2 î – ĵ + k̂ )
→ →
∴ Magnitude of 2 A – 3 B = (–4)2 + (5)2 + (–7)2
= 16 + 25 + 49 = 90 Ans.


Ex.16 Find A + B and A – B if A make angle 37° with positive x-axis and B make angle 53° with negative

x-axis as shown and magnitude of A is 5 and of B is 10.

B A
Sol. 53° 37°

for A + B
3 = A sin 37° 8 + 3 = 11
8 = B sin 53°
53°
+ =
–B cos 53° –(6–4) = –2
A cos 37° = 4 = –6
so the magnitude of resultant will be = 112 + (–2) 2 = 5 5
 11
and have angle θ = tan –1   from negative x - axis towards up
 2

for A – B
Bcos53°=6 (6+4) = 10
Asin37°=3 + =
53°
–8= –(8–3)
Acos37=4 –Bsin53° = –5

–B
So the magnitude of resultant will be
= 10 2 + (–5) 2 = 5 5
 5
and have angle θ = tan –1   from positive x-axis towards down.
 10 
11. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS (The Scalar and vector products) :
11.1 Scalar Product

The scalar product or dot product of any two vector A and B , B

denoted as A . B (read A dot B ) is defined as the product of θ
their magnitude with cosine of angle between them. Thus,

A
A.B = AB cos θ (here θ is the angle between the vectos)

Properties :
• It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e.< 90°) and negative if
angle between them is obtuse (i.e., 90° < q ≤ 180°)

• It is commutative i.e. A.B = B.A

• It is distributive, i.e. A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C


–1 A.B

• As by definition A . B = AB cos θ . The angle between the vectors θ = cos  
 AB 

• A.B = A(B cos θ) = B( A cos θ)

Geometrically, B cos θ is the projection of B onto A and vice versa

B B

θ θ B

A B cos θ A

A.B
Component of B along A = B cos θ = = Â .B (Projection of B on A )
A
θ
os

Ac
A.B
Component of A along B = A cos θ = = A.B̂ (Projection of A on B )
B θ

A
• Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos θ = max = 1, i.e., θ = 0°,

i.e., vectors are parallel ⇒ ( A.B)max = AB
• If the scalar product of two non-zero vectors vanishes then the vectors are perpendicular.
• The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by

( A )2 = A.A = AA cos θ = A2 ⇒ A = A.A
• In case of unit vector n̂ ,
n̂.n̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 0° = 1 ⇒ n̂.n̂ = î.î = ĵ. ĵ = k̂.k̂ = 1
In case of orthogonal unit vectors, î , ĵ and k̂ ; î. ĵ = ĵ.k̂ = k̂.î = 0

A.B = ( î A x + ĵ A y + k̂A z ) . ( î B x + ĵ B y + k̂B z ) = [AxBx + AyBy + AzBz]

Ex.17 If the vectors P = a î + a ĵ + 3k̂ and Q = a î – 2 ĵ – k̂ are perpendicular to each other. Find the value of
a?

Sol. If vectors P and Q are perpendicular

⇒ P.Q = 0 ⇒ (a î + a ĵ + 3k̂ ).(a î – 2 ĵ – k̂ ) = 0
⇒ a2 – 2a – 3 = 0 ⇒ a2 – 3a + a – 3 = 0
⇒ a(a – 3) + 1 (a – 3 ) ⇒ a = –1, 3

Ex.18 Find the component of 3 î + 4 ĵ along î + ĵ ?

A.B
Sol. Component of A along B is given by hence required component
B
(3 î + 4 ĵ ).( î + ĵ ) 7
= =
2 2

Ex.19 Find angle between A = 3 î + 4 ĵ and B = 12 î + 5 ĵ ?

A.B (3 î + 4 ĵ ).(12 î + 5 ĵ)
Sol. We have cos θ = AB =
3 2 + 4 2 12 2 + 5 2
36 + 20 56  56 
cos θ = θ = cos–1  65 
=
5 × 13 65

Ex.20 (i) For what value of m the vector A = 2 î + 3 ĵ – 6k̂ is perpendicular to B = 3 î – m ĵ + 6k̂

(ii) Find the component of vector A = 2 î + 3 ĵ along the direction of î + ĵ ?
5
Sol. (i) m = – 10 (ii)
2
Important Note :
Components of b along and perpendicular to a.
Let OA . OB represent two (non-zero) given vectors a, b respectively. Draw BM perpendicular to OA
From ∆OMB, OB = OM + MB
⇒ b = OM + MB B
Thus OM and MB are components of b along a
and perpendicular to a. b
Now OM = ( OM ) â = (OB cos θ) â
= |b| cosθ â = |b| . a . b / |a| |b| . â θ A

O
a M
= a . b / |a| . a/|a| = (a . b) a / |a|2
= (a . b) a / a2
2
MB = b – OM = b – (a . b / |a| ) . a
Hence, components of b along a perpendicular to a are.
(a . b/ |a|2) a and b – (a . b / |a|2) a respectively.

Ex.21 The velocity of a particle is given by v = 3 î + 2 ĵ + 3k̂ . Find the vector component of its velocity parallel

to the line l = î − ĵ + k̂ .

Sol. Component of v along l

ˆ v.l ˆ v. l
= v cos θl = v l = 2 l
vl l
(3 î + 2 ĵ + 3k̂ ) ( î − ĵ + k̂ ) 4
= = ( î − ĵ + k̂ )
| î − ĵ + k̂ |2 3

11.2 Vector product

The vector product or cross product of any two vectors A and B , denoted as

A × B (read A cross B ) is defined as :

A × B = AB sin θn̂
Here θ is the angle between the vectors and the direction n̂ is given by the right - hand - thumb rule.
Right - Hand - Thumb Rule : → → →
V = A× B
To find the direction of n̂ , draw the two vectors A and B with both the →
→
tails coinciding. Now place your stretched right palm perpendicular to the n B

plane of A and B in such a way that the fingers are along the vector A
θ
and when the fingers are closed they go towards B . The direction of the
→
thumb gives the direction of n̂ . A
Properties :
• Vector product of two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two
→ → → →
vectors i.e. orthogonal to both the vectors A and B , though the vectors A and B may or may not be
orthogonal.
• Vector product of two vectors is not commutative i.e. → → → →

A× B ≠ B× A
→ → → →
But | A× B |=| B× A |= AB sin θ
• The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained i.e.

A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C
• The magnitude of vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin θ = max = 1. i.e. θ = 90°

| A × B |max = AB
• The magnitude of vector product of two non-zero vectors will be minimum when |sinθ| = minimum = 0,

i.e., θ = 0° or 180° and | A × B |min = 0 i.e., if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the
vectors are collinear.
• The self cross product i.e. product of a vector by itself vanishes i.e. is a null vector.

A × A = AA sin 0°n̂ = 0

• In case of unit vector n̂ , n̂ × n̂ = 0 ⇒ î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
• In case of orthogonal unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ in accordance with right-hand-thumb-rule,
î × ĵ = k̂ ĵ × k̂ = î k̂ × î = ĵ
j j
k
i
i
k
(A) (B)

î ĵ k̂

• In terms of components, A × B = A x Ay Az
Bx By Bz

A × B = î ( A yB z – A zB y ) + ĵ( A zB x – A xB z ) + k̂( A xB y – A yB x )

Ex.22 A is East wards and B is downwards. Find the direction of A × B ?

Sol. Applying right hand thumb rule we find that A × B is along North.

Ex.23 If A.B =| A × B | , find angle between A and B

Sol. A.B =| A × B | AB cos θ = AB sin θ tan θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 45°

A×B
⇒ n̂ =
Ex.24 A × B = AB sin θn̂ here n̂ is perpendicular to both A and B
AB sin θ

Ex.25 Find A × B if A = î – 2 ĵ + 4k̂ and B = 2 î – ĵ + 2k̂
î ĵ k̂

Sol. A × B = 1 – 2 4 = î (–4 – (–4)) – ĵ( 2 – 12) + k̂(–1 – (–6 )) = 10 ĵ + 5k̂
3 –1 2

Ex.26 (i) A is North-East and B is down wards, find the direction of A × B

(ii) Find B × A if A = 3 î – 2 ĵ + 6k̂ and B = î – ĵ + k̂
Ans. (i) North - West. (ii) – 4 î – 3 ĵ + k̂
12. POSITION VECTOR :

Positin vector for a point is vector for which tail is origin & head is the given point itself.
Position vector of a point defines the position of the point w.r.t. the origin.
y
P( x , y )

r
O x

OP = r

r = x î + yĵ
13. DISPLACEMENT VECTOR :
Change in position vector of particle is Q(x2, y2)
known as displacement vector.
r2
OP = r1 = x1 î + y1 ĵ
P( x1, y 1 )
OQ = r2 = x 2 î + y 2 ĵ r1

PQ = r 2 − r1 = ( x 2 − x 1 ) î + ( y 2 – y 1 ) ĵ
Th us w e ca n r ep r es ent a vec to r i n sp a ce sta r ti ng fr o m ( x 1 , y 1 ) & end i n g a t
(x2, y2) as (x2 – x1) î + (y2 – y1) ĵ

CALCULUS
14. CONSTANTS : They are fixed real number which value does not change
Ex. 3, e, a, – 1, etc.
15. VARIABLE :
Somthing that is likly to vary, somthing that is subject to variation.
or
A quantity that can assume any of a set of value.
Types of variables.
(i) Independent variables : Indepedent variables is typically the variable being manipulated or change
(ii) dependent variables : The dependent variables is the object result of the independent variable
being manipulated.
Ex. y = x2
here y is dependent variable and x is independent variable
16. FUNCTION :
Function is a rule of relationship between two variables in which one is assumed to be dependent and
the other independent variable.
The temperatures at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling point
drops as you ascend). Here elevation above sea level is the independent & temperature is the dependent
variable.
The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held. Here time
is the independent and interest is the dependent variable.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity (dependent variable), which we might call y, depends
on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable), which we might call x. Since the
value of y is completely determined by the value of x, we say that y is a function of x and represent it
mathematically as y = f(x).
x f(x)
Input f Output
(Domain) (Range)
all possible values of independent variables (x) are called domain of function.
all possible values of dependent variable (y) are called Range of fucntion.
Think of function f as a kind machine that produces an output value f(x) in its range whenever we feed
it an input value x from its domain (figure).
When we study circles, we usualy call the area A and the radius r. Since area depends on radius, we
say that A is a function of r, A = f(r). The eauation A = πr2 is a rule that tells how to calculate a unique
(single) output value of A for each possible input value of the radius r.
A = f(x) = πr2. (Here the rule of relationship which describes the function may be described as square
& multiply by π)
if r=1 A=π
if r=2 A = 4π
if r=3 A = 9π
The set of all possible input values for the radius is called the domain of the function. The set of all
output values of the area is the range of the function.

We usually denote functions in one of the two ways :

1. By giving a formula such as y = x2 that uses a dependent variable y to denote the value of the
fucntion.
2. By giving a formula such as f(x) =x2 that defines a functions symbols f to name the function.
Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f(x).
y = sinx. Here the function is y since, x is the independent variable.
4 3
Ex.27 The volume V of ball (solid sphere) of radius r is given by the function V(r) = π(r )
3
The volume of a ball of radius 3m is ?
4
Sol. V(3) = π(3)3 = 36 πm3.
3
Ex.28 Suppose that the function F is defined for all real numbers r by the formula.
F(r) = 2 (r – 1) + 3.
Evaluate F at the input values 0, 2 x + 2, and F(2).
Sol. In each case we substitute the given input value for r into the formula for F:
F(0) = 2(0 – 1) + 3 = – 2 + 3 = 1
F(2) = 2(2 – 1) + 3 = 2 + 3 =5
F(x + 2) = 2 (x + 2 – 1) + 3 = 2x + 5
F(F(2)) = F(5) = 2(5 – 1) + 3 = 11
Ex.29 function f(x) is defined as

f(x) = x2 + 3, Find
f(0), f(1), f(x2), f(x + 1) and f(f(1))
Sol. f(0) = 02 + 3 =3
f(1) = 12 + 3 =4
f(x2) = (x2)2 + 3 = x4 + 4
f(x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 3 = x2 + 2x + 4
f(f(1)) = f(4) = 42 + 3 = 19
17. DIFFERENTIATION
Finite difference :
The finite difference between two values of a physical is represented by ∆ notation.
For example :
Difference in two values of y is written as ∆y as given in the table below.
y2 100 100 100
y1 50 99 99.5
∆y = y 2 – y 1 50 1 0.5
Infinitey small difference :

The infinitely small difference means very-very small difference. And this difference is represented by
'd' notation insted of '∆'.
For example infinitely small difference in the values of y is written as 'dy'
if y2 = 100 and y1 = 99.9999999999999.....
then dy = 0.00000000000000..........00001

Definition of differentiation
Another name of differentiation is derivative. Suppose y is a function of x or y = f(x)
Differentiation of y with respect to x is denoted by sumbols f ′ (x)
dy
where f ′(x) = ; dx is very small change in x and dy is corresponding very small change in y..
dx
Notation : There are many ways to denote the derivative of function y = f(x), the most common
notations are these :
Nice and brief and does not name the
y′ "y prime"
independent variable
dy
" dy by dx" Names the variables and uses d for derivative
dx
df
dx
" df by dx" Emphasizes the function's name
d
f( x ) Emphasizes the idea that differentiation is an
dx
" d by dx of f "
operation performed on f.
Dx f " dx of f " A common operator notation
One of Newton's notations, now common for time
•
y " y dot"
derivative i.e. dy/dt
Average rates of change :

Given an arbitrary function y = f(x) we calculate the average rate of change of y with respect to x
over the interval (x, x+ ∆x) by dividing the change in value of y, i.e., ∆y = f(x+ ∆x) – f(x), by length of
interval ∆x over which the change occurred.
The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x, x + ∆x]
∆y f ( x + ∆x ) – f ( x )
= =
∆x ∆x
Geometrically
Q
y + ∆y
∆y QR
= = tan θ = Slope of the line PQ
∆x PR
∆y
∆y
In triangle QPR tan θ = P
∆x y θ
R
∆x
therefore we can say that average rate of change of y with
x x + ∆x
respect to x is equal to slope of the line joining P & Q.
The derivative of a fucntion
We know that Average rate of change of y w.r.t x is -
∆y f ( x + ∆x ) – f ( x )
=
∆x ∆x
If the limit of this ratio exists as ∆x → 0, then it is called the derivative of given function f(x) and is
denoted as
dy f ( x + ∆x ) – f ( x )
f ' (x) = = lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x

18. GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF DIFFERENTIATION :
The geometrical meaning of differentiation is very much useful in the analysis of graphs in physics. To
understand the geometrical meaning of derivatives we should have knowledge of secant and tangent
to a curve.
Secant and Tangent to a Curve
Secant : - A secant to a curve is a straight line, which intersects the curve at any two points.
y
q
Secant
x
Tangent :
A tangent is straight line, which touches the curve a particular point. Tangent is limiting case of secant
which intersects the curve at two overlapping point.
Q
In the figure - 1 shown, if value of ∆x is gradually reduced y + ∆y
then the point Q will move nearer to the point P. If the
process is continuously repeated (Figure-2) value of ∆x
will be infinitely small and secant PQ to the given curve will ∆y
become a tangent at point P.
y P θ R
Therefore ∆x
 ∆y  dy x x + ∆x
 = = tanθ
∆x → 0 ∆x  dx
Figure-1
 dy 
we can say that differentiation of y with respect to x, i.e.   is Q
dx
y + ∆y
equal to slope of the tangent at point P (x,y)
Q
dy Q ∆y
or tanθ =
dx y P θ R
(From fig-1 the average rate change of y from x to x + ∆x ∆x
is identical with the slope of secant PQ) x x + ∆x
Figure-2
Rule No. 1 Derivative Of A Constant

The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is zero.
d
If c is constant, then c=0
dx
d d  1 d
Ex.30
dx
(8 ) = 0 , −  = 0 ,
dx  2  dx
( 3)= 0

Rule No.2 Power Rule

d n
If n is a real number, then x = nx n−1
dx
To apply the power Rule, we subtract 1 from the original exponent (n) and multiply the result by n.
2 3 4
f x x x x …..
Ex.31 2 3
f' 1 2x 3x 4x …..
d  1  d −1 1 d  4  d 12
Ex.32 (i)  = ( x ) = ( −1)x − 2 = − 2 (ii)  3  = 4 ( x −3 ) = 4 ( −3)x − 4 = − 4
dx  x  dx x dx  x  dx x
d 1/ 2 1 1
Ex.33 (a) ( x ) = x −1/ 2 =
dx 2 2 x
Function defined for x ≥ 0 derivative defined only for x > 0
d 1/ 5 1 −4 / 5
(b) (x ) = x
dx 5
Function defined for x ≥ 0 derivative not defined at x = 0
Rule No.3 The Constant Multiple Rule

d du
If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then (cu) = c
dx dx
d
In particular, if n is a positive integer, then (cx n ) = cn x n−1
dx
Ex.34 The derivative formula

d
(3x 2 ) = 3 (2x ) = 6x
dx
says that if we rescale the graph of y = x2 by multiplying each y-coordinate by 3, then we
multiply the slope at each point by 3.
Ex.35 A useful special case

The derivative of the negative of a differentiable function is the negative of the function’s derivative.
Rule 3 with c = – 1 gives.
d d d d
( −u) = ( −1.u) = −1 . (u) = − (u)
dx dx dx dx
Rule No.4 The Sum Rule

The derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is the sum of their derivatives.
If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u + v is differentiable at every point where
u and v are both differentiable functions in their derivatives.
d d du dv du dv
(u − v ) = [u + ( −1) v ] = + ( −1) = −
dx dx dx dx dx dx
The sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two functions, as long as there are only finite
f u n c t i o n
1
, u2, ........ un are differentiable at x, then so if u1 + u2 + ....... + un, then
s i n t h e s u m . I f u
d du du du
(u1 + u 2 + ...... + un ) = 1 + 2 + ........ + n
dx dx dx dx

4 2
Ex.36 (a) y = x4 + 12x (b) y = x3 + x – 5x + 1
3
dy d 4 d dy d 3 d 4 2 d d
= (x ) + (12 x ) = x +  x − (5 x ) + (1)
dx dx dx dx dx dx  3  dx dx
4
= 4x3 + 12 = 3x2 + . 2x – 5 + 0
3
8
x−5 = 3x2 +
3
Notice that we can differentiate any polynomial term by term, the way we differentiated the polynomials
in above example.
Rule No. 5 The Product Rule

d dv du
If u and v are differentiable at x, then if their product uv is considered, then (uv ) = u +v .
dx dx dx
The derivative of the product uv is u times the derivative of v plus v times the derivative of u. In prime
notation
(uv)’ = uv’ + vu’.
While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives, the derivative of the
product of two functions is not the product of their derivatives. For instance,
d d 2
(x . x) = ( x ) = 2x, while d ( x ). d ( x ) = 1.1 = 1 , which is wrong
dx dx dx dx
2
Ex.37 F i n d t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f y = ( x + 1) (x3 + 3)
Sol. Using the product Rule with u = x2 + 1 and v = x3 + 3, we find
d
[( x 2 + 1)( x 3 + 3)] = (x2 + 1) (3x2) + (x3 + 3) (2x)
dx
= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 6x = 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x
Example can be done as well (perhaps better) by multiplying out the original expression for y and
differentiating the resulting polynomial. We now check :
y = (x2 + 1) (x3 + 3) = x5 + x3 + 3x2 + 3
dy
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x
dx
This is in agreement with our first calculation.
There are times, however, when the product Rule must be used. In the following examples. We have
only numerical values to work with.
Ex.38 Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find y’(2) if u(2) = 3, u’(2) = – 4, v(2) = 1, and
v’(2) = 2.
Sol. From the Product Rule, in the form
y’ = (uv)’ = uv’ + vu’,
we have y’(2) = u(2) v’(2) + v(2) u’(2)
= (3) (2) + (1) (–4) = 6 – 4 = 2

Rule No.6 The Quotient Rule

If u and v are differentiable at x, and v(x) ≠ 0, then the quotient u/v is differentiable at x,
du dv
v −u
d u dx dx
and  =
dx  v  v2
Just as the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is not the product of their
derivatives, the derivative of the quotient of two functions is not the quotient of their derivatives.
t2 − 1
Ex.39 Find the derivative of y =
t2 + 1
Sol. We apply the Quotient Rule with u = t2 – 1 and v = t2 + 1
dy ( t 2 + 1) 2t − ( t 2 − 1). 2t  d  u  v( du / dt ) − u(dv / dt ) 
=  As   = 
dt ( t 2 + 1)2  dt v v2 
2t 3 + 2t − 2t 3 + 2t 4t
= =
2
( t + 1) 2
( t + 1)2
2
Rule No. 7 Derivative Of Sine Function

d
(sin x ) = cos x
dx
dy d
Ex.40 (a) y = x2 – sin x : = 2x − (sin x ) = 2x – cos x Difference Rule
dx dx
dy d
(b) y = x2 sin x : = x2 (sin x ) + 2x sin x Product Rule
dx dx
= x2cosx + 2x sinx
d
x. (sin x ) − sin x .1
sin x dy dx
(c) y = : = Quotient Rule
x dx x2
x cos x − sin x
=
x2
Rules No.8 Derivative Of Cosine Function

d
(cos x ) = − sin x
dx
Ex.41 (a) y = 5x + cos x Sum Rule
dy d d
= (5 x ) + (cos x ) = 5 – sin x
dx dx dx
(b) y = sin x cos x
dy d d
= sin x (cos x ) + cos x (sin x ) Product Rule
dx dx dx
= sin x(– sin x) + cos x (cos x)
= cos2 x – sin2 x = cos 2x

Rule No. 9 Derivatives Of Other Trigonometric Functions

Because sin x and cos x are differentiable functions of x, the related functions
sin x 1
tan x = ; sec x =
cos x cos x
cos x 1
cot x = ; cos ec x =
sin x sin x
are differentiable at every value of x at which they are defined. There derivatives, Calculated from the
Quotient Rule, are given by the following formulas.
d d
(tan x ) = sec 2 x ; (sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
(cot x ) = − cos ec 2 x ; (cos ec x ) = − cos ec x cot x
dx dx
Ex.42 Find dy / dx if y = tan x.
d d
cos x (sin x ) − sin x (cos x )
d d  sin x  dx dx
Sol. (tan x ) =  =
dx dx  cos x  cos 2 x
cos x cos x − sin x( − sin x ) cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1
= 2
= 2
= = sec 2 x
cos x cos x cos 2 x
d d
Ex.43 (a) (3x + cot x) = 3 + (cot x) = 3 – cosec2 x
dx dx
d  2  d d
(b) dx  sin x  = dx (2 cosec x ) = 2 dx (cosec x )
 
= 2(– cosec x cot x) = – 2 cosec x cot x
Rule No. 10 Derivative Of Logrithm And Exponential Functions

d 1 d x
(loge x ) = , (e ) = e x
dx x dx
Ex.44 y = ex . loge (x)
dy d x d dy ex
= (e ). log( x ) + [log e ( x )] e x ⇒ = e x . loge ( x ) +
dx dx dx dx x
Rule No. 11 Chain Rule Or ‘Outside Inside’ Rule

dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
It sometime helps to think about the Chain Rule the following way. If y = f (g(x)),
dy
= f’[g(x)] . g’(x)
dx
In words : To find dy/dx, differentiate the “outside” function f and leave the “inside” g(x) alone; then
multiply by the derivative of the inside.
We now know how to differntiate sin x and x2 – 4, but how do we differentiate a composite like
sin(x2 – 4)?
The answer is, with the Chain Rule, which says that the derivative of the composite of two differentiable
functions is the product of their derivatives evaluated at appropriate points. The Chain Rule is probably
the most widely used differentiation rule in mathematics. This section describes the rule and how to
use it. We begin with examples.

Ex.45 The function y = 6x – 10 = 2(3x – 5) is the composite of the functions y = 2u and u = 3x – 5. How
are the derivatives of these three functions related ?
dy
Sol. We have = 6 , dy = 2 , du = 3
dx du dx
dy dy du
Since 6 = 2 × 3 = .
dx du dx
dy dy du
Is it an accident that = . ?
dx du dx
If we think of the derivative as a rate of change, our intution allows us to see that this relationship is
reasonable. For y = f(u) and u = g(x), if y changes twice as fast as u and u changes three times as fast
as x, then we expect y to change six times as fast as x.
Ex.46 Let us try this again on another function.

y = 9x4 + 6x2 + 1 = (3x2 + 1)2
is the composite y = u2 and u = 3x2 + 1. Calculating derivatives. We see that
dy du
. = 2u.6 x = 2 (3x2 + 1). 6x = 36x3 + 12 x
du dx
dy d
and = (9 x 4 + 6 x 2 + 1) = 36 x3 + 12 x
dx dx
dy du dy
Once again, . =
du dx dx
The derivative of the composite function f(g(x)) at x is the derivative of f at g(x) times the derivative of
g at x.
Ex.47 Find the derivation of y = x 2 + 1
u and u = g(x) = x + 1. Since the derivatives of f and g are

2
Sol. Here y = f(g(x)), where f(u) =
1
f ′ (u) = and g′(x) = 2x,
2 u
the Chain Rule gives
dy d 1 1 x
= f (g( x )) = f′ (g(x)).g′(x) = .g′(x) = . (2x) =
dx dx 2 g( x ) 2 x2 + 1 2
x +1
derivative of
outside the outside
d
Ex.48
sin( x 2 + x ) = cos( x 2 + x ).(2x + 1)
dx
Inside Inside derivative
left along of the inside
d 1
Ex.49 (a) (1 – x 2 )1/ 4 = (1 – x 2 ) – 3 / 4 (–2x ) u = 1 – x2 and n = 1/4
dx 4
(Function defined) on [–1, 1]
–x
= (derivative defined only on (–1, 1))
2(1 – x 2 )3 / 4

d d
(b) sin 2x = cos 2x 2x = cos 2x .2 = 2 cos 2x
dx dx
d d
(c) ( A sin( ωt + φ)) = A cos (ω t + φ) (ω t + φ ) = A cos (ω t + φ). ω = A ω cos (ω t + φ)
dt dt
Rull No. 12 Power Chain Rule

d n du
* If u = nun –1
dx dx
d  1  d d
Ex.50   = (3 x – 2) –1 = – 1 (3x – 2)–2 ( 3 x – 2)
dx  3 x – 2  dx dx
3
= – 1 (3x – 2)–2 (3) = –
( 3 x – 2) 2
In part (d) we could also have found the derivation with the Quotient Rule.
d
Ex.51 (a) ( Ax + B)n
dx
du
Sol. Here u = Ax + B, =A
dx
d
∴ ( Ax + B )n = n( Ax + B)n –1.A
dx
d d 1
(b) sin( Ax + B) = cos( Ax + B).A (c) log(Ax + B) = .A
dx dx Ax + B
d d ( Ax +B )
(d) tan (Ax+B) = sec2 (Ax + B).A (e) e = e( Ax +B ) .A
dx dx
Note : These results are important
19. DOUBLE DIFFERENTIATION
If f is differentiable function, then its derivative f' is also a function, so f' may have a derivative of its
own, denoted by ( f ' )' = f ' ' . This new function f'' is called the second derivative of because it is the
derivative of the derivative of f. Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of y = f(x) as
d  dy  d2 y
 =
dx  dx  dx 2
Another notation is f''(x) = D2 f (x).
Ex.52 If f(x) = x cos x, find f" (x)

d d
Sol. Using the Product Rule, we have f '(x) = x (cos x) + cos x ( x ) = – x sin x + cos x
dx dx
To find f" (x) we differentiate f'(x) :
d d d d
f"(x) = (– x sin x + cos x ) = – x (sin x ) + sin x (–x) + (cos x)
dx dx dx dx
= – x cos x – sinx – sinx = – x cos x – 2 sin x

20. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE DIFFERENTIATION AS A RATE OF CHANGE

dy
is rate of change of 'y' with respect to 'x' :
dx
For examples :
dx
(i) v = this means velocity 'v' is rate of change of displacement 'x' with respect to time 't'
dt
dv
(ii) a = this means acceleration 'a' is rate of change of velocity 'v' with respect to time 't'.
dt
dp
(iii) F = this means force 'F' is rate of change of monentum 'p' with respect to time 't'.
dt
dL
(iv) τ = this means torque 'τ' is rate of change of angular momentum 'L' with respect to time 't'
dt
dW
(v) Power = this means power 'P' is rate of change of work 'W' with respect to time 't'
dt
π 2
Ex.53 The area A of a circle is related to its diameter by the equation A = D .
4
How fast is the area changing with respect to the diameter when the diameter is 10 m ?
Sol. The (instantaneous) rate of change of the area with respect to the diameter is
dA π πD
= 2D =
dD 4 2
When D =10m, the area is changing at rate (π/2) = 5π m2/m. This mean that a small change ∆D m in the
diameter would result in a changed of about 5p ∆D m2 in the area of the circle.
Physical Example :
Ex.54 Boyle's Law state that when a sample of gas is compressed at a constant temperature, the
product of the pressure and the volume remains constant : PV = C. Find the rate of change of
volume with respect to pressure.
dV C
Sol. =– 2
dP P
Ex.55 (a) Find the average rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r as r
changed from
(i) 2 to 3 (ii) 2 to 2.5 (iii) 2 to 2.1
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change when r = 2.
(c) Show that thre rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius (at any r) is
equal to the circumference of the circle. Try to explain geometrically when this is true by drawing
a circle whose radius is increased by an amount ∆r. How can you approximate the resulting
change in area ∆A if ∆r is small ?
Sol. (a) (i) 5π (ii) 4.5 π (iii) 4.1 π
(b) 4 π
(c) ∆A ≈ 2 π r ∆r

21. MAXIMA & MINIMA

y
Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown
in figure. It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at x2. At these points
the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis and hence its slope is
tan θ = 0. Thus, at a maxima or a minima slope
dy x
⇒ =0 x1 x2
dx
Maxima
Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it
dy y
is zero and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus, decrease
dx
dy 3
at a maximum and hence the rate of change of is negative at θ2 2 4θ4
dx
d  dy  d  dy  θ11 5 θ5
a maximum i.e.,   < 0 at maximum. The quantity   is slope = m1 = tan θ1
dx  dx  dx  dx 
m1 > m 2 >(m3 = 0) > m4 > m5
the rate of change of the slope. It is written x
O For maxima, as x increases
d2 y dy d2 y
as =0 <0 the slope decreases
2 . Conditions for maxima are : (a) dx (b)
dx dx 2
Minima
Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to
positive, y slope = m1 = tan θ1
m1 < m2 <(m3 = 0) < m 4 < m5
Hence with the increases of x. The slope is increasing
θ1
that means the rate of change of slope with respect to x is θ2 5 θ5
positive. 1 θ4
2 4
d  dy  3 θ3 = 0
Hence  >0
dx  dx 
Conditions for minima are :

O x
For minima, as x increases
dy d2 y slope increases
(a) =0 (b) >0
dx dx 2
Quite often it is known from the physical situation whether the quantity is a maximum or a minimum.
d2 y
The test on may then be omitted.
dx 2
Ex.56 Find maximum or minimum values of the functions :
(A) y = 25x2 + 5 – 10x (B) y = 9 – (x – 3)2
dy
Sol. (A) For maximum and minimum value, we can put =0
dx
dy 1
or = 50 x – 10 = 0 ∴ x =
dx 5
d2 y
Further, = 50
dx 2

d2 y 1 1
or 2 has positive value at x = . Therefore, y has minimum value at x = . Therefore, y has
dx 5 5
1 1
minimum value at x = . Substituting x = in given equation, we get
5 5
2
 1  1
ymin = 25  + 5 – 10  = 4
5 5
(B) y = 9 – (x – 3)2 = 9 – x2 – 9 + 6x
or y = 6x – x2
dy
∴ = 6 – 2x
dx
dy
For minimum or maximum value of y we will substitute =0
dx
or 6 – 2x = 0
x= 3
d2 y
To check whether value of y is maximum or minimum at x = 3 we will have to check whether is
dx 2
positive or negative.
d2 y
= –2
dx 2
d2 y
or is negative at x = 3. Hence, value of y is maximum. This maximum value of y is,
dx 2
ymax = 9 – (3 – 3)2 = 9
22. INTEGRATION
Definitions :
A function F(x) is a antiderivative of a function f(x) if
F'(x) = f(x)
for all x in the domain of f. The set of all antiderivatives of f is the indefinite integral of f with respect
to x, denoted by
∫ f ( x) dx
The symbol ∫ is an integral sign. The function f is the integrand of the integral and x is the variable of
integration.
For example f(x) = x3 then f'(x) = 3x2
So the integral of 3x2 is x3
Similarly if f(x) = x3 + 4
there for general integral of 3x2 is x3 + c where c is a constant
One antiderivative F of a function f, the other antiderivatives of f differ from F by a constant. We
indicate this in integral notation in the following way :
∫ f ( x) dx = F( x) + C .....(i)
The constant C is the constant of integration or arbitrary constant, Equation (1) is read, "The indefinite
integral of f with respect to x is F(x) + C." When we find F(x) + C, we say that we have integrated f
and evaluated the integral.

Ex.57 Evaluate ∫ 2x dx
an antiderivative of 2x
Sol.
∫ 2x dx = x
2
+C
the arbitrary constant
The formula x + C generatres all the antiderivatives of the function 2x. The function x2 + 1, x2 – π, and
2
x2 + 2 are all antiderivatives of the function 2x, as you can check by differentiation.
Many of the indefinite integrals needed in scientific work are found by reversing derivative formulas.
Integral Formulas
Indefinite Integral Reversed derivated formula
x n+1 d  x n+1 
∫
n
1. x dx = + C , n ≠ – 1, n rational dx  n + 1  = x
n
n +1
d
∫ dx = ∫ 1dx = x + C (special case)
dx
(x) = 1
cos kx d  cos kx 
2. ∫ sin kx dx = – k
+C –
dx  k 
 = sin kx
sin kx d  sin kx 
3. ∫ cos kxdx =
k
+C 
dx  k 
 = cos kx
d
∫ sec tan x = sec 2 x
2
4. xdx = tan x + C
dx
d
∫ cosec (– cot x ) = csc 2 x
2
5. xdx = – cot x + C
dx
d
6. ∫ sec x tan xdx = sec x + C dx
sec x = sec x tan x
d
7. ∫ cos ec x cot x dx = – cosec x + C dx
(– csc x ) = csc x cot x
Ex.58 Examples based on above formulas :
(a) ∫ dx = x + c
x6
(b) ∫ x 5 dx =
6
+C Formula 1 with n = 5
1 1
(c) ∫ x ∫
dx = x –1/ 2 dx = 2x1/ 2 + C = 2 x + C Formula 1 with n = –
2
– cos 2x
(d) ∫ sin 2x dx = 2
+C Formula 2 with k = 2
x 1 sin(1/ 2)x x 1
(e) ∫ cos 2 dx = ∫ cos 2 xdx = 1/ 2
+C = ∫ 2 sin 2 + C Formula 3 with k =
2

Ex.59 Right : ∫ x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x + C

Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is the integrand :
d
Check : ( x sin x + cos x + C) = x cos x + sin x – sin x + 0 = x cos x.
dx
Wrong : ∫ x cos x dx = x sin x + C

Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is not the integrand :
d
Check : ( x sin x + C) = x cos x + sin x + 0 ≠ x cos x
dx
Rule No. 1 Constant Multiple Rule

• A function is an antiderivative of a constant multiple k of a function f if and only if it is k times an
antiderivative of f.
∫ kf ( x)dx = k ∫ f ( x) dx
5( x )n +1
Ex.60 ∫ ∫
5 x n dx = 5 x n dx =
n+1
+c
Rule No.2 Sum And Difference Rule

A function is an antiderivative of a sum or difference f ± g if and only if it is the sum or difference of an
antiderivative of f an antiderivative of g.
∫ [f ( x) ± g( x)dx] = ∫ f ( x)dx ± ∫ g( x)dx

Ex.61 Term-by-term integration
∫ (x
2
Evaluate : − 2x + 5) dx
Sol. If we recognize that (x3/3) – x2 + 5x is an antiderivative of x2 – 2x + 5, we can evaluate the integral as
antideriva
tive
arbitrary constant
3
x
∫ ( x 2 − 2 x + 5 ) dx =
3
− x2 + 5x + C
If we do not recognize the antiderivative right away, we can generate it term by term with the sum
and difference Rule :
∫ (x ∫ ∫ ∫
2
− 2x + 5) dx = x 2 dx − 2xdx + 5dx
x3
= + C1 − x 2 + C 2 + 5 x + C 3
3
This formula is more complicated than it needs to be. If we combine C1, C2 and C3 into a single constant
C = C1 + C2 + C3, the formula simplifies to
x3
− x 2 + 5x + C
3

and still gives all the antiderivatives there are. For this reason we recommend that you go right to the
final form even if you elect to integrate term by term. Write
x3
∫ ∫
( x 2 − 2x + 5)dx = x 2 dx − 2 xdx + 5dx =∫ ∫ 3
− x 2 + 5x + C
Find the simplest antiderivative you can for each part add the constant at the end.
Ex.62 We can sometimes use trigonometric identities to transform integrals we do not know how to
evaluate into integrals. The inetgral formulas for sin2 x and cos2 x arise frequently in applications.
1 − cos 2x 1 − cos 2x
∫ sin ∫
2
(a) x dx = dx sin 2 x =
2 2
1 1 1
=
2 ∫
(1 − cos 2 x )dx =
2 ∫
dx −
2 ∫
cos 2x dx
x  1  sin 2x x sin 2x
+ −  +C = − +C
2  2 2 2 4
1 + cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
∫ cos ∫
2
(b) x dx = dx cos 2 x =
2 2
x sin 2x
= + + C As in part (a), but with a sign change
2 4
23. SOME INDEFINITE INTEGRALS (AN ARBITRARY CONSTANT SHOULD BE

ADDED TO EACH OF THESE INTEGRALS.
(ax + b )n +1 1
(a) ∫ (ax + b)n dx =
a(n + 1)
(provided n ≠ –1) + C (b) ∫ x dn = ln x + C
dx 1 1 ax
∫ a + bx = b ln(a + bx) + C ∫e
ax
(c) (d) dx = e +C
a
–1 1
(e) ∫ sin(ax + b) = a
cos(ax + b) + C ∫
(f) cos(ax + b ) =
a
sin(ax + b) + C
( 3 x + 2) 4 ( 3 x + 2) 4 2dx
Ex.63 (a) ∫ (3 x + 2)3 dx =
4×3
+C =
12
+C (b) ∫ x
= 2lnx + C
dx 1 dx 1
(c) ∫ 5 + 2x = 2 ln(5 + 2x) + C (d) ∫ 3 − 5x = − 5 ln(3 − 5x) + C
1
∫e ∫e
3x
(e) dx = e 3 x + C (f)
–x/2
dx = –2 e – x / 2 + C
3
1 1
(g) ∫ sin(3x + 5)dx = – 3 cos(3x + 5) + C (h) ∫ cos(2x − 5)dx = 2 sin(2x − 5) + C

24. DEFINITE INTEGRATION OR INTEGRTION WITH LIMITS
Upper limit of integration The function is the integrand
x is the variable of integration

b
Integral sign
∫
a
f ( x ) dx
Lower limit of integration

Integral of f from a to b
∫ f ( x) dx = [g(x)]
b
a = g(b) − g(a)
a
4 4
Ex.64 ∫ –1 ∫
3dx = 3 dx = 3[ x ] 4–1 = 3 [4 – (–1)] = (3) (5) = 15
–1
π/2  π
∫ sin x dx = [– cos x] = – cos  + cos (0) = – 0 + 1 = 1
π/2
0
0 2
a a 5 5 b b
 x3  a3  x2  52 − 32  x5 / 2  2 5/2
∫ ∫ ∫x
2 3/2
Ex.65 (1) x dx =   = (2) xdx =   = =8 (3) dx =   = b
0  3 0 3 3  2 3 2 0  5 / 2 0 5
25. APPLICATION OF DEFINITE INTERGRAL

Calculation Of Area Of A Curve.
f(x)
dx
a x b x
From graph shown in figure if we divide whole area in infinitely small strips of dx width.
We take a strip at x position of dx width.
Small area of this strip dA = f(x) dx

b
So, the total area between the curve and x-axis = sum of area of all strips = ∫ f ( x)dx
a
Let f(x) ≥ 0 be continuous on [a,b]. The area of the region between the graph of f and the x-axis is
∫
A = f ( x )dx
a

Ex.66 Using an area to evaluate a definite integral
Evaluate xdx ∫
a
0 < a < b. y
b
Sol. We sketch the region under the curve y = x, a ≤ x ≤ b (figure) and y=x
see that it is a trapezoid with height (b – a) and bases a and b.
The value
b
of the integral is the area of this trapezoid : a b
a+b b2 a2
Thus
a
∫
xdx = (b – a ) •
2 =
2
–
2
a
0 a b x
5 2 2 a-b
( 5) (1)
∫
1
xdx =
2
–
2
=2 The region in Example
and so on.
Notice that x2/2 is an antiderivative of x, further evidence of a connection between antiderivatives

and summation.
(i) To find impulse
dp
dF =
dt
so imples = ∫ F.dt
Ex.67 If F = kt then find impulse at t = 3 sec.
f
so impulse will be area under f - t curve
3 3
 t2 
∫
I = kt dt = K  
0  2 0
t
9k
⇒ I=
2
2. To calculate work done by force :

∫
w = f .dx
So area under f - x curve will give the value of work done.

Exercise - I (only one option is correct)

SECTION - A : FUNCTION SECTION - B : DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTRY
1. f(x) = cos x + sin x Find f(π/2) FUNCTIONS
Sol. F i nd the de ri vati ve of gi ve n func ti on w.r.t .
corresponding independent variable.
4. y = x 2 + x + 8
Sol.
5. s = 5t 3 − 3t 5
2. f(x) = 4x + 3 Find f(f(2))
Sol.
Sol.
6. y = 5 sin x
Sol.
3. f(x) = log x3 and g(x) = log x

Which of the following statement is / are true-
(a) f(x) = g(x) (b) 3f(x) = g(x)
(c) f(x) = 3g(x) (d) f(x) = (g(x))3
Sol.
7. y = x 2 + sin x
Sol.

8. y = tan x + cot x 12. y = sin x + cos x

Sol. Sol.
13. y = nx + e x
Find the first derivative & second derivative of given
functions w.r.t. corresponding independent variable. Sol.
9. y = 6 x 2 − 10 x − 5 x −2
Sol.
SECTION - C : DIFFERENTIATION BY PRODUCT RULE

Fi nd deri vat i ve of gi ven functi ons w.r.t. the
independent variable x.
12 4 1 14. x sin x
10. r = − +
θ θ3 θ 4 Sol.
Sol.
15. y = e x nx
Sol.
11. ω = 3 z 7 − 7 z 3 + 21z 2
Sol.

SECTION - D : DIFFERENTIATION BY QUOTIENT

16. y = ( x − 1) ( x 2 + x + 1)
RULE
Sol. Find derivative of given function w.r.t. the independent
variable.
sin x
19. y = cos x
Sol.
2  1
17. y = ( x + 1)  x + 5 + 
 x
Sol.
2x + 5
20. y =
3x − 2
Sol.
18. y = sin x cos x

nx
Sol. 21. y =
x
Sol.

SECTION - E : DIFFERENTIATION BY CHAIN RULE

t2 − 1
22. f ( t ) = , find f′(t) dy
t2 + t − 2 Find as a function of x
dx
Sol. 25. y = ( 2x + 1)5
Sol.
2x + 1
23. z =
x2 − 1 26. y = ( 4 − 3 x )9
Sol. Sol.
24. y = x 2 cot x  x
−7
27. y = 1 − 
Sol.  7 
Sol.

−10
x  31. y = 2 sin(ωx + φ) where ω and φ constants
28. y =  − 1
2  Sol.
Sol.
SECTION - G : DIFFERENTIATION AS A RATE

29. y = sin 5 x MEASUREMENT
Sol. 32. Suppose that the radius r and area A = πr2 of a
circle are differentiable functions of t. Write an equation
that relates dA / dt to dr / dt.
Sol.
30. y = sin( x ) + ln( x 2 ) + e 2 x

Sol. 33. Suppose that the radius r and surface area S =
4πr2 of a sphere are differentiable functions of t. Write
ds dr
an equation that relates to .
dt dt
Sol.

SECTION - H : MAXIMA & MINIMA 37. y = sin u, u = 3 x + 1

34. Particle’s position as a function of time is given by
Sol.
x = − t 2 + 4t + 4 find the maximum value of position
coordinate of particle.
Sol.
38. y = 6u − 9, u = (1/ 2) x 4
35. Find the maximum and minimum values of function
Sol.
2x 3 − 15 x 2 + 36 x + 11
Sol.
SECTION - I x
39. y = cos u, u = −
dy 3
Given y = f(u) and u = g(x) Find
dx Sol.
36. y = 2u3 , u = 8 x − 1
Sol.

(b) x–4
PART - II : INTEGRATION
Sol.
Find integrals of given functions
1. (a) 2x
Sol.
(c) x–4 + 2x + 3
Sol.
(b) x2
Sol.
1
3. (a)
x2
Sol.
(c) x2 – 2x + 1
Sol.
5
(b)
x2
Sol.
2. (a) –3x–4
Sol.

5 43
(c) 2 − 5. (a) x
x2 3
Sol. Sol.
1
(b) 3
3 x
3
4. (a) x Sol.
2
Sol.
(c) 3 1
x+
3
x
3
(b) Sol.
2 x
Sol.
1 −1/ 2
6. (a) x
2
Sol.
1
(c) x+
x
Sol.

1 −3 / 2 1
(b) − x 9.
2 3x
Sol. Sol.
Integrate by using the substitution suggested in

bracket.
(c) −
3 −5 / 2
x
10. ∫ sin 3x dx , (use, u = 3x)
2 Sol.
Sol.
11. ∫ sec 2t tan 2t dt , (use, u = 2t)

Sol.
7. (1 − x 2 − 3 x 5 )
Sol.
12. ∫ 5 dx
−2
Sol.
8. 3 sin x
Sol.

1
−1
∫e
x
π dx
13.
∫
−4
2
dθ 17.
0
Sol.
Sol.
Use a definite integral to find the area of the region

4
between the given curve and the x-axis on the interval
x  [0, b]
14. ∫  2 + 3  dx
−2 18. y = 2x
Sol. Sol.
5 2 x
19. y = +1
15. ∫ r dr 2
2 Sol.
Sol.
Use a definite integral to find the area of the region

2π between the given curve and the x-axis on the interval
16. ∫ sin θ dθ
0
[0, π]
20. y = sin x
Sol. Sol.

3. Rain is falling vertically down wards with a speed 5

PART - III VECTOR
SECTION - A : DEFINITION OF VECTOR & ANGLE m/s. If unit vector along upward is defined as ĵ ,
BETWEEN VECTORS represent velocity of rain in vector form.
Sol.
1. Vectors A,B and C are shown in figure. Find angle
between
y

B
45º A
30º
x
60º

C

(i) A and B (ii) A and C (iii) B and C .
Sol. 4. The vector joining the points A(1, 1, –1) and B(2, –
3, 4) & pointing from A to B is
(a) − î + 4 ĵ − 5k̂ (b) î + 4 ĵ + 5k̂
(c) î − 4 ĵ + 5k̂ (d) − î − 4 ĵ − 5k̂

Sol.
2. The forces, each numerically equal to 5 N, are acting

as shown in the Figure. Find the angle between forces? SECTION - B : ADDITION OF VECTORS
5. A man walks 40 m North, then 30 m East and then 40
m South. Find the displacement from the starting point?
5N Sol.
60º
5N
Sol.


6. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting at right angles to 9. Two vectors a and b inclined at an angle θ w.r.t.

each other, find their resultant ? each other have a resultant c which makes an angle
Sol.
β with a . If the directions of a and b are interchanged,
then the resultant will have the same
(A) magnitude
(B) direction
(C) magnitude as well as direction
(D) neither magnitude nor direction.
Sol.
7. A vector of magnitude 30 and direction eastwards

is added with another vector of magnitude 40 and
direction Northwards. Find the magnitude and direction
of resultant with the east.
Sol.

10. Two vectors A and B lie in a plane. Another

vector C lies outside this plane. The resultant

A + B + C of these three vectors
(A) can be zero
(B) cannot be zero
8. Two force of F1 = 500 N due east and F2 = 250 N
(C) lies in the plane of A + B
due north. Find F2 − F1 ?
(D) lies in the plane of A − B
Sol.
Sol.

11. The vector sum of the forces of 10 N and 6 N can

14. The vector sum of two vectors A and B is
be
maximum, then the angle θ between two vectors is
(A) 2N (B) 8N (C) 18N (D) 20N
(A) 0º (B) 30º (C) 45º (D) 60º
Sol.
Sol.

15. Given : C = A + B . Also, the magnitude of A, B and
12. A set of vectors taken in a given order gives a
closed polygon. Then the resultant of these vectors C are 12, 5 and 13 units respectively. The angle

is a between A and B is
(A) scalar quantity (B) pseudo vector π π
(A) 0º (B) (C) (D) π
(C) unit vector (D) null vector 4 2
Sol. Sol.

13. The vector sum of two force P and Q is minimum 16. If P + Q = P − Q and θ is the angle between P and
when the angle θ between their positive directions, is
Q , then
π π π
(A) (B) (C) (D) π (A) θ = 0º (B) θ = 90º (C) P = 0 (D) Q = 0
4 3 2
Sol. Sol.

17. The sum and difference of two perpendicular 20. What are the x and the y components of a 25 m
vectors of equal lengths are displacement at an angle of 210º with the x-axis
(A) of equal lengths and have an acute angle between (clockwise) ?
them Sol.
(B) of equal lengths and have an obtuse angle between
them
(C) also perpendicular to each other and are of different
lengths
(D) also perpendicular to each other and are of equal
lengths
Sol.
21. One of the rectangular components of a velocity

of 60 km h–1 is 30 km h–1 . Find other rectangular
component ?
Sol.
SECTION - C : RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

18. Find the magnitude of 3 î + 2 ĵ + k̂ ?
Sol.
22. If 0.5 î + 0.8 ĵ + C k̂ is a unit vector. Find the value

of C
Sol.

19. If A = 3 î + 4 ĵ then find Â
Sol.

23. The rectangular components of a vector are

26. If | A | = 4 , | B | = 3 and θ = 60º in the figure. Find
(2, 2). The corresponding rectangular components of

( )
another vector are 1, 3 . Find the angle between the (a) A .B (b) | A × B |

two vectors. B
Sol.
θ
A
Sol.
24. The x and y components of a force are 2N and –

3N. The force is
(A) 2 î − 3 ĵ (B) 2 î + 3 ĵ (C) − 2 î − 3 ĵ (D) 3 î + 2 ĵ

27. Three non-zero vectors A ,B & C satisfy the
Sol.

relation A .B = 0 & A . C = 0 . Then A can be parallel
to:

(A) B (B) C (C) B . C (D) B × C
Sol.
SECTION-D : PRODUCT OF VECTORS

25. If A = î + ĵ + k̂ and B = 2 î + ĵ find

(a) A .B (b) A × B
Sol.
28. The magnitude of scalar product of two vectors

is 8 and that of vector product is 8 3 . The angle
between them is
(A) 30º (B) 60º (C) 120º (D) 150º
Sol.

Exercise - II (One or more than one option correct)

SECTION - A : FUNCTION
4. y = 7 x + tan x
x −1 Sol.
1. If f ( x ) = then find f{f(x)}
x +1
Sol.
SECTION - C : DIFFERENTIATION BY PRODUCT RULE

Fi nd deri vat i ve of gi ven functi ons w.r.t. the
corresponding independent variable.
5. y = e x tan x
 x + 2, x < 2
2. If f ( x ) =  Evalute f(2), f(1), and f(3) Sol.
2x − 1, x ≥ 2
Sol.
6. y = x 2 sin 4 x + x cos −2 x
Sol.
SECTION - B : DIFFERENTIATION OF ELEMENTRY

FUNCTIONS
Find the first derivative and second derivative of given
functions w.r.t. the independent variable x.
3. y = nx 2 + sin x
 1  1 
Sol. 7. y =  x +   x − + 1
 x  x 
Sol.

SECTION - D : DIFFERENTIATION BY QUOTIENT

8. y = x 2 sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x
RULE
Sol. Find derivative of given functions w.r.t. the respective
independent variable.
sin x + cos x
11. y =
cos x
Sol.
9. y = x 2 cos x − 2x sin x − 2 cos x

Sol.
cot x
12. y =
1 + cot x
Sol.
10. r = (1 + sec θ) sin θ

Sol.
cos x x
13. y = x
+
cos x
Sol.

tan q 17. y = x( x 2 + 1) −1/ 2

14. p = 1 + tan q
Sol.
Sol.
dq
18. q = 2r − r 2 , find
SECTION - E : DIFFERENTIATION BY CHAIN RULE dr
Sol.
dy
Find as a function of x
dx
15. y = sin3 x + sin 3 x

Sol.
4
 x2 1
19. y =  +x− 
16. sin 2 ( x 2 + 1)  8 x 
Sol. Sol.

SECTION - F : DIFFERENTIATION AS A RATE 22. A sheet of area 40 m2 in used to make an open

MEASUREMENT tank with a square base, then find the dimensions of
the base such that volume of this tank is maximum.
20. The radius r and height h of a circular cylinder are
related to the cylinder’s volume V by the formula Sol.
2
V = πr h.
(a) If height is increasing at a rate of 5 m/s while
radius is constant, Find rate of increase of volume of
cylinder.
(b) If radius is increasing at a rate of 5 m/s while
height is constant, Find rate of increase of volume of
cylinder.
(c) If height is increasing at a rate of 5 m/s and radius
is increasing at a rate of 5 m/s. Find rate of increase
of volume of cylinder.
Sol.
SECTION - H : MISCELLANEOUS
23. Find y′′ if
(a) y = cos x
Sol.
(b) y = sec x
Sol.
SECTION - G : MAXIMA & MINIMA

21. Find two positive numbers x & y such that x + y =
60 and xy is maximum.
Sol.
24. y = cos u, u = sin x

Sol.

∫x
25. y = sin u, u = x − cos x −3
4. ( x + 1) dx
Sol. Sol.
PART - II : INTEGRATION t t+ t
Find integrals of given functions
5. ∫ t2
dt
∫ (2x
3 Sol.
1. − 5 x + 7) dx
Sol.
4+ t
6. ∫ t3
dt
1 2 
2. ∫  5 − x 3
+ 2x  dx

Sol.
Sol.
7. ∫ cos θ (tan θ + sec θ) dθ

3. ∫( x + 3 x dx ) Sol.
Sol.

1
2π dx
8. ∫ θ dθ 11. ∫ 3x + 2
0
π
Sol. Sol.
3
7 Use a definite integral to find the area of the region
9. ∫
0
x 2 dx between the given curve and the x-axis on the interval
[0, b]
Sol. 12. y = 3x2
Sol.
10. ∫ cos x dx
0 13. y = b 2 − x 2
Sol. Sol.

PART - III : VECTOR 3. A vector is not changed if
SECTION - A : DEFINITION OF VECTOR & ANGLE (A) it is displaced parallel to itself

BETWEEN VECTORS (B) it is rotated through an arbitrary angle
(C) it is cross-multiplied by a unit vector
1. Vector A points N–E and its magnitude is 3 kg ms–
1
it is multiplied by the scalar λ such that λ = –4 (D) it is multiplied by an arbitrary scalar
second. Find the direction and magnitude of the new Sol.
vector quantity. Does it represent the same physical
quantity or not ?
Sol.
4. Which of the arrangement of axes in fig. can be

labelled “right handed coordinate system” ? As usual,
each axis lable indicates the positive side of the axis.
2. A hall has the dimensions 10 m × 12 m × 14 m. A z

fly starting at one corner ends up at a diametrically
opposite corner. The magnitude of its displacement is
nearly (i) x (ii) x
(A) 16 m (B) 17 m
y z
(C) 18 m (D) 21 m y
Sol.
x
x
(iii) y (iv) z
z
y
x z
(v) y (vi) y
z x
(A) (i), (ii) (B) (iii) (iv)

(C) (vi) (D) (v)

Sol. → → →
6. Find the resultant of three vectors OA, OB and OC
each of magnitude r as shown in figure ?
A
B
r
r
45º
45º
O C
r
Sol.
SECTION : B ADDITION OF VECTOR

5. The angle θ between directions of forces A and B
is 90º where A = 8 dyne and B = 6 dyne. If the

resultant R makes an angle α with A then find the
value of ‘ α ’ ?
Sol.
7. If the angle between two forces increases, the

magnitude of their resultant
(A) decreases
(B) increases
(C) remains unchanged
(D) first decreases and then increases
Sol.

8. A car is moving on a straight road due north with a

10. When two vector a and b are added, the
uniform speed of 50 km h–1 when it turns left through
magnitude of the resultant vector is always
90°. If the speed reamins unchanged after turning,
(A) greater than (a + b)
the change in the velcoity of the car in the turning
(B) less than or equal to (a + b)
process is :
(C) less than (a + b)
(A) zero (D) equal to (a + b)
(B) 50 2kmh –1S − W direction Sol.
(C) 50 2kmh –1N − W direction
(D) 50 kmh –1 due West

Sol.

11. Given : A = 2 î + 3 ĵ and B = 5 î − 6 ĵ . The magnitude
9. Which of the following sets of displacements might
of A + B is
be capable of bringing a car to its returning point ?
(A) 4 units (B) 10 units
(A) 5, 10, 30 and 50 km
(B) 5, 9, 9 and 16 km (C) 58 units (D) 61 units
(C) 40, 40, 90 and 200 km
Sol.
(D) 10, 20, 40 and 90 km
Sol.


12. Given : A = 2 î − ĵ + 2k̂ and B = − î − ĵ + k̂ . The unit 14. Given : a + b + c = 0 . Cut of the three vectors a, b a

vector of A − B is nd c two are equal in magnitude. The magnitude of
3 î + k̂ 3 î k̂ − 3 î − k̂ the third vector is 2 times that of either of the two

(A) (B) (C) (D) having equal magnitude. The angles between the
10 10 10 10
vectors are
Sol. (A) 90º, 135º, 135º (B) 30º, 60º, 90º
(C) 45º, 45º, 90º (D) 45º, 60º, 90º
Sol.

13. If | A + B | = | A | = | B | , then the angle between A

and B is 15. Which of the following is a true statement ?
(A) 0 (B) 60º (C) 90º (D) 120º (A) A vector cannot be divided by another vector
Sol. (B) Angular displacement can either be a scalar or a
vector
(C) Since addition of vectors is commutative therefore
vector subtraction is also commutative
(D) The resultant of two equal forces of magnitude F
acting at a point is F if the angle between the two
forces is 120º.
Sol.

SECTION - C : RESOLUTION OF VECTORS 18. Six forces, 9.81 N each, acting at a point are
coplanar. If the angles between neighbouring forces
16. If A = 3 î + 4 ĵ and B = î + ĵ + 2k̂ then find out unit
are equal, then the resultant is

vector along A + B . (A) 0 N (B) 9.81 N
(C) 2 × 9.81 N (D) 3 × 9.81 N
Sol.
Sol.

17. Vector A is of length 2 cm and is 60º above the SECTION : D PRODUCT OF VECTORS

x-axis in the first quadrant. Vector B is of length 2 19. If a = x1 î + y1 ĵ & b = x 2 î + y 2 ĵ . The condition that
cm and 60º below the x-axis in the fourth quadrant.
would make a & b parallel to each other is ______.
The sum A + B is a vector of magnitude.
(A) 2 along + y axis (B) 2 along + x-axis Sol.
(C) 1 along – x-axis (D) 2 along – x-axis
Sol.

20. A vector A points vertically downward & B points

towards east, then the vector product A × B is
(A) along west (B) along east
(C) zero (D) none of above
Sol.

Exercise - III Subjective Level-I
1. Match the statements given in column-I with 2. Position of particle is given by S = t3 – 2t2 + 5t + 4
statements given in column-II
(a) Find the position of particle at t = 1 sec
Column - I Column - II
(b) Find the first derivative of S at t = 1 sec

(A) If | A | = | B | and | A + B | = | A | then (p) 90º (c) Find the second derivative of S t = 1 sec
Sol.
angle between A and B is
(B) Magnitude of resultant of two (q) 120º

forces | F1 | = 8N and | F2 | = 4 N may be

(C) Angle between A = 2 î + 2 ĵ & B = 3 k̂ is (r) 12 N
(D) Magnitude of resultant of vectors (s) 14

A = 2 î + ĵ & B = 3 k̂ is
Sol.

3.Two forces F1 = 2 î + 2 ĵ N amd F2 = 3 î + 4 k̂ N are acting
on a particle
(a) Find the resultant force acting on particle

(b) Find the angle between F1 & F2

(c) Find the componant of force F1 along force F2
Sol.

4. Statement-1 : A vector is a quantity that has

6. Statement-1 : If three vectors A,B and C satisfy
both magnitude and direction and obeys the triangle

law of addition. the relation A .B = 0 & A . C = 0 then the vector A is
Statement-2 : The magnitude of the resultant vector
parallel to B × C .
of two given vectors can never be less than the
magnitude on any the given vector.
State me nt-2 : A ⊥ B and A ⊥ C he nce A i s
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for perpendicular to plane formed by B and C
Statement-1 (A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
(B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanati on for Statement-1
Statement-1 (B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanati on for
(C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
Statement-1
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True (C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
Sol. (D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True
Sol.
5. Statement-1 : If the rectangular components of a

force are 8 N and 6 N, then the magnitude of the force 7. Statement-1 : The minimum number of vectors of
is 10 N. unequal magnitude required to produce zero resultant
is three.
Statement-2 : If | A | = | B | = 1 then | A × B |2 + | A .B |2 = 1 . Statement-2 : Three vectors of unequal magnitude
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; which can be represeted by the three sides of a triangle
State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for taken in order, produce zero resultant.
Statement-1 (A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
(B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for
Stateent-2 i s N OT a correct expl anat i on for Statement-1
Statement-1 (B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
(C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanati on for
Statement-1
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True
Sol.
Sol.

8. Statement-1 : The angle between the two vectors 10. State true or false

π
(Î + Ĵ) and (k̂ ) is 2
radian. (i) If A & B are two force vectors A .B = B . A
Sol.

Statement-2 : Angle between two vectors A and B

 A .B 
is given by θ = cos −1 .
 AB 
 
State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for
Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for
Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False (ii) If A & B are two force vectors then A × B = B × A
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True Sol.
Sol.
(iii) If the vector product of two non-zero vectors

vanishes, the vectors are collinear.
Sol.
9. Statement-1 : Distance is scalar quantity.

Statement-2 : Distance is the length of path
transversed.
State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for
Statement-1
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for (iv) If a function has maximum value at point P theh
Statement-1 slope of tangent drawn on function at point P is zero.
(C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False Sol.
Sol.

11. Fill in the blanks (iv) The magnitude of area of the parallelogram formed

(i) The scalar product of vector A = 2 î + 5 k̂ and by the adjacent sides of vectors A = 3 î + 2 ĵ a nd

B = 3 ĵ + 5 k̂ is .......... B = 2 î − 2 k̂ is ......................
Sol. Sol.

(ii) If A = 3 î + 4 ĵ and B = 7 î + 24 ĵ , then the vector

having the same magnitude as B and parallel to A is
............ (v) A force i s represented by 2 î + 3 ĵ + 6 k̂ . The
Sol. magnitude of the force is .................
Sol.
(vi) T he uni t ve ct or al ong v ec tor î + ĵ + k̂ is

(iii) If A || B then A × B = ..............
..................
Sol.
Sol.


(vii) If A is ........................ to B , then A .B = 0
Sol.

(viii) The vector A = î + ĵ , where î and ĵ are unit
vectors along x-axis and y-axis respectively, makes
an angle of ..................... degree with x-axis.
Sol.

(ix) If A + B + C = 0 , then A .(B × C) = ....................
Sol.

Exercise - IV Subjective Level-II
1. If the resultant of two forces of magnitudes P and Q acting 3. A man moves towards 3m north then 4m towards east and
finally 5m towards 37º south of west. His displacement from
at a point at an angle of 60º is 7 Q , then P/Q is
origin is
(A) 1 (B) 3/2 (C) 2 (D) 4
(A) 5 2 m (B) 0 m (C) 1 m (D) 12 m
Sol.
Sol.
4. Three forces P, Q & R are acting at a point in the plane. The

2. The resultant of two forces F1 and F2 is P. If F2 is reversed,
angle between P & Q and Q & R are 150º & 120º respectively,
then resultant is Q. Then the value of (P2 + Q2) in terms of F1
then for equilibrium, forces P, Q & R are in the ratio
and F2 is
(A) 2(F12 + F22) (B) F12 + F22 (A) 1 : 2 : 3 (B) 1 : 2 : 3 (C) 3 : 2 : 1 (D) 3 :2:1
(C) (F1 + F2)2 (D) none of these Sol.
Sol.

5. A man rows a boat with a speed of 18 km/hr in northwest 7. The resultant of two forces, one double the other in magni-
direction. The shoreline makes an angle of 15º south of west. tude is perpendicular to the smaller of the two forces. The angle
Obtain the component of the velocity of the boat along the between the two forces is
shoreline. (A) 150º (B) 90º (C) 60º (D) 120º
Sol.
3
(A) 9 km/hr (B) 18 km / hr
2
(C) 18 cos 15º km/hr (D) 18 cos 75º km/hr
Sol.
6. A brid moves from point (1, – 2, 3) to (4, 2, 3). If the speed of

the bird is 10m/sec, then the velocity vector of the bird is 8. If the angle between the unit vectors a and b is 60º, then
(A) 5( i − 2j + 3k ) (B) 5(4 i + 2j + 3k ) | a – b | is

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 4
(C) 0.6 i + 0.8 j (D) 6 i + 8 j Sol.
Sol.

9. For a particle moving in a straight line, the position of the

11. Two vectors A and B are such that | A + B | = | A – B |. The
particle at time (t) is given by x = t3 – 6t2 + 3t + 7 what is the
velocity of the particle when it’s acceleration is zero ? angle between the vectors A and B is -
(A) – 9ms–1 (B) –12ms–1 (C) 3ms–1 (D) 42ms–1 (A) 0 (B) π/3 (C) π/2 (D) π
Sol.
Sol.
10. Two forces each numerically equal to 10 dynes are acting 12. A particle moves through angular displacement θ on a cir-
as shown in the following figure, then their resultant is - cular path of radius r. The linear displacement will be -
(A) 2r sin (θ/2) (B) 2r cos (θ/2)
(C) 2r tan (θ/2) (D) 2r cot (θ/2)
10 dynes Sol.
60° 10 dynes
(A) 10 dynes (B) 20 dynes

(C) 10 3 dynes (D) 5 dynes
Sol.


13. The vector P makes 120° with the x-axis and vector Q 15. The angle that the vector A = 2i + 3 j makes with y-axis is-
makes 30° with the y-axis. What is their resultant ? (A) tan–1(3/2) (B) tan–1(2/3)
(C) sin–1(2/3) (D) cos–1(3/2)
(A) P + Q (B) P – Q (C) P 2 + Q 2 (D) P 2 – Q 2
Sol.
Sol.
14. A man travels 1 mile due east, then 5 miles due south, then 16. A man moves towards 3m north then 4m towards east and
2 miles due east and finally 9 miles due north, how far is he finally 5 m towards 37° south of west. His
from the starting point - displacement from origin is -
(A) 3 miles (B) 5 miles (A) 5 2 m (B) 0 m (C) 12 m (D) 5 m
(C) 4 miles (D) between 5 and 9 miles
Sol.
Sol.


17. If 3 i + 2j + 8k and 2i + xj + k are at right angles that x= 19. If a is a vector and x is a non-zero scalar, then -

(A) 7 (B) –7 (C) 5 (D) –4 (A) x a is a vector in the direction of a
Sol.
(B) x a is a vector collinear to a

(C) x a and a have independent directions
(D) none of these
Sol.
18. a1i + a2 j is a unit vector perpendicular to 4 i – 3 j if -

(A) a1 = .6, a2 = .8 (B) a1 = 3, a2 = 4
(C) a1 = .8, a2 = .6 (D) a1 = 4, a2 = 3
Sol.

Exercise - V JEE-Problems
1.Two vectors have magnitudes 3 unit and 4 unit 2.When two forces of magnitude P and Q are perpen-
respectively. What should be the angle between them dicular to each other, their resultant is of magnitude
if the magnitude of the resultant is R. When they are at an angle of 180º to each other
(a) 1unit, R
Sol. their resultant is of magnitude . Find the ratio of P
2
and Q.
Sol.
(b) 5 unit and

Sol.
3.A body acted upon by 3 given forces is under equi-

(c) 7 unit. librium.
Sol. y
37°
F3

(a) If |F1| = 10 Nt.,|F2 | = 6 Nt. Find the values of |F3 | &
angle (θ).

Sol.
5.A parti cl e i s act ed upon by t he force s

(b) Express F2 in unit vector form

Sol. F1 = 2i + aj − 3k , F2 = 5 i + cj − bk , F3 = bi + 5 j − 7k ,

F4 = c i + 6 j − ak . Find the values of the constants a,
b, c in order that the particle will be in equilibrium.
Sol.
4. If the four forces as shown are in equilibrium Ex-

press F1 & F2 in unit vector form.
15 N F2
°
30 10 N
37° 30°
F1
Sol.

6.A plane body has perpendicular axes OX and OY

8.(a) Calculate r = a − b + c where a = 5 i + 4 j − 6k ,
marked on it and is acted on by following forces

5P in the direction OY b = −2i + 2j + 3k and c = 4 i + 3 j + 2k .
4P in the direction OX Sol.
10P in the direction OA where A is the point (3a, 4a)
15P in the direction AB where B is the point (–a, a)
Express each force in the unit vector from & calculate
the magnitude & direction of sum of the vector of
these forces.
Sol.

(b) Calculate the angle between r and the z-axis.
Sol.

(c) Find the angle between a and b
7. A vector A of length 10 units makes an angle of
Sol.
60º with the vector B of length 6 units. Find the

magnitude of the vector difference A – B & the angle

it makes with vector A .
Sol.

ANSWER KEY Exercise-I

PART - I
SECTION - A
1. 1 2. 47 3. (c)
SECTION - B
dy ds dy dy
4. = 2x + 1 5. = 15 t 2 − 15 t 4 6. = 5 cos x 7. = 2x + cos x 8. sec 2 x − cos ec 2 x
dx dt dx dx
dy d2 y
9. = 12 x − 10 + 10 x −3 , = 12 − 30 x − 4
dx dx 2
dr d 2r
10. = −12 θ − 2 + 12 θ − 4 − 4θ −5 , = 24 θ −3 − 48 θ −5 + 20 θ − 6
dθ dθ 2
dω d2 ω
11. = 21z 6 − 21z 2 + 42 z , 2
= 126 z 5 − 42 z + 42
dz dz
dy d2 y dy 1 d2 y 1
12. = cos x − sin x, = − sin x − cos x 13. = + ex, = − 2 + ex
dx dx 2 dx x dx 2
x
SECTION - C
x dy 1
e
14. sin x + x cos x 15. e x nx + 16. = 3x 2 2
17. y′ = 3 x + 10 x + 2 −
x dx x2
18. cos 2 x − sin2 x
SECTION - D
−19 1 nx t 2 − 2t + 1
19. sec x 2
20. y′ = 21. − 22. f ′( t ) =
(3 x − 2) 2 x2 x2 ( t 2 + t − 2) 2
dz − 2x 2 − 2x − 2 dy
23. = 24. = − x 2 csc 2 x + 2x cot x
dx ( x 2 − 1)2 dx
SECTION - E
25. With u = (2x + 1)
dy dy
y = u5 : = = 5u 4 . 2 = 10( 2x + 1) 4
dx du
dy
26. = −27( 4 − 3 x )8
dx
−8
x dy dy du  1  x
27. With u = (1 −  ) y = u −7 : = = −7u −8 .  −  = 1 − 
7 dx du dx  7   7 
−11
dy x  2
28. = −5 − 1 29. 5 cos 5 x 30. cos( x ) + + 2e 2 x 31. 2ω cos(ωx + φ)
dx 2  x

SECTION - G
dA dr ds dr
32. = 2πr 33. = 8πr
dt dt dt dt
SECTION - H
34. 8 35. ymax = 39, ymin = 38
SECTION - I
dy dy 1 x
36. = 48 (8 x − 1)2 37. 3 cos(3 x + 1) 38. 12x3 39. = − sin
dx dx 3 3
PART - II
x3 x3 −3 1 −3 1
1. (a) x 2 (b) (c ) − x 2 + x 2. (a)x (b) − x (c ) − x − 3 + x 2 + 3 x
3 3 3 3
1 5 5 2 x3
3. (a ) − (b) − (c ) 2x + 4. (a) x 3 (b) 3 x (c ) +2 x
x x x 3
2 4 2
x3 3x 3 3x 3 x3 x6
5. (a ) x 4/3
(b) (c ) + 6. (a) x1/ 2 (b) x −1/ 2 (c ) x −3 / 2 7. x − − +C
2 4 2 3 2
1 1
8. −3 cos x 9. nx 10. − cos 3 x + C
3 3
1 3π
11. sec 2t + C 12. 15 13. 14. Area = 21 15. 24 16. 0
2 2
b
b
∫ 2x dx = b
2
17. e – 1 18. Using n subintervals of length ∆x = and right-endpoint values : Area =
n 0
b2 b( 4 + b)
19. +b = 20. 2
4 4
PART - III
SECTION - A

1. (i) 105º, (ii) 150º, (iii) 105º 2. 120º 3. VR = −5 ĵ 4. (C)
SECTION - B
5. 30 m East 6. F12 + F22 7. 50, 53º with East 8. 250 5 N, tan −1 ( 2) W of N

9. (A) 10. (B) 11. (B) 12. (D) 13. (D) 14. (A)
15. (C) 16. (B) 17. (D)
SECTION - C
3 î + 4 ĵ
18. 14 19. 20. – 25 cos 30º and + 25 sin 30º 21. 30 3 km h −1
5
22. 0.11 23. 15º 24. (A)
SECTION - D
25. (a) 3 (b) − î + 2 ĵ − k̂ 26. (a) 6 (b) 6 3 27. (D) 28. (B)

ANSWER KEY Exercise-II

PART-I
SECTION-A
1
1. – 2. f(2) = 3, f(1) = 3, f(3) = 5
x
SECTION-B
6
– –13
dy 2 d2 y –2 7 d2 y –6
3. = + cos x , = – sin x 4. dy = x + sec 2 x ⇒ = × 7 +2 tan x sec 2 x
dx x dx 2 x2 dx 7 dx 2
49
SECTION-C
dy 2 1
5. ex(tanx + sec2x) 6. 2xsin4x + 4x2 sin3x cosx + cos–2x + 2xcos–3xsinx 7. = 1 + 2x + 3 – 2
dx x x
dy dr
8. x2 cosx 9. = – x 2 sin x 10. = cos θ + sec 2 θ
dx dθ
SECTION-D
dy – csc 2 x dy – x sin x – cos x x sin x + cos x sec 2 q

11. = sec 2 x 12. 13. = + 14.
dx (1 + cot x) 2 dx x2 cos 2 x (1 + tan q) 2
SECTION-E
1 1– r
15. 3sin2x cosx + 3cos3x 16. 4x sin (x2 + 1) cos (x2 + 1) 17. 2 3/2 18.
( x + 1) 2r – r 2
3
 x2   1 dy dy du x 1  x2 1  x 1
19. With u =  8  + x –   , y = u4 : = = 4u 3 .  + 1 + 2  = 4 , 4 + x –   + 1+ 2 
  x dx du dx  4 x   8 x  4 x 
  
SECTION-F
dV dV dr dV dh dr
20. (a) = πr2 dh = 5 πr 2 (b) = 2πhr = 10 πrh (c) = πr 2 + 2πhr = 5πr2 + 10 πrh
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
SECTION - G
40
21. x = 30 & y = 30 22. x= m
3
SECTION-H
23. (a) –cosx, (b) 2 sec3 x – sec x
dy
Given y = f(u) and u = g(x), find
dx
dy
24. – sin (sinx) cos x. 25. = cos (x – cosx) (1 + sinx)
dx
PART - II
x4 5 x2 x 1 2 3/2 3 4 /3 1 1 2
1. – + 7x + C 2. + + x2 + C 3. x + x +C 4. – – + C 5. 2 t – +C
2 2 5 x2 3 4 x 2x 2
t
2 –3/ 2 3π 2 7 1 5
6. –2t–2 – t +C 7. – cosθ + θ + C 8. 9. 10. 0 11. n
3 2 3 3 2
b
b πb2
∫ 3x dx = b
2 3
12. Using n subintervals of length ∆x = and right-end point values : Area = 13.
n 0 4

PART - III
SECTION - A

1. B = λA = –4 × 3 N − E = 12 S-W
No it does not represent the same physical quantity.
2. (D) 3. (A) 4. (A), (B), (C)
SECTION-B
5. 37° 6. r(1 + 2 ) 7. (A) 8. (B) 9. (B) 10. (B) 11. (C)
12. (A) 13. (D) 14. (A) 15. (A), (B), (D)
SECTION-C
4 i + 5 j + 2k
16. 17. B 18. (A)
45
SECTION- D
x1 y1
19. = 20. (D)
x2 y 2
ANSWER KEY Exercise-III
1. (A) → Q, (B) → R, (C) → P, (D) → S

F1.F2  3  F1.F2 6
2. (a) 8, (b) 4, (c) 2 (b) cos θ = ⇒ θ = cos–1   (c) F1 cos θ = =
|F1||F2 | 5 2 |F2 | 5

3. (a) FR = F1 + F2 = 2i + 5 j + 4k
4. (C) 5. (B) 6. (A) 7. (A) 8. (A) 9. (B)
10. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True
1 1 1
11. (i) 25 Units. (ii) 15i + 20 j (iii) Null vector (iv) 224 units (v) 7 units (vi) i+ j+ k
3 3 3
(vii) Perpendicular (viii) 45 (ix) zero.
ANSWER KEY Exercise-IV
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. A 6. D 7. D 8. B 9. A 10
A 11. C 12. A 13. A 14. B 15. B 16. B 17. B 18. A 19. B
ANSWER KEY Exercise-V

1. (a) 180°, (b) 90°, (c) 0 2. 2 ± 3 3. (a) |F3 | = 8 N, θ = 90° (b) F2 = –6 i

4. F1 = –(12 3 – 1) j & F2 = (12 – 5 3 ) i + (12 3 – 15) j 5. a = – 7, b = – 3, c = – 4
7
6. 5P ĵ,4P î,6Pî + 8P ĵ,–12P î – 9P ĵ , 20P, tan–1[–2] with the +ve x axis. 7. 2 19 ; cos–1
2 19
–1  –7  –1  –20 
8. (a) 11i + 5 j – 7k , (b) cos   , (c) cos  
 195   1309 

KINEMATICS
KINEMATICS
CONTENTS
1. Rest and Motion ................................................................ 3 – 11
2. Motion Under Gravity .......................................................... 12 – 15
3. Graphs ............................................................................. 15 – 26
4. Two Dimensional Motion ...................................................... 26 – 36
5. Relative Motion .................................................................. 36 – 49
6. Questions for short Answer .................................................. 50 – 52
6. Exercise -I ........................................................................ 53 – 70
7. Exercise - II ...................................................................... 71 – 76
8. Exercise - III ..................................................................... 77 – 86
9. Exercise - IV ..................................................................... 87 – 89
10. Exercise - V .................................................................... 90 – 93
11. Answer key ..................................................................... 94 – 96
1 IVRS No. 0744-2439051, 0744-2439052, 0744-2439053 www.motioniitjee.com, email-hr.motioniitjee@gmail.com
Page # 2 KINEMATICS
KINEMATICS
In this lesson we shall study the geometry of motion i.e., kinematics.
Kinematics is used to relate displacement, velocity, acceleration
and time without reference to the cause of motion. We shall discuss
about kinematics of the particle here. Use of the word 'particles'
does not mean that our study will be restricted to small corpuscles;
rather, it indicates that in this lesson the motion of bodies possibly
as large as men, cars, rockets, or aeroplanes will be considered
without regard to their shape and size.
The entire lesson is divided into two sections. In the first
section we shall study about the motion in a straight line. In the
second section motion of particle in a plane specially projectile
motion and the concept of the relative motion of one particle with
respect to another will be discussed.
IIT-JEE Syllabus :
Kinematics in one and two dimension (cartesion coordinates only), projectiles;
Relative Motion.

KINEMATICS Page # 3
1. REST AND MOTION :

* An object is said to be in motion wrt a frame of reference S1, when its location is changing with
time in same frame of reference S1.
* Rest and motion are relative terms.
* Absolute rest and absolute motion have no meaning.
Motion is broadly classified into 3 categories.
1. Rectilinear and translatory motion.
2. Circular and rotatory motion.
3. Oscillatory and vibratory motion.
1.1 Rectilinear or 1-D Motion

When a particle is moving along a straight line, then its motion is a rectilinear motion.
Parameters of rectilinear motion or translatory motion or plane motion :
(A) Time :
* It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is second(s).
* At a particular instant of time, a physical object can be present at one location only.
* Time can never decrease.
y
(B) Position or location - It is defined with respect to A C
some reference point (origin) of given frame of reference.
r1 B
Consider a particle which moves from location r1 (at time t1)
r2
to location r2 (at time t2) as shown in the figure below,
following path ACB. x
(C) Distance :
The length of the actual path traversed by the particle is termed as its distance.
Distance = length of path ACB.
* Its SI unit is metre and it is a scalar quantity.
* It can never decrease with time.
(D) Displacement :
The change in position vector of the particle for a given time interval is known as its displacement.
→
AB = r = r2 − r1
* Displacement is a vector quantity and its SI unit is metre.
* It can decrease with time.
For a moving particle in a given interval of time
* Displacement can be +ve, –ve or 0, but distance would be always +ve.
* Distance ≥ Magnitude of displacement.
* Distance is always equal to displacement only and only if particle is moving along a straight line
without any change in direction.
(E) Average speed and average velocity :
Average speed and average velocity are always defined for a time interval.
Total dis tan ce travelled ∆s
Average speed(vav ) = =
Time int erval ∆t

Displacement ∆r r −r
Average velocity (vav ) = = = 2 1
Time int erval ∆t t2 − t1
* Average speed is a scalar quantity, while average velocity is a vector quantity. Both have the same
SI units, i.e., m/s.
For a moving particle in a given interval of time
* Average speed can be a many valued function but average velocity would be always a single-
valued function.
* Average velocity can be positive, negative or 0 but average speed would be always positive.

Page # 4 KINEMATICS
(F) Instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity

Instantaneous speed is also defined exactly like average speed i.e. it is equal to the ratio of total
distance and time interval, but with one qualification that time interval is extremely (infinitesimally)
small. The instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular instant of time and may have entirly
different value than that of average speed. Mathematically.
∆s ds S
v = lim = ...(4)
∆s →0 ∆t dt
When ∆s is the distance travelled in time ∆t. B
Distance
As ∆t tends to zero, the ratio defining speed becomes
finite and equals to the first derivative of the distance.
The speed at the moment 't' is is called the instantaneous D ∆S
speed at time 't'. θ
On the distance - time plot, the speed is equal to the slope A ∆t C
of the tangent to the curve at the time instant 't'. Let A t
and B point on the plot corresponds to the time t and t + O t t + ∆t time
∆t during the motion. As ∆ t approaches zero, the chord AB
becomes the tangent AC at A. The slope of the tangent Instantaneous speed is equal to the slope
of the tangent at given instant.
equal ds/dt, which is equal to the intantaneous speed at
't'.
DC ds
v = tanθ = =
AC dt
(G) Instantaneous velocity :

Instantaneous velocity is defined exactly like speed. It is
equal to the ratio of total displacement and time interval,
but with one qualification that time interval is extremely
(infinitesimally) small. Thus, instantaneous velocity can S
be termed as the average velocity at a particular instant
Position/displacement
of time when ∆ t tend to zero and may have entirely

B
different value that of average velocity : Mathematically.
B'
∆r dr D ∆S
v = lim = θ
∆t →0 ∆t dt
A ∆t C
As ∆ t tends to zero, the ratio defining velocity becomes t
O t
finite and equals to the first derivative of the position t + ∆t time
vector. The velocity at the moment 't' is called the Instantaneous velocity is equal to the slope
instantaneous velocity or simply velocity at time 't'. of the tangent at given instant.
The magnitude of average velocity |vavg| and average speed vavg may not be equal, but magnitude of
instantaneous velocity |v| is always equal to instantaneous speed v.
Ex.1 In 1.0 sec a particle goes from point A to point B moving in a semicircle of radius 1.0 m. The
magnitude of average velocity is
(A) 3.14 m/sec (B) 2.0 m/sec (C) 1.0 m/sec (D) zero
Total displacement d A
Sol. Average velocity = = 1m
Total time t o
D = AO + OB 1m
= 1 + 1 = 2m B
t = 1 sec (given)
2
⇒ mg of v of = 2m/sec
1

KINEMATICS Page # 5
Ex.2 A particle moves along a semicircular path of radius R in time t with

constant speed. For the particle calculate
(i) distance travelled, R
A B
(ii) displacement,
(iii) average speed,
(iv) average velocity,
Sol. (i) Distance = length of path of particle = AB = πR
(ii) Displacement = minimum distance between initial and final point
= AB = 2R
total dis tan ce πR
(iii) Average speed, v = =
time t
2R
(iv) Average velocity =
t
Ex.3 A body travels the first half of the total distance with velocity v1 and the second half with
velocity v2. Calculate the average velocity :
Sol. Let total distance = 2x. Then
x x  v1 + v 2  2x 2v1v 2
total time taken = v + v = x  v v  ∴ Average speed = = v +v
1 2  1 2   v1 + v 2  1 2
x 
 v1v 2 
(G-1) When velocity is given as a function of t :
Ex.4 Velocity-time equation of a particle moving in a straight line is,
v = (10 + 2t + 3t2)
Find :
(a) displacement of particle from the origin of time t = 1 s, if it is given that displacement is 20 m at
time t = 0
(b) acceleration-time equation.
Sol. (a) The given equation can be written as,
ds
v= = (10 + 2t + 3t 2 )
dt
ds = (10 + 2t + 3t2) dt
s t
or ∫
20
∫
ds = (10 + 2t + 3t 2 )dt
0
or s – 20 = [10t + t2 + t3]01
or s = 20 + 12 = 32 m
(b) Acceleration-time equation can be obtained by differentiating the given equation w.r.t. time.
Thus,
dv d
a= = (10 + 2t + 3 t 2 ) or a = 2 + 6t
dt dt
SPECIMEN PROBLEM :
(A) WHEN EQUATION OF DISPLACEMENT IS GIVEN AND SPEED TO BE FIND OUT
Ex.5 If displacement is depend on time such that

x = 2t –2 then find out average speed upt to 4 sec.
Total distance
Sol. Average speed =
Total time
for Total distance
at t = 0 it is at x = – 2
at t = 1 it is at 0 m
at t = 4 it is at 6 m.
Total distance = |– 2| + 0 + 6 = 8 m
Average speed = 8/4 = 2m/sec

Page # 6 KINEMATICS
(B) WHEN VELOCITY IS GIVEN AS A FUNCTION OF TIME AND DISTANCE TO BE FIND OUT
In this type of question first find out at what instant the velocity is zero. If this instant is come in our
time limit then distance can be calculated by breaking the integration in two part with modulas
Ex.6 If velocity is depend on time such that v = 4 – 2t. Find out distance travelled by particle from 1
to 3 sec.
Sol. Velocity is zero (4 – 2t = 0) at t = 2 sec
2 3
dx
So for distance
dt
= 4 – 2t ⇒ dx = ∫ (4 – 2t)dt + ∫ (4 – 2t)dt
2
1
dx = 1 + 1 = 2m
(G-2) When velocity is given as a function of x

dx dx
v = f(x) ⇒
dt
= f(x) ⇒ ∫ f(x) = ∫ dt
Ex.7 If velocity is given by following function V = x2. Then find out relation between x & t (assume x =
1 m at t = 0)
Sol. Relation between v & x is
v = x2
dx dx
we know that v = ⇒ = x2
dt dt
x t x
dx dx  1
x2
= dt ⇒ ∫x
1
2
= ∫ dt
0
⇒ –  = t
 x 1
1 1
⇒ – +1=t⇒x=
x 1 –t
(E) Average and instantaneous acceleration.

When the velocity of a moving object/particle changes with time, we can say that it is accelerated.
Average acceleration,

v2 − v1 ∆v Change in velocity
(aav ) = = =
t2 − t1 ∆t Time int erval
Instantaneous acceleration,

dv
(a) = lim aav = = Rate of change of velocity
∆t → 0 dt
Acceleration is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of change in velocity vector. Its SI
unit is m/s2.
* When direction of acceleration and velocity are opposite to each other, then acceleration is termed
as retardation.

dv d2r dv
* a = dt = =v
d t2 dr
(E-1) When acceleration is given as a function of x
Ex.8 if a = 2x ; initially particle is at x = 2m and is moving with 3 ms–1. Then find out v at x = 5 m.
Sol. Given a = 2x
v 5
vdv
⇒
dx
= 2x ⇒ ∫
3
vdv = ∫ 2xdx
2
v2 9
⇒ – = 25 – 4 ⇒ v2 – 9 = 21 × 2 ⇒ v = 51 ms–1
2 2

KINEMATICS Page # 7
(E-2) When acceleration is given as function of velocity
Ex.9 If a is depend on v in a following way.

a = v and at t = 0 x = 1m, v = 1m/s.
(a) Find out its velocity at t = 2 sec.
(b) Find out its velocity at x = 3 m
Sol. Given a = v
v 2
dv dv
⇒
dt
=v ⇒ ∫
1
v
= dt∫
0
⇒ ln v = 2 ⇒ v = e ms–1 2
(b) Given a = v
v 3
vdv
⇒
dx
=v ⇒ ∫
1
∫
dv = dx
1
⇒ v–1=2 ⇒ v = 3 ms–1
(E-3) When acceleration is given as a function of t.
Ex.10 The acceleration of a particle which is depend on time is given by following function
a = 2t + 1
and at time t = 0, x = 1m and u i = 2m/s.
Then find out displacement of the particle at t = 3 sec.
dv dv
Sol. ∴ We know that a = ⇒ = 2t + 1 ⇒ dv = (2t + 1) dt
dt dt
vf t
∫ dv = ∫ (2t + 1)dt
0
2
v f – 2 = t2 + t ⇒ v f = t2 + t + 2
dx
Now v=
dt
xf t
dx
⇒
dt
= t2 + t + 2 ⇒ ∫
1
∫
dx = ( t 2 + t + 2)
0
t3 t2
xf = + + 2t + 1
3 2
So, xf at t = 3 sec is
(3) 3 (3) 2
= + + 2(3) + 1 ⇒ 20.5 m
3 2
So, after t = 3 sec the position of the particle is 20.5m but the displacement of the particle is
= 20.5 – 1 = 19.5 m
(E-4) Constant Acceleration Format
Deduce the following equations for unifromly accelerated motion by using intergration technique.
1
(A) v = u + at (B) s = ut + at2
2
a
(C) v2 – u2 = 2as (D) snth = u + (2n – 1)
2

Page # 8 KINEMATICS
First equation of motion. Acceleration is defined as

dv
a=
dt
or dv = adt ...(1)
When time = 0, velocity = u (say)
When time = t, velocity = v (say)
Integrating equation (1) within the above limits of time and velocity, we get
v t
t
∫ dv = ∫ a dt
u 0
or [ v]uv = a ∫ dt = a[t]
t
0
0
or v – u = a(t – 0)
or v = u + at ...(2)
Second equation of motion. Velocity is defined as
ds
v=
dt
or ds = v dt = (u + at) dt ...(iii)
When time = 0, displacement travelled = 0
When time = t, displacement travelled = s (say).
Integrating equation (3) within the above limits of time and distance, we get
s t t t t
 t2 
∫
0
∫
ds = (u + at) dt = u
0
∫
0
dt + a ∫
0
t dt or [s]0s = u[t]0t + a 
 2 0
 t2 
or s – 0 = u (t – 0) + a  2 − 0 
 
1 2
or at
s = ut + ...(4)
2
Third equation of motion. By the definitions of acceleration and velocity,
dv dv ds dv
a=
= × = ×v
dt ds dt ds
or ads = vdv ...(5)
When time = 0, velocity = u, displacement travelled = 0
When time = t, velocity = v, displacement travelled = s
(say)
Integrating equation (5) within the above limits of velocity and displacement, we get
s v s v v
 v2 
∫
0
a ds = ∫
u
v dv or a ds = ∫
0
∫
u
v dv or a[s]0s =  
 2 u
v2 u2
or a[s − 0] =
− or 2as = v2 – u2
2 2
or v2 – u2 = 2as ...(6)
Fourth equation of motion. By definition of velocity,
ds
v=
dt
or ds = vdt = (u + at) dt ...(7)
When time = (n – 1) second, displacement travelled
= sn – 1 (say).
When time = n second, displacement travelled = sn
(say)

KINEMATICS Page # 9
Integrating equation (7) within the above limits of time and distance, we get
sn n n n n
 t2 
∫
sn −1
ds = ∫
n −1
(u + at)dt or [s]ssn = u
n −1 ∫ dt + a ∫t dt or sn − sn −1 = u[t]nn −1 + a  
 2 n −1
n −1 n −1
a a
= u[n –(n – 1)] + [n2 – (n – 1)2] = u + [n2 – (n2 – 2n + 1)]
2 2
a
snth = u +
(2n − 1) ...(8)
2
where snth = sn – sn –1 = displacement in nth second.
Ex.11 A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 20 seconds to a velocity of 72 km h–1. It
then runs at constant velocity and finally brought to rest in 200 m with a constant retardation.
The total distance covered is 600 m. Find the acceleration, retardation and the total time taken.
Sol. (i) Motion with uniform acceleration
5
Here, u = 0 ; t1 = 20 sec ; v = 72 × = 20 ms–1
18
∴ v = u + at1
20 = 0 + a × 20 or a = 1 m s–2
Distance travelled by car in this time (20 sec),
1 2 1
S1 = ut + at = 0 + × 1 × (20)2 = 200 m
2 2
(ii) Motion with uniform velocity.
As given, total distance = 600 m
we have calculated S1 = 200 m (with uniform acc.)
and S2 = 200 m (with retardation)
∴ Net distance for which body moves with uniform velocity,
S = 600 – S1 – S2
= 600 – 200 – 200 = 200 m
dis tan ce 200
∴ Time taken, t = = = 10 sec.
uniform velocity 20
∴ Total time of journey, t = (20 + 10 + 20) sec
t = 50 sec
Total displacement 600
Average velocity = = = 12 m/s .
Total Time 50
(iii) Motion with uniform retardation.
For this motion, initial velocity, u = 20 m s–1 and final velocity v = 0 ; S2 = 200 m
Acceleration a' = ?
Using, v2 – u2 = 2 a' S2
(0)2 – (20)2 = 2(a′) × 200
a′ = – 1 ms–2
Let t′ = time for which the body comes to rest.
∴ v = u + a′ t ′
0 = 20 – 1t′
∴ t′ = 20 sec.
C. SPECIMEN PROBLEM 2
a=2m/s
Ex.12 Find out distance travelled by the block u=10 m/s
in 10 sec. for a given situation.
Sol. First find out it what instant velocity of block becomes zero.
v = u + at
given : u = 10 m/s, a = – 2m/s2
⇒ 0 = 10 – 2t ⇒ t = 5 sec

Page # 10 KINEMATICS
So we calculate distance for two time intervals.

For first 5 sec.
1 1
S1 = ut – at2 ⇒ S1 = (10)(5) – (2) (5)2 = 25 m
2 2
for Next 5 sec (blockis travelling towards the starting point)
1
S2 = ut + at2
2
u =0
1
S2 = × 2 × 25 = 25 m
2
S = S1 + S2 = 50 m
(D) Reaction time :

When a particular situation demands our immediate action, it takes some time before we really respond.
Reaction time is the time a person takes to observe, think and act. For example, if a person is driving
and suddenly a boy appears on the road, then the time elapse before he applies the breaks of the car
is the reaction time. Reaction time depends on complexity of the situation and on an individiual.
One can measure one's reaction time by a simple experiment. Take a rule and ask your friend to drop it
vertically through the gap between your thumb and forefinger. As soon as it is dropped, note the time
elapsed ts before you catch it and the distance d travelled by the ruler. (In a particular case, y was
found to be 21.0 cm. Estimate reaction time).
Sol. As the ruler drops under free fall so u = 0, and g = 9.8 ms–2. The distance travelled d and the reaction
time tr are related by
1 2 d
d= gtr = 4.9tr2 Or, tr =
2 4.9
Here d = 21.0 cm = 0.21 m
0.21
∴ tr = ≈ 0.2 s
4.9
Note : a v=0
Definition : Time taken by a driver to react for a situation u
Reaction Time of the driver
is ∆t = t1 – t0
Total distance covered by the car before stopping t1
t=t0 t2
= distance covered in uniform motion during to to t1 + distance (brakes applied)
u2
cover in deaccelerated motion during t1 to t2 = Total distance = u(∆t) +
2a
Ex.13 Assume that a car is able to stop with a retardation of 8 ms–2 and that a driver can react to an
emergency in 0.5 sec. Calculate the overall stopping distance of the car for a speed of 60 km–1
of the car.
5 50
Sol. Here, u = 60 km h–1 = 60 × = ms−1
18 3
50
Since the application of brakes takes 0.5 s, before this the car was moving with uniform speed of ms −1 .
3
∴ Distance covered in 0.5 sec, with a uniform speed is
50 25
S1 = u × t = × 0.5 = m = 8.33 m
3 3
Now car begins to move with a retardation of 8ms–2
∴ Distance covered before coming to rest,
2a S2 = v2 – u2
2
 50 
0−  2500
or v2 − u2  3  = 50 × 50 = = 17.36 m
S2 = = 144
2a −2 × 8 9×2×8
∴ Total (overall) distance = S1 + S2 = 8.33 + 17.36 ⇒ S = 25.69 m

KINEMATICS Page # 11
Ex.14 Two buses A and B are at positions 50 m and 100 m from the origin at time t = 0. They start
moving in the same direction simultaneously with uniform velocity of 10 ms–1 and 5 ms–1.
Determine the time and postion at which A overtakes B.
Sol. Here we use equation of motion for constant velocity in Cartesian form.
Given x1 (0) = 50 m, x2 (0) = 100 m,
v1 = 10 ms–1, v2 = 5 ms–1
The positions of the two buses at any instant t are
x1 (t) = x1 (0) + v1t = 50 + 10 t
x2 (t) = x2 (0) + v2t = 100 + 10 t
When A overtakes B,
x1 (t) = x2 (t)
50 + 10t = 100 + 5t or 5t = 50
t = 10 s
x1 (10) = x2 (10) = 150 m
Thus A overtakes B at a position of 150 m from the origin at time t = 10 s.
Ex.15 A bus starts from rest with constant acceleration of 5 ms–2. At the same time a car travelling
with a constant velocity of 50 ms–1 overtakes and passes the bus. (i) Find at what distance will
the bus overtake the car ? (ii) How fast will the bus be travelling then ?
Sol. (i) Suppose the bus overtakes the car after covering distance s.
When the two meet, time taken t is same.
1 2 1 2
For bus, s = ut + at = 0 + × 5 t
2 2
For car, s = 50 t
5 2
∴ t = 50 t or t = 20 s
2
Hence s = 50 t = 50 × 20 = 1000 m.
(ii) v2 = u2 + 2as = 0 + 2 × 5 × 1000 = 10,000 or v = 100 ms–1
SPECIMEN PROBLEM
(E) Maximum Separation :
u=0
a=4m/s2
Ex.16 40 m/s
What is the maximum separation between car and scooter ?

Sol. Initially seperation between car & scooter increases and then decreases.
Separation between them will be maximum at an instant at which velocity of the car is equal to the
velocity of scooter.
Velocity car = Velocity scooter = 40 m/s
from v = u + at
40 = 0 + 4t ⇒ t = 10 sec
The distance travelled by scooter in 10 sec.
is S1 = 10 × 40 = 400 m
The distance travelled by car in 10 sec. is
1 2 1
S2 = ut + at =0+ × 4 × (10)2 = 200 m
2 2
So maximum seperation = S1 – S2 = 400 – 200 = 200 m
* When they meet both will travel the same distance.
Questions 14, 15, 16 can be solved in a relatively easier way using the concept of relative motion
which is explained later
Now you can try Questions 1 to 13 in Ex. 1 and 1 to 6 in Exercise II

2. MOTION UNDER GRAVITY :
I FORMAT : (When a body is thrown vertically upward) B

It includes two types of motion
(i) Deaccelerated motion from A to B because the direction upward
of velocity and acceleration is opposite. So speed motion downward motion
decreases (accelerated motion)
(deaccelerated
(ii) Accelerated motion from B to C because the direction of motion)
velocity and acceleration is same (downward). So speed u
increases A C
(a) Time of flight :
It is the time taken by the particle to reach the ground. If the particle is thrown vertically upward with
initial velocity u then
ui = u
a = – g (take downward direction negative)
from equation
1 2
S = ut + at ⇒ Snet = 0 (when particle again reaches the ground)
2
t = T (time of flight)
1 2 2u
0 = uT – gT ⇒ T =
2 g
(b) Maximum Height :
from v2 = u2 + 2as
at maximum height v = 0, s = Hmax
u2
⇒ 0 = u2 –2 gHmax ⇒ Hmax =
2g
(c) Final velocity
from v = u + at
2u  2u 
v = vf a = – g t=T= ⇒ vf = u – g  
g  g
vf = – u
i.e. the body reaches the ground with the same speed with which it was thrown vertically upwards as
it thrown vertically upward.
(d) Time to reach half of the maximum height :-
ui = u a = – g
1 2
from S = ut + at Hmax
2
H 1 2 Hmax/2
= ut – gt
2 2
H = 2ut – gt2 ⇒ gt2 – 2ut + H = 0 u
u2
2
2u ± 4u – 4gH 2u ± 4u 2 – 4g ×  u2
⇒ t= ⇒t= 2g ∵ Hmax =
2g  2g
2g
u(2 ± 2 )
t= ...(1)
2g
Equation 1 gives two value of time which corresponds to
u(2 – 2 )
t1 = (from ground to Hmax/2 in upward motion)
2g
u(2 + 2 )
t2 = (from ground to Hmax/2 in downward motion)
2g

(e) Time to reach any general height h

Let us assume that particle reaches from A to B in time t1 & from A to C is time t2.
1 2 1
So from S = ut + at ⇒ h = ut – gt 2
2 2
gt2 – 2ut + 2h = 0 B C
2u ± 4u 2 – 8gh
⇒ t= h
2g
u
u – u2 – 2gh u + u 2 – 2gh
So, t1 = , t2 = A
g g
⇒ t1 + t2 = T (Time of flight)
II Format (Free fall) :

A body released near the surface of the earth is accelerated downward under the influence of force of
gravity.
(a) Time of Flight : (0,0)
u=0
1 2
from equation S = ut + at
2
S = – H, u = 0, a = – g
t = T (Let assume) H
1 2 2H
⇒ – H = (0)T – gt ⇒ T =
2 g
(b) Final Velocity when body reaches the ground
from v2 – u2 = 2as
s=–H v = vf u = 0 a = – g
2
⇒ vf – 0 = 2 (–g) (–H) ⇒ vf = 2gH
Ex.17 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity u from the ground. The ball allains a maximum
height Hmax. Then find out the time and displacement at which ball have half of the maximum
speed.
Sol. Maximum speed of the ball is u
At point B and C ball have speed u/2 but direction
is opposite so from
B C
v = u + at
u/2 u/2
Let t1 is the time taken by the ball from point A to B and t2 is
the time taken by the ball from A to C h
u
From A to B = u – gt1 ...(i)
2 A
u
From A to C – = u – gt 2 ....(2)
2
u 3u
from (i) t1 = , from (ii) t2 =
2g 2g
from equation v2 – u2 = 2as
2
 u 2
⇒ v = ± u/2, u = u, a = – g ⇒   – u = – 2gh
 2
2
3u 2  u  3
h=  = Hmax  ∴ h= Hmax
8g  2g  4

Ex.18 A ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 19.6 ms–1 from the top of a tower returns to
the earth in 6 s. Find the height of the tower.
Sol. Here u = 19.6 ms–1
g = –9.8 ms–2
Net displacement, s = – h
Negative sign is taken because displacement is in
the opposite direction of initial velocity.
Tower
1 2
As s = ut + gt h
2
1
∴ – h = 19.6 × 6 + × (–9.8) × 62
2
= 117.6 – 176.4 = –58.8
or h = 58.8 m
Ex.19 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 ms–1 from the top of a multistoreyed
building. The height of the point from where the ball is thrown is 25 m from the ground. (i) How
high will the ball rise and (ii) how long will it be before the ball hits the ground?
Sol. (i) Here u = +20 ms–1, g = –10 ms–2
At the highest point, v = 0
Suppose the ball rises to the height h from the point of projection.
As v2 – u2 = 2gs
∴ 02 – 202 = 2 × (–10) × h or h = + 20 m.
(ii) Net displacement, s = –25 m
Negative sign is taken because displacement is in the opposite direction of initial velocity.
1 2
As s = ut + gt
2
1
∴ –25 = 20t + × (–10) × t2
2
or 5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0 or t2 – 4t – 5 = 0
or (t+ 1) (t – 5) = 0
As t ≠ –1, so t = 5s.
Ex.20 A ball thrown up is caught by the thrower after 4s. How high did it go and with what velocity was it
thrown ? How far was it below the highest point 3 s after it was thrown?
Sol. As time of ascent = time of descent
∴ Time taken by the ball to reach the highest point = 2 s
For upward motion of the ball : u = ?, v = 0, t = 2s, g = – 9.8 ms–2
As v = u + gt
∴ 0 = u – 9.8 × 2
or u = 19.6 ms–1
Maximum height attained by the ball is given by
1 2 1
s = ut + gt = 19.6 × 2 + × (9.8) × 22 = 19.6 m.
2 2
Displacement of the ball in 3 s,
1
s = 19.6 × 3 + × (–9.8) × 32 = 58.8 – 44.1 = 14.7 m
2
Distance of the ball from the highest point 3 s after it was thrown
= 19.6 – 14.7 = 4.9 m.

Ex.21 A balloon is ascending at the rate of 9.8 ms–1 at a height of 39.2 m above the ground when a
food packet is dropped from the balloon. After how much time and with what velocity does it reach
the ground?
Take g = 9.8 ms–2.
Sol. Initially the food packet attains the upward velocity of the balloon, so
u = 9.8 ms–1, g = 9.8 ms–2 , s = –39.2 m
Here s is taken negative because it is in the opposite direction of initial velocity.
1 2
Using, s = ut + gt , we get
2
1
– 39.2 = 9.8 t – × 9.8 t2
2
or 4.9 t2 – 9.8 t – 39.2 = 0 or t2 – 2t – 8 =0
or (t – 4) (t + 2) = 0 or t = 4 s or – 2 s
As time is never negative, so t = 4s.
Velocity with which the food packet reaches the ground is
v = u + gt = 9.8 – 9.8 × 4 = – 29.4 ms–1.
Negative sign shows that the velocity is directed vertically downwards.
When a particle is dropped then it will automatically attains the velocity of the frame at that time.
Ex.22 Two balls are thrown simultaneously, A vertically upwards with a speed of 20 ms–1 from the
ground, and B vertically downwards from a height of 40 m with the same speed and along the
same line of motion. At what points do the two balls collide? Take g = 9.8 ms–2.
Sol. Suppose the two balls meet at a height of x from the ground after time t s from the start.
For upward motion of balls A :
u = 20 ms–1, g = – 9.8 ms–2 u=20 ms–1 B
1 2
s = ut + gt
2 40–x
1
40 m
x = 20 t – × 9.8 t2 = 20t – 4.9 t2 ...(i) C
2
For downward motion of ball B, x
1
40 – x = 20 × t + × 9.8 t2
2 u=20 ms–1 A
= 20t + 4.9 t2 ... (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii), 40 = 40 t or t = 1 s
From (i), x = 20 × 1 – 4.9 × (1)2 = 15.1 m
Hence the two balls will collide after 1 s at a height of 15.1 m from the ground.
3. GRAPHS :
(i) Straight line :

A linear relation between y & x represents a straight line.
General equation of straight line
y = mx + c
m ≡ slope of line
c ≡ y intercept i.e. where the line cuts the y-axis. m=tanθ
Slope is defined as the tan of angle made by the m=tanθ
straight line with positive x-axis in anticlockwise θ θ
direction.
m < 0 ⇒ θ > 90°
m > 0 ⇒ θ < 90°
0° ≤ θ < 180°

Ex.23 Draw the graph for the equation : 2y = 3x + 2

3 (0,1) 3
Sol. 2y = 3x + 2 ⇒ y = x + 1 tan θ =
2 θ 2
3
m= > 0 ⇒ θ < 90°
2
c = +1 > 0
⇒ The line will pass through (0, 1)
Ex.24 Draw the graph for the equation : 2y + 4x + 2 = 0 tanθ = –2

Sol. 2y + 4x + 2 = 0 ⇒ y = – 2x – 1 θ
m = – 2 < 0 i.e., θ > 90°
c = – 1 i.e.,
line will pass through (0, –1) (0,–1)
: (i) If c = 0 line will pass through origin.

(0,c)
(ii) y = c will be a line parallel to x axis.

(c,0)
(iii) x = c will be a line perpendicular to y axis (0,0)
(0,0)
(ii) Parabola
A general quadratic equation represents a parabola.
y = ax2 + bx + c a≠ 0
if a > 0 ; It will be a opening upwards parabola.
if a < 0 ; It will be a opening downwards parabola.
if c = 0 ; It will pass through origin.
2
y=4x +3x
e.g. y = 4 x2 + 3x 2
y=–4x +3x
Average velocity & instantaneous velocity from Position vs time graph

Average velocity from t1 to t2
displacement x2 – x1 B
= = t –t x2
time taken 2 1
x2–x1
= tan θ = slope of the chord AB
x1 A θ
x 2 – x1 t2–t1
vinstantaneous = as lim
t2 → t1 t 2 – t1 t1 t2
when t2 approaches t1 point B approaches Point A and the chord AB becomes tangent to the curve.
Therefore
vinstantaneous = Slope of the tangent x – t curve

(iii) Reading of Graph

(A) Reading x v/s t graphs Explanation
x
x0
(1) Body is at rest at x0.
t
x
(2) Body starts from origin and is moving with speed tan θ away from origin.
θ t
x
(3) Body starts from rest from origin and moves away from origin with increasing
speed velocity and positive acceleration.
x
(4) Body starts from rest from x = x0 and moves away from origin with increasing
velocity or +ve acceleration.
x0
(5) x0 Body starts from x = x0 and is moving toward the origin with constant velocity
passes throw origin after same time and continues to move away from origin.
x
x0
(6) Body starts from rest at x = x0 and then moves with increasing speed towards
origin
∴ acceleration is –ve
t
x
(7) Body starts moving away from origin with some initial speed. Speed of body is
decreasing till t1 and it becomes 0 momentarily of t = t1 and At this instant. Its
reverses its direction and move towards the origin with increasing speed.
t2
t
O t1

(8) x Body starts from origin moves away from origin in the –ve x-axis at t = t1 with
decreasing speed and at t= t1 it comes at rest momentarily, Reverses its direction
t1
t moves towards the origin the increasing speed. Crosses the origin at t = t2.
t2
x
(9) Body starts from origin from rest and moves away from origin with increasing
t speed.
(B) V-T GRAPHS

v
(1) Body is always at rest.
t
v
(2) v0 Body is moving with constant velocity v0
t
v
(3) Body is at rest initially then it starts moving with its velocity increasing at a
constant rate i.e. body is moving with constant acceleration.
v t
(4) Body starts its motion with initial velocity v0 and continues to move with its
v0 velocity increasing at a constant rate i.e. acceleration of the body is constant.
t
v
(5) Body starts its motion with initial velocity v0. Then it continues to move with its
velocity decreasing at a constant rate i.e. acceleration of the body is negative
v0
and constant. At t = t0 the body comes to rest instantaneously and reverses its
t0 direction of motion and then continues to move with decreasing velocity or increasing
t speed.
For 0 < t < t0 motion of the body is deaccelerated (∴ speed is decreassing)
t > t0 motion of the body is accelerated (∴ speed is increasing)
v
(6) Body is at rest initially. Then it starts moving with increasing velocity. As time
increases its velocity is increasing more rapidly. i.e. the moving with increasing
acceleration.
t

v
(7) v0 Body starts its motion with initial velocity v0. Its velocity is decreasing with
time and at t = t0 . It becomes zero after body reverse its direction of motion and
continues to move with decreasing velocity or increasing speed. Since velocity
of the body is decreasing for whole motion. Therefore, its acceleration is
t0 t negative.For 0 < t < t0 motion of the body is deaccelerated (speed is
decreassing) t > t0 motion of the body is accelerated (∵ speed is increasing)
(C) READING OF a - t GRAPHS
(1) acceleration of the body is zero that means the body is moving constant velocity.
(2) Acceleration of the body is constant and positive.

t
t
(3) Acceleration of the body is constant and negative
(4) Initially the acceleration of the body is zero. Then its acceleration is increasing
at a constant rate.
t
(5) The body starts accelerating(initial acceleration zero) at t = 0. Its acceleration is

t
negative for whole of its motion and is decreasing at a constant rate.
(6) Initially acceleration of the body is zero. Its acceleration is positive for whole of
its motion. Its acceleration is increasing for whole of its motion.
t

(IV) Drawing of graphs on the basis of given information.

(a) If acceleration of the body is zero.
(i) If the velocity of the body is v0 and it starts from origin.
x v
v0
t 0
u
x=
t t
(ii) If at t = 0, x = x0 then
x v
t
+v
0
x0 x 0
v0
x=
t t
(iii) If at t = 0, x = – x0 then
x v
t t
+v
0
v0
–x
0
x=
t t
–x0
(b) If a body has constant acceleration :

For this section
(i) u0, x0 & a0 are positive constants. (ii) u ≡ initial velocity (iii) v ≡ velocity at any time t.
(iv) x ≡ Position at any time t.
xi ≡ initial position
(i) if u = 0, a = a0
1
if xi = 0, x = at 2 if xi = x0, x = x0 + (1/2)at2
2 x
x x
This is wrong because
it suggest the body don't
have some initial velocity
x0
t
t t
v a
a0
slope = tanθ
= a0
θ
t t
v = a0 t
(ii) If u = u0 , a = a0
1
x = xi + u0t + a0 t 2 v = u0 + a0t
2
x x
v a
a0
if xi = 0 t if xi = x0 t t t

(iii) if u = u0, a = – a0
1 2
x = xi + u0t – a 0 t
2
x
x
x0
if xi = 0 if xi = x0
t t
t0
v
a
u0
t
t0
t –a0
(iv) if u = – u0 , a = + a0
1
x = xi – u0t + a0 t 2
2
x
x0
v
a
a0
t
–u0 t
(v) If u = u0, a = – a0
1
x = xi – u0t – a0 t 2
2
x x
x0
t t
v
a
t t
–v0
–a0

Ex.25 Draw the

(a) position vs time graph
(b) velocity vs time graph
(c) acceleration vs time graph
for the following cases
(i) If a body is projected vertically upwards with initial velocity u. Take the projection point to be
origin and upward direction as positive.
1 2
x = ut – gt
2
x v
a
2
u u
u 2u
2g
g g
t t
t
u 2u
g g –u –g
(ii) If a body is dropped from a height h above the ground. Take dropping point to be origin and
upward direction as +ve.
1 2
x= – gt
2
x v a=–g
a
2h 2h
g g
t t
t
v = – gt
–h – 2gh –g
(iii) If a body is projected vertically upwards from a tower of height h with initial velocity u. Take
the projection point to be origin and upward direction as +ve.
x
u2 v
2g a
2u
g
t u/2g t
u v = u – gt t
g
–g
–h
(iv) A car starting from rest accelerates uniformly at 2 ms–2 for 5 seconds and then moves with
constant speed acquired for the next 5 seconds and then comes to rest retarding at 2 ms–2.
Draw its
(a) Position vs time graph
(b) Velocity vs time graph
(c) acceleration vs time graph

acceleration vs time graph

x (in m)
x
100
a
+2 v
75
10 15
t 10ms
–1
5
15 25
–2 t
5 10
t (in sec)
5 10 15
acceleration vs time graph velocity vs time graph Position vs time graph
(v) A particle starts from x = 0 and initial speed 10 ms–1 and moves with constant speed 10ms–1 for
20 sec. and then retarding uniformly comes to rest in next 10 seconds.
acceleration vs time graph
a
v
–1
10ms
20 30
t (sec)
–2 t (sec)
–1ms 20 30
Acceleration vs time graph velocity vs time graph
x
250m
200m
t (sec)
20 30sec
Position vs time graph
(V) Conversion of velocity v/s time graph to speed v/s time graph.
As we know that magnitude of velocity represent speed therefore whenever velocity goes –ve take its
mirror image about time axis.
velocity
speed
e
ag
i m
r
i rro
Ex-26 m
t (sec)
t (sec)
velocity speed e
ag
im
or
irr
Ex-27 m
t t

(VI) Conversion of displacement vs time graph to distance vs time graph

D
Dist./Displacement
For distance time graph just make the mirror image of the displacement
Dist.-time
time graph from point of zero velocity onwards. C
(VII) Conversion of v - t graphs in to x-t and a-t graphs B Disp-time

v x A
Time
v0
t 0
(i) ⇒ v
x=
t t
v x a
a0
0
a
=
nθ
(ii) ⇒ a - t graph
ta
t t t
v x
a
tan θ = – a0
t
(iii) ⇒
θ
t0 t
t –a0
t0
at t = t0 velocity reverses its direction.
v
(iv) x – t graph
From t = 0 to t = t1 acceleration = 0 therefore v0
from t = 0 to t = t1, x - t graph will be a straight line.
From t = t1 to t2 acceleration is negative
∴ It will be an opening downward parabola
x t1 t2 t
t1 t2 t
v
(v) upto t = t1 acceleration is +ve
t1 < t < t2 acceleration is zero.
t > t2 acceleration is –ve
x t
t1 t2
x - t graph
t1 t2 t

Some important points :

dv
• a=
dt ∫
⇒ dv = adt ∫
⇒ ∆v = area under the a - t curve
dx
• v=
dt ∫ ∫
⇒ dx = vdt
⇒ ∆x = area under the v - t curve
⇒ displacement = area under the v - t curve
a
Ex-28 If at t = 0 u = 5 ms–1 then velocity at t = 10 sec
= u + change in velocity –2
5ms
= 5 + area of the shaded part
= 5 + 10 × 5
= 55 ms–1 10 sec t
a
Ex-29 if at t = 0, u = 2 ms–2 find out it maximum velocity 5ms–2
Since whole motion is accelerating. Therefore velocity
will be max at the end of the motion which will be
1
=2+ × 5 × 10 = 27 ms–1 t
2 10sec
Ex-30 if at t = 0, u = 4 ms–1 a
Find out v at
t = 10 sec, t = 20 sec & t = 30 sec. –2
10ms
Since for whole motion acceleration of the body is positive
1
vt= 10 sec = 4 + × 10 × 10 = 54 ms–1
2 t
1 10sec 20sec 30sec
vt = 20 sec = 4 + × 10 × 10 + 10 × 10
2
= 154 ms –1
1
vt = 30 sec = 154 + × 10 × 10 = 204 ms–1
2
(VIII) Reading of graphs if the motion of two bodies are sketched on the same axes.
(a) Reading of x - t graphs
x
x3
B
x2
x1
A
O t1 t2 t3 t
Conclusions :
(i) Body A Start its motion at t = 0 from origin and is moving away from the origin with constant velocity.
Finally it ends its motion at a distance of x2m from origin at t = t3.
(ii) Body B starts its motion at t = t1 from origin and is moving away from origin with constant velocity.
Finally it ends its motion at a distance of x3m from origin at t = t3
(iii) Since slope of B is greater than slope of A. Therefore velocity of B is greater than velocity of A.
(iv) A t = t2, Both A & B are at the same distance from starting point that means B overtakes A at t = t2
(v) ∵ velocity of both A & B are constant
∵ acceleration of both the bodies are zero.
(vi) ∴ x3 > x2
∴ At the end of the motion B is at a greater distance from the starting point.

x2 A
B
x1
Ex-31 x0
t0 t1 t
Conclusion :
(i) Body A starts its motion at t = 0 from origin and is moving away from the origin with constant
velocity. Finally its motion ends at t = t1 at x = x2 m.
(ii) Body B starts its motion at t = 0 from x = x0 and then moves with constant velocity away from the
origin. Finally it ends its motion at t = t1.
(iii) Velocity of A is greater than that of B.
(iv) At t = t0 A overtakes B
(v) acceleration of both A & B is zero.
(vi) ∵ x2 > x1
∴ At the end of the motion A is at a greater distance from the starting point then B
x
B
A
Ex-32
t1 t2 t
Conclusions :
(i) Both A & B starts their motion at same time t = 0 and from same point x = 0.
(ii) Both are moving away from the starting point.
(iii) A is moving with constant velocity while B starts its motion from rest and its velocity is increasing
with time i.e. it has some positive acceleration.
(iv) ∵ At t = t1 the tangent on B's graph becomes parallel to the A's graphs
∴ At t = t1 velocity of both A & B is same.
(v) For t < t1 velocity of A is greater than velocity of B. Therefore up to t = t1, separation between A
& B increases with time.
(vi) For t > t1 velocity of B is greater than velocity of A. Therefore after t = t1 separation between A &
B starts decreasing and it becomes zero at t = t2 where B overtakes A.
Now you can try Questions 14 to 38 in Exercise I and Ques. 7 to 11 in Ex.II
4. TWO DIMENSIONAL MOTION OR MOTION IN A PLANE

Motion in a plane can be described by vector sum of two independent 1D motions along two mutual
perpendicular directions (as motions along two mutual directions don’t affect each other).
Consider a particle moving in X-Y plane, then its equations of motions for X and Y axes are
vx = ux + axt, vy = uy + ayt
1 1
x = uxt + axt2, and ; y = uyt + ayt2, and
2 2
v 2v = u2x + 2a x x v 2y = u 2y + 2a y y
where symbols have their usual meanings. Thus resultant motion would be described by the equations

r = x i + y j and v = v i + v j
x y

4.1 PROJECTILE MOTION

It is the best example to understand motion in a plane. If we project a particle obliquely from the
surface of earth, as shown in the figure below, then it can be considered as two perpendicular 1D
motions - one along the horizontal and other along the vertical.
Y u
usinθ
⇒ +
θ
u cos θ
O x
Assume that effect of air friction and wind resistance are negligible and value of ‘acceleration due to
→
gravity g is constant.
Take point of projection as origin and horizontal and vertical direction as +ve X and Y-axes, respectively.
For X-axis For Y - axis
ux = u cosθ, uy = u sinθ
ax = 0, ay = – g,
vx = u cosθ, and vy = u sinθ – gt, and
1
x = u cosθ × t y = u sinθ t – gt2
2
It is clear from above equations that horizontal component of velocity of the particle remains constant
while vertical component of velocity is first decreasing, gets zero at the highest point of trajectory and
then increases in the opposite direction. At the highest point, speed of the particle is minimum.
The time, which projectile takes to come back to same (initial) level is called the time of flight (T).
At initial and final points, y = 0,
1
So u sinθ t – gt2 = 0
2
2u sin θ 2u sin θ
⇒ t = 0 and t = So, T=
g g
Range (R) The horizontal distance covered by the projectile during its motion is said to be range of the
projectile
u 2 sin 2θ
R = u cosθ × T =
g
For a given projection speed, the range would be maximum for θ = 45°.
Maximum height attained by the projectile is
u 2 sin 2 θ
H=
2g
at maximum height the vertical component of velocity is 0.
u sin θ T
Time of ascent = Time of descent = =
g 2
Speed, kinetic energy, momentum of the particle initialy decreases in a projectile motion and attains a
minimum value (not equal to zero) and then again increases.

θ is the angle between v and horizontal which decreases to zero. (at top most point) and again
increases in the negative direction

Ex.33 A body is projected with a velocity of 30 ms–1 at an angle of 30° with the vertical. Find the
maximum height, time of flight and the horizontal range.
Sol. Here u = 30 ms–1,
Angle of projection, θ = 90 – 30 = 60°
Maximum height,
u 2 sin 2 θ 30 2 sin 2 60°
H= = = 34.44 m
2g 2 × 9.8
Time fo flight,
2u sin θ 2 × 30 sin 60°
T= = = 5.3 s
g 9.8
Horizontal range,
u 2 sin 2θ 30° sin 120° 30 2 sin 60°
R= = = = 79.53 m.
g 9.8 9.8
Ex.34 Find out the relation between uA, uB, uC (where uA, uB, uC are the initial velocities of particles A,
B, C, respectively)
B C
A
Sol. ∵ Hmax is same for all three particle A, B, C

u2y
⇒ Hmax =
2g
⇒ uy is same for all ∴ uyA = uyB = uyC
 2u y 
⇒ TA = TB = TC  g 
 
2u xu y
from figure RC > RB > RA ∵R =
g
⇒ uxC > uxB > uxA ⇒ uA < uB< uC
(C) Coordinate of a particle after a given time t :

Particle reach at a point P after time t then Y vy
x = ucosθ .t v
x α
vx
1 2 P(x,y)
y = usinθ.t – gt usinθ
2
u y
Position vector θ
O ucosθ X
 1 
r = (u cos θ.t ) î +  (u sin θ)t – gt 2  ĵ
 2 
(D) Velocity and direction of motion after a given time :

After time 't' vx = ucosθ and vy = usinθ – gt
2 2
Hence resultant velocity v = vx + vy = u2 cos 2 θ + (u sin θ – gt) 2
vy u sin θ – gt –1  u sin θ – gt 
tan α = = ⇒ α = tan  
vx u cos θ u cos θ 

(E) Velocity and direction of motion at a given height :

At a height 'h', vx = ucosθ
And vy = u2 sin2 θ – 2gh

∴ Resultant velocity
v= v x2 + v y 2 = (u cos θ) 2 + u2 sin2 θ – 2gh
v= u2 – 2gh
Note that this is the velocity that a particle would have at height h if it is projected vertically from
ground with u.
Ex.35 A body is projected with a velocity of 20 ms–1 in a direction making an angle of 60° with the
horizontal. Calculate its (i) position after 0.5 s and (ii) velocity after 0.5 s.
Sol. Here u = 20 ms–1, θ = 60° , t = 0.5 s
(i) x = (u cosθ)t = (20 cos60°) × 0.5 = 5 m
1 2
y = (u sin θ) t – gt = (20 × sin 60°) × 0.5
2
1
– × 9.8 × (0.5)2 = 7.43 m
2
(ii) vx = u cos θ = 20 cos 60° = 10 ms–1
vy = u sin θ – gt = 20 sin 60° – 9.8 × 0.5
= 12.42 ms–1
vy 12.42
∴ v= v 2x + v 2y = (10) 2 + (12.42) 2 =15.95 ms
–1
tan β =
vx
= = 1.242
10
∴ β = tan–1 1.242 = 51.16°.
Equation of trajectory of a projectile.

Suppose the body reaches the point P(x, y) after time t.
Y
vy
v A Path of
x α v
x projectile
usinθ P(x,y)
Max.
u y height=h
m
θ vx=u cosθ
O ucosθ X
B θ
R v
uy
∵ The horizontal distance covered by the body in time t,
x = Horizontal velocity × time = u cos θ. t
x
or t =
ucos θ
For vertical motion : u = u sinθ, a = –g, so the vertical distance covered in time t is given by
1 2 x 1 x2
s = ut + at or y = u sin θ. – g. 2
2 u cos θ 2 u cos 2 θ
1 x2
or y = x tanθ – g 2 ...(1)
2 u cos 2 θ

or y = px – qx2, where p and q are constants.

Thus y is a quadratic function of x. Hence the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola.
From equation (1)
 gx cos θ   gx 
y = x tan θ 1 – 2 2  ⇒ y = x tan θ 1 – 2u 2 cos θ sin θ 
 2u cos θ sin θ 
 x
y = x tan θ 1 –  ...(2)
 R
Equation (2) is another form of trajectory equation of projectile
Ex.36 A ball is thrown from ground level so as to just clear a wall 4 m high at a distance of 4 m and falls
at a distance of 14 m from the wall. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity.
Sol. The ball passes through the point P(4, 4). So its range = 4 + 14 = 18m.
The trajectory of the ball is,
Now x = 4m, y = 4m and R = 18 m
y
 4  7
∴ 4 = 4 tan θ 1 –  = 4 tanθ . P(4,4)
 18  9 u
9 9 7
or tan θ = , sin θ = , cosθ = 4m
7 130 130
θ
18 × 9.8 × 130
or u2 = = 182 4m 14m x
2×9×7
or u = 182 = 13.5 ms
–1
Also θ = tan–1(9/7) = 52.1°
Ex.37 A particle is projected over a triangle from one end of a horizontal base and grazing the vertex
falls on the other end of the base. If α and β be the base angles and θ the angle of projection,
prove that tan θ = tan α + tan β.
Sol. If R is the range of the particle, then from the figure we have
y y y(R – x) + xy
tan α + tan β = + = Y
x R– x x(R – x)
y R
or tanα + tan β = × ...(1) P(x,y)
x (R – x)
Also, the trajectrory of the particle is
y
θ
 x α β
y = x tan θ 1–  O
x
 R x B A
R–x
y R
or tanθ = ×
x (R – x)
From equations (1) and (2), we get
tan θ = tan α + tan β .

4.2 Projectile fired parallel to horizontal. As shown in shown u

O
figure suppose a body is projected horizontally with velocity u x
from a point O at a certain height h above the ground level. y
The body is under the influence of two simultaneous independent x P vx
motions: h β
(i) Uniform horizontal velocity u. v
(ii) Vertically downward accelerated motion with vy
constant acceleration g.
R
Under the combined effect of the above two motions,
Y A Ground
the body moves along the path OPA.
Trajectory of the projectile. After the time t, suppose the body reaches the point P(x, y).
The horizontal distance covered by the body in time t is
x
x = ut ∴ t=
u
The vertical distance travelled by the body in time t is given by
1 2
s = ut + at
2
1 2 1 2
or y=0×1+ gt = gt
2 2
[For vertical motion, u = 0]
2
1 x  g  2  x
or y= g  =  2 x ∵ t = u 
2 u  2u   
g
or y = kx2 [Here k = = a constant]
2u2
As y is a quadratic function of x, so the trajectory of the projectile is a parabola.
Time of flight. It is the total time for which the projectile remains in its flight (from 0 to A). Let T be its
time of flight.
For the vertical downward motion of the body,
we use
1 2
s = ut + at
2
1 2h
or h = 0 × T + gT2 or T=
2 g
Horizontal range. It is the horizontal distance covered by the projectile during its time of flight. It is
equal to OA = R. Thus R = Horizontal velocity × time of flight = u × T
2h
or R=u
g
Velocity of the projectile at any instant. At the instant t (when the body is at point P), let the
velocity of the projectile be v. The velocity v has two rectangular components:
Horizontal component of velocity, vx = u
Vertical component of velocity, vy = 0 + gt = gt
∴ The resultant velocity at point P is
v = v2x + v2y = u2 + g2 t2
If the velocity v makes an angle β with the horizontal, then
vy gt  gt 
tan β = = or β = tan–1  
vx u u

Ex.38 A body is thrown horizontally from the top of a tower and strikes the ground after three seconds
at an angle of 45° with the horizontal. Find the height of the tower and the speed with which
the body was projected. Take g = 9.8 ms–2.
Sol. As shown in figure, suppose the body is thrown horizontally from the top O of a tower of height y with
velocity u. The body hits the ground after 3s. Considering verticlly downward motion of the body,
1 2 1
y = uyt + gt = 0 × 3 + ×9.8 × (3)2 = 44.1 m [∴ Initial vertical velocity, uy = 0]
2 2
Final vertical velocity,
vy = uy + gt = 0 + 9.8 × 3 = 29.4 ms–1
Final horizontal velocity, vx = u
As the resultant velocity u makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal, so
vy 29.4
tan 45° = or 1 = or u = 29.4 ms–1.
vx x
Ex.39 A particle is projected horizontally with a speed u from the top of plane inclined at an angle θ
with the horizontal. How far from the point of projection will the particle strike the plane?
Sol. The horizontal distance covered in time t,
x
x = ut or t =
u u
The vertical distance covered in time t, θ
1 2 1 x2
y=0+ gt = g × 2 [using (1)] y D
2 2 u
y gx 2 θ
Also = tan θ or y = x tan θ ∴ = x tan θ
x 2u 2 x=ut
 gx 
or x  2 – tan θ  = 0
 2u 
2u 2 tan θ
As x = 0 is not possible, so x =
g
The distance of the point of strike from the point of projection is
D= x 2 + y2 = x2 + (x tan θ)2
2u2
=x 1 + tan2 θ = x sec θ or D = tan θ sec θ
g
Ex.40 A ball rolls off the top of a stairway with a constant horizontal velocity u. If the steps are h
2hu 2
metre high and w meter wide, show that the ball will just hit the edge of nth step if n =
gw 2
Sol. Refer to figure. For n th step,
net vertical displacement = nh u
net horizontal displacement = nω 1st
Let t be the time taken by the ball to reach the nth step. Then 2nd
R = ut h
nω w
or nω = ut or t=
u
1 2
Also, y = uy t + gt nth
2 R
2
1 2 1  nω  2hu2
or nh = 0 + gt = g  or n =
2 2  u  gω2

4.3 Projectile at an angle θ from height h

Consider the projectile as shown in the adjacent figure.
Take the point of projection as the origin the X and u
Y
Y-axes as shown in figure.
For X-axis, θ
u
x
= u cosθ
ax = 0
vx = u cosθ, and h
x = u cos θ × t
For Y-axis,
uy = u sin θ, x
ay = –g,
gt 2
vy = u sin θ – gt, and y = u sin θ t –
2
Ex.41 From the top of a tower 156.8 m high a projectile is projected with a velocity of 39.2 ms–1 in a
direction making an angle 30° with horizontal. Find the distance from the foot of tower where it
strikes the ground and time taken to do so.
Sol. The situation is shown –1
Here height of tower u=39.2 ms
OA = 156.8 m H
u = 39.2 ms–1
uy = usinθ
θ = 30°
time for which projectile remain is air = t = ?
Horizontal distance covered R = OD = ? θ=30°
A
Now ux = u cos θ and ux = u cosθ B

uy = u sin θ be the components of velocity u .
Motion of projectile from O to H to D
1 156.8 m
Using equation y = uyt + ay t2
2
Here : y = 156.8 m ; uy = – u sinθ
= 39.2 sin 30°
ay = 9.8 m/s2 ; t = ? O C D
156.8 = – 39.2 × 0.5 t + 4.9 t2
156.8 = – 19.6 t + 4.9 t2
or 4.9 t2 – 19.6 t – 156.8 = 0
or t2 – 4t – 32 = 0 ⇒ (t – 8) (t + 4) = 0
We get t = 8 s; t = – 4s
t = – 4 s is not possible, thus we take t = 8s.
Now horizontal distance covered in this time
R = ux × t = u cos θ × t = 39.2 × cos 30° × t
R = 271.57 m
4.4 Projectile Motion in Inclined Plane
Here, two cases arise. One is up the plane and the other is down the plane. Let us discuss both the
cases separately.
(i) Up the Plane : In this case direction x is chosen up the plane and direction y is chosen perpendicular
to the plane. Hence,
ux = u cos α , ax = – g sin β
uy = u sin α and ay = – g cos β

y x
B
u
gsinβ
β gcosβ
α
β g
β O
O
C
Now, let us derive the expressions for time of flight (T) and range (R) along the plane.
Time of flight
1
At point B displacement along y-direction is zero. So, substituting the proper values in sy = uyt + ay t2 ,
2
we get
1 2u sin α
α+ (– g cos β ) t2 ∴ t = 0 and
g cos β
0 = u t s i n
2
2u sin α
t = 0, corresponds to point O and t = corresponds to point B. Thus,
g cos β
2u sin α
T=
g cos β
Range
Range (R) or the distance OB is also equal to be displacement of projectile along x-direction in the
t = T. Therefore.
1 1
R = sa = uxT + axT2 ⇒ R = u cos α T – sin β T2
2 2
(ii) Down the inclined plane : y

along x - axis y-axis
(1) ux = ucos α (1) uy = usinα
(2) ax = g sin β (2) ay = g cos β
u sin α
u
velocity at P
vy = uy + ay T (0,0) α
vx = ux + axT uc
os
2u y 2u sin α α
Time of flight T = ay =
g cos β β
cos gs P
1 g β in
2 β
Range Sx = ux T + a x T
2 β
1 g
2
= u cos α T + g sin β. T
2 x

Ex.42 A particle is projected at an angle α with horizontal from the foot of a plane whose inclination to
horizontal is β . Show that it will strike the plane at right angles if cotβ = 2 tan (α – β)
Sol. Let u be the velocity of projection so that u cos (α – β ) and u sin (α – β ) are the initial velocities
respectively parallel and perpendicular to the inclined plane. The acceleration in these two directions
are (–g sin β ) and (–g cos β ).
The initial component of velocity perpendicular to PQ is u sin (α – β ) and the acceleration in this
direction is (–g cosβ ). If T is the time the particle takes to go from P to Q then in time T the space
described in a direction perpendicular to PQ is zero.
1 u
0 = u sin (α – β ).T – g cos β .T2 Q
2
2u sin(α – β)
T=
g cos β
α
If the direction of motion at the instant when the particle β
hits the plane be perpendicular to the plane, then the
velocity at that instant parallel to the plane must be zero. P N
∴ u cos (α – β ) – g sin β T = 0
u cos(α – β) 2u sin(α – β)
=T=
g sin β g cos β
∴ cosβ = 2 tan (α – β )
Ex.43 Two inclined planes OA and OB having inclinations 30° and 60° with x
y
the horizontal respectively intersect each other at O, as shwon in
u v B
figure. a particle is projected from point P with velocity u = 10 3 m / s
along a direction perpendicular to plane OA. If the particle strikes A Q
plane OB perpendicular of flight, then calculate. P

h
30° 60°
(a) time of flight
O
(b) velocity with which the particle strikes the plane OB,
(c) height h of point P from point O
(d) distance PQ. (Take g = 10 m/s2)
Sol. Let us choose the x and y directions along OB and OA respectively. Then,
ux = u = 10 3 m/s, uy = 0
ax = – g sin 60° = – 5 3 m/s2
and ay = – g cos 60° = – 5 m/s2
(a) At point Q, x-component of velocity is zero. Hence, substituting in
vx= ux + axt
10 3
0 = 10 3 – 5 3t ⇒ t= = 2s Ans.
5 3
(b) At point Q, v = vy = uy + ayt
∴ v = 0 – (5) (2) = –10 m/s Ans.
Here, negative sign implies that velocity of particle at Q is along negative y direction.
(c) Distance PO = |displacement of particle along y-direction| = |sy|
1 1
Here, sy = uyt + ay t2 = 0 – (5)(2)2 = – 10 m
2 2
∴ PO = 10 m

1
Therefore, h = PO sin 30° = (10)   or h = 5m Ans.
2
(d) Distance OQ = displaement of particle along

x-direction = sx
1 1
Here, sx = uxt + ax t2 = (10 3)(2) – (5 3)(2)2 = 10 3 m
2 2
or OQ = 10 3 m
PQ = (PO)2 + (OQ)2 = (10)2 + (10 3)2 = 100 + 300 = 400

PQ = 20 m Ans.
Now you can try Questions 45 to 68 in Exercise I and Ques. 12 to 20 in Ex.II
5. RELATIVE MOTION
The word 'relative' is a very general term, which can be applied to physical, nonphysical, scalar or
vector quantities. For example, my height is five feet and six inches while my wife's height is five feet
and four inches. If I ask you how high I am relative to my wife, your answer will be two inches. What
you did? You simply subtracted my wife's height from my height. The same concept is applied everywhere,
whether it is a relative velocity, relative acceleration or anything else. So, from the above discussion
→
we may now conclude that relative velocity of A with respect of B (written as v AB ) is
→ → →
v AB = v A – v B
Similarly, relative acceleration of A with respect of B is
→ → →
a AB = a A – a B
If it is a one dimensional motion we can treat the vectors as scalars just by assigning the positive sign
to one direction and negative to the other. So, in case of a one dimensional motion the above
equations can be written as
vAB = vA – vB
and aAB = aA – aB
Further, we can see that
→ → → →
v AB = – v BA or a BA = – a AB
Ex.44 Seeta is moving due east with a velocity of 1 m/s and Geeta is moving the due west with a
velocity of 2 m/s. What is the velocity of Seeta with respect to Geeta?
Sol. It is a one dimensional motion. So, let us choose the east direction as positive and the west as
negative. Now, given that
vs = velocity of Seeta = 1 m/s
and vG = velocity of Geeta = – 2m/s
Thus, vSG = velocity of Seeta with respect to Geeta
= vS – vG = 1 – (–2) = 3 m/s
Hence, velocity of Seeta with respect to Geeta is 3 m/s due east.

IMPORTANT NOTE :
PROCEDURE TO SOLVE THE VECTOR EQUATION.

A =B+C ...(1)
(a) Their are 6 variables in this equation which are following :

(1) Magnitude of A and its direction

(2) Magnitude of B and its direction

(3) Magnitude of C and its direction.
(b) We can solve this equation if we know the value of 4 varibales [Note : two of them must be directions]
(c) If we know the two direction of any two vectors then we will put them on the same side and other on
the different side.
For example

If we know the directions of A and B and C' s direction is unknown then we make equation as follows : -

C = A –B
(d) Then we make vector diagram according to the equation and resolve the vectors to know the
unknown values.
Ex.45 Car A has an acceleration of 2 m/s2 due east and car B, 4 m/s2 due north. What is the acceleration
of car B with respect to car A?
Sol. It is a two dimensional motion. Therefore, N
→
a BA = acceleration of car B with respect to car A
→ → W E
= aB = – a A
→
Here, a B = acceleration of car
S
B = 4 m/s2 (due north)
→
and a A = acceleration of car A = 2 m/s2 (due east)
→ →
→ a BA a B = 4m / s 2
| a BA |= (4)2 + (2)2 = 2 5m / s2
4
and α = tan–1   = tan–1(2)
2 α
→ →
Thus, a BA is 2 5 m/s2 at an angle of α = tan–1(2) – a A = 2m / s 2
from west towards north.
Ex.46 Three particle A, B and C situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle starts moving simul-
taneously at a constant speed "v" in the direction of adjacent particle, which falls ahead in the
anti-clockwise direction. If "a" be the side of the triangle, then find the time when they meet.
A
Sol. Here, particle "A" follows "B", "B" follows "C" and "C" follows
"A". The direction of motion of each particle keeps chang-
ing as motion of each particle is always directed towards
other particle. The situation after a time "t" is shown in the
figure with a possible outline of path followed by the par- O
ticles before they
meet. B C

This problem appears to be complex as the path of motion

is difficult to be defined. But, it has a simple solution in A
component analysis. Let us consider the pair "A" and "B".
The initial component of velocities in the direction of line v
joining the initial position of the two particles is "v" and
"vcosθ" as shown in the figure here :
The component velocities are directed towards eachother. v cos θ O v
Now, considering the linear (one dimensional) motion in the 60°
direction of AB, the relative velocity of "A" with respect to B C
v
"B" is :
vAB = vA – vB
vAB = v – (– v cos θ) = v + vcosθ
In equilateral triangle, θ = 60°
v 3v
vAB = v + vcos60° = v + =
2 2
The time taken to cover the displacement "a" i.e. the side of the triangle
2a
t=
3v
QUESTIONS BASED ON RELATIVE MOTION ARE USUALLY OF FOLLOWING FOUR TYPES :
(a) Minimum distance between two bodies in motion
(b) River-boat problems
(c) Aircraft-wind problems
(d) Rain problems
(a) Minimum distance between two bodies in motion
When two bodies are in motion, the questions like, the minimum distance between them or the time
when one body overtakes the other can be solved easily by the principle of relative motion. In these
type of problems one body is assumed to be at rest and the relative motion of the other body is
considered. By assuming so two body problem is converted into one body problem and the solution
becomes easy. Following example will illustrate the statement.
Ex.47 Car A and car B start moving simultaneously in the same direction along the line joining them.
Car A with a constant acceleration a = 4 m/s2, while car B moves with a constant velocity v = 1
m/s. At time t = 0, car A is 10 m behind car B. Find the time when car A overtakes car B.
Sol. Given : uA = 0, uB = 1 m/s, aA = 4m/s2 and aB = 0
Assuming car B to be at rest, we have
uAB = uA – uB = 0 – 1 = – 1 m/s
aAB = aA – aB = 4 – 0 = 4 m/s2
Now, the problem can be assumed in simplified form as follow :
2 2
a=4m/s v=1m/s
A 10m B
+ve
Substituting the proper values in equation
2
uAB= –1m/s, aAB= 4m/s
A 10m B
At rest

1 2
s = ut + at
2
1
we get 10 = – t + (4)(t2 ) or 2t2 – t – 10 = 0
2
1 ± 1 + 80 1 ± 81 1±9
or t= = = or t = 2.5 s and – 2 s
4 4 4
Ignoring the negative value, the desired
time is 2.5s. Ans.
Note : The above problem can also be solved without using the concept of relative motion as under.
At the time when A overtakes B,
sA = sB + 10
1
∴ × 4 × t 2 = 1 × t + 10
2
or 2t2 – t – 10 = 0
Which on solving gives t = 2.5 s and – 2 s, the same as we found above.
As per my opinion, this approach (by taking absolute values) is more suitable in case of two body
problem in one dimensional motion. Let us see one more example in support of it.
Ex.48 An open lift is moving upwards with velocity 10m/s. It has an upward acceleration of 2m/s2. A
ball is projected upwards with velocity 20 m/s relative to ground. Find :
(a) time when ball again meets the lift.
(b) displacement of lift and ball at that instant.
(c) distance travelled by the ball upto that instant. Take g = 10 m/s2
Sol. (a) At the time when ball again meets the lift,
sL = sB
1 1 2m/s2 10m/s 20m/s
∴ 10t + × 2 × t2 = 20 t – × 10t2
2 2 +ve
Solving this equation, we get Ball
2
5 10m/s
t=0 and t= s
3 L Lift B Ball
5
∴ Ball will again meet the lift after s.
3
(b) At this instant
2
5 1 5 175
sL = sB = 10 × + ×2×  = m = 19.4 m
3 2 3
  9
(c) For the ball u ↑ ↓a . Therefore, we will first find t0, the time when its velocity becomes zero.
u 20
t0 = = = 2s
a 10
 5 
As t  = s  < t0 , distance and displacement are equal
 3 
or d = 19.4 m Ans.
Concept of relative motion is more useful in two body problem in two (or three) dimensional motion.
This can be understood by the following example.

Ex.49 Two ships A and B are 10 km apart on a line running south to north. Ship A farther north is
streaming west at 20 km/h and ship B is streaming north at 20km/h. What is their distance
of closest approach and how long do they take to reach it ?
Sol. Ships A and B are moving with same speed 20 km/h in
the directions shown in figure. It is a two dimensional, N
two body problem with zero acceleration. Let us find vA A E

vBA
vB
vBA = vB − v A
B
Here, | vBA |= (20)2 + (20)2 AB=10km
= 20 2 km / h

i.e., vBA is 20 2 km / h at an angle of 45º from east
towards north. Thus, the given problem can be simplified as :
45º

A is at rest and B is moving with vBA in the direction shown in figure. A
Therefore, the minimum distance between the two is C
vBA
smin = AC = AB sin 45º 45º
B
 1 
= 10   km = 5 2 km Ans.
 2
and the desired time is
BC 5 2
t= = (BC = AC = 5 2 km )
| vBA | 20 2
1
= h = 15 min Ans.
4
(B) River - Boat Problems
In river-boat problems we come across the following three terms :

B B
→ v br cos θ
v br W y
θ θ
A → x
vr vbr sinθ A
vr
→
v r = absolute velocity of river
→
v br = velocity of boatman with respect to river or velocity of boatman is still water
and
→ = absolute velocity of boatman.
vb
→ →
• Here, it is important to note that v br is the velocity of boatman with which he steers and v b is the
actual velocity of boatman relative to ground.
→ → →
Further, v b = v br + v r
Now, let us derive some standard results and their special cases.

→
A boatman starts from point A on one bank of a river with velocity v br in the direction shown in fig.
→
River is flowing along positive x-direction with velocity v r . Width of the river is w, then
→ → →
v b = v br + v r
Therefore, vbx = vrx + vbrx = vr – vbr sinθ
and vby = vry + vbry
= 0 + vbr cosθ = vbr cosθ
Now, time taken by the boatman to cross the river is :
w w
t= =
v by v br cos θ
w
or t = v cos θ ...(i)
br
Further, displacement along x-axis when he reaches on the other bank (also called drift) is :
w
x = vbx t = (vr – vbr sin θ) v cos θ
br
w
or x = (vr – vbr sinθ) v cos θ ...(ii)
br
Three special are :
(i) Condition when the boatman crosses the river in shortest interval of time
B
From Eq.(i) we can see that time (t) will be minimum when θ = 0°,
i.e., the boatman should steer his boat perpendicular to the river →
current. vbr
w
Also, tmin = v as cos θ = 1 A →
br
vr
(ii) Condition when the boatman wants to reach point B, i.e., at a point just opposite from where
he started
In this case, the drift (x) should be zero.
∴ x=0 B
w →
or (vr – vbr sinθ) v cos θ = 0 v br
br
θ
or vr = vbr sin θ
vr A →
–1  v  vr
or sinθ = v or θ = sin  r 
br  v br 
–1  v 
Hence, to reach point B the boatman should row at an angle θ = sin  r  upstream from AB.
 v br 
Further, since sinθ not greater than 1.
So, if vr ≥ vbr, the boatman can never reach at point B. Because if vr = vbr, sin θ = 1 or θ = 90° and it is
just impossible to reach at B if θ = 90°. Moreover it can be seen that vb = 0 if vr = vbr and θ = 90°.
Similarly, if vr > vbr, sinθ > 1, i.e., no such angle exists. Practically it can be realized in this manner that
it is not possible to reach at B if river velocity (vr) is too high.
(iii) Shortest path
Path length travelled by the boatman when he reaches the opposite shore is
s= w 2 + x2
Here, w = width of river is constant. So for s to be minimum modulus of x (drift) should be minimum.
Now two cases are possible.

When vr < vbr : In this case x = 0,
–1  v r  –1  v r 
when θ = sin  v  or smin = w at θ = sin  
 br   v br 
dx
When vr > vbr : In this case x is minimum, where =0
dθ
d  w 
or  (vr – vbr sin θ) = 0
dθ  vbr cos θ 
or –vbr cos2θ – (vr – vbr sinθ) (– sinθ) = 0
or – vbr + vr sinθ = 0
 vbr 
or θ = sin–1  
 vr 
Now, at this angle we can find xmin and then smin which comes out to be
 vr  –1  vbr 
smin = w   at θ = sin  
 vbr   vr 
Ex.50 A man can row a boat with 4 km/h in still water. If he is crossing a river where the current is 2
km/h.
(a) In what direction will his boat be headed, if he wants to reach a point on the other bank, directly
opposite to starting point?
(b) If width of the river is 4 km, how long will the man take to cross the river, with the condition in
part (a)?
(c) In what direction should he head the boat if he wants to cross the river in shortest time and
what is this minimum time?
(d) How long will it take him to row 2 km up the stream and then back to his starting point ?
Sol. (a) Given, that vbr = 4 km/h and vr = 2 km/h
 vr  2 1
∴ θ = sin–1  v  = sin–1   = sin–1   = 30°
 br  4
  2
Hence, to reach the point directly opposite to starting point he should head the boat at an angle of
30° with AB or 90° + 30° = 120° with the river flow.
(b) Time taken by the boatman to cross the river
w = width of river = 4 km
vbr = 4 km/h and θ = 30°
4 2
∴ t= = h Ans.
4 cos 30° 3
(c) For shortest time θ = 0°
w 4
and tmin = v cos 0° = = 1h
br 4
Hence, he should head his boat perpendicular to the river current for crossing the river in shortest time
and this shortest time is 1 h.
vbr–vr vbr+vr
D C D C
(d) t = tCD + tDC

CD DC 2 2 1 4
or t= + = + = 1+ = h Ans.
v db – v r v br + v r 4–2 4+2 3 3

Ex.51 A man can swim at a speed of 3 km/h in still water. He wants to cross a 500 m wide river
flowing at 2 kh/h. He keeps himself always at an angle of 120° with the river flow while swim-
ming.
(a) Find the time he takes to cross the river.
(b) At what point on the opposite bank will he arrive ?
Sol. The situation is shown in figure

Here vr,g = velocity of the river with respect to the ground
Y
B C
vm,r = velocity of the man with respect to the river

vm,g = velocity of the man with respect to the ground.
,g
vm
(a) We have
°

30
vm,g = v m,r + v r,g ...(i) vm,r = 3km/h
θ
Hence, the velocity with respect to the ground is along AC.
Taking y-components in equation (i),
A vr,g = 2km/h
3 3
vm,g sinθ = 3 km/h cos 30° + 2 km/h cos 90° = km/h
2
Time taken to cross the river
displacement along the Y - axis 1/ 2km 1
= = = h
velocity along the Y - axis 3 3 / 2 km / h 3 3
(b) Taking x-components in equation (i),
1
vm,g cos θ = –3km/h sin 30° + 2 km/h = km / h
2
Displacement along the X-axis as the man crosses the river
= (velocity along the X-axis) (time)
 1km   1  1
=   ×  h = km
2h  3 3  6 3
Ex.52 A boat moves relative to water with a velocity v and river is flowing with 2v. At what angle the
boat shall move with the stream to have minimum drift?
(A) 30° (B) 60° (C) 90° (D) 120°
Sol. (D) Let boat move at angle θ to the normal as shown in
1
figure then time to cross the river =
v cos θ
ucosθ
1 ub = u
drift x = (2v – v sin θ) for x to be minimum I = width of river
v cos θ
dx
= 0 = 1 (2 sec θ tan θ – sec2θ) or sin θ = 1/2
dθ
u sinθ ur=2v
or θ = 30° and φ = 90 + 30 = 120°
(C) Aircraft Wind Problems

→ →
This is similar to river boat problem. The only difference is that v br is replaced by v aw (velocity of
→ →
aircraft with respect to wind or velocity of aircraft in still air), v r is replaced by v w (velocity of wind)
→ → → → →
and v b is replaced by v a (absolute velocity of aircraft). Further,, v a = v aw + v . The following
w
example will illustrate the theory.

NOTE : SHORT - TRICK

A
C = A +B

If their are two vectors A and B and their resultent

make an anlge α with A and β with B . α
then A sin α = β sin β A sinα β
B
Means component of A perpendicular to resultant is equal in B sinβ

magnitude to the compopent of B also perpendicular to resultant.

Ex.53 If two vectors A and B make angle 30° and 60° B

with their resultent and B has magnitude equal to
60°
10, then find magnitude of A . 30°
Bsin60° A
So B sin 60° = A sin 30°
⇒ 10 sin 60° = A sin 30° A sin 30°
⇒ A = 10 3
Ex.54 An aircraft flies at 400 km/h in still air. A wind of 200 2 km/h is blowing from the south. The
pilot wishes to travel from A to a point B north east of A. Find the direction he must steer
and time of his journey if AB = 1000 km.
Sol. Given that vw = 200 2 km/h
→ →
vaw = 400 km/h and v a should be along AB or in north-east direction. Thus, the direction of v aw
→ →
should be such as the resultant of v w and v aw is along AB or in north - east direction.
→ N
Let v aw makes an angle α with AB as shown in figure.
B
Applying sine law in triangle ABC, we get
AC BC →
= v a 45° → v w = 200 2km / h
sin 45° sin α
 BC   200 2  1 1 45°
α → C
sin α =  
 sin 45° =   = A v aw = 400 km / h
or 
AC   400  2 2 E
∴ α = 30°
Therefore, the pilot should steer in a direction at an angle of (45° + α) or 75° from north towards
east.
→
| v a| 400 → sin 105° km
Further, = or | v a | = sin 45° × (400) h
sin(180°–45°–30° ) sin 45°
 cos 15°  km  0.9659  km

=   (400) =   (400)
sin 45°  h 0.707  h
= 546.47 km/h
∴ The time of journey from A to B is
AB 1000
t= → = h ⇒ t = 1.83 h
546.47
| v a|
(D) Rain Problems
→ → →
In these type of problems we again come across three terms v r , vm and vrm , Here,
→
v r = velocity of rain

→
vm = velocity of man (it may be velocity of cyclist or velocity of motorist also)
→
and vrm = velocity of rain with respect to man.
→
Here, v is the velocity of rain which appears to the man. Now, let us take one example of this.
rm
Ex.55 A man standing on a road has to hold his umbrella at 30° with the vertical to keep the rain
away. He throws the umbrella and starts running at 10 km/h. He finds that raindrops are hitting
his head vertically. Find the speed of raindrops with respect to (a) the road, (b) the moving man.
Sol. When the man is at rest with respect to the ground, the rain comes to him at an angle 30° with the
vertical. This is the direction of the velocity of raindrops with respect to the ground. The situation
when the man runs is shown in the figure
30° vm,g
30°
v r,m vr,g
(b)
(a)

Here vr,g = velocity of the rain with respect to the ground

vm,g = velocity of the man with respect to the ground and vr,m = velocity of the rain with respect to
the man.

We have, vr,g = vr,m + vm,g ...(i)
Taking horizontal components, equation (i) gives
10 km / h
vr,g sin30° = um,g = 10 km/h or, v,g = = 20km / h
sin 30°
Taking vertical components, equation (i) gives
3
vr,g cos30° = vr,m or, vr,m = (20 km/h) = 10 √ 3 km/h.
2
Ex.56 To a man walking at the rate of 3 km/h the rain appears to fall vertically. When the increases
his speed to 6 km/h it appears to meet him at an angle of 45° with vertical. Find the speed of rain.
Sol. Let i and j be the unit vectors in horizontal and vertical directions respectively..
Let velocity of rain Vertical ( j )
→
v r = aiˆ + bj
ˆ ...(i)
Then speed of rain will be
→
| v r |= a2 + b2
Horizontal ( i )

→
In the first case v m = velocity of man = 3 i
→ → →
∴ v rm = v r – v m = (a – 3)iˆ + bj
ˆ
It seems to be in vertical direction. Hence,
a – 3 = 0 or a = 3
→
In the second case v m = 6 i
→
∴ ˆ = – 3 i + b j
v rm = (a – 6)iˆ + bj
This seems to be at 45° with vertical.
Hence, |b| = 3
Therefore, from Eq. (ii) speed of rain is
→
| v r |= (3)2 + (3)2 = 3 2 km / h Ans.
Relative Motion between Two Projectiles

Let us now discuss the relative motion between two projectiles or the path observed by one projectile
of the other. Suppose that two particles are projected from the ground with speeds u1 and u2 at angles
α1 and α2 as shown in Fig.A and B. Acceleration of both the particles is g downwards. So, relative
acceleration between them is zero because
a12 = a1 – a2 = g – g = 0
Y Y
u1 u2
α1 α2
X X
(A) (B)
i.e., the relative motion between the two particles is uniform. Now
u1x = u1 cos α1, u2x = u2 cos α2
u1y = u1 sin α1 and u2y = u2 sin α2
Therefore, u12x = u1x – u2x = u1 cos α1– u2cos α2 y
and u12y = u1y – u2y = u1 sin α1– u2 sin α2
u12x and u12y are the x and y components of relative
u12y
velocity of 1 with respect to 2.
Hence, relative motion of 1 with respect to 2 is a straight u12
a12=0
θ
u  x
line at an angle θ = tan −1 12 y  with positive x-axis. u12x
 u12 x 
Now, if u12x = 0 or u1 cos α1 = u2 cos α2, the relative motion is along y-axis or in vertical direction
(as θ = 90º). Similarly, if u12y = 0 or u1 sin α1 = u2 sin α2, the relative motion is along x-axis or in
horizontal direction (as θ = 0º).
Note : Relative acceleration between two projectiles is zero. Relative motion between them is uniform.
Therefore, condition of collision of two particles in air is that relative velocity of one with respect to

the other should be along line joining them, i.e., if two projecticles A and B collide in mid air, then VAB

should be along AB or VBA along BA.

Condition for collision of two projectiles : Consider the situation shown in the figure. For projectiles to
collide, direction of velocity of A with respect to B has to be along line AB.
Here, vABx = u1 cos α1 + u2 cos α2
u2
vABy = u1 sin α1 – u2 sin α2 B
Y
Let, direction of velocity vector of A(wrt B) is making an u1
h2
angle β with +ve X-axis, which is given by X
A
v ABy u1 sin α1 − u2 sin α2 h1
tan β = =
v ABx u1 cos α1 + u2 cos α2
x
For collision to take place,
h2 − h1
tan β = tan θ =
x
Ex.57 A particle A is projected with an initial velocity of 60 m/s. at an angle 30º to the horizontal. At
the same time a second particle B is projected in opposite direction with initial speed of 50 m/s
from a point at a distance of 100 m from A. If the particles collide in air, find (a) the angle of
projection α of particle B, (b) time when the collision takes place and (c) the distance of P from A,
where collision occurs. (g = 10 m/s2)
60m/s 50m/s
30º
A B
100m
Sol. (a) Taking x and y directions as
shown in figure. Y

Here, a = −gˆj , a = −gˆj
A B
uAx = 60 cos 30º = 30 3 m / s

uAy = 60 sin 30º = 30 m/s X
uBx = – 50 cos α u AB
and uBy = 50 sin α

Relative acceleration between the two is zero as a A = aB . Hence, the relative motion between the two

is uniform. It can be assumed that B is at rest and A is moving with u AB . Hence, the two particles will

collide, if u AB is along AB. This is possible only when
uAy = uBy
i.e., component of relative velocity along y-axis should be zero.
or 30 = 50 sin α
∴ = sin–1 (3/5)
a Ans.
 4
(b) Now, | u AB |= u Ax – uBx = (30 3 + 50 cosα)m/s =  30 3 + 50 ×  m / s = (30 3 + 40) m/s
 5
Therefore, time of collision is
AB 100
t= = or t = 1.09 s Ans.
| u AB | 30 3 + 40
(c) Distance of point P from A where collision takes place is
2 2
 1   1 
s= (u Ax t) 2 +  u Ay t – gt 2  = . ) 2 +  30 × 109
( 30 3 × 109 . – × 10 × 109
. × 109
.  or s = 62.64 m Ans.
 2   2 

5m/s
Ex.58 Two projectile are projected simultaneously from a point on the A
ground "O" and an elevated position "A" respectively as shonw in the
figure. If collision occurs at the point of return of two projectiles on
H
the horizontal surface, then find the height of "A" above the ground 10m/s
and the angle at which the projectile "O" at the ground
should be projected.
θ x
O C
Sol. There is no initial separation between two projectile is x-direction. For collision to occur, the relative
motion in x-direction should be zero. In other words, the component velocities in x-direction should be
equal to that two projetiles cover equal horizontal distance at any given time. Hence,
uOx = uAx
uA 5 1
⇒ u0cosθ = uA ⇒ cosθ = = = = cos60° ⇒ θ = 60°
uO 10 2
We should ensure that collision does occur at the point of return. It means that by the time projectiles
travel horizontal distances required, they should also cover vertical distances so that both projectile are
at "C" at the same time. In the nutshell, their times of flight should be equal.
For projectile from "O".
2uO sin θ
T=
g
For projectile from "A",
 2H 
T=  
 g 
For projectile from "A",
2uo sin θ  2H 
T= =  
g  g 
Squaring both sides and putting values,
4u2O sin2 θ 4 × 102 sin2 60°
⇒ H= ⇒ H=
2g 2 × 10
2
 3
H = 20 
 2 
= 15m
 
We have deliberately worked out this problem taking advantage of the fact that projectiles are colliding
at the end of their flights and hence their times of flight should be equal. We can, however, proceed to
analyze in typical manner, using concept of relative velocity. The initial separation between two projectiles
in the vertical direction is "H". This separation is covered with the component of relative in vertical
direction.
3
⇒ vOAy = uOy – uAy = u0 sin60° – 0 = 10 × = 5 3m/s
2
Now, time of flight of projectile from ground is :
2uO sin θ 2x10x sin 60°
T= = = 3
g 10
Hence, the vertical displacement of projectile from "A" before collision is :
⇒ H = vOAy X T = 5 3 x 3 = 15 m/s

Ex.59 Two projectiles are projected simultaneously from two towers as shwon in figure. If the projectiles
collide in the air, then find the distance "s" between the towers.
10 m/s B
10 2 m / s
30m
A 45°
10m
Sol. We see here that projectiles are approaching both horizontally and vertically. Their movement in two
component directions should be synchronized so that they are at the same position at a particular given
time. For collision, the necessary requirement is that relative velocity and displacement should be in the
same direction.
It is given that collision does occur. It means that two projectiles should cover the displacement with
relative velocity in each of the component directions. Y 10 m/s B
In x-direction,
1 10 2 m / s
vABx = uAx – uBx = 10 2 cos 45° – (–10) = 10 2 + 10 = 20 m/s
2 30m
A 45°
If "t" is time after which collision occurs, then
⇒ s = vAy – uBy 10m
1
⇒ vABy = ucos45° – 0 = 10 2 × = 10m / s O S x
2
The initial vertical distance between points of projection is 30 – 10 = 20 m. This vertical distance is
covered with component of relative velocity in vertical direction. Hence, time taken to collide, "t", is :
20
⇒t= =2
10
Putting this value in the earlier equation for "s", we have :
⇒ s = 20t = 20x2 = 40 m
Now you can try all the questions related to relative motion.

QUESTIONS FOR SHORT ANSWER

1. A vector a is turned without a change in its length 5. Can you have zero displacement and a non zero
average velocity? Can you have a zero displacement
through a small angle dθ. What are | a| and ∆a?
and a non zero velocity? Illustrate your answer on a
Sol.
x-t graph.
Sol.
2. Does the speedometer of a car measure speed or

velocity ? Explain
6. At which point on its path a projectile has the
Sol.
smallest speed?
Sol.
7. A person standing on the edge of a cliff at some

3. When a particle moves with constant velocity, its
height above the ground below throws one ball straight
average velocity and its instantaneous velocity & speed
up with initial speed u and then throws another ball
are equal. Comment on this statement.
straight down with the same initial speed. Which ball,
Sol.
if either, has the larger speed when it hits the ground?
Neglect air resistance.
Sol.
4. In a given time interval, is the total displacement

8. An airplane on floor relief mission has to drop a
of a particle equal to the product of the average
sack of rice exactly in the center of a circle on the
velocity and the time interval, even when the velocity
ground while flying at a predetermined height and
is not constant? Explain.
speed. What is so difficult about that? Why doesn’t it
Sol.
just drop the sack when it is directly above the circle.
Sol.

9. Which of the following graphs cannot possibily 12. Give an example from your own experience in which
represent one dimensional motion of a particle? the velocity of an object is zero for just an instant of
x time, but its acceleration is not zero.
|v| l
Sol.
t t
t
x - displacement l - length of path

Sol.
13. A ball is dropped from rest from the top of a building

and strikes the ground with a speed vf. From ground
level, a second ball is thrown straight upward at the
10. Can you suggest a suitable situation from same instant that the first ball is dropped. The initial
observation around you for each of the following ? speed of the second ball is v0 = vf, the same speed
x with which the first ball will eventually strike the ground.
x
Ignoring air resistance, decide whether the balls cross
paths at half the height of the building above the
halfway point, or below the halfway point. Give your
t reasoning.
t Sol.
x - displacement
x
Sol.
14. The muzzle velocity of a gun is the velocity of the

bullet when it leaves the barrel. The muzzle velocity
of one rifle with a short barrel is greater than the
muzzle velocity of another rifle that has a longer barrel.
In which rifle is the acceleration of the bullet larger?
11. One of the following statements is incorrect. Explain your reasoning.
(a) The car traveled around the track at a constant Sol.
velocity
(b) The car traveled around the track at a constant
speed. Which statement is incorrect and why ?
Sol.

15. On a riverboat cruise, a plastic bottle is accidentally 18. A child is playing on the floor of a recreational
dropped overboard. A passenger on the boat estimate vehicle (RV) as it moves along the highway at a
that the boat pulls ahead of the bottle by 5 meters constant velocity. He has a toy cannon, which shoots
each second. Is it possible to conclude that the boat a marble at a fixed angle and speed with respect to
is moving at 5 m/s with respect to the shore? Account the floor. The connon can be aimed toward the front
for your answer. or the rear of the RV. Is the range towards the front
Sol. the same as, less than, or greater than the range
towards the rear? Answer this question (a) from the
child’s point of view and (b) from the point of view of
an observer standing still on the ground. Justify your
answers.
Sol.
16. A wrench is accidentally dropped from the top of

the mast on a sailboat. Will the wrench hit at the
same place on the deck whether the sailboat is at
rest or moving with a constant velocity? Justify your
answer.
Sol.
19. Three swimmers can swim equally fast relative to
the water. They have a race to see who can swim
across a river in the least time. Swimmer A swims
perpendicular to the current and lands on the far shore
downstream, because the current has swept him in
that direction. Swimmer B swims upstream at an angle
to the current and lands on the far shore directly
opposite the starting point. Swimmer C swims
downstream at an angle to the current in an attempt
to take advantage of the current. Who crosses the
river in the least time? Account for your answer.
Sol.
17. Is the acceleration of a projectile equal to zero
when it reaches the top of its trajectory? If not, why
not?
Sol.

Exercise - I (Objective Problems)

1. A hall has the dimensions 10m × 10m × 10 m. A fly 3. A body covers first 1/3 part of its journey with a
starting at one corner ends up at a diagonally opposite velocity of 2 m/s, next 1/3 part with a velocity of 3 m/s
corner. The magnitude of its displacement is nearly and rest of the journey with a velocity 6m/s. The
average velocity of the body will be
(A) 5 3 m (B) 10 3 m (C) 20 3 m (D) 30 3 m
11 8 4
Sol. (A) 3 m/s (B) m/s (C) m/s (D) m/s
3 3 3
Sol.
4. A car runs at constant speed on a circular track of

radius 100 m taking 62.8 s on each lap. What is the
average speed and average velocity on each complete
lap ?
2. A car travels from A to B at a speed of 20 km h–1m (A) velocity 10 m/s speed 10 m/s
and returns at a speed of 30 km h–1. The average (B) velocity zero, speed 10 m/s
speed of the car for the whole journey is (C) velocity zero, speed zero
(A) 5 km h–1 (B) 24 km h–1 (C) 25 km h–1(D) 50 km h–1 (D) velocity 10 m/s, speed zero
Sol. Sol.

5. The displacement of a body is given by 2s = gt2 Sol.

where g is a constant. The velocity of the body at
any time t is
(A) gt (B) gt/2 (C) gt2/2 (D) gt3/3
Sol.
6. A particle has a velocity u towards east at t = 0.

Its acceleration is towards west and is constant, Let
xA and xB be the magnitude of displacements in the
first 10 seconds and the next 10 seconds.
(A) xA < xB (B) xA = xB (C) xA > xB
(D) the information is insufficient to decide the relation
of xA with xB.
Sol.
8. A stone is dropped into a well in which the level of

water is h below the top of the well. If v is velocity of
sound, the time T after which the splash is heard is
given by
2h h
(A) T = 2h/v (B) T = g
+
v
2h h h 2h
(C) T = +
g 2v (D) T = +
2g v
Sol.
7. A body starts from rest and is uniformly accelerated

for 30 s. The distance travelled in the first 10s is x1,
next 10 s is x2 and the last 10 s is x3. Then x1 : x2 : x3
is the same as
(A) 1 : 2 : 4 (B) 1 : 2 : 5
(C) 1 : 3 : 5 (D) 1 : 3 : 9

9. The co-ordinates of a moving particle at a time t, 11. A body of mass 1 kg is acted upon by a force
are given by, x = 5 sin 10 t, y = 5 cos 10 t. The speed
F = 2 sin 3 πt i + 3 cos 3 πt j find its position at t = 1 sec
of the particle is -
(A) 25 (B) 50 (C) 10 (D) None if at t = 0 it is at rest at origin.
Sol.  3 3   2 2 
(A)  2 ,  (B)  2 , 
 3 π 9π 2   3π 3π 2 
 2 2 
(C)  ,  (D) none of these
 3π 3π 2 
Sol.
10. A body moves with velocity v = lnx m/s where x is

its position. The net force acting on body is zero at .
(A) 0 m (B) x = e2m (C) x = em (D) x = 1 m
Sol.

12. A force F = Be–Ct acts on a particle whose mass is Sol.

m and whose velocity is 0 at t = 0. It’s terminal velocity
(velocity after a long time) is :
C B BC B
(A) (B) (C) (D) –
mB mC m mC
Sol.
13. A particle starts moving rectilinearly at time t = 0

such that its velocity ‘v’ changes with time ‘t’ according
to the equation v = t2 – t where t is in seconds and v
is in m/s. The time interval for which the particle retards
is
(A) t < 1/2 (B) 1/2 < t < 1
(C) t > 1 (D) t < 1/2 and t > 1
Sol.
15. A particle is projected vertically upwards from a
point A on the ground. It takes t1 time to reach a
point B but it still continues to move up. If it takes
further t2 time to reach the ground from point B then
height of point B from the ground is
1
(A) g( t1 + t 2 ) 2 (B) g t1 t2
2
1 1
(C) g( t1 + t 2 ) 2 (D) gt 1t 2
8 2
Sol.
14. A ball is thrown vertically down with velocity of

5m/s. With what velocity should another ball be thrown
down after 2 seconds so that it can hit the 1st ball in 2
seconds
(A) 40 m/s (B) 55 m/s (C) 15 m/s (D) 25 m/s

16. Balls are thrown vertically upward in such a way 18. The displacement-time graph of a moving particle
that the next ball is thrown when the previous one is is shown below. The instantaneous velocity of the
at the maximum height. If the maximum height is 5m, particle is negative at the point
the number of balls thrown per minute will be
x
(A) 40 (B) 50 (C) 60 (D) 120
Sol. D
E F
C
t
(A) C (B) D (C) E (D) F
Sol.
17. A disc arranged in a vertical plane has two groves

19. The variation of velocity of a particle moving along
of same length directed along the vertical chord AB
straight line is shown in the figure. The distance
and CD as shown in the fig. The same particles slide
travelled by the particle in 4 s is
down along AB and CD. The ratio of the time tAB/tCD is
A C v(m/s)
60º
D
20
B 10
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 1: 2 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 2 :1 t(s)

1 2 3 4
Sol.
(A) 25m (B) 30m (C) 55m (D) 60m
Sol.

20. The displacement time graphs of two particles A 22. Acceleration versus velocity graph of a particle
and B are straight lines making angles of respectively
moving in a straight line starting form rest is as shown
30º and 60º with the time axis. If the velocity of A is
in figure. The corresponding velocity-time graph would
vA
vA and that of B is vB then the value of v is be -
B a
(A) 1/2 (B) 1 / 3 (C) 3 (D) 1/3
Sol.
v
v v
(A) (B)
t t
v v
21. If position time graph of a particle is sine curve as

shown, what will be its velocity-time graph (C) (D)
t t
x Sol.
v v
(A) (B)
t t
v v
(C) (D)
t t
Sol.

23. A man moves in x - y plane along the path shown. Question No. 25 to 27 (3 questions)
At what point is his average velocity vector in the
same direction as his instantaneous velocity vector. The x-t graph of a particle moving along a straight
The man starts from point P. line is shown in figure
y
C x parabola
PB D
A
x
(A) A (B) B (C) C (D) D 0 T 2T
Sol.
25. The v-t graph of the particle is correctly shown
by
v
v
T 2T
0 T 0
(A) 2T t (B) t
v v
0 T 2T 0 T 2T
(C) t (D) t
24. The acceleration of a particle which moves along
the positive x-axis varies with its position as shown.
If the velocity of the particle is 0.8 m/s at x = 0, the Sol.
velocity of the particle at x = 1.4 is (in m/s)
2
a (in m/s )
0.4
0.2
O 0.4 0.8 1.4 x (in m)
(A) 1.6 (B) 1.2 (C) 1.4 (D) none

Sol.
26. The a-t graph of the particle is correctly shown

by
a a
2T
0 t 0 t
(A) T (B)
a v
0 0
(C) t (D) t

Sol. 28. Choose the incorrect statement. The particle comes

to rest at
(A) t = 0 s (B) t = 5 s (C) t = 8 s
(D) none of these
Sol.
27. The speed-time graph of the particle is correctly

shown by 29. Identify the region in which the rate of change of

∆v
speed speed velocity of the particle is maximum
∆t
0 0
(A) T 2T t (B) T 2T t (A) 0 to 2s (B) 2 to 4s (C) 4 to 6s (D) 6 to 8 s
Sol.
speed speed
0 0
(C) T 2T t (D) T 2T t
Sol.
30. If the particle starts from the position x0 = –15 m,

then its position at t = 2s will be
(A) – 5m (B) 5m (C) 10 m (D) 15 m
Sol.
Question No. 28 to 33 (6 questions)

The figure shows a velocity-time graph of a particle
moving along a straight line
v(ms–1)
10
0
2 4 6 8 t(s)
–20

31. The maximum of displacement of the particle is 33. The correct displacement-time graph of the particle
(A) 33.3 m (B) 23.3 m (C) 18.3 (D) zero is shown as
x x
Sol.
(m) (m)
(A) (B)
0 2 4 6 8 t(s) 0 2 4 6 8 t(s)
x x
(m) (m)
(C) (D)
0 2 4 6 8 t(s) 0 2 4 6 8 t(s)
Sol.
34. The velocity-time graph of a body falling from

rest under gravity and rebounding from a solid surface
is represented by which of the following graphs ?
V
V
(A) t (B)
t
V V
(C) (D)
t t
32. The total distance travelled by the particle is
(A) 66.6 m (B) 51.6 m (C) zero (D) 36.6 m
Sol. Sol.

35. Shown in the figure are the displacement time 37. A body A is thrown vertically upwards with such a
graph for two children going home from the school. velocity that it reaches a maximum height of h.
Which of the following statements about their relative Simultaneously another body B is dropped from height
motion is true after both of them started moving ? h. It strikes the ground and does not rebound. The
Their relative velocity: velocity of A relative to B v/s time graph is best
represented by : (upward direction is positive)
X
C1 VAB VAB
C2 (A) (B)
t t
O VAB VAB
t T
(A) first increases and then decreases
(C) (D) t
(B) first decreases and then increases
(C) is zero t
(D) is non zero constant Sol.
Sol.
36. Shown in the figure are the v

P1
velocity time graphs of the two
particles P1 and P2. Which of P2
the following statements about
their relative motion is true ?
Theire relative velocity
(A) is zero O t T
(B) is non-zero but constant 38. An object A is moving with 10 m/s and B is moving
(C) continuously decreases with 5 m/s in the same direction of positive x-axis. A
(D) continuously increases is 100 m behind B as shown. Find time taken by A to
Sol. Meet B
10m/s 5m/s
A B
100m
(A) 18 sec. (B) 16 sec. (C) 20 sec. (D) 17 sec.
Sol.

39. It takes one minute for a passenger standing on 42. A point mass is projected, making an acute angle
an escalator to reach the top. If the escalator does
with the horizontal. If angle between velocity v and
not move it takes him 3 minute to walk up. How long
will it take for the passenger to arrive at the top if he acceleration g is θ, then θ is given by
walks up the moving escalator? (A) 0º < θ < 90º (B) θ = 90º
(A) 30 sec (B) 45 sec (C) 40 sec (D) 35 sec (C) θ = 90º (D) 0º < θ < 180º
Sol. Sol.
43. The velocity at the maximum height of a projectile

is half of its initial velocity u. Its range on the horizontal
plane is
40. A body is thrown up in a lift with a velocity u
relative to the lift and the time of flight is found to be 2u 2 3 u2 u2 u2
t. The acceleration with which the lift is moving up is (A) (B) (C) (D)
3g 2g 3g 2g
Sol.
u – gt 2u – gt u + gt 2u + gt
(A) (B) (C) (D)
t t t t
Sol.
Question No. 44 to 46
A projectile is thrown with a velocity of 50 ms–1 at an
angle of 53º with the horizontal
41. A ball is thrown upwards. It returns to ground
describing a parabolic path. Which of the following 44. Choose the incorrect statement
remains constant ? (A) It travels vertically with a velocity of 40 ms–1
(A) speed of the ball (B) It travels horizontally with a velocity of 30 ms–1
(B) kinetic energy of the ball (C) The minimum velocity of the projectile is 30 ms–1
(C) vertical component of velocity (D) None of these
(D) horizontal component of velocity. Sol.
Sol.

45. Determine the instants at which the projectile is 48. A ball is thrown from a point on ground at some
at the same height angle of projection. At the same time a bird starts
(A) t = 1s and t = 7s (B) t = 3s and t = 5s from a point directly above this point of projection at
(C) t = 2s and t = 6s (D) all the above a height h horizontally with speed u. Given that in its
Sol. flight ball just touches the bird at one point. Find the
distance on ground where ball strikes
h 2h 2h h
(A) 2u (B) u (C) 2u (D) u
g g g g
Sol.
46. The equation of the trajectory is given by

(A) 180y = 240 x – x2 (B) 180 y = x2 – 240x
(C) 180y = 135x – x 2
(D) 180y = x2 – 135x
Sol.
49.A ball is hit by a batsman at an angle of 37º as

shown in figure. The man standing at P should run at
what minimum velocity so that he catches the ball
before it strikes the ground. Assume that height of
man is negligible in comparison to maximum height of
projectile.
47. A particle is projected from a horizontal plane (x-

z plane) such that its velocity vector at time t is

given by V = aî + (b – ct ) ĵ . Its range on the horizontal
plane is given by (A) 3 ms–1 (B) 5 ms–1 (C) 9 ms–1 (D) 12 ms–1
ba 2ba 3 ba Sol.
(A) (B) (C) (D) None
c c c
Sol.

50. A projectile is fired with a speed u at an angle θ Question No. 53 & 54 (2 questions)
with the horizontal. Its speed when its direction of At t = 0 a projectile is fired from a point O (taken as
motion makes an angle ‘α’ with the horizontal is - origin) on the ground with a speed of 50 m/s at an
(A) u secθ cosα (B) u secθ sinα angle of 53° with the horizontal. It just passes two
(C) u cosθ secα (D) u sinθ secα points A & B each at height 75 m above horizontal as
Sol. shown.
50m/s
A B
75m
53°
O
53. The horizontal separation between the points A
51. Two projectiles A and B are thrown with the same and B is -
speed such that A makes angle θ with the horizontal (A) 30 m (B) 60 m (C) 90 m (D) None
and B makes angle θ with the vertical, then - Sol.
(A) Both must have same time of flight
(B) Both must achieve same maximum height
(C) A must have more horizontal range than B
(D) Both may have same time of flight
Sol.
52. Suppose a player hits several baseballs. Which

baseball will be in the air for the longest time?
(A) The one with the farthest range.
(B) The one which reaches maximum height 54 The distance (in metres) of the particle from origin
(C) The one with the greatest initial velocity at t = 2 sec.
(D) The one leaving the bat at 45° with respect to
the ground. (A) 60 2 (B) 100 (C) 60 (D) 120
Sol. Sol.

55. Particle is dropped from the height of 20 m from 58. One stone is projected horizontally from a 20 m
horizontal ground. There is wind blowing due to which high cliff with an initial speed of 10 ms–1. A second
horizontal acceleration of the particle becomes 6 ms–2. stone is simultaneously dropped from that cliff. Which
Find the horizontal displacement of the particle till it of the following is true ?
reaches ground. (A) Both strike the ground with the same velocity
(A) 6 m (B) 10 m (C) 12 m (D) 24 m (B) The ball with initial speed 10ms–1 reaches the
Sol. ground first
(C) Both the balls hit the ground at the same time
(D) One cannot say without knowing the height of
the building
Sol.
56. A ball is projected from top of a tower with a

velocity of 5 m/s at an angle of 53º to horizontal. Its
speed when it is at a height of 0.45 m from the point
of projection is
(A) 2 m/s (B) 3 m/s
(C) 4 m/s (D) data insufficient
Sol. 59. An aeroplane flying at a constant velocity releases
a bomb. As the bomb drops down from the aeroplane.
(A) it will always be vertically below the aeroplane
(B) it will always be vertically below the aeroplane
only if the aeroplane is flying horizontally
(C) it will always be vertically below the aeroplane
only if the aeroplane is flying at an angle of 45° to the
horizontal.
(D) it will gradually fall behind the aeroplane if the
aeroplane is flying horizontally
Sol.
57. Find time of flight of projectile thrown horizontally

with speed 10 ms–1 from a long inclined plane which
makes an angle of θ = 45º from horizontal.
(A) 2 sec (B) 2 2 sec (C) 2 sec (D) none
Sol.

60. A particle is projected at angle 37º with the incline Sol.

plane in upward direction with speed 10 m/s. The angle
of incline plane is given 53º. Then the maximum height
above the incline plane attained by the particle will be
(A) 3m (B) 4m (C) 5m (D) zero
Sol.
63. If time taken by the projectile to reach Q is T,

than PQ =
v
90° P
θ
61. On an inclined plane of inclination 30°, a ball is Q
thrown at an angle of 60° with the horizontal from the
(A) Tvsinθ (B) Tvcosθ (C) Tv secθ (D) Tv tanθ
foot of the incline with velocity of 10 3 ms–1. If g =
Sol.
10 ms–2, then the time in which ball with hit the inclined
plane is -
(A) 1.15 sec. (B) 6 sec
(C) 2 sec (D) 0.92 sec
Sol.

Two projectiles are thrown simultaneously in
62. A projectile is fired with a velocity at right angle the same plane from the same point. If their velocities
to the slope which is inclined at an angle θ with the are v1 and v2 at angles θ1 and θ2 respectively from the
horizontal. The expression for the range R along the horizontal, then answer the following questions.
incline is - 64. The trajectory of particle 1 with respect to particle
2v 2 2v 2 2 will be
(A) sec θ (B) tan θ (A) a parabola
g g
(B) a straight line
2v 2 v2
(C) tan θ sec θ (D) tan2 θ (C) a vertical straight line
g g (D) a horizontal straight line

Sol. Sol.
65. If v1 cosθ1 = v2 cosθ2, then choose the incorrect

statement
(A) one particle will remain exactly below or above
the other particle
(B) the trajectory of one with respect to other will be
a vertical straight line
(C) both will have the same range
(D) none of these
Sol.
68. A helicopter is flying south with a speed of 50
kmh–1. A train is moving with the same speed towards
east. The relative velocity of the helicopter as seen
by the passengers in the train will be towards.
(A) north east (B) south east
(C) north west (D) south west
Sol.
66. If v1sinθ1 = v2sinθ2, then choose the incorrect

statement
(A) the time of flight of both the particles will be same
(B) the maximum height attained by the particles will
be same
(C) the trajectory of one with respect to another will
be a horizontal straight line 69. Two particles are moving with velocities v1 and
(D) none of these v2. Their relative velocity is the maximum, when the
Sol. angle between their velocities is
(A) zero (B) π/4 (C) π/2 (D) π
Sol.
67. If v1 = v2 and θ1 > θ2, then choose the incorrect

statement
(A) Particle 2 moves under the particle 1
(B) The slope of the trajectory of particle 2 with
respect to 1 is always positive
(C) Both the particle will have the same range if θ1 >
45° and θ2 < 45° and θ1 + θ2 = 90°
(D) none of these

70. A ship is travelling due east at 10 km/h. A ship 73. A swimmer’s speed in the direction of flow of river
heading 30º east of north is always due north from is 16 km h–1. Against the direction of flow of river, the
the first ship. The speed of the second ship in km/h is swimmer’s speed is 8 km h–1. Calculate the swimmer’s
(A) 20 2 (B) 20 3 / 2 (C) 20 (D) 20 / 2 speed in still water and the velocity of flow of the
Sol. river.
(A) 12 km/h, 4 km/h (B) 10 km/h, 3 km/h
(C) 10 km/h, 4 km/h (D) 12 km/h, 2 km/h
Sol.
71. A particle is kept at rest at origin. Another particle

starts from (5, 0) with a velocity of – 4 î + 3 ĵ . Find
their closest distance of approach.
(A) 3 m (B) 4 m (C) 5 m (D) 2 m
Sol.
74. A pipe which can rotate in a vertical plane is

mounted on a cart. The cart moves uniformly along a
horizontal path with a speed v1 = 2 m/s. At what
angle α to the horizontal should the pipe be placed so
that drops of rain falling with a velocity v2 6 m/s move
parallel to the walls of the pipe without touching them ?
consider the velocity of the drops as constant due to
the resistance of the air.
v1
72. Four particles situated at the corners of a square
of side ‘a’ move at a constant speed v. Each particle
maintains a direction towards the next particle in
–1  1 
succession. Calculate the time particles will take to (A) tan –1( 3) (B) tan  
3
meet each other.
a a a 2a –1  1 
(A) (B) (C) (D) (C) tan   (D) None of these
v 2v 3v 3v 2
Sol. Sol.

77. A flag is mounted on a car moving due North with

velocity of 20 km/hr. Strong winds are blowing due
East with velocity of 20 km/hr. The flag will point it
direction
(A) East (B) North-East
(C) South-East (D) South-West
Sol.
75. A swimmer swims in still water at a speed = 5 km/

hr. He enters a 200 m wide river, having river flow speed
= 4 km/hr at point A and proceeds to swim at an angle
of 127° (sin37° = 0.6) with the river flow direction.
Another point B is located directly across A on the
other side. The swimmer lands on the other bank at a
point C, from which he walks the distance CB with a
speed = 3 km/hr. The total time in which he reachrs
from A to B is
(A) 5 minutes (B) 4 minutes
(C) 3 minutes (D) None
Sol.
78. A man is crossing a river flowing with velocity of 5
m/s. He reaches a point directly across at a distance
of 60 m in 5 sec. His velocity in still water should be
(A) 12 m/s (B) 13 m/s (C) 5 m/s (D) 10 m/s
Sol.
79. Wind is blowing in the north direction at speed of

2 m/s which causes the rain to fall at some angle with
76. A boat having a speed of 5 km/hr. in still water, the vertical. With what velocity should a cyclist drive
crosses a river of width 1 km along the shortest possible so that the rain appears vertical to him
path in 15 minutes. The speed of the river in Km/hr. (A) 2 m/s south (B) 2 m/s north
(A) 1 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 41 (C) 4 m/s west (D) 4 m/s south
Sol.

Exercise - II (One or more than one option is correct)
1. The displacement x of a particle depend on time t Sol.

as x = αt2 – β t3
(A) particle will return to its starting point after time α/β.
2α
(B) the particle will come to rest after time
3β
(C) the initial velocity of the particle was zero but its
initial acceleration was not zero.
α
(D) no net force act on the particle at time
3β
Sol.
3. Mark the correct statements for a particle going on

a straight line
(A) if the veloci ty is zero at any instant, the
acceleration should also be zero at that instant
(B) if the velocity is zero for a time interval, the
acceleration is zero at any instant within the time
interval
(C) if the velocity and acceleration have opposite sign,
the object is slowing down
(D) if the position and velocity have opposite sign,
the particle is moving towards the origin.
Sol.
4. A particle initially at rest is subjected to two forces.

One is constant, the other is a retarding force
proportion at to the particle velocity. In the subsequent
motion of the particle.
2. A particle has intial velocity 10 m/s. It moves due
(A) the acceleration will increase from zero to a
to constant retarding force along the line of velocity
constant value
which produces a retardation of 5 m/s2. Then -
(B) the acceleration will decrease from its initial value
(A) the maximum displacement in the direction of initial
to zero
velocity is 10 m
(C) the velocity will increase from zero to maximum &
(B) the distance travelled in first 3 seconds is 7.5 m
then decrease
(C) the distance travelled in first 3 seconds is 12.5 m
(D) the velocity will increase from zero to a constant
(D) the distance travelled in first 3 seconds is 17.5 m
value.

Sol. Sol.

5. Let v and a denote the velocity and acceleration
respectively of a body in one-dimensional motion
7. Let v and a denote the velocity and acceleration
(A) | v| must decrease when a < 0 respectively of a body
(A) a can be non zero when v = 0
(B) Speed must increase when a > 0
(B) a must be zero when v = 0
(C) Speed will increase when both v and a are < 0 (C) a may be zero when v ≠ 0

(D) Speed will decrease when v < 0 and a > 0 (D) The direction of a must have some correlation
Sol. with the direction of v
Sol.
6. Which of the following statements are true for a 8. A bead is free to slide down a A
moving body? sm ooth wi re ti g ht l y st ret ched
(A) If its speed changes, its velocity must change between points A and B on a vertical θ
B R
and it must have some acceleration circle. If the bead starts from rest
(B) If its velocity changes, its speed must change at A, the highest point on the circle
and it must have some acceleration (A) its velocity v on arriving at B is proportional to
(C) If its velocity changes, its speed may or may not cosθ
change, and it must have some acceleration (B) its velocity v on arriving B is proportional to tanθ
(D) If its speed changes but direction of motion does (C) time to arrive at B is proportional to cosθ
not changes, its velocity may remain constant (D) time to arrive at B is independent of θ

Sol. 10. The figure shows the velocity (v) of a particle

plotted against time (t)
+v0
v
T
O
t 2T
–v0
(A) The particle changes its direction of motion at

some point
(B) The acceleration of the particle remains constant
(C) The displacement of the particle is zero
(D) The initial and final speeds of the particle are the
same
Sol.
9. Velocity-time graph for a car is semicircle as shown

here. Which of the following is correct :
v
1m/s
2 sec
(A) Car must move in circular path
(B) Acceleration of car is never zero 11. A block is thrown with a velocity of 2 ms–1 (relative
(C) Mean speed of the particle is π/4 m/s. to ground) on a belt, which is moving with velocity 4
(D) The car makes a turn once during its motion ms–1 in opposite direction of the initial velocity of block.
If the block stops slipping on the belt after 4 sec of
Sol.
the throwing then choose the correct statements(s)
(A) Displacement with respect to ground is zero after
2.66 sec and magnitude of displacement with respect
to ground is 12 m after 4 sec.
(B) Magnitude of displacement with respect to ground
in 4 sec is 4 m.
(C) Magnitude of displacement with respect to belt in
4 sec is 12 m.
(D) Displacement with respect to ground is zero in 8/
3 sec.
Sol.

13. An observer moves with a constant speed along

the line joining two stationary objects. He will observe
that the two objects
(A) have the same speed
(B) have the same velocity
(C) move in the same direction
(D) move in opposite directions
Sol.
14. A man on a rectilinearly moving cart, facing the

direction of motion, throws a ball straight up with
respect to himself
(A) The ball will always return to him
(B) The ball will never return to him
(C) The ball will return to him if the cart moves with
constant velocity
(D) The ball will fall behind him if the cart moves with
12. A particle moves with constant speed v along a some acceleration
regular hexagon ABCDEF in the same order. Then the Sol.
magnitude of the average velocity for its motion from
A to -
(A) F is v/5 (B) D is v/3
(C) C is v √3/2 (D) B is v
Sol.
15. A projectile of mass 1 kg is projected with a velocity

of 20 m/s such that it strikes on the same level as
the point of projection at a distance of 3 m. Which
of the following options are incorrect.
(A) the maximum height reached by the projectile can
be 0.25 m
(B) the minimum velocity during its motion can be
15 m/s
3
(C) the time taken for the flight can be sec.
5
(D) maximum potential energy during its motion can
be 6J.

Sol. 17. If T is the total time of flight, h is the maximum

height & R is the range for horizontal motion, the x & y
co-ordinates of projectile motion and time t are related
as :
 t t  X  X
(A) y = 4h   1 −  (B) y = 4h   1 − 
 T  T  R  R
 T  T  R  R
(C) y = 4h   1 −  (D) y = 4h   1 − 
 t t  X  X
Sol.
16. Choose the correct alternative (s)

(A) If the greatest height to which a man can throw a
stone is h, then the greatest horizontal distance upto
which he can throw the stone is 2h.
(B) The angle of projection for a projectile motion whose
range R is n times the maximum height is tan–1(4/n)
(C) The time of flight T and the horizontal range R of
a projectile are connected by the equation gT2 =
2Rtanθ where θ is the angle of projection.
(D) A ball is thrown vertically up. Another ball is thrown 18. A particle moves in the xy plane with a constant
at an angle θ with the vertical. Both of them remain in acceleration ‘g’ in the negative y-direction. Its equation
air for the same period of time. Then the ratio of of motion is y = ax – bx2, where a and b constants.
heights attained by the two ball 1 : 1.
Which of the following are correct?
Sol.
(A) The x-component of its velocity is constant.
(B) At the origin, the y-component of its velocity is
g
a
2b
(C) At the origin, its velocity makes an angle tan–1(a)
with the x-axis
(D) The particle moves exactly like a projectile.
Sol.

20. A particle is projected from the ground with velocity

u at angle θ with horizontal. The horizontal range,
maximum height and time of flight are R, H and T
respectively. They are given by,
u 2 sin 2θ u 2 sin2 θ 2u sin θ

R= ,H= and T =
g 2g g
Now keeping u as fixed, θ is varied from 30° to 60°.

Then,
(A) R will first increase then decrease, H will increase
and T will decrease
(B) R will first increase then decrease while H and T
both will increase
(C) R will decrease while H and T will increase
(D) R will increase while H and T will increase
Sol.
19. A ball is rolled off along the edge of a horizontal
table with velocity 4 m/s. It hits the ground after time
0.4s. Which of the following are correct?
(A) The height of the table is 0.8 m
(B) It hits the ground at an angle of 60° with the
vertical
(C) It covers a horizontal distance 1.6 m from the
table
(D) It hits the ground with vertical velocity 4 m/s
Sol.

Exercise - III (Subjective Problems)
1. The position vector of a particle moving in x-y

plane is given by r = ( t 2 − 4)i + ( t − 4)j . Find
(a) Equation of trajectory of the particle
Sol.
3. At time t the position vector of a particle of mass

m = 3kg is given by r = 6 t i − t 3 j + cos tk . Find the re-

sultant force F ( t) , magnitude of its acceleration when
π
t= , & speed when t = π.
2
(b) Time when it crosses x-axis and y-axis
Sol. Sol.
2. A p arti cl e move s al ong the sp ac e curv e

r = ( t 2 + t) i + ( 3 t − 2) j + (2t 3 − 4 t 2 ) k . (t in sec, r in m) Find
at time t = 2 the (a) velocity, (b) acceleration, (c)
speed or magnitude of velocity and (d) magnitude of
acceleration.
Sol.
4. The velocity time graph of a body moving in a

straight line is shown. Find its
y
velocity in m/sec
60°
30°
x
2.5 sec
time in sec 2

(a) instantaneous velocity at t = 1.5 sec

Sol.
(b) average acceleration from t = 1.5 sec. to

t = 2.5 sec 6. Velocity of car v is given by v = at – bt2, where a
Sol. and b are positive constants & t is time elapsed. Find
value of time for which velocity is maximum & also
corresponding value of velocity.
Sol.
(c) draw its acceleration time graph from t = 0 to

t = 2.5 sec
Sol.
5. The curvilinear motion of a particle is defined by vx

= 50 – 16t and y = 100 – 4t2 , where vx is in metres
per second, y is in metres and t is in seconds. It is 7. The force acting on a body moving in a straight line
also known that x = 0 at t = 0. Determine the velocity is given by F = (3t2 – 4t + 1) Newton where t is in
(v) and acceleration (a) when the position y = 0 is sec. If mass of the body is 1kg and initially it was at
reached. rest at origin. Find
Sol.
(a) displacement between time t = 0 and t = 2 sec
Sol.

9. A particle is moving along x-axis. Initially it is located

5 m left of origin and it is moving away from the origin
and slowing down. In this coordinate system, the signs
of the initial velocity and acceleration, are
+ y
– + v0 a
(b) distance travelled between time t = 0 and t = 2
(0, 0) x
sec
Sol. –
Sol.
10. Find the change in velocity of the tip of the minute

hand (radius = 10 cm) of a clock in 45 minutes.
8. A particle goes from A to B with a speed of 40 km/ Sol.
h and B to C with a speed of 60 km/h. If AB = 6BC the
ave rage speed i n k m/h betwe en A and C i s
____________
total dis tan ce travelled
[Hint : Average speed = ]
time taken
Sol.

11. At a distance L = 400 m from the traffic light

brakes are applied to a locomotive moving at a velocity
v= 54 km/hr. Determine the position of the locomotive
relative to the traffic light 1 min after the application
of the breaks if its acceleration is –0.3 m/sec2.
Sol.
13. A car is moving along a straight line. It is taken

from rest to a velocity of 20 ms–1 by a constant
12. A train starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration of 5ms–2. It maintains a constant velocity
acceleration of 2.0 m/s2 for half a minute. The brakes of 20 ms–1 for 5 seconds and then is brought to rest
are then applied and the train comes to rest in one again by a constant acceleration of –2 ms–2. Draw a
minute. Find velocity-time graph and find the distance covered by
(a) the total distance moved by the train, the car.
(b) the maximum speed attained by the train and Sol.
(c) the position (s) of the train at half the maximum
speed.
Sol.

16. From the velocity-time plot shown in figure, find

the distance travelled by the particle during the first
40 seconds. Also find the average velocity during this
period.
V
14. A stone is dropped from a height h. Simultaneously 5m/s
another stone is thrown up from the ground with such t(s)
0 20
a velocity that it can reach a height of 4 h. Find the 40
–5m/s
time when two stones cross each other.
Sol. Sol.
17. The velocity-time graph of the particle moving

15. A bal loon is ascending vertical ly with an along a straight line is shown. The rate of acceleration
acceleration of 0.2 m/s2 Two stones are dropped from and deceleration is constant and it is equal to 5 ms–2.
it at an interval of 2 sec. Find the distance between If the average velocity during the motion is 20ms–1,
them 1.5 sec after the second stone is released (use then find the value of t.
g = 9.8 m/s2).
Sol.
o t 25 sec
Sol.

20. A particle is projected upwards with a velocity of

100 m/sec at an angle of 60º with the vertical. Find
the time when the particle will move perpendicular to
18. The fig. shows the v-t graph of a particle moving
its initial direction, taking g = 10 m/sec2.
in straight line. Find the time when particle returns to
Sol.
the starting point.
v
20
10
10 20 25 t
Sol.
gx2
21. The equation of a projectile is y = 3 x − . The
2
angle of projectile is ________ and initial velocity is
_______.
Sol.
19. A particle is projected in the X-Y plane. 2 sec

after projection the velocity of the particle makes an
angle 45º with the X-axis. 4 sec after projection, it
moves horizontally. Find the velocity of projection (use
g = 10 ms–2).
Sol.

22. A ball is projected at an angle of 30º above with

the horizontal from the top of a tower and strikes the
ground in 5 sec at an angle of 45º with the horizontal.
Find the height of the tower and the speed with which
it was projected. [g =10 m/s2]
Sol.
24. A ball is thrown horizontally from a cliff such that

23. A rocket is launched at an angle 53º to the
it strikes ground after 5 sec. The line of sight from the
horizontal with an initial speed of 100 ms–1. It moves
point of projection to the point of hitting makes an
along its initial line of motion with an acceleration of
angle of 37º with the horizontal. What is the initial
30 ms–2 for 3 seconds. At this time its engine falls &
velocity of projection.
the rocket proceeds like a free body. Find :
(i) the maximum altitude reached by the rocket
37º
(ii) total time of flight
(iii) the horizontal range. [sin 53º = 4/5]
Sol.
Sol.

25. A ball is projected on smooth inclined plane in 27. The horizontal range of a projectiles is R and the
direction perpendicular to line of greatest slope with maximum height attained by it is H. A strong wind now
velocity of 8m/s. Find it’s speed after 1 sec. begins to blow in the direction of motion of the
projectile, giving it a constant horizontal acceleration
= g/2. Under the same conditions of projection, find
8 m/s
the horizontal range of the projectile.
37º Sol.
Sol.
26. Find range of projectile on the inclined plane which

is projected perpendicular to the incline plane with
velocity 20m/s as shown in figure. 28. A butterfly is flying with velocity 10 i + 12j m / s
-1
u = 20 ms and wind is blowing along x axis with velocity u. If
butterfly starts motion from A and after some time
reaches point B, find the value of u.
y
37º
B
Sol.
A 37°
x
Sol.

29. In the figure shown, the two projectiles are fired

simultaneously. What should be the initial speed of
the left side projectile for the two projectile to hit in
mid-air ?
20m/s
60º 45º
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
10m
Sol.
31. Two particles are moving along two long straight

lines, in the same plane, with the same speed = 20
cm/s. The angle between the two lines is 60°, and
their intersection point is O. At a certain moment, the
two particles are located at distance 3m and 4m from
O, and are moving towards O. Find the shortest
distance between them subsequently?
30. In the figure shown, the two projectiles are fired
simultaneously. Find the minimum distance between
Sol.
them during their flight?
20 3 m / s
20 m/s
60° 30°
20 m
Sol.

34. A man with some passengers in his boat, starts

32. Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 20 ms–1 perpendicular to flow of river 200m wide and flowing
relative to air. A person is running in the rain with a with 2m/s. Boat speed in still water is 4m/s. When he
velocity of 5 ms–1 and a wind is also blowing with a reaches half the width of river the passengers asked
speed of 15 ms–1 (both towards east). Find the angle him they want to reach the just opposite end from
with the vertical at which the person should hold his where they have started.
umbrella so that he may not get drenched. (a) Find the direction due to which he must row to
Sol. reach the required end.
(b) How many times more total time, it would take to
that if he would have denied the passengers.
Sol.
33. A glass wind screen whose inclination with the

vertical can be changed is mounted on a car. The car
moves horizontally with a speed of 2 m/s. At what
angle α with the vertical should the wind screen be
placed so that the rain drops falling vertically
downwards with velocity 6 m/s strike the wind screen
perpendicularly? 35. A man crosses a river in a boat. If he crosses the
Sol. river in minimum time he takes 10 minutes with a drift
120 m. If he crosses the river taking shortest path,
he takes 12.5 minute, find -
(i) width of the river
(ii) velocity of the boat with respect to water
(iii) speed of the current.
Assume vb/r > vr
Sol.

Exercise - IV (Tough Subjective Problems)

1. A speeder in an automobile passes a stationary 3. The speed of a particle when it is at its greatest
policeman who is hiding behind a bill board with a
height is2 / 5 times of its speed when it is at its half
motorcycle. After a 2.0 sec delay (reaction time) the
policeman acceleraties to his maximum speed of 150 the maximum height. The angle of projection is
km/hr in 12 sec and catches the speeder 1.5 km beyond _________ and the velocity vector angle at half the
the billboard. Find the speed of speeder in km/hr. maximum height is _________.
Sol. Sol.
2. A large number of bullets are fired in all direction

with the same speed v. What is the maximum area on 4. A projectile is to be thrown horizontally from the
ground on which these bullets can spread? top of a wall of height 1.7m. Calculate the initial
Sol. velocity of projection if it hits perpendicularly an incline
of angle 37° which starts from the ground at the bottom
of the wall. The line of greatest slope of incline lies in
the plane of motion of projectile.
Sol.

5. Two inclined planes OA and OB having inclination 6. A particle is thrown horizontally with relative velocity
(with horizontal) 30° and 60° respectively, intersect 10 m/s from an inclined plane, which is also moving
each other at O as shown in figure. A particle is with acceleration 10 m/s2 vertically upward. Find the
time after which it lands on the plane (g = 10 m/s2)
projected from point P with velocity u = 10 3 ms –1 along
a direction perpendicular to plane OA. If the particle 2
10 m/s
strikes plane OB perpendicularly at Q, calculate
A
u B 30°
Q
P Sol.
h
30° 60°
O
(a) velocity with which particle strikes the plane OB,
(b) time of flight,
(c) vertical height h of P from O,
(d) maximum height from O attained by the particle
and
(e) distance PQ
Sol.
7. A, B & C are three objects each moving with constant

→
velocity. A’s speed is 10 m/sec in a direction PQ . The
velocity of B relative to A is 6 m/sec at an angle of,
cos–1(15/24) to PQ. The velocity of C relative to B is
→
12 m/sec in a direction QP , then find the magnitude
of the velocity of C.
Sol.

8. A particle is projected from point P with velocity

5 2 m/s perpendicular to the surface of a hollow
right angle cone whose axis is vertical. It collides at Q
normally. Find the time of the flight of the particle.
y
P Q
45° x
Sol.
10. A hunter is riding an elephant of height 4m moving

in straight line with uniform speed of 2m/sec. A deer
running with a speed V in front at a distance of 4 5 m
moving perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
elephant. If hunter can throw his spear with a speed
of 10 m/sec. relative to the elephant, then at what
angle θ to it’s direction of motion must he throw his
spear horizontally for a successful hit. Find also the
speed ‘V’ of the deer.
Sol.
9. A glass wind screen whose inclination with the

vertical can be changed, is mounted on a cart as
shown in figure. The cart moves uniformly along the
horizontal path with a speed of 6 m/s. At what maximum
angle α to the vertical can the wind screen be placed
so that the rain drops falling vertically downwards
with velocity 2 m/s, do not enter the cart?
v=6m/s
Sol.

1. Two guns, situated at the top of a hill of height 10
m, fire one shot each with the same speed 5 3 m/s
at some interval of time. One gun fires horizontally
and other fires upwards at an angle of 60° with the
horizontal. The shots collide in air at a point P. Find
(a) the time interval between the firings, and
(b) the coordinates of the point P. Take origin of the
coordinates system at the foot of the hill right below
the muzzle and trajectories in X-Y plane.[JEE’ 1996]
Sol.
3. A large heavy box is sliding without friction down a

smooth plane of inclination θ. From a point P on the
bottom of a box, a particle is projected inside the
box. The initial speed of the particle with respect to
box is u and the direction of projection makes an angle
α with the bottom as shown in figure.
α
P Q
(a) Find the distance along the bottom of the box

between the point of projection P and the point Q
where the particle lands. (Assume that the particle
does not hit any other surface of the box. Neglect air
2. The trajectory of a projectile in a vertical plane is resistance).
y = ax – bx2, where a, b are constants & x and y are (b) If the horizontal displacement of the particle as
respectively the horizontal & vertical distances of the seen by an observer on the ground is zero, find the
projectile from the point of projection. The maximum speed of the box with respect to the ground at the
height attained is ___________ & the angle of instant when the particle was projected.
projection from the horizontal is ______, [JEE’ 1997] [JEE’ 1998]
Sol. Sol.

5. A ball is dropped vertically from a height d above

the ground it hits the ground and bounces up vertically
to a height d/2. Neglecting subsequent motion and air
resistances, its velocity v varies with the height h
above the ground as - [JEE’ 2000 (Scr)]
v v
d
h d h
(A) (B)
v v
d d
(C) h (D) h
Sol.
4. In 1.0 sec. a particle goes from point A to point B

moving in a semicircle of radius 1.0 m. The magnitude
of average velocity is - [JEE ‘99] 6. An object A is kept fixed at the point x = 3 m and
A
y = 1.25 m on a plank P raised above the ground. At
time t = 0 the plank starts moving along the +x direction
1m with an acceleration 1.5 m/s2. At the same instant a
B stone is projected from the origin with a velocity u as
(A) 3.14 m/sec (B) 2.0 m/sec shown. A stationary person on the ground observes
(C) 1.0 m/sec (D) zero the stone hitting the object during its downward
Sol. motion at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. All the
motions are in x-y plane. Find u and the time after
which the stone hits the object. Take g = 10 m/s2
[JEE 2000]
y
A
1.25m P
u
O 3.0 m x
Sol.

7. On a frictionless horizontal surface, assumed to be

the x-y plane, a small trolley A is moving along a
straight line parallel to the y-axis (see figure) with a
constant velocity of ( 3 – 1) m/s. At a particular
instant, when the line OA makes an angle of 45° with 8. A particle starts from rest. Its acceleration (a)
the x-axis, a ball is thrown along the surface from the varsus time (t) is as shown in the figure. The maximum
origin O. Its velocity makes an angle φ with the x-axis speed of the particle will be - [JEE’ 2004 (Scr)]
and it hits the trolley.
y a
A 10m/s
2
45° 11 t(s)
O x
(a) The motion of the ball is observed from the frame (A) 110 m/s (B) 55 m/s (C) 550 m/s (D) 660 m/s
of trolley. Calculate the angle θ made by the velocity Sol.
vector of the ball with the x-axis in this frame.
(b) Find the speed of the ball with respect to the
4θ
surface, if φ = . [JEE 2002]
3
Sol.

9. A small block slides without friction down an inclined 11. STATEMENT-1

plane starting from rest. Let Sn be the distance For an observer looking out through the window of a
Sn fast moving train, the nearby objects appear to move
travelled from time t = n – 1 to t = n. The S is - in the opposite direction to the train, while the distant
n+1
[JEE’ 2004 (Scr)] objects appear to be stationary.
STATEMENT-2
2n – 1 2n + 1 2n – 1 2n If the observer and the object are moving at velocities
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2n 2n – 1 2n + 1 2n + 1
V1 and V2 respectively with reference to a laboratory
Sol. frame, the velocity of the object with respect to the

observer is V2 – V1
(A) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
STATEMENT-2 is a correct explanation for STATEMENT-1
(B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True’
STATEMENT-2 is NOT a correct explanation for
STATEMENT-1
(C) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is False
(D) STATEMENT-1 is False, STATEMENT-2 is True
[JEE’ 2008]
10. The velocity displacement graph of a particle Sol.
moving along a straight line is shown. The most suitable
acceleration-displacement graph will be -
[JEE’ 2005 (Scr)]
v
v0
x0 x
a a
x
(A) (B)
x
a 12. A train is moving along a straight line with a con-
a
x x stant acceleration 'a'. A boy standing in the train
throws a ball forward with a speed of 10 m/s, at an
(C) (D) angle of 60° to the horizontal. The boy has to move
forward by 1.15 m inside the train to catch the ball
back at the initial height. The acceleration of the train
Sol. in m/s2 is [JEE’ 2011]
Sol.

ANSWER KEY
QUESTIONS FOR SHORT ANSWER

1. Magnitude | a| will remain uncharged. B = a

∆a = B − A = a 2 + a 2 + 2a 2 cos( π − dθ)
–a
= 2a2 (1 − cos θ) ⇒ 2a2 (1 − 1 + 2 sin 2dθ / 2) = 2a sin d θ/2
2 Speedometer measure speed of car as it only gives the magnitude.

3 When particle is moving with constant velocity its average velocity and instantaneous velocity will be
same and magnitude of instantaneous velocity will also be same.

∆S
4 VAvg = , ∆S = VAvg × ∆t
∆t

∆S x
5 VAvg = ∆ S = 0 with zero displacement non zero VAvg is not
∆t

possible zero displacement and non zero V is possible if particle
t
is reversing and coming to starting point. Show on x-t graph by an example.
6 Speed of projectile is smallest at the highest point.

7 Both the ball will hit the ground with same speed.
8 If sack of rice is dropped when it is just above the centre it will fall ahead of circle because sack will
have velocity same as plane in horizontal direction.
9 Ist Curve : at particular time x has more than one value hence not a 1-D motion.

IInd Curve : | V| cannot be negative
IIIrd Curve : Length of a moving body can not decrease with time
10 Ist Curve : A ball moving forward collides with surface rebounds and stops after IInd collision
IInd Curve : A ball repeatedly making inelastic collisions with floor.
IIIrd Curve : Collision of a ball with surface. {Surface has large velocity for short time}
11 (a) is incorrect car can not travel around track with constant velocity as direction is continuously
changing.
(b) correct
12 Ball at maximum height V = 0 for just an instant but acceleration due to gravity.
1
13 Vf = 2gH . Let balls meet after t sec. h1
1 2 1 2 H X
h1 = gt and h2 = Vf t = gt
2 2 h2
H V0=Vf
h1 + h2 = H = Vf t H = 2 gH t t = 2
2g
1 H H
∴ h1 = g = hence they will meet above half height of building.
2 2g 4

14 Initially bullet is at rest u = 0 V2 = 0 + 2as
V2
∴ a= muzzle velocity is more for short barrl and S is also less hence acceleration will be more in that case.
2S
15 Hence we can not conclude that velocity of boat is 5 m/sec w.r.t. shore
VBottle = Vriver ; VB – VR = 5
16 Yes wrench will hit at the same place on the deck irrespective of that boat is at rest or moving because
when boat is at rest wrench will have zero horizontally velocity and when boat is moving both will have
same horizontal velocity.
17 Acceleration of the projectile remains constant throughout the journey = g
18 (a) In child point of view range will be same in both the cases.
(b) In ground frame of reference
VCT = VC – VT
VC = VCT + VT
For front range Vcannon = VC cos θ + VT Range will be more
For Rear range Vcannon = VC cos θ – VT Range will be less
d
19 d t= for tmin cos θ = 1 maximum Hence A will reach opposite end in least time
Vbr Vbr cos θ
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - I
1. B 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. D 7. C 8. B 9. B 10. D 11. C 12. B 13. B 14. A
15. D 16. C 17. B 18. C 19. C 20 D 21. C 22. D 23. C 24. B 25. B
26. D 27. C 28. B 29. C 30. A 31. A 32. A 33. C 34. A 35. D 36. D
37. C 38. C 39. B 40. B 41. D 42. D 43. B 44. A 45. D 46. A 47. B
48. C 49. B 50. C 51. D 52. B 53. B 54. A 55. C 56. C 57. C 58. C
59. A 60. A 61. C 62. C 63. D 64. B 65. C 66. D 67. B 68. D 69. D
70. C 71. A 72. A 73. A 74. A 75. B 76. B 77. C 78. B 79. B
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - II

1. A,B,C,D 2. A,C 3. B,C,D 4. B,D 5. C,D 6. A,C 7. A,C 8. A,D 9. C
10. A,B,C,D 11. B,C,D 12. A,C,D 13. A,B,C 14. C,D 15. D,C 16. A,B,C,D 17. A,B 18. A,B,C,D
19. A,C,D 20. B

ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - III
1. (a) y2 + 8y + 12 = x ; (b) crosses x axis when t = 4 sec, crosses y axis when t = ± 2 sec.
2. (a) 5i + 3j + 8k, (b) 2i + 16k, (c) 7 2 , (d) 2 65 3. –18 tj – 3 cos t k ; 3π ; 3 4 + π 4
1 3
4. (a) m / s , (b) m / s 2 , (c) 5. v = –30 i – 40 j, a = –16 i – 8 j 6. a/2b, a2/4b
3 2
2 38 v0 a vel π 2
7. (a) m , (b) m 8. 42 km/hr 9. 10.  3  cm/min 11. 25 m
3 3 – +  
 h
12. (a) 2.7 km; (b) 60 m/s; (c) 225 m and 2.25 km 13. 240 m 14.   15. 50 m
 8g 
16. 100 m, zero 17. 5 s 18. 36.2 sec. 19. 20 5 20. 20 sec 21. 60, 2 m/sec.
22. u = 50 ( 3 – 1) m/sec., H = 125 (– 3 + 2)m 23. (i) 1503.2 m (ii) 35.54 sec (iii) 3970.56 m
24. 100/3 m/s 25. 10 m/s 26. 75 m 27. R + 2H 28. 6 m/s 29. 20 × 2/3
–1  1  4
30. 10 m 31. 50 3 cm 32. tan–1 (1/2) 33. tan–1(3) 34. θ = tan   ,
2 3
35. 200 m, 20 m/min, 12 m/min
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - IV

πv 4
1. 122.7 km/hr 2.
g2
3. 60°, tan
–1
( 3/2 ) 4. u = 3m/s 5. (a) 10 ms–1,(b) 2 sec, (c)5 m, (d)
1
16.25 m, (e) 20 m 6. sec 7. 5 m/sec 8. 1 sec 9. 2 tan–1 (1/3) 10. θ = 37°, v = 6 m/s
3
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - V
a2 u 2 sin 2α u cos(α + θ)
1. (a) 1 sec, (b) ( (5 3 m, 5 m) 2. , tan –1 a 3. (a) , (b) v =
4b g cos θ cos θ
4. B 5. A 6. u = 7.29 m/s, t = 1 sec 7. (a) 45°, (b) 2m/sec
8. B 9. C 10. B 11. B 12. 5 m/s2

CONSTRAINED MOTION
MOTION,
TION,
N.L.M., FRICTION
CONTENTS
CONSTRAINED MOTION
1. String Constraint ............................................................................. 3 – 9
2. Wedge Constraint ........................................................................... 9 – 10
NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION
1. Force ....................................................................................... 11– 15
2. Newton's Ist Law of Motion ................................................................ 16
3. Newton's 2nd Law of Motion ........................................................ 16 – 25
4. Newton's 3rd Law of Motion ......................................................... 25 – 27
5. Spring Force ............................................................................. 27 – 32
6. Pseudo Force ........................................................................... 32 – 36
IVRS No. 0744-2439051, 0744-2439052, 0744-2439053, www. motioniitjee.com, email-hr.motioniitjee@gmail.com
Page # 2 CONSTRAINED MOTION
FRICTION
1. Friction ................................................................................... 37 – 40
2. Minimum Force Required to move the particle .................................. 40 – 41
3. Friction as the component of contact force .................................... 41 – 42
4. Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane .................................................. 42 – 43
5. Angle of Repose ............................................................................... 43
6. Two blocks on an inclined Plane .................................................... 44 – 45
7. Range of force for which Acceleration of body is zero ....................... 45 – 48
8. Pulley block system involve friction ............................................... 48 – 49
9. Two block system ...................................................................... 49 – 53
10. Friction involve pseudo concept ................................................... 54 – 55
11. Exercise - I .............................................................................. 56 – 87
12. Exercise - II ............................................................................. 88 – 96
13. Exercise - III .......................................................................... 97 – 106
14. Exercise - IV ......................................................................... 107 – 111
15. Exercise - V .......................................................................... 112 – 117
16. Answer key ........................................................................... 118 – 120
IIT-JEE Syllabus :
Newton's law of motion; inertial frame of reference; Uniformly accelerated frames of
reference, Static and dynamic friction.
IVRS No. 0744-2439051, 0744-2439052, 0744-2439053, www.motioniitjee.com, email-hr.motioniitjee@gmail.com
CONSTRAINED MOTION Page # 3
1. CONSTRAINED MOTION :
1.1 String constraint :

When the two object are connected through a string and if the string have the following properties :
• The length of the string remains constant i.e., it is inextensible string
• Always remains taut i.e., does not slacks.
Then the parameters of the motion of the objects along the length of the string have a definite relation
between them.
Ist format : - (when string is fixed)
A s B v
The block B moves with velocity v. i.e. each particle of block B moves with velocity v.
If string remain attached to block B it is necessary that velocity of each particle of string is same = v
(vs = v)
Now we can say that Block A also moves with velocity v.
v v
A B
vA = vB = v
: If pulley is fixed then the velocity of all the particles of string is same along the string.
v
B
Ex.1
A vA =?
Sol. In the above situation block B is moving with velocity v. Then speed of each point of the string is v
along the string.
∴ speed of the block A is also v
v
B
A vA=v
Ex.2
A
VA = 8 m/s
37°
vB=? B
A
Sol. ∵ Block A is moving with velocity 8 ms–1. 8 m/s
∴ velocity of every point on the string must be 8m/s along the string. 8 m/s
The real velocity of B is vB. Then the string will not break only 8 m/s
when the compoent of vB along string is 8 m/s.
37°
8 vB B
⇒ vB cos 37° = 8 ⇒ vB = = 10 m/sec
cos 37°
Ex.3 Find out the velocity of block B in a pulley block system as shown in figure.
53° 37°
10 m/s A B
Sol. In a given pulley block system the velocity of all the particle of string is let us assume v then.
v v
53° 37°
10m/s A B
53°
10cos53°
10 m/s is the real velocity of block A then its component along string is v.
⇒ 10 cos 53° = v ...(1)
v
If vB is the real velocity of block B then it component along string is v then
37°
vBcos37° = v ...(2)
vB B
from (1) & (2) vB cos37° = 10 cos53°
10 × 3 / 5 30 15
⇒ vB = = = m / sec
4/5 4 2
50/3 m/s
53°
Ex.4
What is the velocity of block A in the figure as shown above.

Sol. The component of velocity of ring along string = velocity of A
50
= cos 53° = vA ⇒ vA = 10 m/s
3
: In the first format only two points of string are attached or touched to moving bodies.
IInd format (when pulley is also moving)
To understand this format we consider the following example vP

in which pulley is moving with velocity vp and both block
have velocity vA & vB respectively as shwon in figure.
If we observe the motion of A and B with respect to pulley.
Then the pulley is at rest. Then from first format.
vA vB
vAP = – vBP
A B
(–ve sign indicate the direction of each block is opposite with respect to Pulley)
v A – v p = – vB + v P
v A + vB
⇒ vP =
2
:- To solve the problem put the values of vA, vB, & vP with sign.
10 m/s
vP
Ex.5
A v=?
A
v A + vB
Sol. vP =
2
Putting vp = 10 ms–1, vB = 0,
we get
vA = 20 ms–1 (upward direction)
vP= 10m/s
Ex.6
5m/s
A B v=?
B
Sol. If we take upward direction as +ve then

–5 + vB
10 =
2
vB = 25 m/sec (in upward direction)
7 m/s
E F
8m/s
Ex.7
2m/s A B C D
5m/s
Find out the velocity of Block D

Sol. From 2nd format of constrained motion
v A + vB
vE =
2
2–5
vE = = –3/2 (If upward direction is taken to be +ve)
2
vE = –3/2 m/s
vE + vF –3 / 2 + vF 31
Now = 7 m/s ⇒ 7 = ⇒ 14 + 3/2 = vF ⇒ vF =
2 2 2
v C + vD 8 + vD 31
Now = vF ⇒ = ⇒ vD = 31 – 8
2 2 2
vD = 23 m/s (upward direction)
B C
E
Ex.8 G
m
A H F
10 m/sec
Find the velocity of point G.

Sol. In string ABCD from first format of constrain
VD = 10 m/s↑
vH + vE
Now vD =
2
vH = 10 m/s ↓ if upward direction is taken to be positive
−10 + v E
+ 10 = ⇒ vE = 30 m/s ↑
2
vF + v G –10 + v G
Now = vE ⇒ 30 =
2 2
60 + 10 = vG
vG = 70 m/s↑
: In IInd format three or four Points of the string is attached to the moving bodies.
III format :
SOLVING STRATEGY :
1. First choose the longest string in the given problem which contains the point of which velocity/
acceleration to be find out.
2. Now mark a point on the string wherever it comes in contact or leaves the contact of real bodies.
3. If due to motion of a point, length of the part of a string with point is related, increases then its speed
will be taken +ve otherwise –ve.
A
D E H I
J
C vC=?
Ex.9 B C F G
5m/s
A B 2m/s
Sol.
Step 1. We choose a longest string ABCDEFGHIJ in which we have to find out velocity of point J (vc)
Step 2. Mark all the point A, B ................
Step 3. Write equation
vA + vB + vC + vD + vE + vF + vG + vH + vI + vJ = 0
vA = vD = vE = vH = vI = 0
(No movement of that point because attached to fixed objects)
⇒ vB + vc + vF + vG + vJ = 0 ...(1)
vB = vC = 5 m/s (increases the length)
vF = vG = 2m/s (It also increases the length)
Let us assume C is moving upward with velocity vc so vc negative because it decreasing the length
⇒ 5 + 5 + 2 + 2 – vc = 0
vC = 14 m/sec (upward)
Ex.10
4m/s
F
c ↑ 2m / sec
E
8m / s↑ A B ↓ 2m / s
1 m / s↓ D
Find out the velocity of block E as shown in figure.
Sol.
Step-1 We first choose the longest string in which point j (block E) lie. (abcdefghij)
4m/s
c d F
b e
x
a h y i
c ↑ 2m / s
k
j
f g E
8m / s ↑ A B ↓ 2m / s
1m / s ↓ D z
Step 2 : Now write equation according to the velocity of each point (either increase or decrease the length)
va + vb + vc + vd + ve + vf + vg + vh + vi + vj= 0 ...(1)
Now find value of va, vb ..... in a following way
v A + vB
vk = (from second format)
2
8–2
= = 3 m/sec. (upward)
2
vK + v C
va = (from 2nd format)
2
3+2
= = 5/2 m/sec. (upward)
2
vx = 4m/s (from first format of constrain)
vy + vz
from 2nd format of constrain vx = ∴ vz = 0 (fixed)
2
⇒ vy = 2 vx = 8 m/s (upward)
⇒ Now va = – 5/2 m/s (decreases the length)
vb = vc = vd = ve = 0 (attached to fixed object)
vf = vg = 1m/s (increases the length)
vh = vi = vy = 8 m/s (increase the length)
Let us assume block E move upward then vj = – vE (decrease the length)
Puting the above values in eq. (1)
⇒ –5/2 + 1 + 1 + 8 + 8 – vE = 0
vE = 31/2 m/s (upward)
: In the following figure pulley is moving with velocity v at an angle θ with the horizontal.
v sin θ
v
v
A B A
θ B
θ
C C v cos θ
D D
Only v cos θ is responsible to increase or decrease the length AB and v sin θ is responsible to either
decrease or increase the length CD.
* Further solving strategy is same as 3rd format
Ex.11 Find out the relation between acceleration a and b as shown in following figure.
b
A a
B
θ
Sol.
Step 1. Mark the points on the string which is attached to the real object (e.f,g,h)
b cos θ
f b f
e
g
b θ g
h
bc
b
os
A a
θ
B θ h
θ b
a
Step 2. Acceleration of each point which are responsible to effect the length of string
ae = 0 (because it is attached to fixed object)
af = –b (attach to pulley which is moving with wedge's acceleration & –ve because it decreases the
length)
ag = b cos θ (only this component is responsible to effect the length of string)
ah = (a – b cos θ) (resultant velocity at point h along the string)
So now from 3rd format
ae + af + ag + ah = 0
⇒ 0 + (–b) + b cos θ + (a – b cos θ) = 0
a–b=0
⇒ a=b
2. WEDGE CONSTRAINT :
Conditions :
(i) Contact must not be lost between two bodies.
(ii) Bodies are rigid.
The relative velocity / acceleration perpendicular to the contact surface of the two rigid object is
always zero. Wedge constraint is applicable for each contact.
v3
v3 v1
v 1 sin θ
v2
θ
Contact
Plane
v 3 = v1 sin θ
In other words,
Components of velocity and acceleration perpendicular to the contact surface of the two objects is
always equal if there is no deformation and they remain in contact.
Ex.12 Find the relation between velocity of rod and that of the wedge at any instant in the figure
shown.
v
θ u
Sol. Using wedge constraint.

Component of velocity of rod along perpendicular to inclined surface is equal to velocity of wedge
along that direction.
u cos θ = v sin θ
u
= tan θ
v
u = v tan θ
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION Page # 11
1. FORCE
A pull or push which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion or direction of
motion of any object is called force. Force is the interaction between the object and the source
(providing the pull or push). It is a vector quantity.
Effect of resultant force :
• may change only speed
• may change only direction of motion.
• may change both the speed and direction of motion.
• may change size and shape of a body
kg.m
unit of force : newton and (MKS System)
s2
g.cm
dyne and (CGS System)
s2
1 newton = 105 dyne
Kilogram force (kgf)
The force with which earth attracts a 1 kg body towards its centre is called kilogram force, thus
Force in newton
kgf =
g
Dimensional Formula of force : [MLT–2]
• For full information of force we require
→ Magnitude of force
→ direction of force
→ point of application of the force
Force
Electromagnetic Gravitational Contact Nuclear

force force force force
Normal Tension friction

reaction
1.1 Electromagnetic Force

Force exerted by one particle on the other because of the electric charge on the particles is called
electromagnetic force.
Following are the main characteristics of electromagnetic force
• These can be attractive or repulsive
• These are long range forces
• These depend on the nature of medium between the charged particles.
• All macroscopic force (except gravitational) which we experience as push or pull or by contact are
electromagnetic, i.e., tension in a rope, the force of friction, normal reaction, muscular force, and
force experienced by a deformed spring are electromagnetic forces. These are manifestations of the
electromagnetic attractions are repulsions between atoms/molecules.
Page # 12 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
1.2 Gravitational force :
It acts between any two masses kept anywhere in the universe. It follows inverse square rule (F ∝
1
) and is attractive in nature.
dis tan ce 2
GM1M2
F=
R2
The force mg, which Earth applies on the bodies, is gravitational force.
1.3 Nuclear force :

It is the strongest force. It keeps nucleons (neutrons and protons) together inside the nucleus inspite
of large electric repulsion between protons. Radioactivity, fission, and fusion, etc. result because of
unbalancing of nuclear forces. It acts within the nucleus that too upto a very small distance.
1.4 Contact force :

Forces which are transmitted between bodies by short range atomic molecular interactions are called
contact forces. When two objects come in contact they exert contact forces on each other.
1.4.1 Normal force (N) :
It is the component of contact force perpendicular to the surface.

It measures how strongly the surfaces in contact are pressed
against each other. It is the 2
electromagnetic force. A table is placed on Earth
as shown in figure. 1
3 4
• Here table presses the earth so normal force exerted by four legs of table on earth are as shown in
figure.
N1 N2
ground
N3 N4
• Now a boy pushes a block kept on a frictionless surface.
Block
Here, force exerted by boy on block is electromagnetic interaction which arises due to similar charges
appearing on finger and contact surface of block, it is normal force.
(by boy) N
Block
• A block is kept on inclined surface. Component of its weight presses the surface perpendicularly due
to which contact force acts between surface and block.
θ
Normal force exerted by block on the surface of inclined plane is shown in figure.
N
θ
Force acts perpendicular to the surface
:
• Normal force acts in such a fashion that it tries to compress the body
• Normal is a dependent force, it comes in role when one surface presses the other.
Ex.1 Two blocks are kept in contact on a smooth surface as shown in figure. Draw normal force
exerted by A on B.
A B
Sol. In above problem, block A does not push block B, so there is no molecular interaction between A and B.
Hence normal force exerted by A on B is zero.
Ex.2 Draw normal forces on the massive rod at point 1 and 2 as shown in figure.
Sol. Normal force acts perpendicular to extended surface at point of contact.

N2
N1
50N
30°
Ex.3 Two blocks are kept in contact as shown in figure. Find
(a) forces exerted by surfaces (floor and wall) on blocks 100N
10kg 20kg
(b) contact force between two blcoks.
N1
Sol. F.B.D. of 10 kg block
100 N
N1 = 10 g = 100 N ...(1) N2
N2 = 100 N ...(2)
10 g
N4 50 N
F.B.D. of 20 kg block
30°
N2 = 50 sin 30° + N3
∴ N3 = 100 – 25 = 75 N ...(3)
N2 N3
and N4 = 50 cos30° + 20 g
N4 = 243.30 N
20 g
R=5m
B 3m
A 1m
Ex.4
Find out the normal reaction at point A and B if the mass of sphere is 10 kg.
N2 N1
y
N2 N1
O
5m3m 37° B 37° 53°

Sol. A 53°
1m 4m Now F.B.D. x' O x
10 g
y'
Now resolve the forces along x & y direction
3N2
N2sin37°=
5
y
N1sin53° = 4N1/5
N2 N1
37° 53°
3N1
4N2 O N1cos53°=
N2cos37°= 5
5
100
∵ The body is in equilibrium so equate the force in x & y direction

3N1 4N2
In x-direction = ...(1)
5 5
3N2 4N1
In y-direction + = 100 ...(2)
5 5
after solving above equation
N1 = 80 N, N2 = 60 N
1.4.2 Tension :
Tension in a string is an electromagnetic force. It arises when a string is pulled. If a massless string is
not pulled, tension in it is zero. A string suspended by rigid support is pulled by a force ‘F’ as shown in
figure, for calculating the tension at point ‘A’ we draw F.B.D. of marked portion of the string; Here string
is massless.
F.B.D of marked portion

A T
A
F F
⇒ T=F
String is considered to be made of a number of small segments which attracts each other due to
electromagnetic nature. The attraction force between two segments is equal and opposite due to
newton’s third law.
Conclusion :
T = mg
(i) Tension always acts along the string and in such a direction that it tries
to reduce T
the length of string
(ii) If the string is massless then the m
tension will be same along the string but if the string have some mass
then the tension will continuously change along the string. mg
Ex.5 The system shown in figure is in equilibrium. Find the magnitude of tension in each string ;
T1, T2, T3 and T4. (g = 10 m/s–2)
60°
T4
T3 30° B
T
T1 A 2
10 kg
Sol. F.B.D. of block 10 kg F.B.D. of point ‘A’
y
T0 T2
30°
T0=10 g T1 x
T0=100N A
10g T0
∑ Fy = 0
T2 cos30° = T0 = 100 N
200
T2 = N
3
∑ Fx = 0
200 1 100
T1 = T2 sin 30° = . = N
3 2 3
y
F.B.D of point of ‘B’ T4

60°
∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ T4 cos60° = T2 cos 30°
T3 x
and ∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ T3 + T2 sin 30° = T4 sin 60° B
°
30
200 T2
∴ T3 = N , T = 200 N
3 4
1.4.3 Frictional force :

It is the component of contact force tangential to the surface. It opposes the relative motion (or
attempted relative motion) of the two surfaces in contact. (which is explained later)
2. NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION :

According to this law “A system will remain in its state of rest or of uniform motion unless a net external
force act on it.
1st law can also be stated as “If the net external force acting on a body is zero, only then the body
remains at rest.”
The word external means external to the system (object under observation), interactions within the
system has not to be considered.
The word net means the resultant of all the forces acting on the system.
Newton’s first law is nothing but Galileo’s law of inertia.
Inertia means inability of a body to change its state of motion or rest by itself.
The property of a body that determines its resistance to a change in its motion is its mass (inertia).
Greater the mass, greater the inertia.
An external force is needed to set the system into motion, but no external force is needed to keep a
body moving with constant velocity in its uniform motion.
Newton’s laws of motion are valid only in a set of frame of references, these frames of reference are
known as inertial frames of reference.
Generally, we take earth as an inertial frame of reference, but strictly speaking it is not an inertial
frame.
All frames moving uniformly with respect to an inertial frame are themselves inertial.
We take all frames at rest or moving uniformly with respect to earth, as inertial frames.
3. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION :

Newton’s second law states, “The rate of change of a momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts”

dp dp
i.e., F ∝ or F = k
dt dt
where k is a constant of proportionality.

p = mv, So F = k (dmv)

dt
For a body having constant mass,

dv
⇒ F = km = k ma
dt
From experiments, the value of k is found to be 1.

So, Fnet = ma
Force can’t change the momentum along a direction normal to it, i.e., the component of velocity
normal to the force doesn’t change.
Newton’s 2nd law is strictly applicable to a single point particle. In case of rigid bodies or system of

particles or system of rigid bodies, F refers to total external force acting on system and a refers to
acceleration of centre of mass of the system. The internal forces, if any, in the system are not to be

included in F .
Acceleration of a particle at any instant and at a particular location is determined by the force (net)
acting on the particle at the same instant and at same location and is not in any way depending on the
history of the motion of the particle.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY :
Newton’s laws refer to a particle and relate the forces acting on the particle to its mass and to its
acceleration. But before writing any equation from Newton’s law, you should be careful about which
particle you are considering. The laws are applicable to an extended body too which is nothing but
collection of a large number of particles.
Follow the steps given below in writing the equations :
Step 1 : Select the body
The first step is to decide the body on which the laws of motion are to be applied. The body may be a
single particle, an extended body like a block, a combination of two blocks-one kept over another or
connected by a string. The only condition is that all the parts of the body or system must have the
same acceleration.
Step 2 : Identify the forces
Once the system is decided, list down all the force acting on the system due to all the objects in the
environment such as inclined planes, strings, springs etc. However, any force applied by the system
shouldn’t be included in the list. You should also be clear about the nature and direction of these
forces.
Step 3 : Make a Free-body diagram (FBD)
Make a separate diagram representing the body by a point and draw vectors representing the forces
acting on the body with this point as the common origin.
This is called a free-body diagram of the body.
Tb Ts
R
B
5
C R
m/sec2
Wp Wm
100kg platform man
F.B.D of Diagram
50 kg
Look at the adjoining free-body diagrams for the platform and the man. Note that the force applied by
the man on the rope hasn’t been included in the FBD.
Once you get enough practice, you’d be able to identify and draw forces in the main diagram itself
instead of making a separate one
Step 4 : Select axes and Write equations
When the body is in equillibrium then choose the axis in such a fashion that maximum number of force
lie along the axis.
If the body is moving with some acceleration then first find out the direction of real acceleration and
choose the axis one is along the real acceleration direction and other perpendicular to it.
Write the equations according to the newton’s second law (Fnet = ma) in the corresponding axis.
4. APPLICATIONS :
4.1 Motion of a Block on a Horizontal Smooth Surface.
Case (i) : When subjected to a horizontal pull :
The distribution of forces on the body are shown. As there is no motion along vertical direction, hence,
R = mg
For horizontal motion F = ma or a = F/m R
a
m F
mg
Case (ii) : When subjected to a pull acting at an angle (θ) to the horizontal :
Now F has to be resolved into two components, F cosθ along the horizontal and F sin θ along the
vertical direction.
Fsinθ
R
F
θ
m Fcosθ
mg
For no motion along the vertical direction.
we have R + F sin θ = mg
or R = mg – F sin θ
: Hence R ≠ mg. R < mg
For horizontal motion
F cos θ
F cos θ = ma, a =
m
Case (iii) : When the block is subjected to a push acting at an

angle θ to the horizontal : (down ward) R
The force equation in this case θ
F
R = mg + F sin θ
θ
F cos θ
: R ≠ mg, R > mg
mg F
For horizontal motion
F cos θ F sin θ
F cosθ = ma, a =
m
4.2 Motion of bodies in contact.

Case (i) : Two body system :
Let a force F be applied on mass m1
B
A
F
f f
m1 m2
Free body diagrams :

(vertical force do not cause motion, hence they have not been shown in diagram)
F m 2F
⇒ a = m +m and f = m + m
1 2 1 2
f
(i) Here f is known as force of contact. m1 m2
(ii) Acceleration of system can be found simply by F f
force
a=
total mass
: If force F be applied on m2, the acceleration will remain the same, but the force of contact will be
different
m1F
i.e., f’ = m + m
1 2
Ex.6 Find the contact force between the 3 kg and 2kg block as shown in figure.
B
A F2 = 25N
F1 = 100N 3kg 2kg
Sol. Considering both blocks as a system to find the common acceleration

Fnet = F1 – F2 = 100 – 25 = 75 N
common acceleration Fnet = 75 N
5kg a
Fnet 75 2
a= = = 15 m / s
5kg 5
To find the contact force R
between A & B we draw a
F.B.D of 2 kg block N 2kg 25 N
from (∑Fnet)x = max
⇒ N – 25 = (2) (15)
⇒ N = 55 N 2g
Case (ii) : Three body system :

C
A B
F m m2 m3
1

For A For B For C
F
⇒ a = m +m +m
1 2 3
(m 2 + m 3 ) F m1 m2 m3
F f1 f1 f2 f2
and f1 = (m + m + m )
1 2 3
m 3F F – f1 = m1a f1 – f2 = m2a f2 = m3a

f2 = (m + m + m )
1 2 3
f1 = contact force between masses m1 and m2
f2 = contact force between masses m2 and m3
Remember : Contact forces will be different if force F will be applied on mass C
Ex.7 Find the contact force between the block and acceleration of the blocks as shown in figure.
C
B
A
F1 = 50N 3kg F2 = 30N
2kg 5kg
Sol. Considering all the three block as a system to find the common acceleration
Fnet = 50 – 30 = 20 N
20 Fnet=20N
a= = 2m / s2 10kg a
10
To find the contact force
R
between B & C we draw F.B.D.
of 3 kg block.
N1 3kg 30N
(∑ F )net
x
= ma
a
⇒ N1 – 30 = 3(2) ⇒ N1 = 36 N mg
To find contact force between A & B we draw a
N2 5kg N1
⇒ N2 – N1 = 5a
N2 = 5 × 2 + 36 ⇒ N2 = 46 N
4.3 Motion of connected Bodies
Case (i) For Two Bodies :
F is the pull on body A of mass m1. The pull of A on B is exercised as tension through the string
connecting A and B. The value of tension throughout the string is T only.
B A
T T
m2 m1 F
For body A For body B
R1 a R2 a
T A F B T
m1g m2g
R1 = m1g R2 = m2g
F – T = m1a T = m2a
F
⇒ a = m +m
1 2
Case (ii) : For Three bodies :

a
A B C →
T1 T2 F
m1 m2 m3
For A For B For C
R1 R2 R3
A T1 B C
T1 T2 T2 F
m1g m2g m3g
R2 = m2g R3 = m3g
R1 = m1g
T2 – T1 = m2a F – T2 = m3a
T1 = m1a
⇒ T2 = m2a + T1 ⇒ F = m3a + T2
T2 = (m2 + m1)a =m 3 a+(m 1+m2 )a
F=(m1+m2+m3)a
F
⇒ a = m +m +m
1 2 3
Ex.8 A 5 kg block has a rope of mass 2 kg attached to its underside and a 3 kg block is suspended
from the other end of the rope. The whole system is accelerated upward is 2 m/s2 by an external
force F0.
F0
5 kg
2 kg
3 kg
(a) What is F0?
(b) What is the force on rope?
(c) What is the tension at middle point of the rope?
(g = 10 m/s2)
Sol. For calculating the value of F0, consider two blocks with the rope as a system.
F.B.D. of whole system
F0
(a)
2m/s2
10 g = 100N
F0 – 100 = 10 × 2
F = 120 N ...(1)
(b) According to Newton’s second law, net force on rope.
F = ma = (2) (2) = 4 N ...(2)
(c) For calculating tension at the middle point we draw T
F.B.D. of 3 kg block with half of the rope (mass 1 kg) as
shown.
T – 4g = 4.(2) = 48 N 4g
4.4 Motion of a body on a smooth inclined plane :
Natural acceleration down the plane = g sin θ

Driving force for acceleration a up the plane, F=m(a+ gsinθ)
and for an acceleration a down the plane, F=m(a – gsinθ)
mg sin mgcos
mg
Ex.9 Find out the contact force between the 2kg & 4kg block as shown in figure.
g
4k
g
2k
37º
Sol. On an incline plane acceleration of the block is independent of mass. So both the blocks will move with
the same acceleration (gsin 37º) so the contact force between them is zero.
Ex.10 Find out the contact force between 2kg & 3kg block placed on the incline plane as shown in
figure.
g
3k
g
2k
N
20
37º
Sol. Considering both the block as a 5kg system because both will move the same acceleration.
g
5k
N
20
37º
Now show forces on the 5 kg block
N
g
5k
N
20
37º 5g
∵ Acceleration of 5kg block is down the incline.
N
So choose one axis down the incline and other a
g
5k
3 7 0N
perpendicular to it
2
From Newton’s second Law
º
5gcos 37º
s in 37º 5g
N = 5g cos 37º ...(i) 5g
5gsin 37º – 20 = 5a ..(ii)
30 – 20 = 5a
a = 2m/s2 (down the incline)
F o r c o n ) between 2kg & 3kg block
t a
1
c t f o r c e ( N
1
N
we draw F.B.D. of 3kg block

From
g
2
3k
/s
Fnet = ma
2m
7º
n3
⇒ 3gsin 37º – N1 = 3 × 2
si
3g
18 – N1 = 6
N1= 12 N
4.5 Pulley block system :
Ex.11 One end of string which passes through pulley and connected to 10 kg mass at other end is
pulled by 100 N force. Find out the acceleration of 10 kg mass. (g = 9.8 m/s2)
Sol. Since string is pulled by 100N force.

100 N
So tension in the string is 100 N.
100 – 10 g = 10 a
100 N
100 – 10 × 9.8 = 10 a
10 g
a = 0.2 m/s2 10 kg
Ex.12 In the figure shown, find out acceleration of each block.
10kg
2kg 4kg
Sol. Now F.B.D. of each block and apply Newton’s

second law on each F.B.D
10kg
a1
2T
(1) 10 kg a1 ⇒ 10g –2 T = 10a1 ...(i) a2 2kg 4kg a3
10g
(2) 2kg a2 ⇒ T – 2g = 2a2 ...(2)
2g
(3) 4kg a3 ⇒ T – 4g = 4a3 ...(3)
4g
from constrain relation 2a1 = a2 + a3 ...(4)

Solving equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) we get
800
T= N
23
a1 = 70/23 m/s2 (downward), a2 = 170/23 m/s2 (upward), a3 = 30/23 m/s2 (downward)
Ex.13 Find the acceleration of each block in the figure shown below; in terms of their masses m1,
m2 and g. Neglect any friction.
m1
m2
Sol. Let T be the tension in the string that is assumed to be massless. N1

For mass m1, the FBD shows that
N1 = m1g T
Where N1 is the force applied upward by plane on the mass m1.
If acceleration of m1 along horizontal is a1. then
m1g
T = m1a1 ...(i)
For mass m2, the FBD shows that
m2g – 2T = m2a2 ...(ii)
Where a2 is vertical acceleration of mass m2.
Note that upward tension on m2 is 2T applied
by both sides of the string. T T
from constrain relation 2T
a
a2 = 1
2
Thus, the acceleration of m1 its twice that of m2. m2g
with this input, solving (i) and (ii) we find
a2
2m 2 g
a1 = 4m + m m2g
1 2
m2g
a2 = 4m + m
1 2
Ex.14 Two blocks A and B each having a mass of 20 kg, rest on frictionless surfaces as shown in the
figure below. Assuming the pulleys to be light and frictionless, compute :
(a) the time required for block A, to move down by 2m on the plane, starting from rest,
(b) tension in the string, connecting the blocks.
A
B
37º
Sol.
Step 1. Draw the FBDs for both the blocks. If tension in the string is T, then we have
NA T
NB
T
and
mAg mB g
Note that mAg, should better be resolved along and perpendicular to the plane, as the block A is moving
along the plane.
T
NA
mAg sin mAg cos
Step 2. From FBDs, we write the force equations ‘

for block A where
NA = mA g cos θ = 20 × 10 × 0.8 = 160 N
and mAg sin θ – T = mA a ... (i)
Where ‘a’ is acceleration of masses of blocks A and B.
Similarly, force equations for block B are
NB = mBg = 20 × 10 = 200 N
and T = mBa ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we obtain
m A g sin θ 20 × 10 × 0.6
a = m +m = = 3 ms–2
A B 40
T = mBa = 20 × 3 = 60 N
Step 3. With constant acceleration a = 3 ms–2, the block A moves down the inclined plane a distance S =
2 m in time t given by
1 2 2S 2
S= at or t = = sec onds.
2 a 3
Ex.15 Two blocks m1 and m2 are placed on a smooth inclined

plane as shown in figure. If they are released from rest.
Find : m1
(i) acceleration of mass m1 and m2 √3kg m2 1kg
(ii) tension in the string
(iii) net force on pulley exerted by string 30° 60°
Sol. F.B.D of m1 : N1 T
m1g sin θ – T = m1a
a
m1
3
g – T = 3a ...(i)
2 θ=30°
m1g
F.B.D. of m2 :
a
T – m2g sin θ = m2a T N2
3 m2
T – 1. g = 1.a ...(ii)
2 θ
Adding eq. (i) and (ii) we get a = 0
m2g
Putting this value in eq. (i) we get
3g
T= ,
2
F.B.D. of pulley
FR = 2T
T T
3
FR = g FR
2
5. NEWTONS’ 3RD LAW OF MOTION :
Statement : “To every action there is equal and opposite reaction”.

But what is the meaning of action and reaction and which force is action and which force is reaction?
Every force that acts on body is due to the other bodies in environment. Suppose that a body A

experiences a force FAB due to other body B. Also body B will experience a force FBA due to A.
According to Newton third law two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction Mathematically
we write it as

FAB = –FBA

Here we can take either FAB or FBA as action force and other will be the reaction force.
: (i) Action-Reaction pair acts on two different bodies.
(ii) Magnitude of force is same.

(iii) Direction of forces are in opposite direction.
(iv) For action-reaction pair there is no need of contact
Ex.16 A block of mass ‘m’ is kept on the ground as shown in figure.

m
(i) Draw F.B.D. of block
(ii) Are forces acting on block action - reaction pair
(iii) If answer is no, draw action reaction pair.
Sol. (i) F.B.D. of block
N (Normal)
mg (field force)
(ii) ‘N’ and Mg are not action - reaction pair. Since pair act on different bodies, and they are of same
nature.
(iii) Pair of ‘mg’ of block acts on earth in opposite direction.
earth
mg
and pair of ‘N’ acts on surface as shown in figure.
5.1 Climbing on the Rope :
F.B.D of man
Rope
T
a a
mg
Now three condition arises.

if T > mg ⇒ man accelerates in upward direction
T < mg ⇒ man accelerates in downward direction
T = mg ⇒ man’s acceleration is zero
* Either climbing or decending on the rope man exerts force downward
Ex.17 If the breaking strength of string is 600N then find out
the maximum acceleration of the man with which he
can climb up the road
600N
(50 kg)
Sol. Maximum force that can be exerted on the man by the rope is 600 N.
F.B.D of man a
⇒ 600 – 50 g = 50 a
amax = 2 m/s2
50 g
Ex.18 A 60 kg painter on a 15 kg platform. A rope attached to the platform and passing over an
overhead pulley allows the painter to raise himself along with the platform.
400 N
(i) To get started, he pulls the rope down with a force of 400 N. Find the acceleration of the platform
as well as that of the painter.
(ii) What force must he exert on the rope so as to attain an upward speed of 1 m/s in 1 s ?
(iii) What force should apply now to maintain the constant speed of 1 m/s?
Sol. The free body diagram of the painter and the platform as a system can be drawn as shown in the
figure. Note that the tension in the string is equal to the force by which he pulles the rope.
(i) Applying Newton’s Second Law
2T – (M + m)g = (M + m)a TT
2T – (M + m)g
or a= a
M+m
Here M = 60 kg; m = 15 kg ; T = 400 N
g = 10 m/s2
2( 400) – ( 60 + 15)(10 ) (M+m) g
a= = 0.67 m/s2
60 + 15
(ii) To attain a speed of 1 m/s in one second the acceleration a must be 1 m/s2
Thus, the applied force is
1
F= (M + m) (g + a) = (60 + 15) (10 + 1) = 412.5 N
2
(iii) When the painter and the platform move (upward) together with a constant speed, it is in a state
of dynamic equilibrium
Thus, 2F – (M + m) g = 0
(M + m)g (60 + 15)(10)
or F = = = 375 N
2 2
6. SPRING FORCE :
Every spring resists any attempt to change its length; when it is compressed or extended, it exerts
force at its ends. The force exerted by a spring is given by F = –kx, where x is the change in length and
k is the stiffness constant or spring constant (unit Nm–1)
When spring is in its natural length, spring force is zero.

0 0+x

F=0 Fext F = –kx
F
Graph between spring force v/s x
Ex.19 Two blocks are connected by a spring of natural length 2 m. The force constant of spring is 200
N/m. Find spring force in following situations.
2m
A B
(a) If block ‘A’ and ‘B’ both are displaced by 0.5 m in same direction.
(b) If block ‘A’ and ‘B’ both are displaced by 0.5 m in opposite direction.
Sol. (a) Since both blocks are displaced by 0.5 m in same direcetion, so change in length of spring is zero.
Hence, spring force is zero.
(b) In this case, change in length of spring is 1 m. So spring force is F = –Kx
= – (200). (1)
F = –200 N
2m
A B Natural length
3m 1m
A B When spring A B When spring

is extended is compressed
F F F F
Ex.20 Force constant of a spring is 100 N/m. If a 10 kg block attached

with the spring is at rest, then find extension in the spring
(g = 10 m/s2)
Sol. In this situation, spring is in extended state so spring force acts in
upward direction. Let x be the extension in the spring.
F.B.D. of 10 kg block :
Fs
Fs = 10 g 10 kg
⇒ Kx = 100
⇒ (100)x = (100)
⇒ x=1m
10g
6.1 SPRING FORCE SYSTEM :

Initially the spring is in natural length at A with block m. But when the block displaced towards right
then the spring is elongated and now block is released at B then the block move towards left due to
spring force (kx).
Analysis of motion of block :
Natural Length
v a v a
v=0
m m Initial position
C v a Av a B
(i) From B to A speed of block increase and acceleration decreases. (due to decrease in spring force kx)
kx a
m
v
(ii) Due to inertia block crosses natural length at A.
From A to C speed of the block decreases and acceleration increases.(due to increase in spring force
kx)
m kx
a
v
(iii) At C the block stops momentarily at this instant and since the spring is compressed spring force is
towards right and the block starts to move towards right. From C to A speed of block increases and
acceleration decreases.(due to decrease in spring force kx)
m kx a
v
(iv) Again block crosses point A due to inertia then from A to B speed decreases and acceleration increases.
kx
a
m v
In this way block does SHM (to be expalined later) if no resistive force is acting on the block.
Note :
N.L.
Release
A
(i)
B
when the block A is released then it take some finite time to reach at B. i.e., spring force doesn’t
change instantaneously.
N.L.
Release
A
m
(2)
When point A of the spring is released in the above situation then the spring forces changes
instantaneously and becomes zero because one end of the spring is free.
(3) In string tension may change instantaneously.
Ex.21 Find out the acceleration of 2 kg block in the figures shown at the instant 1 kg block falls from
2 kg block. (at t = 0)
1kg 1kg
A 2kg 2kg B
Sol. F.B.D.s before fall of 1kg block
1kg 30N (kx) 30N (T)

1kg
2kg
2kg
30(mg)
30(mg)
after the fall of the 1 kg block tension will change instantaneously but spring force (kx) doesn’t
change instantaneously. F.B.D.s just after the fall of 1 kg block
30N (kx) 20
(A) 2kg B 2kg
20 20
30 – 20
aA = = 5 m/s2 (upward) aB = 0 m/s2
2
Ex.22 Two blocks ‘A’ and ‘B’ of same mass ‘m’ attached with a
light spring are suspended by a string as shown in
A m
figure. Find the acceleration of block ‘A’ and ‘B’ just after
the string is cut.
Sol. When block A and B are in equilibrium position

F.B.D of ‘B’ B m
T0
T0=mg
...(i)
mg
F.B.D of ‘A’
T = mg + T0 .....(ii)
T = 2 mg
mg T0
when string is cut, tension T becomes zero. But spring does not change its shape just after cutting. So
spring force acts on mass B, again draw F.B.D. of block A and B as shown in figure
F.B.D of ‘B’
T0=mg
T0 – mg = m.aB
aB = 0
mg
F.B.D. of ‘A’
mg + T0 = m. aA
2 mg = m. aA
aA = 2g (downwards)
mg T0=mg
Ex.23 Find out the acceleration of 1kg, 2kg and 3kg block and
tension in the string between 1 kg & 2 kg block just after A 1kg
cutting the string as shown in figure.
B 2kg
Sol. F.B.D before cutting of string
6gN
C 3kg
A 1kg
1gN (mg)
5gN
B 2kg
3gN 2gN
3gN(spring force)
C 3kg
3gN(mg)
Let us assume the Tension in the string connecting blocks A & B becomes zero just after cutting the
string then.
2 kg
1 kg
1g 5g
a1 = = g ms–2 a2 = = 2.5 g ms–2
1 2g + 3g 2
1g (weight) (spring force)
∵ a2 > a1 i.e., ∴ T≠0

If T ≠ 0 that means string is tight and Both block A & B will have same acceleration. So it will take as a
system of 3 kg mass.
1 kg
10N
T
3kg a
2 kg
≡
30N 20N 60N
System T
2
Total force down ward = 10 + 30 + 20 = 60 N 20m/s
60 2kg
Total mass = 3 kg ⇒ a = = 20 m/s2 50 – T = 2 × 20
3
Now apply Fnet = ma at block B. T = 10 N
50
∵ the spring force does not change instantaneously the F.B.D of ‘C’
3g
2
3kg ac= 0 m/s
3g
Reference Frame :
A frame of reference is basically a coordinate system in which motion of object is analyzed. There are
two types of reference frames.
(a) Inertial reference frame : Frame of reference moving with constant velocity or stationary
(b) Non-inertial reference frame : A frame of reference moving with non-zero acceleration
: (i) Although earth is a non inertial frame (due to rotation) but we always consider it as an inertial
frame.
(ii) A body moving in circular path with constant speed is a non intertial frame (direction change cause
acceleration)
7. PSEUDO FORCE :
Consider the following
example to understand the pseudo force concept
support a
B
m A
The block m in the bus is moving with constant acceleration a with respect to man A at ground. Force
required for this acceleration is the normal reaction exerted by the support
So, N = ma ..(i)
This block m is at rest with respect to man B who is in the bus (a non intertial frame). So the
acceleration of the block with respect to man B is zero.
N = m(0) = 0 ..(ii)
But the normal force is exerted in a non-inertial frame also. So the equation (ii) is wrong therefore we
conclude that Newton’s law is not valid in non-inertial frame.
If we want to apply Newton’s law in non-inertial frame, then we can do so by using of the cencept
pseudo force.
Pseudo force is an imaginary force, which in actual is not acting on the body. But after applying it on
the body we can use Newton’s laws in non-inertial frames.
This imaginary force is acting on the body only when we are solving the problem in a non-inertial frame
of reference.
In the above example. The net force on the block m is zero with respect to man B after applying the
pesudo force.
ma N
m
N = ma
1. Direction of pseudo force is opposite to the acceleration of frame

2. Magnitude of pseudo force is equal to mass of the body which we are analyzing multiplied by acceleration
of frame
3. Point of application of pseudo force is the centre of mass of the body which we are analysing
Ex.24 A box is moving upward with retardation ‘a’ < g, find the direction and
magnitude of “pseudo force” acting on block of mass ‘m’ placed inside
the box. Also calculate normal force exerted by surface on block 'm'
'Ma' N
Sol. Pseudo force acts opposite to the direction of
acceleration of reference frame. N + ma = mg

(Pseudo
N = mg – ma
pseudo force = ma in upward direction force)
F.B.D of ‘m’ w.r.t box (non-inertial)

mg
Ex.25 Figure shows a pendulum suspended from the roof of a car that has a constant acceleration a
relative to the ground. Find the deflection of the pendulum from the vertical as observed from
the ground frame and from the frame attached with the car.
T
θ
ax=a
θ a
Sol. mg
ay= 0
mg
Figure represents free Body diagram of the bob w.r.t ground.
In an inertial frame the suspended bob has an acceleration a caused by the horizontal component of
tension T.
T sin θ = ma ...(i)
T cosθ = mg ...(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
a  a
tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan–1  
g  g
In a non-inertial frame
T
θ a=0
x
ma a
θ ma
mg
a=
y 0
mg
Figure represents free Body diagram of bob w.r.t car.
In the non-intertial frame of the car, the bob is in static equilibrium under the action of three froces, T,
mg and ma (pseudo force)
T sin θ = ma ...(iii)
T cos θ = mg ....(iv)
From equation (iii) and (iv)
a  a
tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan–1  
g  g
Ex.26 A pulley with two blocks system is attached to the ceiling of a lift moving upward with an
acceleration a0. Find the deformation in the spring.
K
a0
m2
m1
Sol. Non-Inertial Frame
T T
K
a0 a a
2T
m2T T
m1 m2g m2a0 m g m a (pseudo)
1 1 0
(pseudo)
Let relative to the centre of pulley, m1 accelerates downward with a and m2 accelerates upwards with
a. Applying Newton’s 2nd law.
m1a + m1a0 – T = m1a ...(i)
T – m2g – m2a0 = m2a ...(ii)
On adding (iv) and (v) we get
 m1 – m 2 
a =  m + m  (g + a0) ...(iii)
 1 2
Substituting a in equation (i)

2m1m 2 (g + a 0 ) F 2T 4m1m 2 ( g + a 0 )
We get T = m1 + m 2 ∴ x= = = (m + m ) k
k k 1 2
Ex.27 All the surfaces shown in figure are assumed to be frictionless. The block of mass m slides on
the prism which in turn slides backward on the horizontal surface. Find the acceleration of the
smaller block with respect to the prism.
A
m
a0
α
B C
Sol. Let the acceleration of the prism be a0 in the backward direction. Consider the motion of the smaller
block from the frame of the prism The forces on the block are (figure)
N'
a
a0 N
α ma0
N α α
α
mg α
Mg
(i) N normal force

(ii) mg downward (gravity),
(iii) ma0 forward (Psuedo Force)
The block slides down the plane. Components of the forces parallel to the incline give
ma0 cosα + mg sin α = ma
or, a = a0 cos α + g sin α ...(i)
Components of the forces perpendicular to the incline give
N + ma0 sin α = mg cos α ...(ii)
Now consider the motion of the prism from the ground frame. No pseudo force is needed as the frame
used is inertial. The forces are (figure)
(i) Mg downward
(ii) N normal to the incline (by the block)
(iii) N’ upward (by the horizontal surface)
Horizontal components give,
N sin α = Ma0 or N = Ma0 / sin α, ...(iii)
Putting in (ii)
Ma 0
+ ma0 sin α = mg cos α
sin α
mg sin α cos α
or, a0 =
M + m sin 2 α
mg sin α cos 2 α (M + m) g sin α
From (i) a = + g sin α =
M + m sin α2
M + m sin 2 α
8. WEIGHING MACHING :
A weighing machine does not measure the weight but measures the force. exerted by object on its
upper surface or we can say weighing machine measure normal force on the man.
8.1 Motion in a lift :

(A) If the lift is unaccelerated (v = 0 or constant)
In this case no pseudo force act on the man
N
In this case the F.B.D. of the man
N = mg weighing
In this case machine read the machine
actual weight
(B) If the lift is accelerated upward.

(where a = constant) mg
a
N
weighing
machine
F.B.D of man with respect to lift

So weighing machine read
N = m(g + a)
Apparent weight
N > Actual weight (mg) mg ma(pseudo)
(c) If the lift is accelerated down ward.
a
N ma (pseudo)
weighing
machine
F.B.D of man with respect to lift
So weighing machine read

mg
N = m(g - a)
Apparent weight
N < Actual weight (mg)
Note :
(i) If a = g ⇒ N = 0
Thus in a freely falling lift, the man will experience a state of weightlessness
(ii) If the lift is accelerated downwards such that a > g : So the man will be accelerated upward and
will stay at the ceiling of the lift.
(iii) Apparent weight is greater than or less than actual weight only depends on the direction and
magnitude of acceleration. Magnitude and direction of velocity doesn’t play any roll in apparent weight.
FRICTION Page # 37
1. FRICTION :
Friction is a contact force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of relative motion of two
bodies.
Mg
F F
f
N
Consider a block on a horizontal table as shown in the figure. If we apply a force, acting to the right,
the block remains stationary if F is not too large. The force that counteracts F and keeps the block in
rest from moving is called frictional force. If we keep on increasing the force, the block will remain at
rest and for a particular value of applied force, the body comes to state of about to move. Now if we
slightly increase the force from this value, block starts its motion with a jerk and we observe that to
keep the block moving we need less effort than to start its motion.
So from this observation, we see that we have three states of block, first, block does not move,
second, block is about to move and third, block starts moving. The friction force acting in three states
are called static frictional force, limiting frictional force and kinetic frictional force respectively. If we
draw the graph between applied force and frictional force for this observation its nature is as shown in
figure.
1.1 Static frictional force

f
flim b
c d
fkin
a Static region Kinetic region

F
When there is no relative motion between the contact surfaces, frictional force is called static
frictional force. It is a self-adjusting force, it adjusts its value according to requirement (of no relative
motion). In the taken example static frictional force is equal to applied force. Hence one can say that
the portion of graph ab will have a slope of 45º.
The Direction of Static Friction

The direction of static friction on a body is such that the total force acting on it keeps it at rest with
respect to the body in contact.
The direction of static friction is as follows. For a moment consider the surfaces to be frictionless. In
absence of friction the bodies will start slipping against each other. One should then find the direction
of friction as opposite to the velocity with respect to the body applying the friction.
1.2 Limiting Frictional Force

This frictional force acts when body is about to move. This is the maximum frictional force that can
exist at the contact surface.
(i) The magnitude of limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal force at the contact surface.
flim ∝ N ⇒ flim = µsN
Here µs is a constant the value of which depends on nature of surfaces in contact and is called as
‘coefficient of static firction’.
Page # 38 FRICTION
1.3 Kinetic Frictional Force

Once relative motion starts between the surface in contact, the frictional force is called as kinetic
frictional force. The magnitude of kinetic frictional force is also proportional to normal force.
fk = µkN
From the previous observation we can say that µk < µs
Although the coefficient of kinetic friction varies with speed, we shall neglect any variation
i.e., when relative motion starts a constant frictional force starts opposing its motion.
Direction of Kinetic Friction

The kinetic friction on a body A slipping against another body B is opposite to the velocity of A with
respect to B.
It should be carefully noted that the velocity coming into picture is with respect to the body applying
the force of friction.
f
f v
Suppose we have a long truck moving on a horizontal road. A small block is placed on the truck which
slips on the truck to fall from the rear end. As seen from the road, both the truck and the block are
moving towards right, of course the velocity of the block is smaller than that of the truck. What is the
direction of the kinetic friction acting on the block due to the truck ? The velocity of the block as seen
from the truck is towards left. Thus, the friction on the block is towards right. The friction acting on
the truck due to the block is towards left.
Ex.1 Find the direction of kinetic friction force F=1N

(a) on the block, exerted by the ground. 1 kg V=5m/s
(b) on the ground, exerted by the block. ///////////////////////////////////
5m/s
F=1N w.r.t to block
Sol. (a) 1 kg 5 m/s (b)
f1 w.r.t to ground f2
where f1 and f2 are the friction forces on the block and ground respectively.
Ex.2 The correct relation between magnitude of f1 and f2 in above problem is :

(A) f1 > f2 (B) f2 > f1 (C) f1 = f2
(D) not possible to decide due to insufficient data.
Sol. By Newton’s third law the above friction forces are action-reaction pair and equal but opposite to each
other in direction. Hence (C)
Also note that the direction of kinetic friction has nothing to do with applied force F.
A 10 m/s
Ex.3 B 20m/s
All surfaces are rough. Draw the friction force on A & B

fkBA
A fkAB B
Sol.
fkBG
Kinetic friction acts to reduce relative motion.
Summary
We can summarise the laws of friction between two bodies in contact as follows:
FRICTION Page # 39
(i) If the bodies slip over each other, the force of friction is given by
fk = µk N
where N is the normal contact force and µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the surfaces.
(ii) The direction of kinetic friction on a body is opposite to the velocity of this body with respect to the
body applying the force of friction.
(iii) If the bodies do not slip over each other, the force of friction is given by
fs ≤ µs N
where µs is the coefficient of static friction between the bodies and N is the normal force between
them. The direction and magnitude of static friction are such that the condition of no slipping between
the bodies is ensured.
(iv) The frictional force fk or fs does not depend on the area of contact as long as the normal force N is
same.
Ex.4 A block of mass 5 kg is resting on a rough surface as shown in the figure. It is acted upon by a
force of F towards right. Find frictional force acting on block when (a) F = 5N (b) 25 N (c) 50 N (µs =
0.6, µk = 0.5) [g = 10 ms–2]
Sol. Maximum value of frictional force that the surface can offer is
fmax = flim = µsN F Mg
= 0.6 × 5 × 10 = 30 newton
Therefore, it F ≤ fmax body will be at rest and f = F
f
or F > fmax body will more and f = fk
(a) F = 5N < Fmax N
So body will not move hence static frictional force will act and ,
fs = f = 5N
(b) F = 25 N < Fmax ∴ fs = 25 N
(c) F = 50 N > Fmax
So body will move and kinetic frictional force will act, its value will be
fk = µk N = 0.5 × 5 × 10 = 25 newton
Ex.5 A block having a mass 3 kg is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static
friction µs = 0.3 between the block and the surface and µk is 0.25. A constant force F of 50 N, acts
on the body at the angle θ = 37º. What is the acceleration of the block ?
F
θ
x
Sol. We have two possibilities here, the block may remain at rest, or it may accelerate towards the right.
The decision hinges on whether or not the x-component of the force F has magnitude, less than or
greaer than the maximum static friction force.
The x-component of F is
Fx = Fcos θ = (50 N ) (0.8) = 40 N
To find fs, max, we first calculate the normal force N, whether or not the block accelerates horizontally,
the sum of the y-component of all the forces on the block is zero. N
N - F sin θ – mg = 0
f x
or N = F sin θ + mg=(50 N) (0.6) + (3 kg)(9.8ms–2) = 59.4 N θ
The maximum static frictional force
mg F
fs,max = µsN = (0.3) (59.4 N) = 17.8 N
This value is smaller than the x-component of F, hence the block moves. We now interpret the force f
in the figure as a kinetic frictional force. This value is obtained as
fK = µk N = (0.25) (59.4 N) = 14.8 N
Page # 40 FRICTION
Therefore resultant force in the x-direction is
∑F x = F cos θ − f = 40 N –14.8 N = 25.2 N

Then the acceleration ‘a’ of the block is
25.2 N
a= = 8.4 ms −2
3 kg
Think : What would happen if the magnitude of Fx happened to be less than fs.max but larger
than fk ?
Ex.6 In the previous example, suppose we move the block by pulling it with the help of a massless
string tied to the block as shown here. What is the force F required to produce the same
acceleration in the block as obtained in the last example ?
F
θ
m a
Sol. We are given that,

N F sin
m = 3kg, µs = 0.3, µk = 0.25, θ = 37º,
and a = 8.4 ms–2
F cos
In order to determine the force F, we first draw the FBD as shown below
The equations of motion therefore, are f
N + Fsin θ = mg mg
N = mg – Fsin θ
F cos θ – f = ma
and where f = µs N before the start of the motion, once motion is set, f = µkN.
Hence, force F which produces a = 8.4 m/s2 is given by
Fcosθ – µk (mg – F sin θ) = ma
ma + µkmg 3(0.4 + 0.25 × 9.8)

or F = = = 34.26N
cos θ + µk sin θ 0.8 + 0.25 × 0.6
: Fsin θ works out to be less than mg. Otherwise we would lift the block up in the above analysis
COMMENT
It is easier to pull then to push. Only about 34 N force is required to pull than 50 N required during
pushing why ?
Because, when we pull at an angle, the effective normal force N by which block is pressing down on
surface is reduced and consequently friction is reduced. Just the contrary happens when you are
pushing.
2. MINIMUM FORCE REQUIRED TO MOVE THE PARTICLE :
A body of mass m rests on a horizontal floor with which it has a coefficient of static friction µ. It is
desired to make the body slide by applying the minimum possible force F.
F
m φ
Fig. A
Let the applied force F be at angle φ with the horizontal
FRICTION Page # 41
R F
φ
R m
R = Normal force
mg
Fig. B
For vertical equilibrium,
R + F sin φ = mg or, R = (mg – F sinφ) ...(i)
For horizontal equilibrium i.e. when the block is just about to slide,
F cos φ = µR ...(ii)
Substituting for R,
F cosφ = µ (mg – F sinφ) or F = µmg / (cos φ + µ sinφ)
for minimum F (cosφ + µsinφ) is maximum,
⇒ Let x = cos φ + µ sinφ
dx
= − sin φ + µ cos φ
dφ
for maximum of x, dx = 0
dφ
tan φ = µ and at this value of φ
µmg
Fmin =
1 + µ2
3. FRICTION AS THE COMPONENT OF CONTACT FORCE :
When two bodies are kept in contact, electromagnetic forces act between the charged particles at
the surfaces of the bodies. As a result, each body exerts a contact force on other The magnitudes of
the contact forces acting on the two bodies are equal but their directions are opposite and hence the
contact forces obey Newton’s third law.
N=normal force
Fc=contact force
f=friction
The direction of the contact force acting on a particular body is not necessarily perpendicular to the
contact surface. We can resolve this contact force into two components, one perpendicular to the
contact surface and the other parallel to it. The perpendicular component is called the normal contact
force or normal force and parallel component is called friction.
Contact force = f 2 + N2
Fc min = N {when fmin = 0}
Fc max = µ 2N2 + N2 {when fmax = µN}
N ≤ Fc ≤ (µ 2 + 1) N
0 ≤ λ ≤ tan–1µ
Page # 42 FRICTION
Ex.7 A body of mass 400 g slides on a rough horizontal surface. If the frictional force is 3.0 N, find (a)
the angle made by the contact force on the body with the vertical and (b) the magnitude of the
contact force. Take g = 10 m/s2.
Sol. Let the contact force on the block by the surface be Fc which makes an angle λ with the vertical
(shown figure)
Fc N
The component of Fc perpendicular to the contact surface is the normal force N and the component of
F parallel to the surface is the firction f. As the surface is horizontal, N is vertically upward. For vertical
equilirbrium,
N = Mg = (0.400 kg) (10 m/s2) = 4.0 N
The frictional force is f = 3.0 N
f 3
(a) tan λ == or, λ = tan–1 (3/4) = 37º
N 4
(b) The magnituded of the contact force is
F = N2 + f 2 = (4.0 N) 2 + (3.0N) 2 = 5.0 N
4. MOTION ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE

Suppose a motion up the plane takes place under the action of pull P acting parallel to the plane
N = mg cos α P
Frictional force acting down the plane N
F = µN = µ mg cos α
Appling Newton’s second law for motion up the plane mg sin α mg cos α
P – (mg sin α + f) = ma f α mg
P – mg sin α – µ mg cos α = ma
If P = 0 the block may slide downwards with an acceleration a. The frictional force would then act
up the plane
mg sin α – F = ma
or, mg sin α – µ mg cos α = ma
Ex.8 A 20 kg box is gently placed on a rough inclined plane of inclination 30° with horizontal. The
coefficient of sliding friction between the box and the plane is 0.4. Find the acceleration of the
box down the incline.
N Y X
F = µN
O
mgsinα
mg mgcosα
Y'
X'
Sol. In solving inclined plane problems, the X and Y directions along which the forces are to be considered,
may be taken as shown. The components of weight of the box are
(i) mg sin α acting down the plane and
(ii) mg cos α acting perpendicular to the plane.
N = mg cos α
mg sin α – µ N = ma ⇒ mg sin α – µ mg cos α = ma
a = g sin α – µg cos α = g (sin α – µ cos α)
1 3
= 9.8 2 – 0.4 × 2  = 4.9 × 0.3072 = 1.505 m/s2
 
The box accelerates down the plane at 1.505 m/s2.
FRICTION Page # 43
Ex.9 A force of 400 N acting horizontal pushes up a 20 kg block placed on a rough inclined plane which
makes an anlge of 45° with the horizontal. The acceleration experienced by the block is 0.6 m/
s2. Find the coefficient of sliding friction between the box and incline.
Sol. The horizontally directed force 400 N and weight 20 kg of the block are resolved into two mutually
perpendicular components, parallel and perpendicular to the plane as shown.
N = 20 g cos 45° + 400 sin 45° = 421.4 N
The frictional force experienced by the block
2 400 cos45°
a=0.6 m/s
F = µN = µ × 421.4 = 421.4 µN.
R
As the accelerated motion is taking placed up the plane.
400 N
400 cos 45° – 20 g sin 45° – f = 20a
400 20 × 9.8 400 sin45°

– – 421.4 µ = 20a = 20 × 0.6 = 12 20g sin45°
2 2 45°20 g 20 cos 45°
 400 196  1 282.8 – 138.6 – 12

µ= =– – 12 ×
 2 2  4214. = 4214.
= 0.3137
The coefficient of sliding friction between the block and the incline = 0.3137
5. ANGLE OF REPOSE :
Consider a rough inclined plane whose angle of inclination θ with ground can be changed. A block of
mass m is resting on the plane. Coefficient of (static) friction between the block and plane is µ.
For a given angle θ, the FBD (Free body diagram) of the block is
f
N
mg cos
mg sin
Where f is force of static friction on the block. For normal direction to the plane, we have N=mg cosθ
As θ increases, the force of gravity down the plane, mg sin θ, increases. Friction force resists the slide
till it attains its maximum value.
fmax = µN = µ mg cos θ
Which decreases with θ (because cos θ decreases as θ increases)
Hence, beyond a critical value θ = θc, the blocks starts to slide down the plane. The critical angle is the
one when mg sin θ is just equal of fmax, i.e., when
mg sin θc = µ mg cosθc
or tan θc = µ
where θC is called angle of repose
If θ > θc, block will slide down.For θ < θc the block stays at rest on the incline.
Page # 44 FRICTION
6. TWO BLOCKS ON AN INCLINED PLANE :

Consider two blocks having masses m1 & m2 placed on a rough inclined plane. µ1 & µ2 are the friction
coefficient for m1 & m2 respectively. If N is the normal force between the contact surface of m1 & m2
2
m
N
1
m
N
θ
Now three condition arises.
(i) If µ1 = µ2 = µ then
N = 0 because, Both the blocks are in contact but does not press each other.
a1 = a2 = g sin θ – µ mg cos θ
(a1,a2 are acceleration of block µ1 & µ2 respectively)
(ii) If µ1 < µ2 then
N = 0 because, there is no contact between the blocks.
a1 = g sin θ – µ1 g cos θ
a2 = g sin θ – µ2 g cos θ
⇒ a1 > a2
(iii) If µ1 > µ2 then N≠0
a1 = a2
Ex.10 Mass m1 & m2 are placed on a rough inclined plane as shown in figure. Find out the acceleration
of the blocks and contact force in between these surface.
m2
2kg
m1
1kg
µ2=0.2
µ1=0.5
37°
Sol. As we know if µ1 > µ2 both will travel together so

a1 = a2 = a
F.B.D
.2
°
=3
37
os
gc
m2
2
m2 =µ
f2
m1 f1 = µ1m1gcos37°=4
°
37
s in
g °
m2 37
i n
gs 37°
m 1
f1 + f2
g
which is equivalent to
3k
3g sin 37°–(f1 + f2 ) 18 – 7.2

a= a= = 3.6 m/sec2 7°
3 2 in3 37°
Now F.B.D of 1 kg block is 3 gs
FRICTION Page # 45
N
4N 2
c
m/se
3. 6
a=
7°
sin3
g
gsin37° + N – 4 = (1) a
N = 3.6 + 4 – 6 = 1.6 Newton
7. RANGE OF FORCE F FOR WHICH ACCELERATION OF BODY IS ZERO.

F
g
2k
Ex.11
37º
Find out the range of force in the above situation for which 2kg block does not move on the
incline.
Sol. F.B.D of 2 kg block
F
=8N
7º
s3
x
o
fma
gc
m
F
2kg
5)
0.
=(
g
ax
2k
fm
º
37
in
37º
N
gs
12
m
Now take different value of F

Force (F) F.B.D. Acceleration Direction & magnitude Friction Type
Fnet
a=
m
8N
(i) F = 0N 2m/s2 8N Kinetic

N
12
4N
8N
(ii) F = 4N 0m/s2 8N Static

N
12
8N
4N
(iii) F = 8N 0m/s2 4N Static

N
12
Page # 46 FRICTION
N
12
0
f=
(iv) F = 12N 0m/s2 0 Static
N
12
N
16
(v) F = 16N 0m/s2 4N Static
N
12
4N
f=
(in this condition friction change its direction to stop relative slipping)
N
20
(vi) F = 20N 0m/s2 8N Static
N
12
8N
N
24
(vii) F = 24N 2m/s2 8N Kinetic
N
12
8N
From the above table block doesn't move from F = 4N (mgsinθ – µmgcosθ) to F = 20N (mgsinθ +
µmgcosθ). So friction develope a range of force for which block doesn't move
: If Friction is not present then only for F = 12N the block will not move but friction develop a range of
force 4N to 20N to prevent slipping. So we can write the range of force F for which acceleration of the
body is zero.
mg sin θ – µmg cos θ ≤ F ≤ mg sin θ + µ mg cosθ .
Ex.12 In the following figure force F is gradually increased from zero. Draw the graph between applied
force F and tension T in the string. The coefficient of static friction between the block and the
ground is µs.
F M
µs
Sol. As the external force F is gradually increased from zero it is T
compensated by the friction and the string beares no tension. 45°
When limiting friction is achieved by increasing force F to a
value till µs mg, the further increase in F is transferred to the F
string. µsmg
Ex.13 Fig. shows two blocks tied by a string. A variable force F = 5t is applied on the block. The coefficient
of friction for the blocks are 0.6 and 0.5 respectively. Find the frictional force between blocks
and ground as well as tension in the string at
FRICTION Page # 47
(A) t = 1 s (B) t = 2s (C) t = 3s
B A
1kg 2kg
F=5t
µ=0.6 µ=0.5
10N 20N
T
T 5t
Sol. fA
fB
10N 20N
(a) At t = 1s, F = 5 × 1 = 5 N
Maximum value of friction force
fA = µN = 0.5 × 20 = 10 N
To keep the block stationary the magnitude of frictional force should be 5N. So
fA = 5 N
Now from the figure it becomes clear that if
fA = 5N & F = 5 N, Tension T = 0
Since tension is not in application so frictional force on block B is 0 i.e.,
fB = 0
(b) At t = 2s, F = 5 × 2 = 10 N
f = µN = 0.5 × 20 = 10 N
To keep the block stationary the magnitude of friction force should be 10 N. So
fA = 10 N
From the figure it is clear that if
fA = 10 N and F = 10 N
Tension T = 0
Hence friction force on block B is fB = 0
(c) At t = 3s, F = 5 × 3 = 15 N
f = µN = 0.5 × 20 = 10 Newton
Again applying the same analogy fA = 10 N
From the figure it is clear that if
fA = 10 N and F = 15 N
Tension T = 5 N
So frictional force on block B is fB = 5 Newton
Ex.14 Find the tension in the string in situation as shown in the figure below. Forces 120 N and 100 N
start acting when the system is at rest.
120 N 10 20 100N
fsmax=90 N
fsmax=60 N
Sol. (i) Let us assume that system moves towards left then as it is clear from FBD, net force in horizontal
direction is towards right. Therefore the assumption is not valid.
Page # 48 FRICTION
120 N 10 20 100N
90 N 60 N
Above assumption is not possible as net force on system comes towards right. Hence system is not
moving towards left.
(ii) Similarly let us assume that system moves towards right.
120 N 10 20 100N
90 N 60 N
Above assumption is also not possible as net force on the system is towards left in this situation.
Hence assumption is again not valid.
Therefore it can be concluded that the system is stationary
T
120 N 10 20 100N
Fmax=90 N fmax=60 N
Assuming that the 10 kg block reaches limiting friction first then using FBD’s
10 T T 20
120 N 100N
90N
f
120 = T + 90 ⇒ T = 30 N
Also T + f = 100
∴ 30 + f = 100 ⇒ f = 70 N
which is not possible as the limiting value is 60 N for this surface of block.
∴ Our assumption is wrong and now taking the 20 kg surface to be limiting we have
10 T T 20
120 N 100N
f 60 N
T + 60 = 100 N ⇒ T = 40 N
Also f + T = 120 N ⇒ f = 80 N
This is acceptable as static friction at this surface should be less than 90 N.
Hence the tension in the string is T = 40 N
8. PULLEY BLOCK SYSTEM INVOLVING FRICTION :

• If friction force is acting and value of acceleration of a particle is negative, then it means direction of
friction force is opposite to that what we assumed and acceleration would be having a different
numerical value.
Ex.15 Two blocks of masses 5 kg and 10 kg are attached with the help of light string and placed on a
rough incline as shown in the figure. Coefficients of friction are as marked in the figure. The
system is released from rest. Determine the acceleration of the two blocks.
FRICTION Page # 49
10kg 5kg
37° 50°
Fixed
Sol. Let 10 kg block is sliding down, then acceleration of both the blocks are given by,
10g sin 37°– µ1 × 10g cos 37°–5g sin 53°

– µ 2 × 5g cos 53°
a= = – ve
15
It means our assumed direction of motion is wrong and 5 kg block is going to slide down, if this would
be the case, the direction of friction force will reverse and acceleration of blocks would be given by :
5g sin 53°– µ 2 × 5g cos 53°– µ1 × 10g cos 37°

– 10g sin 37° = –ve
a1 =
15
It means in this direction also there is no motion. So we can conclude that the system remains at rest
and friction force is static in nature.
9. TWO BLOCK SYSTEM :
Ex.16 B 2kg
A 4kg F
frictionless
Find out the maximum value of F for which both the blocks will move together
Sol. In the given situation 2kg block will move only due to friction force exerted by the 4 kg block
F.B.D.
B 2kg f
f A 4kg F
The maximum friction force exerted on the block B is

fmax = µN
fmax = (0.5) (20) = 10 N
So the maximum acceleration of 2 kg block is
2kg fmax = 10N
10
a 2 max = = 5m / s 2
2
amax is the maximum acceleration for which both the block will move together. i.e., for a ≤ 5 ms–2
acceleration of both blocks will be same and we can take both the blocks as a system.
Page # 50 FRICTION
F.B.D
a 2
5m/s
6kg Fmax
Fmax = 6 × 5 = 30 N
for 0 < F < 30
Both the block move together.
Ex.17 In the above question find the acceleration of both the block when
(i) F = 18 N (ii) F = 36 N
Sol. (i) Since F < 30 both the blocks will move together
F.B.D
6kg F = 18N
18
a= = 3 m / s2
6
(ii) When F = 36 N
When F > 30 both the blocks will move separately so we treat each block independently
F.B.D of 2 kg block
B 2kg f = 10N (Friction force)
aB = 5 m/s2
F.B.D of 4 kg block
f = 10N 4kg F = 36N
A
36 − 10 26
aA = = m / s2
4 4
B 2kg
A 4kg F
Ex.18
Find out the range of force in which both the blocks move together
Sol. If f1 is friction force between block A & lower surface and f2 is friction force between both the block’s
surface.
F.B.D
B 2kg f2=10N
f2=10N
6N = f1 A 4kg F
f1 max = µ1N1 = (0.1) (60) = 6 N

f2 max = µ2N2 = (0.5) (20) = 10 N
Upper 2kg block is move only due to friction force so maximum acceleration of that block is
2kg f2 =10N
FRICTION Page # 51
10
amax = = 5 m / s2
2
This is the maximum acceleration for which both the blocks will move together.
Therefore for a ≤ 5ms–2 we can take both the blocks as one system.
F.B.D.
2
5m/s
6kg F
f1=6N
For F < 6 N. Blocks will not move at all.

Now the value of Fmax for which both the blocks will move together.
Fmax – 6 = 6 × 5
Fmax = 36 N
Conclusion if
0N < F < 6N No blocks will move
6N < F < 36 N Both blocks will move together
F > 36 N Both move separately.
Ex.19 B 2kg F
A 4kg
frictionless
The lower block A will move only due to friction force

F.B.D.
f 2kg F
4kg f(frictional force)
fmax = µN = (0.5) (20) = 10 N
F.B.D. of 4 kg blocks
amax
4kg f = 10N
The maximum acceleration of 4 kg block is

10
⇒ amax = = 2.5 m / s 2
4
This is the maximum acceleration for which both the blocks move together
2.5 m/s2
6kg F
Fmax for which both the blocks will move together

Fmax = 2.5 × 6 = 15 N
B 2kg F
Ex.20 A 4kg
Page # 52 FRICTION
If f2 is the friction force between A & B and f1 is the friction force between A & floor
f1 max = 6 N
f2 max = 10 N
Lower block A will move only due to friction force So amax for 4 kg block
4kg f2 = 10N
f1 =6N
10 − 6
amax = = 1 m / s2
4
This is the maximum acceleration for which both the blocks will move together
2
1m/s
6kg F
f1 =6N
F–6=6×1
F = 12 N
If F is less than 6N both the blocks will be stationary
Conclusion :
0 < F < 6 N = Both blocks are stationary
6 N < F < 12 N = Both move together
F > 12 N = Both move separately
Ex.21 Find the accelerations of blocks A and B for the following cases. µ1
µ2
(A) µ1 = 0 and µ2 = 0.1 (P) aA = aB = 9.5 m/s2
(B) µ2 = 0 and µ1 = 0.1 (Q) aA = 9 m/s2,
aB = 10 m/s2 1 kg 10 N
1kg
(C) µ1 = 0.1 and (R) aA = aB = g = 10 m/s2
µ2 = 1.0 A B
(D) µ1 = 1.0 and (S) aA = 1, aB = 9 m/s2
µ2 = 0.1
Sol. (a) R, (b) Q, (c) P, (d) S
(i) FBD in (case (i))
{µ1 = 0, µ2 = 0.1}
O µ2N
N=10 1kg N=10

1kg
A B
mg µ2N mg
While friction’s work is to oppose the relative motion and here if relative motion will start then friction
comes and without relative motion there is no friction so both the block move together with same
acceleration and friction will not come.
A B
2
⇒ aA = aB = 10 m/s
mg mg
FRICTION Page # 53
1 0
A 10 B 10
(ii) 1kg 1kg
1
10 0
10
Friction between wall and block A oppose relative motion since wall is stationary so friction wants to
slop block A also and maximum friction will act between wall and block while there is no friction
between block.
: Friction between wall and block will oppose relative motion between wall and block only it will not do
anything for two block motion.
A B
10 10
aA = 9 m/s ; aB = 10 m/s2
2
1 f
(iii) A B
f
10
10
10
Friction between wall and block will be applied maximum equal to 1N but maximum friction available
between block A and B is 10 N but if this will be there then relative motion will increase while friction
is to oppose relative motion. So friction will come less than 10 so friction will be f that will be static.
1 f
A B
f
10 10
19
by system (20–1) = 2 × a ⇒ a = =9.5 m/s2
2 1
10
11 – 10
(iv) aA = = 1m / s 2
1 A B
10 – 1
aB = = 9 m / s2 10 1
1 10
10
Page # 54 FRICTION
10. FRICTION INVOLVING PSEUDO CONCEPT :
Ex.22 What is the minimum acceleration with which bar A should be

1
shifted horizontally to keep the bodies 1 and 2 stationary
relative to the bar ? The masses of the bodies are equal and
the coefficient of friction between the bar and the bodies equal
to µ. The masses of the pulley and the threads are negligible A 2
while the friction in the pulley is absent. see in fig.
Sol. Let us place the observer on A.
Since we have non-inertial frame we have pseudo forces.
For body ‘1’ we have, T
ma
T = ma + µmg ....(1) 1
For body ‘2’ we have, mg
T
µN
N = ma
A ma N
mg – T – µma = 0 2
∴ mg = T + µmg ....(2)
mg
From (1) and (2) amin  1− µ 
= g 
 1+ µ  a
µ=0.5
F M=4kg m=
Ex.23 1kg
Find out the range of force for which smaller block is at rest with respect to bigger block.
Sol. Smaller block is at rest w.r.t. the bigger block. Let both the block travel together with acceleration a
F.B.D of smaller block w.r. to the bigger block.
f
fmax = µ × N
N = ma
f = µ ma ...(1) ma N
(Pseudo)
⇒ f = mg ...(2)
from (1) & (2)
a = g/µ = 20 m/s2 mg
So F = 20 (M + m) = 20 (5) = 100 N
If F ≥ 100 N Both will travel together
Ex.24 The rear side of a truck is open and a box of 40 kg mass is placed 5m away from the open end as
shown. The coefficient of friction between the box & the surface below it is 0.15. On a straight
road, the truck starts from rest and accelerates with 2 ms–2 . At what distance from the starting
point does the box fall off the truck (i.e. distance travelled by the truck) ? [Ignore the size of
the box]
/////////////////////////////////////////
FRICTION Page # 55
Sol. In the reference frame of the truck FBD of 40 kg block
40 ma
µN kg (psuedo force)
15
Net force ⇒ ma – µN ⇒ 40 × 2 – × 40 × 10
100
20 1
mablock ⇒ 80 – 60 ⇒ ablock = = m/s2
40 2
This acceleration of the block in reference frame of truck so time taken by box to fall down from
truck
1 1 1
Srel = urelt + a t2 ⇒ 5 = 0 + × × t2 ⇒ t2 = 20
2 rel 2 2
So distance moved by the truck
1 1
⇒ × atruck × t2 ⇒ × 2 × (20) = 20 meter..
2 2
Ex.25 Mass m2 placed on a plank of mass m1 lying on a smooth horizontal plane. A horizontal force
F = α0t (α0 is a constant) is applied to a bar. If acceleration of the plank and bar are a1 and a2
respectively and the coefficient of friction between m1 and m2 is µ. Then find acceleration a
with time t.
m2 F
m1
Sol. If F < µm2g then both blocks move with common acceleration, i.e., a1 = a2
When F > µm2g, then
Equation for block of mass m
F – µm2g = m2a2 ...(1)
and µm2g = m1a1 ...(2) a2
From equation (1)
α0t – µm2g = m2a2 a1
a
2
=a
i.e., acceleration a2 varies with time linearly,

1
a
its slope positive and intercept negative.

0 t0 t
From equation (2) a1 is independent of time.
So, the graph between a & t is as follow.
Page # 56 N.L.M.

(A) NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION 3. The pulleys in the diagram are all smooth and light.
The acceleration of A is a upwards and the acceleration
1. At a given instant, A is moving with velocity of 5 of C is f downwards. The acceleration of B is
m/s upwards. What is velocity of B at the time
A C
A
B B
(A) 1/2 (f – a) up (B) 1/2 (a + f) down
(A) 15 m/s↓ (B) 15 m/s↑ (C) 5 m/s ↓ (D) 5 m/s ↑
(C) 1/2 (a + f) up (D) 1/2 (a – f) up
Sol.
Sol.
4. If acceleration of A is 2 m/s2 to left and acceleration

of B is 1 m/s2 to left, then acceleration of C is -
2. Find the velocity of the hanging block if the A B
velocities of the free ends of the rope are as indicated
in the figure.
2m/s
C
2
(A) 1 m/s upwards (B) 1 m/s2 downwards
1m/s
(C) 2 m/s2 downwards (D) 2 m/s2 upwards
Sol.
(A) 3/2 m/s ↑ (B) 3/2 m/s ↓

(C) 1/2 m/s ↑ (D) 1/2 m/s ↓
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 57
5. In the figure shown the velocity of different blocks
is shown. The velocity of C is
6 m/s
4 m/s
6m/s
A B C D 7. Find velocity of block 'B' at the instant shown in

figure.
(A) 6 m/s (B) 4 m/s
(C) 0 m/s (D) none of these
Sol.
37°
B
A 10 m/s
(A) 25 m/s (B) 20 m/s
(C) 22 m/s (D) 30 m/s
Ans.
6. If block A has a velocity of 0.6 m/s to the right,

determine the velocity of block B.
B
(A) 1.8 m/s in downward direction
(B) 1.8 m/s in upward direction
(C) 0.6 m/s in downward direction
(D) 0.6 m/s in upward direction
Sol.
Page # 58 N.L.M.
8.In the arrangement shown in fig. the ends P and Q
of an unstretchable string move downwards with
uniform speed U. Pulleys A and B are fixed. Mass M
moves upwards with a speed.
A B
θ θ
Q
P
M
(A) 2 U cos θ (B) U cos θ
2U U
(C) (D)
cos θ cos θ
Sol.
10. The velocity of end ‘A’ of rigid rod placed between

two smooth vertical walls moves with velocity ‘u’ along
vertical direction. Find out the velocity of end ‘B’ of
that rod, rod always remains in constant with the
vertical walls.
'u'
B
9. Block B moves to the right with a constant velocity
v0. The velocity of body A relative to B is :
(A) u tan 2θ (B) u cot θ
v0 (C)u tan θ (D) 2u tan θ
Sol.
A B
v0 v0
(A) , towards left (B) , towards right
2 2
3v0 3v0
(C) , towards left (D) , towards right
2 2
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 59
11. Find the acceleration of C w.r.t. ground. Sol.
A B
C
a b
(A) ai – (2a + 2b)j (B) a î – (2a + b) ĵ
(C) a î – (a + 2b) ĵ (D) b î – (2a + 2b) ĵ

Sol.
13. The 50 kg homogeneous smooth sphere rests on

the 30° incline A and bears against the smooth vertical
wall B. Calculate the contact forces at A and B.
A B
30°
1000 500
(A) NB = N, N = N
3 A
3
1000 500
(B) NA = N, N = N
3 B
3
100 500
(C) NA = N, N = N
3 B
3
1000 50
(D) NA = N, N = N
3 B
3
12. Find the acceleration of B. Sol.
A B
acos α 1 a sin α1 a cos α 2 cos α1

(A) cos α (B) (C) (D)
2 cos α 2 cos α1 cos α 2
Page # 60 N.L.M.
15. A sperical ball of mass m = 5 kg rests between
two planes which make angles of 30° and 45°
respectively with the horizontal. The system is in
equilibrium. Find the normal forces exerted on the ball
by each of the planes. The planes are smooth.
45°
°
30
(A) N45 = 96.59 N, N30 = 136.6 N
14. Find out the reading of the weighing machine in
(B) N30 = 96.59 N, N45 = 136.6 N
the following cases.
(C) N45 = 136.6 N, N30 = 96.56 N
(D) none of these
Sol.
g 2k
2k W g
M M
W
30º 30º
(A) 10 3 (B) 10 2 (C) 20 3 (D) 30 3

Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 61
Question No. 16 to 17 (2 questions) 18. A mass M is suspended by a rope from a rigid
In the figure the tension in the diagonal string is 60 N. support at A as shown in figure. Another rope is tied
at the end B, and it is pulled horizontally with a force
F . I f t h e r o p e θ with the vertical in
A B m a k e s a n a n g l e
F1 equilibrium, then the tension in the string AB is :

45°
F3 A
θ B
W F

16. Find the magnitude of the horizontal force F1 and
M
F2 that must be applied to hold the system in the (A) F sin θ (B) F/sin θ (C) F cos θ (D) F/cos θ
position shown. Sol.
60 20 40 60
(A) N (B) N (C) N (D) N
3 2 2 2
Sol.
17. In the above questions what is the weight of the

suspended block ?
60 40 60 50
(A) N (B) N (C) N (D) N
2 2 3 2
Sol. 19. Objects A and B each of mass m are connected
by light inextensible cord. They are constrained to
move on a frictionless ring in a vertical plane as shown
in figure. The objects are released from rest at the
positions shown. The tension in the cord just after
release will be
A
T mg
T
B C
mg
mg mg mg
(A) mg 2 (B) (C) (D)
2 2 4
Page # 62 N.L.M.
Sol. 21. Two masses m and M are attached to the strings
as shown in the figure. If the system is in equilibrium,
then
45° M
45°
2M 2m
(A) tan θ = 1 + (B) tan θ = 1 +
m M
2M 2m
(C) cot θ = 1 + (D) cot θ = 1 +
m M
Sol.
20. Three blocks A, B and C are suspended as shown

in the figure. Mass of each blocks A and C is m. If
system is in equilibrium and mass of B is M, then :
A B C
(A) M = 2m (B) M < 2 m (C) M > 2m (D) M = m

Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 63
22. A flexible chain of weight W hangs between two Sol.
fixed points A & B which are at the same horizontal
level. The inclination of the chain with the horizontal
at both the points of support is θ. What is the tension
of the chain at the mid point ?
A B
θ θ
W
W W
(A) .cos ec θ (B) .tan θ
2 2
W
(C) .cot θ (D) none
2
Sol.
24.A stunt man jumps his car over a crater as shown

(neglect air resistance)
(A) during the whole flight the driver experiences
weightlessness
(B) during the whole flight the driver never experiences
weightlessness
(C) during the whole flight the driver experiences
weightlessness only at the highest point
(D) the apparent weight increases during upward

journey
Sol.
23.A weight can be hung in any of the following four

ways by string of same type. In which case is the
string most likely to break ?
(A) W
(B) (C)
W (D)
W
W
(A) A (B) B (C) C (D) D
Page # 64 N.L.M.
Question No. 25 to 27 (3 questions) Sol.
A particle of mass m is constrained to move on x-axis.
A force F acts on the particle. F always points toward
the position labeled E. For example, when the particle
is to the left of E, F points to the right. The magnitude
of F is constant except at point E where it is zero.
A
+ve
m E x
The system is horizontal. F is the net force acting on
the particle. The particle is displaced a distance A
towards left from the equilibrium position E and released
from rest at t = 0
25. What is the period of the motion ?

 2Am   2Am 
(A) 4  
F  (B) 2  
F 
 
A
 2 Am  27. Find minimum time it will take to reach from x = −
2
(C)  
F  (D) None
 to 0.
Sol. 3
mA mA
(A) ( 2 − 1) (B) ( 2 − 1)
2 F F
mA
(C) 2 ( 2 − 1) (D) none
F
Sol.
26. Velocity-time graph of the particle is

v v
t t
(A) (B)
v v
(C) t (D) t
N.L.M. Page # 65
28. A particle of mass 50 gram moves on a straight Sol.
line. The variation of speed with time is shown in figure.
find the force acting on the particle at t = 2, 4 and 6
seconds.
v(m/s)
15
10
0 2 4 6 8 t(s)
(A) 0.25 N along motion, zero, 0.25 opposite to motion
(B) 0.25 N along motion, zero, 0.25 along to motion
(C) 0.25 N opposite motion, zero, 0.25 along to motion
(D) 0.25 N opposite motion, zero, 0.25 opposite to
motion
Sol.
30. A constant force F is applied in horizontal direction

as shown. Contact force between M and m is N and
between m and M’ is N’ then
M'>M
F M m M'
smooth
(A) N or N’ equal (B) N > N’
(C) N’ > N (D) cannot be determined
Sol.
29. Two blocks are in contact on a frictionless table.

One has mass m and the other 2m. A force F is applied
on 2m as shown in the figure. Now the same force F is
applied from the right on m. In the two cases
respectively, the ratio force of contact between the
two block will be :
2m m F 2m m
F
(A) same (B) 1 : 2 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 3
Page # 66 N.L.M.
33. Force exerted by support on string.
(A) 10 N (B) 15 N (C) 20 N (D) 25 N
Sol.
34. A body of mass 8 kg is hanging another body of

mass 12 kg. The combination is being pulled by a string
–2
Question No. 31 to 33 (3 questions) w i t h a n a c c e l e . The tension T1 and
r a t i o n o f 2 . 2 m s
A block of mass 1kg is suspended by a string T2 will be respectively : (use g = 9.8 m/s2)
of mass 1 kg, length 1m as shown in figure. (g = 10 m/
s2) Calculate : T1
12kg
1m
a
T2
1 kg 8kg
31. The tension in string at its lowest point. (A) 200 N, 80 N (B) 220 N, 90 N
(A) 10 N (B) 15 N (C) 20 N (D) 25 N (C) 240 N, 96 N (D) 260 N, 96 N
Sol. Sol.
32. The tension in string at its mid-point

(A) 10 N (B) 15 N (C) 20 N (D) 25 N
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 67
35. A rope of mass 5 kg is moving vertically in vertical
position with an upwards force of 100 N acting at the
upper end and a downwards force of 70 N acting at
the lower end. The tension at midpoint of the rope is
(A) 100 N (B) 85 N (C) 75 N (D) 105 N
Sol.
37. Two blocks, each having mass M , rest on

frictionless surfaces as shown in the figure. If the
pulleys are light and frictionless, and M on the incline
is allowed to move down, then the tension in the
string will be
M
fixed M
2 3
(A) Mgsin θ (B) Mgsin θ
3 2
Mgsin θ
(C) (D) 2 Mg sin θ
2
Sol.
36. A particle of small mass m is joined to a very

heavy body by a light string passing over a light pulley.
Both bodies are free to move. The total downward
force in the pulley is
(A) mg (B) 2 mg
(C) 4 mg (D) can not be determined
Sol.
Page # 68 N.L.M.
38. The pulley arrangements shown in figure are 39. Two masses M1 and M2 are attached to the ends
identical the mass of the rope being negligible. In case of a light string which passes over a massless pulley
I, the mass m is lifted by attaching a mass 2m to the attached to the top of a double inclined smooth plane
other end of the rope. In case II, the mass m is lifted of angles of inclination α and β . The tension in the
by pulling the other end of the rope with cosntant string is :
downward force F = 2mg, where g is acceleration due
to gravity. The acceleration of mass in case I is
M2
M1 fixed
α β
F=2mg
m 2m m
M2 (sin β) g M1(sin α ) g
(I) (A) (B)
(II) M1 + M2 M1 + M2
(A) zero
(B) more than that in case II M1 M2 (sin β + sin α ) g
(C) M1 + M2 (D) zero
(C) less than that in case II
(D) equal to that in case II Sol.
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 69
40. Calculate the acceleration of the block B in the 41. In previous Question surface is replaced by block
above figure, assuming the surfaces and the pulleys C of mass m as shown in figure. Find the acceleration
P1 and P2 are all smooth and pulleys and string and of block B.
light 2m 4m
2m 4m
P1
P1 F A B
F A B P2
P2 c
3F 2F 3F 3F
(A) a = m/s2 (B) a = m/s2 (A) a = 20m m/s2 (B) a = m/s2
17m 17m 21m
3F 3F 2F 3F
(C) a = m/s2 (D) a = m/s2 (C) a = 21m m/s2 (D) a = 18m m/s2
15m 12m
Sol. Sol.
Page # 70 N.L.M.
42. In the arrangement shown in the fig, the block of 43. In the arrangement shown in figure, pulleys are
mass m = 2 kg lies on the wedge on mass M = 8 kg. massless and frictionless and threads are inextensible.
Find the initial acceleration of the wedge if the surfaces The Block of mass m1 will remain at rest, if
are smooth and pulley & strings are massless.
P1
60°
M
m
P2
60°
30 3 20 3 m1 m2
(A) a = m/s2 (B) a = m/s2 m3
23 23 1 1 1
(A) m = m + m (B) m1 = m2 + m3
30 2 1 2 3
(C) a = m/s2 (D) none of these
23
4 1 1 1 2 3
Sol. (C) m = m + m (D) = +
1 2 3 m3 m2 m1
Sol.
44. Both the blocks shown here are of mass m and

are moving with constant velocity in direction shown
in a resistive medium which exerts equal constant force
on both blocks in direction opposite to the velocity.
The tension in the string connecting both of them will
be (Neglect friction)
N.L.M. Page # 71
Sol.
A
(A) mg (B) mg/2 (C) mg/3 (D) mg/4

Sol.
47. Block of 3 kg is initially in equilibrium and is hanging

by two identical springs A and B as shown in figures.
If spring A is cut from lower point at t = 0 then, find
acceleration of block in ms–2 at t = 0.
45. A monkey of mass 20 kg is holding a vertical rope.

The rope can break when a mass of 25 kg is suspended A B
from it. What is the maximum acceleration with which
the monkey can climb up along the rope?
(A) 7 ms–2 (B) 10 ms–2 (C) 5 ms–2 (D) 2.5 ms–2 3 kg
Sol.
(A) 5 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) 0
Sol.
46. Fi nd the accel eration of 3 kg mass when

48. Two masses of 10 kg and 20 kg respectively are
acceleration of 2 kg mass is 2 ms–2 as shown in figure.
connected by a massless spring as shown in figure. A
3 kg 2 kg 10N force of 200 N acts on the 20 kg mass at the instant
–2
when the 10 kg mass has an acceleration of 12 ms–2
2ms towards right, the aceleration of the 20 kg mass is :
(A) 3 ms–2 (B) 2 ms–2 (C) 0.5 ms–2 (D) zero
10kg 20kg
200 N
Page # 72 N.L.M.
(A) 2 ms –2
(B) 4 ms –2
(C) 10 ms –2
(D) 20 ms –2
Sol.
50. A man of mass 60 kg is standing on a weighing

machine placed in a lift moving with velocity 'v' and
acceleration 'a' as shown in figure. Calculate the reading
of weighing machine in following situation:
(g = 10 m/s2)
(i) a = 0, v=0
(A) 600 N (B) 500 N (C) 450 N (D) 700 N
(ii) a = 0, v = 2m/s
(A) 600 N (B) 500 N (C) 450 N (D) 700 N
(iii) a = 0, v = –2m/s
(A) 450 N (B) 500 N (C) 600 N (D) 700 N
49. Two blocks are connected by a spring. The

combination is suspended, at rest, from a string a v
attatched to the ceiling, as shown in the figure. The
string breaks suddenly. Immediately after the string
breaks, what is the initial downward acceleration of
the upper block of mass 2m ? W.M.
(iv) a = 2m/s2, v=0
(A) 600 N (B) 500 N (C) 450 N (D) 720 N
2m (v) a = –2m/s2 v=0
(A) 600 N (B) 480 N (C) 450 N (D) 700 N
(vi) a = 2m/s2, v = 2m/s
(A) 600 N (B) 480 N (C) 450 N (D) 720 N
(vii) a = 2 m/s2, v = –2m/s
m (A) 600 N (B) 720 N (C) 450 N (D) 700 N
(viii) a = –2m/s2 v = –2 m/s
(A) 0 (B) 3g/2 (C) g (D) 2g (A) 600 N (B) 480 N (C) 450 N (D) 700 N
Sol. Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 73

An object of mass 2 kg is placed at rest in a frame
(S1) moving with velocity 10 i + 5 j m/s and having
acceleration 5 i + 10 j m / s 2 . The object is also seen by

51. What will be the reading of spring balance in the
an observer standing in a frame (S2) moving with
figure shown in following situations. (g = 10 m/s2)
(i) a = 0, v = 0 velocity 5 i + 10 j m / s
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N 52. Calculate 'Pseudo force' acting on object. Which
(ii) a = 0, v = 2 m/s frame is responsible for this force.
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
(iii) a = 0, v = – 2m/s (A) F = – 10 i – 20 j due to acceleration of frame S1
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
(B) F = – 20 i – 20 j due to acceleration of frame S1
a v (C) F = – 10 i – 30 j due to acceleration of frame S1

(D) none of these
Sol.
M = 10 kg
(iv) a = 2 m/s2, v =0
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
(v) a = – 2m/s2, v = 0
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
(vi) a = 2 m/s2, v = 2 m/s
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
(vii) a = 2 m/s2, v = –2m/s
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
(viii) a = – 2 m/s2, v = – 2 m/s
(A) 100 N (B) 80 N (C) 120 N (D) 150 N
Sol.
Page # 74 N.L.M.
53. Calculate net force acting on object with respect
to S2 frame.
(A) F = 20 î + 20 ĵ (B) F = 10 i + 20 j
(C) F = 5 î + 20 ĵ (D) F = 10 î + 5 ĵ
Sol.
54. Calculate net force acting on object with respect 56. A block of mass m resting on a wedge of angle θ
of S1 frame. as shown in the figure. The wedge is given an
(A) 0 (B) 1 acceleration a. What is the minimum value of a so
(C) 2 (D) none of these that the mass m falls freely ?
Sol.
A
θ
B C
(A) g (B) g cos θ (C) g cot θ (D) g tan θ
Sol.
55. A trolley is accelerating down an incline of angle θ
with acceleration gsinθ. Which of the following is
correct. (α is the constant angle made by the string
with vertical)
θ
in
m
gs
(A) α = θ
(B) α = 0º
(C) Tension in the string, T = mg
(D) Tension in the string, T = mg sec θ
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 75
57. In the figure the reading of the spring balanced Sol.
will be : [g = 10 m/s2]
2
2m/s
10kg
5kg
30°
(A) 50 N (B) 40 N (C) 60 N (D) 70 N

Sol.
(B) FRICTION
59. Find the direction of friction forces on each block
and the ground (Assume all surfaces are rough and all
velocities are with respect to ground).
E 2 m/s
D 1 m/s
C 3 m/s
58. A pendulum of mass m hangs from a support fixed B 5 m/s
to a trolley. The direction of the string when the trolley
rolls up of plane of inclination α with acceleration a0 is 5 m/s A
(String and bob remain fixed with respect to trolley)
a0 Sol.
 a0 
(A) θ = tan–1α (B) θ = tan–1  
 g
 g –1  a 0 + g sin α 
(C) θ = tan–1  a  (D) θ = tan  
 0  g cos α 
Page # 76 N.L.M.
61. A monkey of mass m is climbing a rope hanging
from the roof with acceleration a. The coefficient of
static friction between the body of the monkey and
the rope is µ. Find the direction and value of friction
force on the monkey.
(A) Upward, F = m(g + a)

(B) downward, F = m(g + a)
(C) Upward, F = mg
(D) downward, F = mg
Sol.
60. In the following figure, find the direction of friction

on the blocks and ground
VA=3m/s A F = 5N
7N
VB=6m/s B
Sol.
62. A body is placed on a rough inclined plane of

inclination θ. As the angle θ is increased from 0º to
90º the contact force between the block and the
plane
(A) remains constant
(B) first remains constant then decreases
(C) first decreases then increases
(D) first increases then decreases
N.L.M. Page # 77
Sol. 64. If force F is increasing with time and at t=0, F=0
where will slipping first start ?
F 3
2
1
(A) between 3 kg and 2 kg

(B) between 2 kg and 1 kg
(C) between 1 kg and ground
(D) both (A) and (B)
Sol.

63. A force F = i + 4 j acts on block shown. The force
of friction acting on the block is
F
y
1 Kg
x
(A) − i . i
(B) − 18 (C) − 2.4 i (D) − 3 i
Sol.
65. A wooden block of mass m resting on a rough

h o r i z o n t a l t a b µ) is pulled
l e ( c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n =
by a force F as shown in figure. The acceleration of

the block moving horizontally is :
F
θ
m
F cos θ µF sin θ
(A) (B)
m M
F
(C) (cos θ + µ sin θ) – µg (D) none
m
Page # 78 N.L.M.
Sol. Sol.
66. In the arrangement shown in the figure, mass of

the block B and A is 2m and m respectively. Surface
between B and floor is smooth. The block B is
connected to the block C by means of a string pulley 67. Two masses A and B of 10 kg and 5 kg respectively
system. If the whole system is released, then find the are connected with a string passing over a fricionless
minimum value of mass of block C so that block A pulley fixed at the corner of a table as shown in figure.
remains stationary w.r.t. B. Coefficient of friction The coefficient of friction of A with the table is 0.2.
between A and B is µ. The minimum mass of C that may be placed on A to
prevent if from moving is equal to :
A C
10kg
A
B
C 5 kg
B
m 2m + 1 3m 6m
(A) (B) (C) (D) (A) 15 kg (B) 10 kg (C) 5 kg (D) zero
µ µ +1 µ −1 µ +1
N.L.M. Page # 79
Sol. 69. A body of mass m moves with a velocity v on a
surface whose friction coefficient is µ. If the body
covers a distance s then v will be :
(A) 2µgs (B) µgs (C) µgs / 2 (D) 3µgs
Sol.
70. With what minimum velocity should block be

projected from left end A towards end B such that it
reaches the other end B of conveyer belt moving with
68. If the coefficient of friction between an insect constant velocity v. Friction coefficient between block
and bowl is µ and the radius of the bowl, is r, the and belt is µ.
maximum height to which the insect can crawl in the m v0
bowl is : A B
v
r  1 
 
(A) (B) 1 –
r

1+ µ2  1+ µ2 
L
(C) r 1 + µ 2 (D) r 1 + µ 2 – 1 (A) µgL (B) 2µgL (C) 3µgL (D) 2 µgL
Sol. Sol.
Page # 80 N.L.M.
71. A box 'A' is lying on the horizontal floor of the
compartment of a train running along horizontal rails
from left to right. At time 't', it decelerates. Then the
reaction R by the floor on the box is given best by
R R
A A
(A) (B)
floor floor
R R
(C) A (D) A
floor floor
Sol.
73. A small mass slides down an inclined plane of

i n c l i nθ with the horizontal. The co-efficient of
a t i o n
friction is µ = µ0x where x is the distance through

which the mass slides down and µ0, a constant. Then
the distance covered by the mass before it stops is :
2 4 1 1
(A) µ tan θ (B) µ tan θ (C) 2µ tan θ (D) µ tan θ
0 0 0 0
Sol.
72. A block of mass m lying on a rough horizontal

plane is acted upon by a horizontal force P and another
force Q inclined an at an angle θ to the vertical. The
minimum value of coefficient of friction between the
block and the surface for which the block will remain
in equilibrium is :
Q
θ
P
///////////////////////////////////////
P + Q sin θ P cos θ + Q
(A) (B)
mg + Q cos θ mg – Q sin θ
P + Q cos θ P sin θ – Q
(C) (D)
mg + Q sin θ mg – Q cos θ
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 81
74. In the above question the speed of the mass
when travelled half the maximum distance is
g tan θ sin θ g tan θ sin θ
(A) µ0 (B) 2µ 0
g tan θ sin θ
(C) 8µ 0 (D) none of these
Sol.
76. A body is moving down a long inclined plane of

slope 37º. The coefficient of friction between the body
and plane varies as µ = 0.3 x, where x is distance
travelled down the plane. The body will have maximum
3
speed. (sin 37º = and g = 10 m/s2)
5
(A) at x = 1.16 m (B) at x = 2m
(C) at bottom of plane (D) at x = 2.5 m
Sol.
75. For the equilibrium of a body on an inclined plane

of inclination 45º. The coefficient of static friction will
be
(A) greater than one (B) less than one
(C) zero (D) less than zero
Sol.
Page # 82 N.L.M.
77. Block B of mass 100 kg rests on a rough surface 78. Starting from rest a body slides down a 45° inclined
of friction coefficient µ = 1/3. A rope is tied to block B plane in twice the time it takes to slide down the
as shown in figure. The maximum acceleration with same distance in the absence of friction. The co-
which boy A of 25 kg can climbs on rope without efficient of friction between the body and the inclined
making block move is plane is :
(A) 0.75 (B) 0.33 (C) 0.25 (D) 0.80
Sol.
4g g g 3g
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 2 4
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 83
79. A block of mass 5 kg and surface area 2 m2 just 81. A block placed on a rough inclined plane of
begins to slide down an inclined plane when the angle inclination (θ = 30º) can just be pushed upwards by
of inclination is 30°. Keeping mass same, the surface applying a force “F” as shown. If the angle of inclination
area of the block is doubled. The angle at which this of the inclined plane is increased to (θ = 60º), the
starts sliding down is : same block can just be prevented from sliding down
(A) 30° (B) 60° (C) 15° (D) none by application of a force of same magnitude. The
Sol. coefficient of friction between the block and the
inclined plane is
3 +1 2 3 −1
(A) (B)
3 −1 3 +1
3 −1
(C) (D) none of these
3 +1
Sol.
80. Two blocks of masses m1 and m2 are connected

with a massless unstretched spring and placed over a
plank moving with an acceleration 'a' as shown in
figure. the coefficient of friction between the blocks
and platform is µ.
m1 m2
a
(A) spring will be stretched if a > µg

(B) spring will be compressed if a ≤ µg
(C) spring will neither be compressed nor be stretched
for a ≤ µg
(D) spring will be in its natural length under all
conditions.
Sol.
Page # 84 N.L.M.
82. A fixed wedge with both surface inclined at 45° to
the horizontal as shown in the figure. A particle P of
mass m is held on the smooth plane by a light string
which passes over a smooth pulley A and attached to
a particle Q of mass 3m which rests on the rough
plane. The system is released from rest. Given that
g
the acceleration of each particle is of magnitude
5 2
then A
Q
th
Ro
P
oo
ug
m 3m
Sm
45° fixed 45°
(a) the tension in the string is :

6mg mg mg
(A) mg (B) (C) (D)
5 2 2 4
Sol.
(c) In the above question the magnitude and direction

of the force exerted by the string on the pulley is :
6mg 6mg
(A) downward (B) upward
5 5
mg mg
(C) downward (D) downward
5 4
Sol.
(b) In the above question the coefficient of friction

between Q and the rough plane is :
4 1 3 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 5 5 5
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 85
83. A force F = t is applied to block A as shown in For Q.84. to Q.88 refer given figure (5 questions)
figure. The force is applied at t = 0 seconds when the 84. When F = 2N, the frictional force between 5
system was at rest and string is just straight without kg block and ground is
tension. Which of the following graphs gives the friction
force between B and horizontal surface as a function 10kg F
a time 't'.
B A 5kg
m m F
µ s > µk µs = µk
(A) 2N (B) 0 (C) 8 N (D) 10 N
Sol.
f f
(A) (B)
t t
f f
(C) (D)
t t
Sol.
85. When F = 2N, the frictional force between 10 kg

block and 5 kg block is
(A) 2N (B) 15N (C) 10N (D) None
Sol.
Page # 86 N.L.M.
86. The maximum “F” which will not cause motion of 89. A truck starting from rest moves with an
any of the blocks acceleration of 5 m/s2 for 1 sec and then moves with
(A) 10N (B) 15N constant velocity. The velocity w.r.t. ground v/s time
(C) data insufficient (D) None graph for block in truck is (Assume that block does
Sol. not fall off the truck)
µ = 0.2
5 m/s 3 m/s
(A) (B)
1 sec 1 sec
87. The maximum acceleration of 5 kg block

(A) 1 m/s2 (B) 3 m/s2 (C) 0 (D) None 5 m/s
Sol. (C) (D) None of these
2.5 sec
Sol.
88. The acceleration of 10 kg block when F = 30 N

(A) 2 m/s2 (B) 3 m/s2 (C) 1 m/s2 (D) None
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 87
90. A board is balanced on a rough horizontal 91. A stationary body of mass m is slowly lowered
semicircular log. Equilibrium is obtained with the help onto a massive plateform of mass M (M >> m) moving
of addition of a weight to one of the ends of the at a speed V0 = 4 m/s as shown in fig. How far will the
board when the board makes an angle θ with the body slide along the platform (µ = 0.2 and g = 10 m/
horizontal. Coefficient of friction between the log s2 ) ?
and the board is
(A) 4 m (B) 6 m (C) 12 m (D) 8 m

Sol.
(A) tan θ (B) cos θ (C) cot θ (D) sin θ
Sol.
Page # 88 N.L.M.
(A) N. L. M
1. A student calculates the acceleration of m1 in figure

(m1 – m 2 )g
shown as a1 = m + m . Which assumption is not
1 2
required to do this calculation.
3. Two men of unequal masses hold on to the two

sections of a light rope passing over a smooth light
m1
pulley. Which of the following are possible?
m2
(A) pulley is frictionless (B) string is massless

(C) pulley is massless (D) string is inextensible
Sol.
(A) The lighter man is stationary while the heavier

man slides with some acceleration
(B) The heavier man is stationary while the lighter
man climbs with some acceleration
(C) The two men slide with the same acceleration in
the same direction
(D) The two men move with accelerations of the same
magnitude in opposite directions
Sol.
2. Which graph shows best the velocity-time graph
for an object launched vertically into the air when air
resistance is given by |D| = bv? The dashed line shows
the velocity graph if there were no air resistance.
v v
(A) t (B) t
v v
(C) t (D) t
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 89
4. Adjoining figure shows a force of 40 N acting at 30° 6. In the system shown in the figure m1 > m2. System
to the horizontal on a body of mass 5 kg resting on a is held at rest by thread BC. Just after the thread BC
smooth horizontal surface. Assuming that the is burnt :
acceleration of free-fall is 10 ms–2, which of the
following statements A, B, C, D, E is (are) correct?
40 N
5 kg 30°
spring B m2
[1] The horizontal force acting on the body is 20 N k
[2] The weight of the 5 kg mass acts vertically
downwards m1 A
[3] The net vertical force acting on the body is 30 N C
(A) 1, 2, 3 (B) 1, 2 (C) 2 only (D) 1 only (A) acceleration of m2 will be upwards
Sol. (B) magnitude of acceleration of both blocks will be
 m1 – m 2 
equal to  m + m  g
 1 2
(C) acceleration of m1 will be equal to zero
(D) magnitude of acceleration of two blocks will be
non-zero and unequal.
Sol.
5. For ordinary terrestrial experiments, which of the

following observers below are inertial.
(A) a child revolving in a “giant wheel”.
(B) a driver in a sports car moving with a constant
high speed of 200 km/h on a straight road.
(C) the pilot of an aeroplane which is taking off.
(D) a cyclist negotiating a sharp turn.
Sol.
7. A particle is resting on a smooth horizontal floor. At

t = 0, a horizontal force starts acting on it. Magnitude
of the force increases with time according to law F =
α.t, where α is a constant. For the figure shown which
of the following statements is/are correct ?
2
y
1
O x
(A) Curve 1 shows acceleration against time
(B) Curve 2 shows velocity against time
(C) Curve 2 shows velocity against acceleration
(D) none of these
Page # 90 N.L.M.
Sol.
9. Figure shows the displacement of a particle going

along the x-axis as a funtion of time :
x E
D
C
B
A
t
(A) the force acting on the particle is zero in the
region AB
(B) the force acting on the particle is zero in the
region BC
(C) the force acting o the particle is zero in the region
CD
8. Two blocks A and B of equal mass m are connected (D) the force is zero no where.
through a massless string and arranged as shown in Sol.
figure. Friction is absent everywhere. When the system
is released from rest.
fixed
30° B
mg
(A) tension in string is
2
mg
(B) tension in string is
4
(C) acceleation of A is g/2 10. A force of magnitude F1 acts on a particle so as
3 to accelerate it from rest to a velocity v. The force F1
(D) acceleration of A is g is then replaced by another force of magnitude F2
4
Sol. which decelerates it to rest.
(A) F1 must be the equal to F2
(B) F1 may be equal to F2
(C) F1 must be unequal to F2
(D) None of these
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 91
11. In the figure, the blocks A, B and c of mass m Sol.
each have acceleration a1. a2 and a3 respectively. F1
and F2 are external forces of magnitudes 2 mg and mg
respectively.
m m m
F1=2mg F2=mg
A B C
2m
(A) a1 = a2 = a3 (B) a1 > a2 > a3

(C) a1 = a2, a2 > a3 (D) a1 > a2 , a2 = a3
Sol.
13. A chain of length l is placed on a smooth spherical

surface of radius r with one of its ends fixed at the
top of the surface. Length of chain is assumed to be
12. A rope is stretched between two boats at rest. A πr
l< . Acceleration of each element of chain when
sailor in the first boat pulls the rope with a constant 2
upper end is released is -
force of 100 N. First boat with the sailor has a mas of
250 kg whereas mass of second boat is double of that
mass. If the initial distance between the boats was
100 m, the time taken for two boats to meet each
other is -
g  r rg  
(A)  1– cos  (B)  1– cos 
r    r
g   rg  r
(C)  1– sin  (D)  1– sin 
(A) 13.8 s (B) 18.3 s (C) 3.18 s (D) 31.8 s r  r  
Page # 92 N.L.M.
Sol. (B) FRICTION
15. A block of mass 2.5 kg is kept on a rough horizontal
surface. It is found that the block does not slide if a
horizontal force less than 15 N is applied to it. Also it
is if found that it takes 5 second to slide throughout
the first 10 m if a horizontal force of 15 N is applied
and the block is gently pushed to start the motion.
Taking g = 10 m/s2, then
(A) µs = 0.60 (B) µk = 0.52
(C) µk = 0.60 (D) µs = 0.52
Sol.
14. Five persons A, B, C, D & E are pulling a cart of

mass 100 kg on a smooth surface and cart is moving
with acceleration 3 m/s2 in east direction. When person
‘A’ stops pulling, it moves with acceleration 1 m/s2 in
the west direction. When person ‘B’ stops pulling, it
moves with acceleration 24 m/s2 in the north direction.
The magnitude of acceleration of the cart when only
A & B pull the cart keeping their directions same as
the old directions, is :
(A) 26 m/s2 (B) 3 71 m / s 2
(C) 25 m/s2 (D) 30 m/s2
Sol.
16. The coefficient of friction between 4 kg and 5 kg

blocks is 0.2 and between 5 kg block and ground is
0.1 respectively. Choose the correct statements
P 4 kg
Q 5 kg F
(A) Minimum force needed to cause system to move
is 17N
(B) When force is 4N static friction at all surfaces is 4
N to keep system at rest.
(C) Maximum acceleration of 4 kg block is 2 m/s2
(D) Slipping between 4 kg and 5 kg blocks start when
F is 17 N
N.L.M. Page # 93
Sol. Sol.
17. In a tug-of-war contest, two men pull on a

horizontal rope from opposite sides. The winner will be
the man who
(A) exerts greater force on the rope
(B) exerts greater force on the ground
(C) exerts a force on the rope which is greater than Q u e s t i o n N o . 1 9 t o 2 0 ( 2 q u e s t i o n s )
the tension in the rope In figure, two blocks M and m are tied together with
(D) makes a smaller angle with the vertical an inextensible and light string. The mass M is placed
Sol. on a rough horizontal surface with coefficient of friction
µ and the mass m is hanging vertically against a smooth
vertical wall. The pulley is frictionless.
M
Rough
m
Smooth
19. Choose the correct statement(s)

(A) The system will accelerate for any value of m
(B) The system will accelerate only when m > M
(C) The system will accelerate only when m > µM
18. A man pulls a block heavier than himself with a (D) Nothing can be said
light horizontal rope. The coefficient of friction is the Sol.
same between the man and the ground, and between
the block and the ground.
(A) The block will not move unless the man also moves
(B) The man can move even when the block is
stationary
(C) If both move, the acceleration of the man is
greater than the acceleration of the block
(D) None of the above assertions is correct
Page # 94 N.L.M.
20. Choose the correct statement(s) related to the Sol.
tension T in the string
(A) When m < µM, T = mg
(B) When m < µM, T = Mg
(C) When m > µM, µMg < T < mg
(D) When m > µM, mg < T < µMg
Sol.
22. In above problem, choose the correct value(s) of

Question No. 21 to 23 (3 questions) F which the blocks M and m remain stationary with
Imagine a situation in which the horizontal surface of respect to M0
block M0 is smooth and its vertical surface is rough
with a coefficient of friction µ g m(M0 + M + m)g
(A) (M0 + M + m) (B)
µ M – µm
Smooth M
mg
(C) (M0 + M + m) (D) none of these
M
Mo m
F Sol.
Rough
21. Identify the correct statement(s)

(A) If F=0, the blocks cannot remain stationary
(B) For one unique value of F, the blocks M and m
remain stationary with respect to M0
(C) The limiting friction between m and M 0 is
independent of F
(D) There exist a value of F at which friction force is
equal to zero.
N.L.M. Page # 95
24. The value(s) of mass m for which the 100 kg

block remains is static equilibrium is
23. Consider a special situation in which both the faces 100 m

of the block M0 are smooth, as shown in adjoining µ = 0.3
37°
figure. Mark out the correct statement(s)
(A) 35 kg (B) 37 kg (C) 83 kg (D) 85 kg
Smooth M Sol.
M0 m
F
Smooth
(A) If F = 0, the blocks cannot remain stationary

(B) For one unique value of F, the blocks M and m
remain stationary with respect to block M0
(C) There exists a range of F for which blocks M and
m remain stationary with respect to block M0
(D) Since there is no friction, therefore, blocks M and
m cannot be in equilibrium with respect to M0
Sol.
Page # 96 N.L.M.
26. Car is accelerating with acceleration = 20 m/s2. A
box that is placed inside the car, of mass m = 10 kg is
put in contact with the vertical wall as shown. The
friction coefficient between the box and the wall is µ
= 0.6.
µ = 0.6
10kg
20m/s2
(A) The acceleration of the box will be 20 m/sec2

(B) The friction force acting on the box will be 100 N
(C) The contact force between the vertical wall and
the box will be 100 5 N
(D) The net contact force between the vertical wall
25. The contact force exerted by one body on another
body is equal to the normal force between the bodies. and the box is only of electromagnetic in nature.
It can be said that : Sol.
(A) the surface must be frictionless
(B) the force of friction between the bodies is zero
(C) the magnitude of normal force equals that of
friction
(D) It is possible that the bodies are rough and they
do not slip on each other.
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 97
Exercise - III (SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
1. Two masses A and B, lie on a frictionless table.

They are attached to either end of a light rope which
passes around a horizontal movable pulley of negligible
mass. Find the acceleration of each mass MA = 1 kg,
MB = 2 kg, MC = 4 kg. The pulley P2 is vertical.
P1
B
P2
A
C
Sol.
3. To Paint the side of a building, painter normally

hoists himself up by pulling on the rope A as in figure.
The painter and platform together weigh 200 N . The
rope B can withstand 300 N. Find
(a) the maximum acceleration of the painter.

(b) tension in rope A
(i) when painter is at rest
(ii) when painter moves up with an acceleration
2 m/s2.
Sol.
2. Block A of mass m/2 is connected to one end of
light rope which passes over a pulley as shown in the
fig. Man of mass m climbs the other end of rope with a
relative acceleration of g/6 with respect to rope find
acceleration of block A and tension in the rope.
g/6
m
m/2
A
Sol.
Page # 98 N.L.M.
4. An inclined plane makes an angle 30º with the 6. Find the reading of spring balance as shown in
horizontal. A groove OA = 5 m cut in the plane makes figure. Assume that mass M is in equilibrium. (All
an angle 30º with OX. A short smooth cylinder is free surfaces are smooth)
to slide down the influence of gravity. Find the time 2.5
taken by the cylinder to due to reach from A to O. Spring kg
(g = 10 m/s2) balance
M
er
ind A
cyl 30°
37º
30° Sol.
O x
Sol.
5. Same spring is attached with 2 kg, 3 kg and 1 kg

blocks in three different cases as shown in figure. If
x1, x2 and x3 be the extensions in the spring in these
three cases then find the ratio of their extensions.
7. At what value of m1 will 8 kg mass be at rest.
8kg
2 kg 3 kg 1 kg
2 kg 2 kg 2 kg
(a) (b) (c)
5kg
Sol. m1
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 99
8. What force must man exert on rope to keep platform 10. Find force in newton which mass A exerts on
in equilibrium ? mass B if B is moving towards right with 3 ms–2. Also
find mass of A. (All surfaces are smooth)
A 2
3m/s
1kg
B
37º
Sol. Sol.
9. Inclined plane is moved towards right with an

acceleration of 5ms–2 as shown in figure. Find force in
newton which block of mass 5 kg exerts on the incline
plane. (All surfaces are smooth)
5kg
37º
5 m/s2
Sol.
Page # 100 N.L.M.
11. Force F is applied on upper pulley. If F = 30t
where t is time in seconds. Find the time when m1
loses contact with floor.
F 30t N
m1 m2
m1 = 4kg m2 = 1kg
13. The vertical displacement of block A in meter is
Sol. given by y = t2/4 where t is in second. Calculate the
downward acceleration aB of block B.
y
B
Sol.
12. The 40 kg block is moving to the right with a

speed of 1.5 m/s when it is acted upon by forces F1 &
F2. These forces vary in the manner shown in the
graph. Find the velocity of the block after t = 12 s
Neglect friction and masses of the pulleys and cords.
F(N)
F2
40
F2 F1
30
F1 20
10
t(s)
0 2 4 6 12
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 101
14. An object of mass m is suspended in equilibrium Sol.
using a string of length l and a spring having spring
constant K (< 2 mg/l) and unstreched length l/2.
(a) Find the tension in the string

(b) What happens if K > 2 mg / l ?
16. A person of mass m is standing on a platform of

mass M and wants to raise this platform. Massless
pulleys are configured in two different ways as shown.
We would like to know which configuration makes it
easier to raise the platform. Answer the following
questions in terms of m, M, a and constant as
appropriate. [Note : Assume the rope is also massless
and does not stretch.]
m m
M M
Fig(1) Fig(2)
(a) For configuration (1) find the force, F, the person
must exert straight up in order to accelerate the
platform + person system with an acceleration a.
15. Three monkeys A, B, and C with Include a freebody diagram in your solution.
masses of 10, 15 & 8 kg respectively (b) What force does the platform exert on the person
are climbing up & down the rope when the acceleration of the system is a? Include a
suspended from D. at the instant freebody diagram in your solution.
represented, A is descending the rope (c) If platform is massless, M = 0, and he wants to
with an acceleration of 2 m/s2 & C is raise it with a constant velocity find F. Does this
pulling himself up with an acceleration configuration offer a mechanical advantage ? (That
of 1.5 m/s2. Monkeys B is climbing up is, is F < mg ?)
with a constant speed of 0.8 m/s. (d) Now repeat the above for configuration (2). First,
Treat the rope and monkeys as a find the force, F, the person must exert straight down
complete system & calculate the in order to accelerate the platform+ person system
tension T in the rope at D. (g = 10 with an upward acceleration a. Include a freebody
m/s–2) diagram in your solution.
(e) Now, what force does the platform exert on the
Page # 102 N.L.M.
person when the acceleration of the system is a? (B) FRICTION
Include a freebody diagram in your solution.
(f) Again, if the platform is massless, M = 0, and he 17. Give the acceleration of blocks :
wants to raise it with a constant velocity find F. Does 50N
this configuration offer a mechanical advantage ? (That 37°
µ = 0.5 µ s = 0.5
is, is F < mg?) (A) µ ks = 0.4 5kg 40N (B) µ k = 0.4 10kg
Sol.
µ s = µ k = 0.6 10kg
(C)
5kg
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 103
18. Determine the coefficient of friction (µ), so that 20. A rope so lies on a table that part of it lays over.
rope of mass m and length l does not slide down. The rope begins to slide when the length of hanging
part is 25 % of entire length. The co-efficient of friction
between rope and table is :
l/3 Sol.
Sol.
21. A worker wishes to pile a cone of sand into a

circular area in his yard. The radius of the circle is r,
and no sand is to spill onto the surrounding area. If µ
is the static coefficient of friction between each layer
of sand along the slope and the sand, the greatest
volume of sand that can be stored in this manner is :
Sol.
19. A wooden block A of mass M is placed on a

frictionless horizontal surface. On top of A, another
lead block B also of mass M is placed. A horizontal
force of magnitude F is applied to B. Force F is
increased continuously from zero. Then draw the graph
between A and F. [µk < µs]
B F
A
Sol.
Page # 104 N.L.M.
22. A block of mass 15 kg is resting on a rough inclined 24. A block of mass 1 kg is horizontally thrown with a
plane as shown in figure. The block is tied up by a velocity of 10 m/s on a stationary long plank of mass
horizontal string which has a tension of 50 N. The 2 kg whose surface has µ = 0.5. Plank rests on
coefficient of friction between the surfaces of contact frictionless surface. Find the time when m1 comes to
is (g = 10 m/s2) rest w.r.t. plank.
T Sol.
m
horizontal
45°
Sol.
25. Block M slides down on frictionless incline as shown.

Find the minimum friction coefficient so that m does
not slide with respect to M.
m
M
23. In the figure, what should be mass m so that
block A slide up with a constant velocity.
37º
Sol.
A
g
1k m
37º
=0.5
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 105
26. The coefficient of static and kinetic friction between
the two blocks and also between the lower block and
the ground are µs = 0.6 and µk = 0.4. Find the value of
tension T applied on the lower block at which the
upper block begins to slip relative to lower block.
M = 2kg
T
M = 2kg
Sol.
28. A body of mass 2kg rests on a horizontal plane

having coefficient of friction µ = 0.5. At t = 0 a horizontal

force F is applied that varies with time F = 2t. The
time constant t0 at which motion starts and distance
moved in t = 2t0 second will be _______ and ________
respectively.
Sol.
27. A thin rod of length 1 m is fixed in a vertical

position inside a train, which is moving horizontally
with constant acceleration 4 m/s2. A bead can slide
on the rod, and friction coefficient between them is
1/2. If the bead is released from rest at the top of the
rod, find the time when it will reach at the bottom.
Sol.
Page # 106 N.L.M.
29. Find the acceleration of the blocks and magnitude
& direction of frictional force between block A and
table, if block A is pulled towards left with a force of
50N.
A x
F = 50N
5Kg
g = 10m/s2
B
4Kg
Sol.
31. Coefficient of friction between 5 kg and 10 kg

block is 0.5. If friction between them is 20N. What is
the value of force being applied on 5 kg. The floor is
frictionless.
F
5kg
10kg
Sol.
30. A block A of mass 2kg rests on another block B of

mass 8kg which rests on a horizontal floor. The
coefficient of friction between A and B is 0.2 while
that between B and floor is 0.5. When a horizontal
force F of 25N is applied on the block B, the force of
friction between A and B is _________.
N.L.M. Page # 107
Exercise - IV (TOUGH SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
2. An ornament for a courtyard at a word’s fair is to

1. The diagram shows particles A and B, of masses
be made up of four identical, frictionless metal sphere,
0.2 kg and m kg respectively, connected by a light
each weighing 2 6 Newton. The spheres are to be
inextensible string which passes over a fixed smooth
peg. The system is released from rest, with B at a arranged as shown, with three resting on a horizontal
height of 0.25m above the floor. B descends, hitting surface and touching each other; the fourth is to rest
the floor 0.5s later. All resistances to motion may be freely on the other three. The bottom three are kept
ignored. from separating by spot welds at the points of contact
with each other. Allowing for a factor of satety of 3N,
how much tension must the spot welds with stand.
A
B
0.2 kg
m kg 0.25m
(a) Find the acceleration of B as it descends. Top View Horizontal View

(b) Find the tension in the string while B is descending Sol.
and find also the value of m.
(c) When B hits the floor it comes to rest immediately,
and the string becomes slack. Find the length of time
for which B remains at rest on the ground before being
jerked into motion again.
Sol.
Page # 108 N.L.M.
3. A 1kg block ‘B’ rests as shown on a bracket ‘A’ of Sol.
same mass. Constant foroes F1 = 20 N and F2 = 8N
start to act at time t = 0 when the distance of block
B from pulley is 50 cm. Time when block B reaches the
pulley is _______.
50cm
F2
F1
B
A
Sol.
5. In figure shown, pulleys are ideal m1 > 2 m2. Initially

the system is in equilibrium and string connecting m2
to rigid support below is cut. Find the initial acceleration
of m2?
m2
m1
4. Two men of masses m1 and m2 hold on the opposite Sol.

ends of a rope passing over a frictionless pulley. The
mass m1 climbs up the rope with an acceleration of
1.2 m/s2 relative to the rope. The man m2 climbs up
the rope with an acceleration of 2.0 m/s2 relative to
the
rope. Find the tension in the rope if m1 = 40 kg
and m2 = 60 kg. Also find the time after which they
will be at same horizontal level if they start from rest
and are initially separated by 5m.
N.L.M. Page # 109
6. The system shown adjacent is in equilibrium. Find 7. In the system shown. Find the initial acceleration
the acceleration of the blocks A, B & C all of equal of the wedge of mass 5M. The pulleys are ideal and
masses m at the instant when the cords are inextensible. (there is no friction
(Assume springs to be ideal) anywhere).
(a) The spring between ceiling & A is cut.
M
5M
K 2M
A
Sol.
B
C
(b) The string (inextensible) between A & B is cut.
(c) The spring between B & C is cut.
Also find the tension in the string when the system is
at rest and in the above 3 cases.
Sol.
8. A smooth right circular cone of semi vertical angle

α = tan–1(5/12) is at rest on a horizontal plane. A
rubber ring of mass 2.5 kg which requires a force of
15N for an extension of 10cm is placed on the cone.
Find the increase in the radius of the ring in equilibrium.
Sol.
Page # 110 N.L.M.
10. A car begins to move at time t = 0 and then
accelerates along a straight track with a speed given
2
b y V ( t )ms–1 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 After the end of
= 2 t
acceleration, the car continues to move at a constant

speed. A small block initially at rest on the floor of the
car begins to slip at t = 1sec. and stops slipping at t =
3sec. Find the coefficient of static and kinetic friction
between the block and the floor.
Sol.
9. A block of mass m lies on wedge of mass M as

shown in figure. Answer following parts separately.
(a) With what minimum acceleration must the wedge
be moved towards right horizontally so that block m
falls freely.
m
M
(b) Find the minimum friction coefficient required

between wedge M and ground so that it does not
move while block m slips down on it.
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 111
11. In the figure shown, 12. A particle having a mass m and velocity Vm in the
(i) For what maximum value of force F can all these y-direction is projected on to a horizontal belt that is
blocks move together. moving with uniform velocity Vb in the x-direction as
(ii) Find the value of force F at which sliding starts at shown in figure. µ is the coefficient of friction between
other rough surfaces particle and belt. Assuming that the particle first
touches the belt at the origin of the fixed xy coordinate
1kg system and remains on the belt, find the coordinates
F (x, y) of the point where the sliding stops.
2kg
3kg y
(iii) Find acceleration of all blocks, nature and value

of friction force of force F = 18N. belt vb
Sol.
x
m
Sol.
Page # 112 N.L.M.
Exercise - V (JEE-PROBLEMS)
1. A spring of force constant k is cut into two pieces

such that one piece is double the length of the other.
Then the long piece will have a force constant of
(A) (2/3) k (B) (3/2) k (C) 3k (D) 6K
[JEE 1999]
Sol.
2. In the figure masses m1, m2 and M are 20 kg, 5 kg

and 50 kg respectively. The co-efficient of friction
between M and ground is zero. The co-efficient of
friction between m1 and M and that between m2 and
ground is 0.3. The pulleys and the string are massless.
The string is perfectly horizontal between P1 and m1
and also between P2 and m2. The string is perfectly
vertical between P1 and P2. An external horizontal force
F is applied to the mass M. Take g = 10 m/s2.
P1 m1
F
P2 M
m2
(a) Draw a free - body diagram for mass M, clearly

showing all the forces.
(b) Let the magnitude of the force of friction between
m1 and M be f1 and that between m2 and ground be f2.
For a particular F it is found that f1 =2f2. Find f1 and 3. The pulleys and strings shown in the figure are
f2. Write down equations of motion of all the masses. smooth and of negligible mass. For the system to remain
Find F, tension in the string and accelerations of the in equilibrium, the angle θ should be
masses. [JEE 2000] [JEE (Scr) 2001]
Sol.
A B
P Q
m 1/2 m
2 m
(A) 0° (B) 30° (C) 45° (D) 60°
N.L.M. Page # 113
Sol. 5. A block of mass 3 kg is placed on a rough horizontal
surface whose coefficient of friction is 1 / 2 3 minimum
value of force F (shown in figure) for which the block
starts to slide on the surface. (g = 10m/s2)
60°
(A) 20 N (B) 20 3 N
(C) 10 3 N (D) None of these

Sol.
4. A string of negligible mass going over a clamped

pulley of mass m supports a block of mass M as shown
in the figure. The force on the pulley by the clamp is
given [JEE (Scr) 2001]
(A) 2 Mg (B) 2 mg
(C) (M + m)2 + m2 g (D) (M + m) 2 + M2 g
Sol.
Page # 114 N.L.M.
6. Two blocks A and B of equal masses are released Sol.
from an inclined plane of inclination 45° at t = 0. Both
the blocks are initially at rest. The coefficient of kientic
friction between the block A and the inclined plane is
0.2 while it is 0.3 for block B. Initially, the block A is
2 m behind the block B. When and where their front
faces will come in line. [Take g = 10m/s2].
2m
A B
B
A
45°
Sol.
8. A circular disc with a groove along its diameter is

7. Two blocks A and B masses 2m and m, respectively,
placed horizontally. A block of mass 1 kg is placed as
are connected by a massless and inextensible string.
shown. The co-efficient of friction between the block
The whole system is suspended by a massless spring
and all surfaces of groove in contact is µ = 2/5. The
as shown in the figure. The magnitudes of acceleration
disc has an acceleration of 25 m/s 2 . Find the
of A and B, immediately after the string is cut, are
acceleration of the block with respect to disc.
respectively. [JEE 2006]
[JEE 2006]
a=25m/s2
2m A
m B
(A) g, g (B) g, g/2 (C) g/2, g (D) g/2, g/2
N.L.M. Page # 115
Sol. Sol.
10. STATEMENT-1
9. Two particles of mass m each are tied at the ends A cloth Covers a table. Some dishes are kept on it.
of a light string of length 2a. The whole system is The cloth can be pulled out without dislodging the
kept on a frictionless horizontal surface with the string dishes from the table
held tight so that each mass is at a distance ‘a’ from because
the center P (as shown in the figure). Now, the mid- STATEMENT-2
point of the string is pulled vertically upwards with a For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
small but constant force F. As a result, the particles (A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
move towards each other on the surfaces. The State me nt -2 i s a correc t ex pl anat i on for
magnitude of acceleration, when the separation Statement-1
between them becomes 2x, is [JEE 2007] (B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
F Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for
Statement - 1
[JEE 2007]
Sol.
m m
P
a a
F a F x
(A) 2m (B) 2m
a − x2
2
a − x2
2
F x F a2 − x2
(C) (D)
2m a 2m x
Page # 116 N.L.M.
11. STATEMENT-1 13. A block of mass m is on an inclined plane of angle
It is easier to pull a heavy object than to push it on a θ. The coefficient of friction betwen the block and the
level ground. plane is µ and tan θ > µ. The block is held stationary
and by applying a force P parallel to the plane. The direction
STATEMENT-2 of force pointing up the plane is taken to the positive.
The magnitude of frictional force depends on the As P is varied from P = mg (sin θ – µ cos θ ) to Pz = mg
nature of the two surfaces in contact. (sin θ + µ cos θ), the frictional force f versus P graph
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; will look like
Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 i s true, statement-2 is true’
statement-2 is NOT a correct explanati on for
statement-1 P
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true θ
[ JEE 2008]
Sol.
f
f
P2
(A) P1 P (B)
P1 P2 P
f
f
P1 P2
12. A block of base 10 cm × 10 cm and height 15 cm
P1 P
is kept on an inclined plane. The coefficient of friction P2
(C) P (D)
between them is 3 . The inclination θ of this inclined
plane from the horizontal plane is gradually increased
from 0º. Then
[JEE 2010]
(A) at θ = 30º, the block will start sliding down the
Sol.
plane
(B) the block will remain at rest on the plane up to
certain θ and then it will topple
(C) at θ = 60º, the block will start sliding down the
plane and continue to do so at higher angles
(D) at θ = 60º, the block will start sliding down the
plane and on further increasing θ, it will topple at
certain θ [JEE 2009]
Sol.
N.L.M. Page # 117
14. A block is moving on an inclined plane making an

angle 45º with horizontal and the coefficient of friciton
is µ. the force required to just push it up the inclined
plane is 3 times the force requried to just prevent it
from sliding down. If we define N = 10µ, then N is
[JEE 2011]
Page # 118 N.L.M.
(A) NEWTONS'S LAW OF MOTION
1. A 2. A 3. A 4. A 5. B 6. A 7. A
8. D 9. B 10. C 11. A 12. A 13. B 14. A
15. A 16. D 17. A 18. B 19. B 20. B 21. A
22. C 23. C 24. A 25. A 26. A 27. B 28. A
29. B 30. B 31. A 32. B 33. C 34. C 35. B
36. C 37. C 38. C 39. C 40. A 41. B 42. A
43. C 44. B 45. D 46. B 47. A 48. B 49. B
50. (i) A (ii) A (iii) C (iv) D (v) B (vi) D

(vii) B (viii) B
51. (i) A (ii) A (iii) A (iv) C (v) B (vi) C
(vii) C (viii) B
52. A 53. B 54. A 55. A 56. C 57. C 58. D
(B) FRICTION
fED fDC
59. E 2 m/s D 1 m/s C 3 m/s

fED fDC fCS
fCB fBA
B 5 m/s 5 m/s A fAg
fBA fAg
fkAB
60. fkAB A fkAB B
fkBG
61. A 62. B 63. A 64. C 65. C 66. C 67. A

68. B 69. A 70. B 71. C 72. A 73. A 74. A
75. A 76. D 77. B 78. A 79. A 80. D 81. C
82. (a) B (b) D (c) A 83. A 84. A 85. A 86. A 87. C
88. A 89. C 90. A 91. A
N.L.M. Page # 119
(A) NEWTONS'S LAW OF MOTION
1. C 2. B 3. A,B,D 4. C 5. B 6. A,C
7. A,B,C 8. B,D 9. A,B,C 10. B 11. B 12. B
13. B 14. C
(B) FRICTION
15. A,B 16. C 17. B 18. A,B,C 19. C 20. A,C

21. A,D 22. B,C 23. A,B 24. B,C 25. B,D 26. A,B,C,D
(A) NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION
4 g 2g 3 g 4g 13mg
1. , , 2. a = ,T= 3. (a) 5m/s2, (b) (i) 100N, (ii) 120N
5 5 5 9 18
4. 2 sec 5. x2 > x1 > x3 x1 : x2 : x3 : 15 : 18 : 10 6. 12 N 7. 10/3 kg
8. 300 N 9. 55 10. 5N, 16/31 kg 11. 2sec 12. 12 m/s
kl
13. aB = 4m/s2 ( ↑ ) 14. (a) T = mg – , (b) length of spring will less than ‘l’ and T = 0 in the string.
2
15. 322 N
(m + M)( a + g) mg (m + M)(a + g)
16. (a) T = , (b) N = m(a + g) + T, (c) T = , (d) T =
2 2 3
mg
(e) N = m (a + g) – T, (f) T =
3
(B) FRICTION
17. (A)4m/s2, (B) 1.2 m/s2, (C) 0 18. µ = 2
a
aB
aA
1
19. 20. 0.33 21. µ π r3 22. 1/2 23. 1kg
3
F
24. 4/3 sec 25. 3/4 26. 40 N 27. 1/2 sec 28. 5 sec, 125/6 m
29. 10 i 30. 0 31. 30 N
Page # 120 N.L.M.
1. (a) 2 ms–2, (b) 2.4 N 0.3 (c) 0.2 s 2. 2 N 3. 0.5 sec 4. 556.8 N , 1.47 sec
 m1 − 2m 2  3g ↓
5.  2m g 6. (a) a A = = aB ; a C = 0 ; T = mg / 2 (b) a A = 2g ↑ ; aB = 2g ↓ ; aC = 0, T = 0
 2  2
3mg mg cot α
(c) a A = aB = g / 2 ↑ ; T = ; T = 2mg 7. 2g/23 8. ∆ r = , 1cm
2 4 π 2k
m sin θ cos θ
9. (a) a = g cotθ, (b) µ min = 10. µs = 0.4 , µk = 0.3
m cos 2 θ + M
Vb V
11. 12 N, 21 N, 4 m/s2, 2 m/s2, 4 N, 6 N 12. x = Vm2 + Vb2 y = m Vm2 + Vb2
2µg 2µg
1. B 2. (b) a = 3/5 m/s2, T = 18 N, F = 60 N 3. C 4. D 5. A

6. 11.313 m 7. B 8. 10 m/s 2
9. B 10. B 11. B
12. B 13. A 14. 5N
CIRCULAR MOTION & W.P.E
CONTENTS
S. NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. Circular Motion ........................................................................ 3
2. Kinematics of Circular Motion .............................................. 3 – 10
3. Dynamics of circular Motion ................................................ 11 – 12
4. Simple Pendulam ................................................................... 13
5. Circular Motion in Horizontal Plane ......................................... 13
6. Motion of motorcyclist on a curved ...................................... 14 – 16
path
7. Circular Turning on roads .................................................... 16 – 17
8. Death Well .............................................................................. 18
9. Motion of a cyclist on a circular path .................................. 18 – 19
10. Effect of earth rotation on Apparent .................................... 19 – 20
weight
11. Some Solved Examples ..................................................... 20 – 23
Page # 2 CIRCULAR MOTION
WORK POWER ENERGY

1. Work ................................................................................ 24–25
2. Units of Work ...................................................................... 25
3 Work Done by multiple forces ......................................... 25–27
4. Work Done by a variable force ....................................... 27 – 28
5. Area under force Displacement curve ................................. 28
6. Internal work .................................................................... 28 – 29
7. Conservative force .......................................................... 29 – 31
8. Non-conservative forces .................................................. 31–32
9. Energy ............................................................................ 32 – 33
10. Conservative force and Potential .................................. 34 – 35
energy
11. Work energy Theorem ................................................... 35–41
12. Power ........................................................................... 41 – 43
13. Vertical Circular Motion ................................................ 43 – 48
14. Exercise - I.................................................................... 49 – 68
15. Exercise - II ................................................................... 69 – 73
16. Exercise - III .................................................................. 74 – 84
17. Exercise - IV ................................................................. 85 – 89
18. Exercise- V ................................................................... 90 – 97
19. Answer key .................................................................. 98 – 100
IIT - JEE Syllbabus :

Circular Motion (uniform and non-uniform), Work, Power, Kinetic Energy,
Potential Energy, Conservation of Mechanical Energy.
CIRCULAR MOTION Page # 3
1. CIRCULAR MOTION
When a particle moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed (or moving) point remains
constant then its motion is called as the circular motion with respect to that fixed (or moving)
point. That fixed point is called centre and the distance between fixed point and particle is called
radius.
v v v
A
θ1
θ2
B
The car is moving in a straight line with respect to the man A. But the man B continuously rotate
dθ
his face to see the car. So with respect to man A =0
dt
dθ
But with respect to man B ≠0
dt
Therefore we conclude that with respect to A the motion of car is straight line but for man B it has
some angular velocity
2. KINEMATICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION :

2.1 Variables of Motion :
(a) Angular Position : Y
The angle made by the position vector with given line (reference
line) is called angular position Circular motion is a two P'
∆θ P
dimensional motion or motion in a plane. Suppose a particle P
is moving in a circle of radius r and centre O. The position of θ
r x
O
the particle P at a given instant may be described by the angle
θ between OP and OX. This angle θ is called the angular position
of the particle. As the particle moves on the circle its angular
position θ change. Suppose the point rotates an angle ∆θ in
time ∆t.
(b) Angular Displacement :
Definition :
Angle rotated by a position vector of the moving particle in a given time interval with some
reference line is called its angular displacement.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Important point :
• It is dimensionless and has proper unit SI unit radian while other units are degree or revolution
2π rad = 360° = 1 rev
• Infinitely small angular displacement is a vector quantity but finite angular displacement is not
because the addition of the small angular displacement is cummutative while for large is not.

dθ1 + dθ 2 = dθ 2 + dθ1 but θ1 + θ2 ≠ θ2 + θ1
• Direction of small angular displacement is decided by right hand thumb rule. When the fingers
are directed along the motion of the point then thumb will represents the direction of angular
displacement.
• Angular displacement can be different for different observers
______________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) Angular Velocity ω
(i) Average Angular Velocity
Total Angle of Rotation
ωav = ;
Total time taken
θ 2 – θ1 ∆θ
ωav = t – t =
2 1 ∆t
where θ1 and θ2 are angular position of the particle at time t1 and t2 respectively.
(ii) Instantaneous Angular Velocity
The rate at which the position vector of a particle with respect to the centre rotates, is called as
instantaneous angular velocity with respect to the centre.
lim ∆θ dθ
ω = ∆t→0 =
∆t dt
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Important points :
• It is an axial vector with dimensions [T–1] and SI unit rad/s.
• For a rigid body as all points will rotate through same angle in same time, angular velocity is a
characteristic of the body as a whole, e.g., angular velocity of all points of earth about its own
axis is (2π/24) rad/hr.
• If a body makes ‘n’ rotations in ‘t’ seconds then angular velocity in radian per second will be
2πn
ωav =
t
If T is the period and ‘f’ the frequency of uniform circular motion
2π × 1
ωav = = 2πf
T
dθ
• If θ = a – bt + ct2 then ω = = – b + 2ct
dt
Relation between speed and angular velocity :
∆θ dθ
ω= lim =
∆t→θ ∆t dt
The rate of change of angular velocity is called the angular acceleration (α). Thus,
dω d2 θ Y
α= = 2
dt dt
P'
The linear distance PP’ travelled by the particle in time ∆t is
P
∆S ∆θ
∆s = r∆θ or ∆lim
t→0 ∆t X
O r
∆θ ∆s dθ
= r ∆lim
t→ 0 ∆ t or =r or v = rω
∆t dt
Here, v is the linear speed of the particle
It is only valid for circular motion

v
v = rω is a scalar quantity ( ω ≠ )
r
Ex.1 If θ depends on time t in following way

θ = 2t2 + 3 then
(a) Find out ω average upto 3 sec. (b) ω at 3 sec
Total angular displacement θ f – θi
Sol. ωavg = =
total time t 2 – t1
θf = 2 (3)2 + 3 = 21 rad
θi = 2 (0) + 3 = 3 rad.
21 – 3
So, ωavg = = 6 rad/sec
3
dθ
ωinstantaneous = = 4t
dt
ωat t = 3 sec = 4 × 3 = 12 rad/sec
(d) Relative Angular Velocity

Angular velocity is defined with respect to the point from which the position vector of the moving
particle is drawn Here angular velocity of the particle w.r.t. ‘O’ and ‘A’ will be different
P'
P
A O Ref lin
dα dβ
ω PO = ; ω PA =
dt dt
Definition :
Relative angular velocity of a particle ‘A’ with respect to the other moving particle ‘B’ is the angular
velocity of the position vector of ‘A’ with respect to ‘B’. That means it is the rate at which position
vector of ‘A’ with respect to ‘B’ rotates at that instant
VA
A
VB
r
( VAB ) ⊥
ω AB = here VAB ⊥ = Relative velocity ⊥ to position vector AB
rAB
Re lative velocity of A w.r.t. B perpendicu lar to line AB

=
Seperation between A and B
( VAB ) ⊥ = VA sin θ1 + VB sin θ 2
rAB = r
VA sin θ1 + VB sin θ 2
ω AB =
r
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Important points :
• If two particles are moving on the same circle or different coplanar concentric circles in same
direction with different uniform angular speed ωA and ωB respectively, the rate of change of
→ →
angle between OA and OB is
B B
A A
dθ
= ωB − ω A O Initial line O Initial line
dt
So the time taken by one to complete one revolution around O w.r.t. the other
2π 2π TT
T= = = 1 2
ω rel ω 2 − ω 1 T1 − T2
• If two particles are moving on two different concentric circles with different velocities then
angular velocity of B relative to A as observed by A will depend on their positions and velocities.
consider the case when A and B are closest to each other moving in same direction as shown in
figure. In this situation
B
v rel = | vB − v A | = vB − v A vB
r
A
rrel = | rB − rA | = rB − rA vA
rA rB
( v rel ) ⊥ vB − v A O
so, ω BA = =
rrel rB − rA
( v rel ) ⊥ = Relative velocity perpendicular to position vector

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Ex.2 Two particles move on a circular path (one just inside and the other just outside) with angular
velocities ω and 5 ω starting from the same point. Then, which is incorrect.
2π
(a) they cross each other at regular intervals of time when their angular velocities are
4ω
oppositely directed
(b) they cross each other at points on the path subtending an angle of 60° at the centre if
their angular velocities are oppositely directed
π
(c) they cross at intervals of time if their angular velocities are oppositely directed
3ω
(d) they cross each other at points on the path subtending 90° at the centre if their angular
velocities are in the same sense
Sol. If the angular velocities are oppositely directed, they meet at intervals of
2π 2π π
time t = ω = =
rel 6ω 3ω
Angle subtended at the centre by the crossing points
π
θ = ωt = = 60°
3
When their angular velocities are in the same direction,
2π 2π π π π
t’ = ω = = and θ’ = ×ω =
rel 4ω 2ω 2ω 2
Ans. (a)
Ex.3 Two moving particles P and Q are 10 m apart at a certain instant. The velocity of P is 8 m/s
making 30° with the line joining P and Q and that of Q is 6 m/s making 30° with PQ in the
figure. Then the angular velocity of Q with respect to P in rad/s at that instant is
6 m/s
P 30°
30° 10 m Q
8 m/s
(A) 0 (B) 0.1 (C) 0.4 (D) 0.7
6 m/s
P 30°
Sol. 30° 10 m Q
8 m/s
Projection of VQP perpendicular to the line PQ

Angular velocity of Q relative to P =
Separation between P and Q
VQ sin θ 2 – VP sin θ1 6 sin 30°–(–8 sin 30° )

= = 0.7 rad/s
PQ 10
∴ (D)
(e) Angular Acceleration α :

(i) Average Angular Acceleration :
Let ω1 and ω2 be the instantaneous angular speeds at times t1 and t2 respectively, then the
average angular acceleration αav is defined as
ω 2 – ω1 ∆ω
αav = t – t =
2 1 ∆t
(ii) Instantaneous Angular Acceleration :
It is the limit of average angular acceleration as ∆t approaches zero, i.e.,
lim ∆ω = dω = ω dω
α = ∆t→0
∆t dt dθ
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Important points :
• It is also an axial vector with dimension [T–2] and unit rad/s2
• If α = 0, circular motion is said to be uniform.
dθ dω d2θ
• As ω = , α= = ,
dt dt dt 2
i.e., second derivative of angular displacement w.r.t time gives angular acceleration.
• α is a axial vector and direction of α is along ω
if ω increases and opposite to ω if ω decreases
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(f) Radial and tangential acceleration
Acceleration of a particle moving in a circle has two components one is along e t (along tangent)
and the other along − ê r (or towards centre). Of these the first one is the called the tangential
acceleration. (at) and the other is called radial or centripetal acceleration (ar). Thus.
dv
at = = rate of change of speed
dt
2 2
v
and a r = ω2 r = r   = v
r r
Here, at is the component which is responsible for changing the magnitude of speed of the particle
in circular motion. ar is the component which is responsible for changing the direction of particle in
circular motion.
the two component are mutually perpendicular. Therefore, net acceleration of the particle will be :
2 2 2
 dv   v2   dv 
a = ar2 + a 2t = (rω 2 ) 2 +   =   +  
 dt   r   dt 
Following three points are important regarding the above discussion :
dv
1. In uniform circular motion, speed (v) of the particle is constant, i.e., = 0 . Thus,
dt
at = 0 and a = ar = rω2
dv
2. In accelerated circular motion, = positive, i.e., at is along e t or tangential acceleration of
dt
dv
particle is parallel to velocity v because v = rω e t and ar = et
dt
dv
3. In decelerated circular motion, = negative and hence, tangential acceleration is anti-parallel
dt

to velocity v .
(g) Relation between angular acceleration and tangential acceleration

we know that
v = rω
Here, v is the linear speed of the particle
Differentiating again with respect to time, we have
dv dω
at = =r or at = rα
dt dt
dv
Here, at = is the rate of change of speed (not the rate of change of velocity).
dt
Ex.4 A particle travels in a circle of radius 20 cm at a speed that uniformly increases. If the speed
changes from 5.0 m/s to 6.0 m/s in 2.0s, find the angular acceleration.
Sol. The tangential acceleration is given by
dv v 2 – v1
at = = t –t
dt 2 1
∆v dv
( ∵ Here speed increases uniformly at = = )
∆t dt
6.0 – 5.0
= m/s2 = 0.5 m/s2
2.0
The angular acceleration is α = at/r
0.5 m / s 2
= = 2.5 rad/s2
20 cm
Ex-5 A particle moves in a circle of radius 20 cm. Its linear speed at any time is given by v = 2t
where v is in m/s and t is in seconds. Find the radial and tangential acceleration at t = 3
seconds and hence calculate the total acceleration at this time.
Sol. The linear speed at 3 seconds is
v = 2 × 3 = 6 m/s
The radial acceleration at 3 seconds
v2 6×6
= = = 180 m/s2
r 0.2
The tangential acceleration is given by
dv
= 2 , because v = 2t.
dt
∴ tangential acceleration is 2 m/s2.
Net Acceleration = ar 2 + a t 2 = (180)2 + (2)2 = 180.01 m/s2
T-1 Is it possible for a car to move in a circular path in such a way that it has a tangential acceleration
but no centripetal acceleration ?
Ex.6 A particle moves in a circle of radius 2.0 cm at a speed given by v = 4t, where v is in cm/s
and t in seconds.
(a) Find the tangential acceleration at t = 1 s.
(b) Find total accleration at t = 1 s.
Sol. (a) Tangential acceleration
dv d
at = or at = (4 t) = 4 cm/s2
dt dt
v2 (4) 2
ac = = =8 ⇒ a= a 2t + a2c = (4) 2 + (8) 2 = 4 5 m / s
2
R 2
Ex.7 A boy whirls a stone in a horizontal circle of radius 1.5 m and at height 2.0 m above level
ground. The string breaks, and the stone files off horizontally and strikes the ground after
traveling a horizontal distance of 10 m. What is the magnitude of the cetripetal acceleration
of the stone while in circular motion ?
2h 2×2
Sol. t= = = 0.64 s
g 9.8
10
v= = 15.63 m/s
t
vB2
a= = 0.45 m/s2
R
Ex.8 Find the magnitude of the acceleration of a particle moving in a circle of radius 10 cm with
uniform speed completing the circle in 4 s.
Sol. The distance covered in completing the circle is 2 π r = 2π × 10 cm. The linear speed is
2π × 10cm
v = 2 π r/t = = 5 π cm/s.
4s
2
v 2 ( 5 πcm / s)
The acceleration is ar = = =2.5 π2 cm/s2
r 10 cm
Ex.9 A particle moves in a circle of radius 20 cm. Its linear speed is given by v = 2t where t is in
second and v in meter/second. Find the radial and tangential acceleration at t = 3s.
Sol. The linear speed at t = 3s is
v = 2t = 6 m/s
The radial acceleration at t = 3s is
36m 2 / s 2
ar = v2/r = = 180 m/s2
0.20 m
The tangential acceleration is
dv d( 2t)
at = = = 2 m/s2
dt dt
Y
Ex.10 Two particles A and B start at the origin O and travel in cm
opposite directions along the circular path at constant 5. 0
speeds vA = 0.7 m/s and vB = 1.5 m/s, respectively. B A
Determine the time when they collide and the magnitude
of the acceleration of B just before this happens. vB =1.5 m/s O x
vA=0.7m/s
10 π
Sol. 1.5 t + 0.7 t = 2πR = 10 π ∴ t= = 14.3 s
2.2
vB2
a= = 0.45 m/s2
R
Uniform circular Non-uniform circular
motion motion
(1) Speed of the particle speed of the particle is

is constant i.e., ω is not constant i.e. ωis not
constant constant

d| v| d| v|
(ii) a t = =0 at = ≠0
dt dt
v2
ar = ≠0 ar ≠ 0
r

∴ anet = ar anet = ar + a t
anet at
ar= anet
ar
(h) Relations among Angular Variables

These relations are also referred as equations of rotational motion and are -
ω = ω0 + αt ...(1)
dθ, ω or α
1 2
θ = ω0t + αt ...(2)
2
ω2 = ω02 + 2αθ ...(3)
These are valid only if angular acceleration is constant and ar O
are analogous to equations of translatory motion, i.e.,
vo ds r
ra
1 2 t
v = u + at ; s = ut + at and v2 = u2 + 2as
2
3. DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION :

In circular motion or motion along any curved path Newton’s law is applied in two perpendicular
directions one along the tangent and other perpendicular to it. i.e., towards centre. The compnent
of net force towards the centre is called centripetal force. The component of net force along the
tangent is called tangential force.
dv
tangential force (Ft) = Mat = M = M α r ; where α is the angular acceleration
dt
mv 2
centripetal force (Fc) = m ω2 r =
r
Ex.11 A small block of mass 100 g moves with uniform speed in a horizontal circular groove, with
vertical side walls, of radius 25 cm. If the block takes 2.0s to complete one round, find the
normal contact force by the slide wall of the groove.
Sol. The speed of the block is
2π × ( 25 cm)
v= = 0.785 m/s
2.0 s
The acceleration of the block is
v2 (0.785m / s) 2
a= = = 2.46 m/s2
r 0.25
towards the center. The only force in this direction is the normal contact force due to the side
walls. Thus from Newton’s second law, this force is
N = ma = (0.100 kg) (2.46 m/s2) = 0.246 N
3.1 Centripetal Force :
Concepts : This is necessary resultant force towards the centre called the centripetal force.
mv 2
F= = mω2r
r
(i) A body moving with constant speed in a circle is not in equilibrium.
(ii) It should be remembered that in the absence of the centripetal force the body will move in
a straight line with constant speed.
(iii) It is not a new kind of force which acts on bodies. In fact, any force which is directed
towards the centre may provide the necessary centripetal force.
Ex.12 A small block of mass 100 g moves with uniform speed in a horizontal circular groove, with
vertical side walls, of radius 25 cm. If the block takes 2.0s to complete one round, find the
normal contact force by the slide wall of the groove.
Sol. The speed of the block is
2π × ( 25 cm)
v= = 0.785 m/s
2.0 s
The acceleration of the block is
v2 (0.785m / s) 2
a= = = 2.5 m/s2
r 0.25
towards the center. The only force in this direction is the normal contact force due to the slide
walls. Thus from Newton’s second law, this force is
N = ma = (0.100 kg) (2.5 m/s2) = 0.25 N
3.2 Centrifugal Force :

When a body is rotating in a circular path and the centripetal force vanishes, the body would leave
the circular path. To an observer A who is not sharing the motion along the circular path, the body
appears to fly off tangentially at the point of release. To another observer B, who is sharing the
motion along the circular path (i.e., the observer B is also rotating with the body which is released,
it appears to B, as if it has been thrown off along the radius away from the centre by some force.
This inertial force is called centrifugal force.)
mv 2
Its magnitude is equal to that of the centripetal force = . Centrifugal force is a fictitious force
r
which has to be applied as a concept only in a rotating frame of reference to apply Newton’s law of
motion in that frame)
FBD of ball w.r.t non inertial frame rotating with the ball.
ω
T
mω 2r
mg
Suppose we are working from a frame of reference that is rotating at a constant, angular velocity
ω with respect to an inertial frame. If we analyse the dynamics of a particle of mass m kept at a
distance r from the axis of rotation, we have to assume that a force mrω2 act radially outward on
the particle. Only then we can apply Newton’s laws of motion in the rotating frame. This radially
outward pseudo force is called the centrifugal force.
T-2 A particle of mass m rotates in a circle of radius r with a uniform angular speed ω. It is viewed from
a frame rotating about same axis with a uniform angular speed ω0. The centrifugal force on the
particle is
2
 ω + ω0 
2
(A) mω r (B) mω r 2
(C) m  r (D) mω0ωr
0  2 
B
: A rod move with ω angular velocity then we conclude
following for point A & B in a rod.
αA = αB s B > sA A
θA = θB vB > vA ω
ωA = ωB atB > atA
Ex.13 Find out the tension T1, T2 is the string as shown in figure
2 rad/sec.
T1 T2 ω rad/sec.
1kg 2kg T2
1m 1m T1
m1 m2
We know that ωm1 = ωm 2

⇒ T1 = m1ω2R1 + T2
T2 = m ω2 R2
T2 = 2 × 4 × 2 = 16 N
So T1 = (1) (2)2 (1) + 16 N = 4 + 16 N
T1 = 20 N
4. SIMPLE PENDULUM
Ex.14 A simple pendulum is constructed by attaching a bob of mass m to a string of length L fixed
at its upper end. The bob oscillates in a vertical circle. It is found that the speed of the bob
is v when the string makes an angle θ with the vertical. Find the tension in the string at this
instant.
Sol. The force acting on the bob are (figure)
(a) the tension T (b) the weight mg.
As the bob moves in a vertical circle with centre at O,
the radial acceleration is v2/L towards O. Taking the
components along this radius and applying Newton’s
second law, we get
mgcos
T – mgcos θ = mv2/L or, T = m(gcos θ + v2/L) mg
mgsin
2
2
 mv 2  v4
|Fnet | = (mg sin θ) +   2 2
= m g sin θ +
 L 
  L2
5. CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE

ω
A ball of mass m attached to a light and inextensible string
θ
rotates in a horizontal circle of radius r with an angular speed
T T cos θ
ω about the vertical. If we draw the force diagram of the ball. θ
We can easily see that the component of tension force along mω 2r
T sinθ
the centre gives the centripetal force and component of tension
along vertical balances the gravitation force. Such a system is mg
called a conical pendulum. FBD of ball w.r.t ground
Ex. 15 A particle of mass m is suspended from a ceiling through a string of length L. The particle
moves in a horizontal circle of radius r. Find (a) the speed of the particle and (b) the tension
in the string.
Sol. The situation is shown in figure.
The angle θ made by the string with the vertical is given by
sinθ = r/L ... (i) T θ
L
The forces on the particle are
(a) the tension T along the string and
r
(b) the weight mg vertically downward.
The particle is moving in a circle with a constant speed
mg
v. Thus, the radial acceleration towards the centre has
magnitude v2/r. Resolving the forces along the radial
direction and applying. Newton’s second law,
Tsin θ = m(v2/r) ...(ii)
As there is no acceleration in vertical directions, we have from Newton’s law,
Tcosθ = mg ...(iii)
Dividing (ii) by (iii),
v2
tanθ = or v = rgtan θ
rg
mg
And from (iii), T =
cos θ
r g mgL
Using (i), v = and T=
2
(L – r )2 1/ 4
(L – r 2 )1/ 2
2
6. MOTION OF A MOTORCYCLIST ON A CURVED PATH.
A cylist having mass m move with constant speed v on a curved path as shown in figure.
D
A
C E
We divide the motion of cyclist in four parts :
(1) from A to B (2) from B to C
(3) from C to D (4) from D to E
(1 and 3 are same type of motion)
(A) Motion of cyclist from A to B
mv 2 mv 2
N+ = mg cos θ N+
R R
f B
2
mv
⇒ N = mg cosθ – ...(1)
R
os
θ
f = mg sin θ ..(2) mgsinθ θ gc
m
θ
(1) As cyclist move upward A mg
∵ θ decreases & cos θ increases
∴ N increases
and
∵ θ decreases sin θ decreases
∴ friction force required to balance mg sin θ (As cyclist is moving with constant speed) also
decreases
(B) Motion of cyclist from B to C

B mv 2
mv 2 N+
N+ = mg cos θ f R
R
mv 2 mgcos θ
⇒ N = mg cos θ – ...(1) mg sin θ
R
f = mg sinθ ...(2) mg C
Therefore from B to C Normal force decrease but
friction force increase becuse θ increases.
(C) Motion of cyclist from D to E
mv 2
N= + mg cos θ f = mg sin θ
R
from D to E θ decreases D
therefore mg cos θ increase
f
So N increase but f decreases
mv 2
E
R
mg
Ex.16 A hemispherical bowl of radius R is rotating about its axis of symmetry which is kept vertical.
A small ball kept in the bowl rotates with the bowl without slipping on its surface. If the
surface of the bowl is smooth and the angle made by the radius through the ball with the
vertical is α. Find the angular speed at which the bowl is rotating.
Sol. Let ω be the angular speed of rotation of the bowl.
ω
Two force are acting on the ball.
1. normal reaction N 2. weight mg
The ball is rotating in a circle of radius r (= R sin α) with
centre at A at an angular speed ω. Thus, R α
N
N sin α = mrω2 = mRω2 sin α r A
N = mRω2 ...(i)
and N cos α = mg ...(ii)
mg
Dividing Eqs. (i) by (ii),
1 ω 2R g
we get = ∴ ω=
cos α g Rcos α
Ex.17 If friction is present between the surface of ball and bowl then find out the range of ω for
which ball does not slip (µ is the friction coefficient)
Friction develop a range of ω for which the particle will be at rest.
Sol.
(a) When ω > ω0
In this situation ball has a tendency to slip upwards
so the friction force will act downwards. So F.B.D of ball α
N = mω2r sin α + mg cos α. ...
f + mg sin α = mω2r cos α ...(2) N
∴ fmax = µN = µ(mω2r sin α + mg cosα) α
2 m r
r = R sin α mω r
Substituting the values of fmax & r in eq. (2) we get
α
⇒ µ (mω2r sin α + mg cosα) ≥ mω2r cosα –mg sin α
∴ µ(mω2R sin 2α + mg cos α) ≥ mω2 R sinα cosα f
mg
– mg sin α
µg cos α + g sin α
ω≤
R sin α(cos α – µ sin α )
α
(b) when ω < ω0 f
In this situation ball has a tendency to slip downwards N
so the friction force will act upwards. So F.B.D of ball α
2 m
mω r
r
⇒ f + mω2r cos α = mg sin α α
f = m (g sinα – ω2r cosα ) ...(1)
N = mg cos α + mω2r sin α ...(2)
fmax = µN = µ(mg cos α + mω2r sinα) mg
for equillibrium
⇒ µ(g cos α + ω2r sinα ) ≥ (gsinα – ω2 r cos α)

⇒ Substituting r = Rsinα then
g(sin α – µ cos α )
ω≥
R sin α(µ sin α + cos α )
7. CIRCULAR TURNING ON ROADS :
When vehicles go through turnings, they travel along a nearly circular arc. There must be some
force which will produce the required centripetal acceleration. If the vehicles travel in a horizontal
circular path, this resultant force is also horizontal. The necessary centripetal force is being
provided to the vehicles by following three ways.
1. By Friction only
2. By Banking of Roads only
3. By Friction and Banking of Roads both.
In real life the necessary centripetal force is provided by friction and banking of roads both. Now let
us write equations of motion in each of the three cases separately and see what are the constant
in each case.
7.1 By Friction Only

Suppose a car of mass m is moving at a speed v in a horizontal circular arc of radius r. In this case,
the necessary centripetal force to the car will be provided by force of friction f acting towards
center
mv 2
Thus, f =
r
Further, limiting value of f is µN
or fL = µN = µmg (N = mg)
mv 2
Therefore, for a safe turn without sliding ≤ fL
r
mv 2 v2
or ≤ µmg or µ ≥ or v ≤ µrg
r rg
Here, two situations may arise. If µ and r are known to us, the speed of the vehicle should not
v2
exceed µrg and if v and r are known to us, the coefficient of friction should be greater than .
rg
7.2 By Banking of Roads Only

Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speeds and sharp turns are involved to avoid
dependence on friction, the roads are banked at the turn so that the outer part of the road is some
what lifted compared to the inner part.
Applying Newton’s second law along the N
radius and the first law in the vertical direction.
mv 2
Nsinθ = or N cosθ = mg
r
θ
from these two equations, we get
W
v2
tanθ = or v= rgtanθ
rg
7.3 By Friction and Banking of Road Both

If a vehicle is moving on a circular road which is rough and banked also, then three forces may act
on the vehicle, of these force, the first force, i.e., weight (mg) is fixed both in magnitude and
direction.
N
θ
y
θ
f
mg
θ x
Figure (ii)
The direction of second force i.e., normal reaction N is also fixed (perpendicular or road) while the
direction of the third i.e., friction f can be either inwards or outwards while its magnitude can be
vari ed upt o a maxi mum l i mi t
(fL = µN). So the magnitude of normal reaction N and directions plus magnitude of friction f are so
mv 2
adjusted that the resultant of the three forces mentioned above is towards the center. Of
r
these m and r are also constant. Therefore, magnitude of N and directions plus magnitude of
friction mainly depends on the speed of the vehicle v. Thus, situation varies from problem to
problem. Even though we can see that :
(i) Friction f will be outwards if the vehicle is at rest v = 0. Because in that case the component
weight mg sinθ is balanced by f.
(ii) Friction f will be inwards if
v > rgtanθ
(iii) Friction f will be outwards if
v< rgtanθ and
(iv) Friction f will be zero if
v= rgtanθ
(v) For maximum safe speed (figure (ii)
mv 2
N sinθ + f cosθ = ...(i)
r
N cosθ – f sinθ = mg ...(ii)
As maximum value of friction
f = µN
sin θ + µ cos θ v2 rg(µ + tan θ)

∴ = ∴ vmax =
cos θ – µ sin θ rg (1 – µ tan θ)
rg( µ – tan θ)
Similarly ; vmin =
(1+ µ tan θ)
v2
: • The expression tan θ = also gives the angle of banking for an aircraft, i.e., the angle
rg
through which it should tilt while negotiating a curve, to avoid deviation from the circular
path.
v2
• The expression tan θ = also gives the angle at which a cyclist should lean inward, when
rg
rounding a corner. In this case, θ is the angle which the cyclist must make with the vertical to
negotiate a safe turn.
8. DEATH WELL :
A motor cyclist is driving in a horizontal circle on the inner surface of vertical cyclinder of radius R.
Friction coefficient between tyres of motorcyclist and surface of cylinder is µ. Find out the minimum
velocity for which the motorcyclist can do this. v is the speed of motor cyclist and m is his mass.
mv 2 f
N=
R mv 2 N
f = mg R
µmv 2 mg
fmax =
R
Cyclist does not drop down when
µmv 2
fmax ≥ mg ⇒ ≥ mg
R
gR
v≥
µ
9. MOTION OF A CYCLIST ON A CIRCULAR PATH :
Suppose a cyclist is going at a speed v on a circular horizontal road of radius r which is not banked.
Consider the cycle and the rider together as the system. The centre of mass C (figure shown) of
the system is going in a circle with the centre at O and radius r.
B
Mv 2 θ
r
C
θ
N Mg
A f D
(b)
Let us choose O as the origin, OC as the X-axis and vertically upward as the Z-axis. This frame is
v
rotating at an angular speed ω = about the Z-axis. In this frame the system is at rest. Since we
r
are working from a rotating frame of reference, we will have to apply a centrifugal force on each
p a r t i c l e . T h e n e t c e n ω2r = Mv2/r, where M is the total mass of
t r i f u g a l f o r c e o n t h e s y s t e m w i l l b e M
the system. This force will act through the centre of mass. Since the system is at rest in this
frame, no other pseudo force is needed.
Figure in shows the forces. The cycle is bent at an angle θ with the vertical. The forces are
(i) weight Mg,
(ii) normal force N
(iii) friction f and
Mv 2
(iv) centrifugal force
r
In the frame considered, the system is at rest. Thus, the total external force and the total external
torque must be zero. Let us consider the torques of all the forces about the point A. The torques of
N and f about A are zero because these forces pass through A. The torque of Mg about A is Mg(AD)
Mv 2 Mv 2
in the clockwise direction and that of is (CD) in the anticlockwise direction. For rotational
r r
equilibrium,
Mv 2
Mg(AD) = (CD)
r
AD v 2
or, =
CD rg
v2
or, tanθ = ...(10.9)
rg
 v2 
Thus, the cyclist bends at an angle tan –1   with the vertical.
 rg 
T.3 A car driver going at a speed of v suddenly finds a wide wall at a distance r. Should he apply breaks
or turn the car in a circle of radius r to avoid hitting the wall ?
10. EFFECT OF EARTHS ROTATION ON APPARENT WEIGHT :
The earth rotates about its axis at an angular speed of

one revolution per 24 hours. The line joining the north
and the south N
poles is the axis of rotation.
Every point on the earth moves in a circle. A point at
equator moves in a circle of radius equal to the radius C P
of the earth and the centre of the circle is same as θ M
the centre of the earth. For any other point on the O R
earth, the circle of rotation is smaller than this. Consider
a place point on the earth (figure.)
Drop a perpendicular PC from P to the axis SN. The S
place P rotates in a circle with the centre at C. The
radius of this circle is CP. The angle between the line
OM and the radius OP through P is called the latitude of
the place point. We have
CP = OP cosθ or, r = R cosθ
where R is the radius of the earth.
If we calculate work from the frame of reference of the earth,
we shall have to assume the existence of pseudo force. In
Particular, a centrifugal force mω2r has to be assumed on any North
particle of mass m placed at P. If we consider a f
block of mass m at point P then this block is at rest with N
respect to earth. If resolve the forces along and perpendicular C mrω 2
to the θ
mg
line joining the centre of earth then O R
N + mrω2 cosθ = mg ⇒ N = mg – mrω2cosθ
⇒ N = mg – mRω2 cos2θ
South
Ex.18 A body weighs 98N on a spring balance at the north pole. What will be its weight recorded on
the same scale if it is shifted to the equator ? Use g = GM/R2 = 9.8 m/s2 and the radius of
the earth R = 6400 km.
Sol. At poles, the apparent weight is same as the true weight.
Thus, 98N = mg = m(9.8 m/s2)
At the equator, the apparent weight is
mg’ = mg – mω2R
The radius of the earth is 6400 km and the angular speed is
2π rad
ω=
24 × 60 × 60s
= 7.27 × 10–6 rad/s
mg’ = 98N – (10 kg) (7.27 × 10–5 s–1)2 (6400 km) = 97.66 N
SOME SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.1 Two blocks each of mass M are connected to the

ends of a light frame as shown in figure. The frame
is rotated about the vertical line of symetry. The M M
rod breaks if the tension in it exceeds T0. Find the
maximum frequency with which
the frame may be rotated without breaking the rod.

Sol. Consider one of the blocks. If the frequency of revolution is f, the angular velocity is ω = 2πf. The
acceleration towards the centre is ω2 = 4 π2 f2 . The only horizontal force on the block is the
tension of the rod. At the point of breaking, this force is T0. So from Newton’s law,
1/ 2
T0 = M.4 π2 f 2 l or, 1  T0 
f=
2π  M 
Ex.2 Prove that a motor car moving over a convex bridge is lighter than the same car resting on
the same bridge.
Sol. The motion of the motor car over a convex bridge AB is the motion along the segment of a circle AB
(figure);
R
A mg B
The centripetal force is provided by the difference of weight mg of the car and the normal
reaction R of the bridge.
mv 2 mv 2
∴ mg − R = or R = mg −
r r
Clearly R < mg, i.e., the weight of the moving car is less than the weight of the stationary car.
Ex.3 A body weighing 0.4 kg is whirled in a vertical circle with a string making 2 revolutions per
second. If the radius of the circle is 1.2m. Find the tension (a) at the top of the circle, (b) at
the bottom of the circle. Give : g = 10 m s–2 and π = 3.14
Sol. Mass, m = 0.4 kg ;
1
time period = second, radius, r = 1.2 m
2
2π
Angular velocity, ω = = 4π rad s–1 = 12.56 rad s–1
1/ 2
mv 2
(a) At the top of the circle, T = –mg
r
= mrω – mg = m (rω2 – g)
2
= 0.4 (1.2 × 12.56 × 12.56 – 9.8) N = 71.2 N

(b) At the lowest point, T = m(rω2 + g) = 80 N
Ex.4 A metal ring of mass m and radius R is placed on a smooth horizontal table and is set rotating
about its own axis in such a way that each part of ring moves with velocity v. Find the
tension in the ring.
Sol. Consider a small part ACB of the ring that subtends
an angle ∆θ at the centre as shown in figure.
Let the tension in the ring be T. T
The forces on this elementary portion ACB are ∆θ
A
(i) tension T by the part of the ring left to A 2
(ii) tension T by the part of the ring to B O
C
(iii) weight (∆m) g ∆θ
(iv) nomal force N by the table. 2 B
As the elementary portion ACB moves in a circle of
radius R at constant speed v its acceleration towards T
( ∆m)v 2
centre is .
R
Resolving the force along the radius CO
 ∆θ  
T cos 90° –  + T cos 90°–
∆θ  v2
 = ∆m ...(i)
 2   2 R
∆θ v2
2Tsin = ∆m ...(ii)
2 R
m
Length of the part ACB = R∆θ. The mass per unit length of the ring is
2πR
R∆θm m∆θ
∴ mass of this portion ACB, ∆m = =
2πR 2π
Putting this value of ∆m in (ii),
∆θ m∆θv 2
2Tsin =
2 2πR
 ∆θ   ∆θ 
mv 
 2   sin 
∴T=
2  Since ∆θ is small So  2  is equal to 1,
2πR   ∆θ    ∆θ 
 sin    
  2   2 
mv 2
T=
2πR
Ex.5 A small smooth ring of mass m is threaded on a light inextensible string of length 8L which
has its ends fixed at points in the same vertical line at a distance 4L apart. The ring describes
horizontal circles at constant speed with both parts of the string taut and with the lower
portion of the string horizontal. Find the speed of the ring and the tension in the string. The
ring is then tied at the midpoint of the string and made to perform horizontal circles at
constant speed of 3 gL . Find the tension in each part of the string.
Sol. When the string passes through the ring, the tension in the string is the same
in both parts. Also from geometry
BP = 3L and AP = 5L A
4
T cosθ = T = mg ...(i) θ
5
5L
 3 8 4L
T + T sin θ = T  1 +  = T
 5 5
3L ring
B P
T
mg
mv 2 mv 2
= = ...(ii)
BP 3L
v2
=2
3Lg
v= 6Lg A
60° 4L
mg 5 T1
From (i) T = = mg ring
4/5 4 4L
P
In the second case, ABP is an equilateral triangle.
T1cos60° = mg + T2 cos60° T2
4L mg
mg B
T1 – T2 = = 2mg ...(iii)
cos 60°
mv 2 9mgL
T1sin60° + T2sin60° = =
r 4L sin 60°
9mg
T1 + T2 = = 3 mg ...(iv)
4 sin 2 60°
Solving equation (iii) and (iv)
5 1
T1 = mg ; T2 = mg
2 2
Ex.6 A large mass M and a small mass m hang at the two ends of the string that passes through
a smooth tube as shown in Figure. The mass m moves around in a circular path, which lies in
the horizontal plane. The length of the string from the mass m to the top of the tube is and
θ is the angle this length makes with vertical. What should be the frequency of rotation of
mass m so that M remains stationary ?
Horizontal θ l
plane
T Tcosθ
Tsinθ m
Sol. mg
M
Mg
The forces acting on mass m and M are shown in Figure. When mass M is stationary
T = Mg ..(i)
where T is tension in string.
For the smaller mass, the vertical component of tension T cos θ balances mg and the horizontal
component T sin θ supplies the necessary centripetal force.
T cosθ = mg ...(ii)
T sin θ = mrω2 ...(iii)
ω being the angular velocity and r is the radius of horizontal circular path.
Form (i) and (iii), Mg sin θ = mrω2
Mg sinθ Mg sin θ Mg
ω= = =
mr m sin θ m
1 1 ω 1 Mg
Frequency of rotation = = = ∴ Frequency =
T 2π / ω 2π 2π ml
Ex.7 The 4 kg block in the figure is attached to the vertical rod by means of two strings. When the
system rotates about the axis of the rod, the two strings are extended as indicated in Figure.
How many revolutions per minute must the system make in order that the tension in upper
string is 60 N. What is tension in the lower string ?
A
1.25 m
P
O
2m
4 kg
1.25 m
B A
Sol. The forces acting on block P of mass 4 kg are shown in the
F i g u θ is the angle made by strings with vertical, T1 and T2
r e . I f
θ
tensions in strings for equilibrium in the vertical direction T1 T1cosθ
T1cosθ = T2cosθ + mg
(T1 – T2) cos θ = mg O m
P
1 4  OA 1  T2cosθ
cos θ = = ∵ cos θ = AP = 125
.  θ
125
. 5   mg
T2
mg 5mg 5
∴ T1 – T2 = = = × 4 × 9.8 = 49 N
cos θ 4 4
Given T1 = 60 N
T2 = T1 – 49 = 60 N – 49 N = 11 N
The net horizontal force (T1sinθ + T2sinθ) provides the necessary centripetal force mω2r.
∴ (T1 + T2) sin θ = mω2r
( T1 + T2 )sin θ
⇒ ω2 =
mr
3
sin θ = 1 – cos 2 θ = 1 – (4 / 5) 2 =
5
3
( 60 + 11)
r = OP = 125
. 2 2 5 = 0.75
2
– 1 = 0.75 ∴ ω = ⇒ ω = 14.2 = 3.768 rad/s
4 × 0.75
ω 3.768
Frequency of revolution = = = 0.6 rev/s or 36 rev/min
2π 2 × 3.14
Page # 24 WORK, POWER & ENERGY
1. WORK :
Work is said to be done by a force when the force produces a displacement in the body on which it
acts in any direction except perpendicular to the direction of the force.
1.1 Work done by constant force

Consider an object undergoes a displacement S along a straight line while acted on a force F that
makes an angle θ with S as shown.
The work done W by the agent is the product of the component of force in the direction of
displacement and the magnitude of displacement.
i.e., W = FS cos θ ...(1)
F
S
Work done is a scalar quantity and its S.I. unit is N-m or joule (J). We can also write work done as
a scalar product of force and displacement.

W = F. S ...(2)
where S is the displacement of the point of application of the force
From this definition, we conclude the following points
(A) work done by a force is zero if displacement is perpendicular to the force (θ = 90°)
→
T
→
S
Example.
The tension in the string of a simple pendulum is always perpendicular to displacement. (Figure)
So, work done by the tension is zero.
(B) if the angle between force and displacement is acute (θ < 90°), we say that the work done by the
force is positive.
Example :
When a load is lifted, the lifting force and the displacement act in the same direction. So, work
done by the lifting force is positive.
Example :
When a spring is stretched, both the stretching force and the displacement act in the same
direction. So work done by the stetching force is positive.
(C) If the angle between force and displacement is obtuse (θ > 90°), we say that the work done by the
force is negative.
Example :
When a body is lifted, the work done by the gravitational force is negative. This is because the
gravitational force acts vertically downwards while the displacement is in the vertically upwards
direction.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Important points about work :
1. Work is said to be done by a force when its point of application moves by some distance.Force does
no work if point of application of force does not move (S = 0)
Example :
A person carrying a load on his head and standing at a given place does no work.
WORK, POWER & ENERGY Page # 25
2. Work is defined for an interval or displacement. There is no term like instantaneous work similar to
instantaneous velocity.
µ=0.2
2kg 10 N
frictionless 2kg 10 N 2m
2m
Work done by 10 N force in both the cases are same = 20 N
3. For a particular displacement, work done by a force is independent of type of motion i.e. whether it
moves with constant velocity, constant acceleration or retardation etc.
4. If a body is in dynamic equilibrium under the action of certain forces, then total work done on the
body is zero but work done by individual forces may not be zero.
5. When several forces act, work done by a force for a particular displacement is independent of
other forces.
6. A force is independent of reference frame. Its displacement depends on frame so work done by a
force is frame dependent therefore work done by a force can be different in different reference
frame.
________________________________________________________________________________________
2. UNITS OF WORK :
In cgs system, the unit of work is erg.
One erg of work is said to be done when a force of one dyne displaces a body through one
centimetre in its own direction.
∴ 1 erg = 1 dyne × 1 cm = 1 g cm s–2 × 1 cm = 1 g cm2 s–2
Note : Another name for joule is newton metre.
Relation between joule and erg

1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre
1 joule = 105 dyne × 102 cm = 107 dyne cm
1 joule = 107 erg
1 erg = 10–7 joule
Dimensions of Work :
[Work] = [Force] [Distance] = [MLT–2] [L] = [ML2T–2]
Work has one dimension in mass, two dimensions in length and ‘–2’ dimensions in time, On the basis
of dimensional formula, the unit of work is kg m2 s–2.
Note that 1 kg m2 s–2 = (1 kg m s–2) m = 1 N m = 1 J.
3. WORK DONE BY MULTIPLE FORCES :

If several forces act on a particle, then we can replace F in equation W = F . S by the net force

∑ F where

∑ F = F1 + F2 + F3 +......

∴ W= [∑ ]
F . S ...(i)

This gives the work done by the net force during a displacement S of the particle.
We can rewrite equation (i) as :

W = F1. S + F2 . S + F3 . S+.....
or W = W1 + W2 + W3 + .........
So, the work done on the particle is the sum of the individual work done by all the forces acting on
the particle.
Ex.1 A block of mass M is pulled along a horizontal surface by applying a force at an angle θ with
horizontal. Coefficient of friction between block and surface is µ. If the block travels with
uniform velocity, find the work done by this applied force during a displacement d of the
block.
Sol. The forces acting on the block are shown in Figure. As the block moves with uniform velocity the
resultant force on it is zero.
∴ F cos θ = µN ...(i)
F sin θ + N = Mg ...(ii)
Eliminating N from equations (i) and (ii), N
F cos θ = µ(Mg – Fsin θ) F
µMg
F= M
cos θ + µ sin θ
Work done by this force during a displacement d
µMgdcos θ Mg
W = F . d cos θ =
cos θ + µ sin θ

Ex.2 A particle moving in the xy plane undergoes a displacement S = (2.0 î + 3.0ˆj)m while a constant

force F = (5.0 î + 2.0ˆj)N acts on the particle.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the displacement and that of the force.
(b) Calculate the work done by the force.

Sol. (a) s = (2.0 i + 3.0 j ) F = (5.0 i + 2.0 j )

| s | = x2 + y 2 = (2.0)2 + (3.0)2 = 13 m

|F|= Fx2 + Fy2 = (5.0 )2 + ( 2.0) 2 = 5.4N

(b) Work done by force, W = F . s
= (5.0 î + 2.0 ĵ) . (2.0 î + 3.0 ĵ) N. m = 10 + 0 + 0 + 6 = 16 N.m = 16 J
Ex.3 A block of mass m is placed on an inclined plane which is moving with constant velocity v in
horizontal direction as shown in figure. Then find out work done by the friction in time t if the
block is at rest with respect to the incline plane.
v=const.
m
µ
Sol. F.B.D of block with respect to ground.
f v
π−θ
f m
v
θ
θ m
mg g sin θ
B θ
A
mg mgsin θ
Block is at rest with respect to wedge

⇒ f = mg sin θ
In time t the displacement of block with respect to ground d = vt
Work done by friction for man A
Wf = (component of friction force along displacement) × displacement
Wf = mgsinθ.vt cos(180°–θ)
Wf = – mg vt cosθ sin θ
Wf for man B = 0 (displacement is zero with respect to man B)
4. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE :
(A) When F as a function of x, y, z

When the magnitude and direction of a force vary in three dimensions, it can be expressed as a
function of the position. For a variable force work is calculated for infinitely small displacement and
for this displacement force is assumed to be constant.

dW = F. ds
The total work done will be sum of infinitely small work
B B

WA → B = ∫
A
F. ds = ∫ (F cos θ)ds
A
It terms of rectangular components,

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fzk

ds = dx i + dy j + dzk
xB yB zB
WA → B = ∫
xA
Fx dx + ∫
yA
Fy dy +
zA
∫ F dz
z
Ex.4 A force F = (4.0 x i + 3.0 y j ) N acts on a particle which moves in the x-direction from the
or ig in to
x = 5.0 m. Find the work done on the object by the force.
Sol. Here the work done is only due to x component of force because displacement is along x-axis.
x2 5
i.e., W = ∫
x1
Fx dx =
∫ 4x dx = [2x ] 2
5
0
= 50 J
0
Ex.5 A force F = 0.5x + 10 acts on a particle. Here F is in newton and x is in metre. Calculate the
work done by the force during the displacement of the particle from x = 0 to x = 2 metre.
→
Sol. Small amount of work done dW in giving a small displacement dx is given by
→→
dW = F . dx
or dW = Fdx cos 0°
or dW = Fdx [∴ cos 0° = 1]
F
x =2 x =2
10
Total work done, W =
∫ Fdx = ∫ (0.5x + 10)dx +ve
x =0 x =0 0 2 x
x=2 x =2 x= 2
2
x x= 2
= ∫ 0.5xdx + ∫ 10dx
x =0 x =0
= 0.5 2
x= 0
+ 10 x x= 0
0.5 2
= [2 – 02] + 10[2 – 0] = (1 + 20) = 21 J
2
(B) When F is given as a function of Time(t) :
Ex.6 The force F = 2t2 is applied on the 2 kg block. Then find out the work done by this force in
2sec. Initially at time t = 0, block is at rest.
at t = 0, v = 0
Sol. 2kg F=2t2
F = ma
⇒ 2t2 = 2a ⇒ a =t2
v t
dv
∫ ∫ t dt
2
⇒ = t2 ⇒ dv = (At t = 0 it is at rest)
dt 0 0
t3
⇒ v=
3
Let the displacement of the block be dx from t = t to t = t +dt then, work done by the force F in
this time interval dt is.
dw = F.dx = 2t2.dx
2 dx
dw = 2t . . dt ⇒ dw = 2t 2 ( v)dt
dt
w 2 2 2
t3 2 5 2  t6  64
∫
0
∫
dw = 2t 2 .
0
3
dt ⇒ W = 3 t dt ⇒ ∫
0
W= 36
 
=
9
Joule
0
5. AREA UNDER FORCE DISPLACEMENT CURVE :
Graphically area under the force-displacement is the work done

+ve work +ve work +ve work
Fx Fy Fz
y
x –ve work z
The work done can be positive or negative as per the area above the x-axis or below the x-axis
respectively.
Ex.7 Force acting on a particle varies with x as shown in figure. Calculate the work done by the
force as the particle moves from x = 0 to x = 6.0 m.
Sol. The work done by the force is equal to the area under the
curve from
x = 0 to x = 6.0 m.
Fx(N)
This area is equal to the area of the rectangular section from
x = 0 to x = 4.0 m plus the area of the triangular section from 5
x = 4.0 m to
x = 6.0 m. The area of the rectangle is (4.0) (5.0) N.m = 20
1
J, and the area of the triangle is (2.0), (5.0) N.m = 5.0 J. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x(m)
2
Therefore, the total work done is 25 J.
6. INTERNAL WORK :
Suppose that a man sets himself in motion backward by pushing against a wall. The forces acting
on the man are his weight 'W' the upward force N exerted by the ground and the horizontal force
N′ exerted by the wall. The works of 'W' and of N are zero because they are perpendicular to the
motion. The force N' is the unbalanced horizontal force that imparts to the system a horizontal
acceleration. The work of N', however, is zero because there is no motion of its point of application.
We are therefore confronted with a curious situation in which a force is responsible for acceleration,
but its work, being zero, is not equal to the increase in kinetic energy of the system.
N'
The new feature in this situation is that the man is a composite system with several parts that can
move in relation to each other and thus can do work on each other, even in the absence of any
interaction with externally applied forces. Such work is called internal work. Although internal
forces play no role in acceleration of the composite system, their points of application can move so
that work is done; thus the man's kinetic energy can change even though the external forces do no
work.
"Basic concept of work lies in following lines
Draw the force at proper point where it acts that give proper importance of the point of application
of force.
Think independently for displacement of point of application of force, Instead of relation the
displacement of applicant point with force relate it with the observer or reference frame in which
work is calculated.
 displacement vector of po int of 
 
W = (Force vector ) ×  application of force as seen by 
 
 observer 
7. CONSERVATIVE FORCE :
A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body depends
only on the initial and final positions of the body and does not depend on the nature of path followed
between the initial and final positions.
m m m
m m m
(a) (b) (c)
Consider a body of mass m being raised to a height h vertically upwards as shown in above figure.
The work done is mgh. Suppose we take the body along the path as in (b). The work done during
horizontal motion is zero. Adding up the works done in the two vertical parts of the paths, we get
the result mgh once again. Any arbitrary path like the one shown in (c) can be broken into
elementary horizontal and vertical portions. Work done along the horizontal path is zero. The work
done along the vertical parts add up to mgh. Thus we conclude that the work done in raising a
body against gravity is independent of the path taken. It only depends upon the intial and final
positions of the body. We conclude from this discussion that the force of gravity is a conservative
force.
Examples of Conservative forces.

(i) Gravitational force, not only due to Earth due in its general form as given by the universal law of
gravitation, is a conservative force.
(ii) Elastic force in a stretched or compressed spring is a conservative force.
(iii) Electrostatic force between two electric charges is a conservative force.
(iv) Magnetic force between two magnetic poles is a conservative force.
Forces acting along the line joining the centres of two bodies are called central forces. Gravitational
force and Electrosatic forces are two important examples of central forces. Central forces are
conservative forces.
Properties of Conservative forces

• Work done by or against a conservative force depends only on the initial and final position
of the body.
• Work done by or against a conservative force does not depend upon the nature of the path
between initial and final position of the body.
• Work done by or against a conservative force in a round trip is zero.
If a body moves under the action of a force that does no total work during any round trip, then the
force is conservative; otherwise it is non-conservative.
The concept of potential energy exists only in the case of conservative forces.
• The work done by a conservative force is completely recoverable.
Complete recoverability is an important aspect of the work done by a conservative force.
Work done by conservative forces

Ist format : (When constant force is given)

Ex.8 Calculate the work done to displace the particle from (1, 2) to (4, 5). if F = 4 î + 3ˆj

Sol. dw = F.d r ( dr = dxi + dyj + dzk )
dw = (4 i + 3 j ).(dxi + dyj) ⇒ dw = 4dx + 3dy

w 4 5
∫
0
dw = ∫
1
4dx + ∫ 3dy
2
4
⇒ w = [4 x]1 + [3 y]2
5
w = (16 – 4) + (15 – 6) ⇒ w = 12 + 9 = 21 Joule
II format : (When F is given as a function of x, y, z)

If F = Fx i + Fy j + Fzk
then
dw = (Fx i + Fy j + Fzk ).( dx i + dyj + dzk ) ⇒ dw = Fxdx + Fydy + FZdz

Ex.9 An object is displaced from position vector r1 = (2 î + 3ˆj)m to r2 = (4 î + 6ˆj)m under a force

F = (3x 2 î + 2yˆj)N . Find the work done by this force.

r2
rf r2
∫ (3x dx + 2ydy) = [x
2 3
+ y 2 ](( 42,,36)) = 83 J Ans.
Sol.
∫
ri
∫
W = F.dr = (3 x 2 î + 2yĵ ) • (dx î + dy ĵ + dzk̂ ) =

r1

r1
IIIrd format

(perfect differential format)
Ex.10 If F = yiˆ + xjˆ then find out the work done in moving the particle from position (2, 3) to (5, 6)

Sol. dw = F. ds
dw = ( y i + xj ).( dxi + dyj )

dw = ydx + xdy
Now ydx + xdy = d(xy) (perfect differential equation)
⇒ dw = d(xy)
for total work done we integrate both side
∫ dw = ∫ d( xy)
Put xy = k
then at (2, 3) ki = 2 × 3 = 6
at (5, 6) kf = 5 × 6 = 30
30
30
then w= ∫ dk = [k]
6
6 ⇒ w = (30 – 6) = 24 Joule
8. NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES :
A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body
depends upon the path between the initial and final positions.
The frictional forces are non-conservative forces. This is because the work done against friction
depends on the length of the path along which a body is moved. It does not depend only on the
initial and final positions. Note that the work done by fricitional force in a round trip is not zero.
The velocity-dependent forces such as air resistance, viscous force, magnetic force etc., are non

Ex.11 Calculate the work done by the force F = y i to move the particle from (0, 0) to (1, 1) in the
following condition
(a) y = x (b) y = x2
Sol. We know that

dw = F.ds ⇒ dw = ( y i ) .(dx i )
dw = ydx ...(1)
In equation (1) we can calculate work done only when we know the path taken by the particle.
either
y = x or y = x2 so now
(a) when y = x
1 1
0∫
dw = xdx ⇒ ∫ w = Joule
2
(b) when y = x2
1
1
∫ ∫ x dx
2
dw = ⇒ w= Joule
0 3
Difference between conservative and Non-conservative forces
S. Non-Conse rva tive

Conse rva tive force s
No. force s
W ork done does not W ork done depends on
1
depend upon path path.
W ork done in a round W ork done in a round trip
2
trip is zero. is not zero.
Forc es are veloc ity-
3 Central in nature. dependent and retarding
in nature.
W hen only a
c ons ervative forc e ac ts
within a sy s tem , the
W ork done agains t a non-
k inetic energy and
c ons ervative forc e m ay
4 potential energy can
be disipiated as heat
c hange. However their
energy.
s um , the m ec hanical
energy of the s y stem ,
does not c hange.
W ork done is W ork done in not
5
c om pletely rec overable. c om pletely recoverable.
9. ENERGY
A body is said to possess energy if it has the capacity to do work. When a body possessing energy
does some work, part of its energy is used up. Conversely if some work is done upon an object, the
object will be given some energy. Energy and work are mutually convertiable.
There are various forms of energy. Heat, electricity, light, sound and chemical energy are all
familiar forms. In studying mechanics, we are however concerned chiefly with mechanical energy.
This type of energy is a property of movement or position.
9.1 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy (K.E.), is the capacity of a body to do work by virtue of its motion.
If a body of mass m has velocity v its kinetic energy is equivalent to the work, which an external
force would have to do to bring the body from rest up to its velocity v.
The numerical value of the kinetic energy can be calculated from the formula
1 2
K.E. = mv ...(8)
2
• 2
Since both m and v are always positive, K.E. is always positive and does not depend upon the
direction of motion of the body.
9.2 Potential Energy
Potential energy is energy of the body by virtue of its position. A body is capable to do work by
virtue of its position, configuration or state of strain.
Now relation between Potential energy and work done is
W.D = – ∆U
where ∆U is change in potential energy
There are two common forms of potential energy, gravitational and elastic.
Important points related to Potential energy :
1. Potential energy is a straight function (defined only for position)
2. Potential energy of a point depends on a reference point
3. Potential energy difference between two position doesn't depend on the frame of reference.
4. Potential energy is defined only for conservative force because work done by conservative force is
path independent.
5. If we define Potential energy for non conservative force then we have to define P.E. of a single
point through different path which gives different value of P.E. at single point that doesn't make
any sense.
9.2.1 (a) Gravitational Potential Energy :

It is possessed by virtue of height.
When an object is allowed to fall from one level to a lower level it gains speed due to gravitational
pull, i.e., it gains kinetic energy. Therefore, in possessing height, a body has the ability to convert
its gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.
The gravitational potential energy is equivalent to the negative of the amount of work done by the
weight of the body in causing the descent.
If a mass m is at a height h above a lower level the P.E. possessed by the mass is (mg) (h).
Since h is the height of an object above a specified level, an object below the specified level has
negative potential energy.
Therefore GPE = ± mgh ...(9)
mg
h1
mg Specific level where

h P.E.=mgh P.E. is zero
h2 P.E. of m1 is m1gh1
P.E of m2 is –m2gh2
fig(a) fig(b)
m2g
• The chosen level from which height is measured has no absolute position. It is important therefore
to indicate clearly the zero P.E. level in any problem in which P.E. is to be calculated.
• GPE = ± mgh is applicable only when h is very small in comparison to the radius of the earth. We
have discussed GPE in detail in 'GRAVITATION'.
9.2.2 (b) Elastic Potential Energy : It is a property of stretched or compressed springs.
The end of a stretched elastic spring will begin to move if it is released. The spring. therefore
possesses potential energy due to its elasticity. (i.e., due to change in its configuration)
The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a spring of natural length a and spring constant k
when it is extended by a length x (from the natural length) is equivalent to the amount of work
necessary to produce the extension.
1 2
Elastic Potential Energy = kx ...(10)
2
It is never negative whether the spring is extended or compressed.
Proof :
N.L. N.L.
K K
M M
x0
Consider a spring block system as shown in the figure and let us calculate work done by spring
when the block is displaceed by x0 from the natural length.
At any moment if the elongation in spring is x, then the force on the block by the spring is kx
towards left. Therefore, the work done by the spring when block further displaces by dx
dW = – kx dx
x0
1 2
∴ Total work done by the spring, W = – ∫ kxdx = –
0
2
kx 0
1 2
Similarly, work done by the spring when it is given a compression x0 is – kx 0 .
2
: We assume zero potential energy at natural length of the spring :
10. CONSERVATIVE FORCE AND POTENTIAL ENERGY :
∂U
Fs = –
∂s
i.e. the projection of the force field , the vector F, at a given point in the direction of the
displacement r equals the derivative of the potential energy U with respect to a given direction,
taken with the opposite sign. The designation of a partial derivative ∂/∂s emphasizes the fact of
deriving with respect to a definite direction.
So, having reversed the sign of the partial derivatives of the function U with respect to x, y, z, we
obtain the projection Fx, Fy and Fz of the vector F on the unit vectors i, j and k. Hence, one can
readily find the vector itself :
 ∂U ∂U ∂U 
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fzk, or F = –  ∂ x i + ∂ y j + ∂z k 
 
The quantity in parentheses is referred to as the scalar gradient of the function U and is denoted
by grad U or ∇ U. We shall use the second, more convenient, designation where ∇ (“nabla”)
signifies the symbolic vector or operator
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z
Potential Energy curve :
• A graph plotted between the PE of a particle and its displacement from the centre of force field is
called PE curve.
• Using graph, we can predict the rate of motion of a particle at various positions.
dU
• Force on the particle is F(x) = –
dx
Q
S
U B C D
A P2
P1
R
P
O x
Case : I On increasing x, if U increases, force is in (–) ve x direction i.e. attraction force.
Case : II On increasing x, if U decreases, force is in (+) ve x-direction i.e. repulsion force.
Different positions of a particle :

Position of equilibrium
dU
If net force acting on a body is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium. For equilibrium = 0. Points P,,
dx
Q, R and S are the states of equilbrium positions.
Types of equilirbium :
• Stable equilibrium :
When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and a force acting on it brings it back to the
initial position, it is said to be in stable equilibrium position.
dU d2U
Necessary conditions:– = 0,and 2 =+ ve
dx dx
In figure P and R point shows stable equilibrium point.
• Unstable Equilibrium :
When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and force acting on it tries to displace the
particle further away from the equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
dU d2U
Condition : = 0 potential energy is maximum i.e. = = – ve
dx dx2
Q point in figure shows unstable equilibrium point
• Neutral equilibrium :
In the neutral equilibrium potential energy is constant. When a particle is displaced from its position
it does not experience any force acting on it and continues to be in equilibrium in the displaced
position. This is said to be neutral equilibrium.
In figure S is the neutral point
dU d2U
Condition : =0 , =0
dx dx2
a b
Ex.12 The potential energy between two atoms in a molecule is given by, U(x) = – , where a
x 12 x 6
and b are positive constants and x is the distance between the atoms. The system is in
stable equilibrium when -
1/6
a  2a   11a 
(A) x = 0 (B) x = (C) x =   (D) x =  
2b  b  5b 
Sol. (C)
a b
Given that, U(x) = 12
–
x x6
du
We, know F=–
dx
= (–12) a x–13 – (–6 b) x–7= 0
1/ 6
6b 12a  2a 
or = or x6 = 12a/6b = 2a/b or x=  
x7 4 x13  b
Ex.13 The potential energy of a conservative system is given by U = ax2 – bx where a and b are
positive constants. Find the equilibrium position and discuss whether the equilibrium is
stable, unstable or neutral.
dU d
Sol. In a conservative field F = – ∴F=– ( ax2 – bx) = b – 2ax
dx dx
b
For equilibrium F = 0 or b – 2ax = 0 ∴ x =
2a
d2U
From the given equation we can see that = 2a (positive), i.e., U is minimum.
dx2
b
Therefore, x = is the stable equilibrium positon.
2a
11. WORK ENERGY THEOREM :
If the resultant or net force acting on a body is Fnet then Newton's second law states that
Fnet = ma ...(1)
If the resultant force varies with x, the acceleration and speed also depend on x.
dv
then a= v ...(2)
dx
from eq. (1)
Fnet
dv m m
Fnet = mv ⇒ Fnet.dx = m v dv
dx
vi vf
vf
∫Fnet . dx = ∫ mvdv
vi
1 1
Wnet = mv 2f – mv i2
2 2
Wnet = kf – ki
Wnet = ∆K ...(3)
Work done by net force Fnet in displacing a particle equals to the change in kinetic energy of the
particle i.e.
we can write eq. (3) in following way
(W.D)c + (W.D)N.C + (W.D)ext. + (W.D)pseudo
= ∆K ...(4)
where (W.D)c = work done by conservative force
(W.D)N.C = work done by non conservative force.
(W.D)ext = work done by external force
(W.D)pseudo = work done by pseudo force.
we know that
(W.D)c = – ∆U
⇒ – ∆U + (W.D)N.C + (W.D)ext + (W.D)pseudo = ∆K
⇒ (W.D)N.C + (W.D)ext. + (W.D)pseudo = (kf + uf) – (ki + ui)
∵ k + u = Mechanical energy.
⇒ work done by forces (except conservative forces)
= change is mechanical energy.
If (W.D)N.C = (W.D)ext = (W.D)pseudo = 0
Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui
Initial mechanical energy = final mechanical energy
This is called mechanical energy conservation law.
Questions Based on work Energy Theorem :
(A) When only one conservative force is acting
Ex.14 The block shown in figure is released from rest. Find out the speed of the block when the
spring is compressed by 1 m.
N.L.
2kg
A
2m
Sol. In the above problem only one conservative force (spring force) is working on the block so from
mechanical energy conservation
kf + uf = ki + ui ...(i)
at A block is at rest so ki = 0
N.L.
1 1
ui = kx12 = k( 2) 2 = 2k Joule
2 2 B A
At position B if speed of the block is v then 2kg 2kg
1 1 x2=1m x1=2m
kf = mv 2 = × 2 × v 2 = v 2
2 2
1 2 1 k
uf = kx2 = × k × 1 =
2 2 2
Putting the above values in equation (i), we get
k 3k 3k
⇒ v2 + = 2k 2
⇒ v = ⇒ v= m / sec
2 2 2
Ex.15 A block of mass m is dropped from height h above the ground. Find out the speed of the
block when it reaches the ground.
Sol.
Initial situation
Ugi = mgh , ki = 0
Final situation 1
Ugf = 0 , K f = mv 2
v 2
Figure shows the complete description of the problem only one conservative force is working on the
block. So from mechanical energy conservation
1
kf + uf = ki + ui ⇒ mv 2 + 0 = 0 + mgh
2
v = 2gh m / sec
(B) When two conservative force are acting in problem.
Ex.16 One end of a light spring of natural length d and spring constant k is fixed on a rigid wall and
the other is attached to a smooth ring of mass m which can slide without friction on a vertical
rod fixed at a distance d from the wall. Initially the spring makes an angle of 37º with the
horizontal as shown in fig. When the system is released from rest, find the speed of the ring
when the spring becomes horizontal.
[sin 37º = 3/5]
A Ring
v=0
I h
37°
d v
B
Rod
Sol. If l is the stretched length of the spring, then from figure
d 4 5
= cos 37º = , i.e., l= d
l 5 4
5 d
So, the stretch y=l −d= d− d =
4 4
5 3 3
and d× = d
h = l sin 37º =
4 5 4
Now, taking point B as reference level and applying law of conservation of mechanical energy
between A and B,
EA = EB
1 2 1
or mgh + ky = mv 2
2 2
[as for, B, h = 0 and y = 0]
2
3 1  d 1 3 1
or mgd + k   = mv 2 [as for A, h = d and y = d ]
4 2  4 2 4 4
3g k
or v=d + Ans.
2d 16m
Ex.17 The block shown in figure is released from rest and initially the spring is at its natural length.
Write down the energy conservation equation. When the spring is compressed
b y l1 ?
m
B
Sol. Here two conservative forces are included in the problem.

(i) Gravitational force (ii) spring force initial position
We assume zero gravitational potential energy
m Ug = mg( + 1) sin θ
N.L.
( + 1 )sin θ
Us=0, K = 0
at A as shown in figure.
1
from mechanical energy conservation final position

m 1
kf + uf = ki + ui ...(i) Ug = 0, Us = k 12
2
1
K = mv 2
1 1 2
mv 2 + k 21 = mg( 1 + ) sin θ
2 2
(C) When only one non conservative force is included in problem.

Ex.18 Find out the distance travelled by the block as shown in figure. If the initial speed of the
block is v and µ is the friction coefficient between the surface of block and ground.
m v
Sol. Applying work energy theorem, we get v v=0

1 2  m m
⇒ (–µ mg ) = (0 + 0) –  mv + 0 mg
2
Initial final
1 2 v2
⇒ µg = v ⇒ =
2 2µ g
(D) When both conservative and non-conservative force in the problem
Ex.19 A particle slides along a track with elevated ends and a flat central part as shown in figure.
The flat portion BC has a length l = 3.0 m. The curved portions of the track are frictionless.
For the flat part the coefficient of kinetic friction is µk = 0.20, the particle is released at point
A which is at height h = 1.5 m above the flat part of the track. Where does the particle finally
comes to rest?
Sol. As initial mechanical energy of the particle is mgh and final is zero, so loss in mechanical energy
= mgh. This mechanical energy is lost in doing work against friction in the flat part,
So, loss in mechanical energy = work done against friction
h 15
.
or mgh = µ mgs i.e., s= = = 7.5 m
µ 0.2
After starting from B the particle will reach C and then will rise
up till the remaining KE at C is converted into potential energy.
It will then again descend and at C will have the same value as A D
it had when ascending, but now it will move from C to B. The
same will be repeated and finally the particle will come to rest h
at E such that
BC + CB + BE = 7.5 B E C
or 3 + 3 + BE = 7.5
i.e., BE = 1.5
So, the particle comes to rest at the centre of the flat part.
Ex.20 A 0.5 kg block slides from the point A on a horizontal track with an initial speed 3 m/s towards
a weightless horizontal spring of length 1 m and force constant 2 N/m. The part AB of the
track is frictionless and the part BC has the coefficient of static and kinetic friction as 0.22
and 0.20 respectively. If the distance AB and BD are 2 m and 2.14 m respectively, find the
total distance through which the block moves before it comes to rest completely. [g = 10
m/s2]
Sol. As the track AB is frictionless, the block moves this distance without loss in its initial
1 1
KE = mv 2 = × 0.5 × 32 = 2.25 J. In the path BD as friction is present, so work done against
2 2
friction
= µk mgs = 0.2 × 0.5 × 10 × 2.14 = 2.14 J
So, at D the KE of the block is = 2.25 – 2.14 = 0.11 J.
Now, if the spring is compressed by x
1
0.11 = × k × x2 + µk mgx
2
1
i.e., 0.11 = × 2 × x2 + 0.2 × 0.5 × 10x
2 A B D C
or x2 + x – 0.11 = 0
which on solving gives positive value of x = 0.1 m
After moving the distance x = 0.1 m the block comes to rest. Now the compressed spring exerts a
force :
F = kx = 2 × 0.1 = 0.2 N
on the block while limiting frictional force between block and track is fL = µs mg = 0.22 × 0.5 × 10 =
1.1 N.
Since, F < fL. The block will not move back. So, the total distance moved by block
= AB + BD + 0.1
= 2 + 2.14 + 0.1
= 4.24 m
(E) Important Examples :

Ex.21 A smooth sphere of radius R is made to translate in a straight line with a constant acceleration
a. A particle kept on the top of the sphere is released from there at zero velocity with respect
to the sphere. Find the speed of the paritcle with respect to the sphere as a function of the
angle θ it slides.
Sol. We solve the above problem with respect to the sphere. So apply a pseudo force on the particle
m ma
R
a
with respect to sphere
Now from work energy theorem.
work done by ma = change in mechanical energy
⇒ ma R sin θ = (kf + uf) – (ki + ui)
1 1
maR sin θ = mv 2 − mgR (1 − cos θ) ⇒ mv 2 = maR sin θ + mgR (1 – cos θ)
2 2
⇒ v2 = 2R(a sin θ + g – g cos θ) ⇒ v = [2R (a sin θ + g – g cos θ)]1/2 m/sec
Ex.22 In the arrangement shown in figure mA = 4.0 kg and

mB = 4.0 kg. The system is released from rest and A
block B is found to have a speed 0.3 m/s after it
has descended through a distance of 1m. Find the
coefficient of friction between the block and the
table. Neglect friction elsewhere.
(Take g = 10 m/s2) B
Sol. From constraint relations, we can see that
v A = 2 vB
Therefore, vA = 2(0.3) = 0.6 m/s
as vB = 0.3 m/s (given)
Applying Wnc = ∆U + ∆K
1 1
we get – µ mA g SA = – mB g SB + mAvA2 + mBvB2
2 2
Here, SA = 2SB = 2m as SB = 1 m (given)
1 1
∴ – µ(4.0) (10) (2) = – (1) (10) (1) + (4) (0.6)2 + (1) (0.3)2
2 2
or – 80 µ = – 10 + 0.72 + 0.045 or 80µ = 9.235 or µ = 0.115 Ans.
Ex.23 A body of mass ‘m’ was slowly hauled up the hill as shown
in the figure by a force F which at each point was directed
along a tangent to the trajectory. Find the work performed
by this force, if the height of the hill is h, the length of its m F h
base is l and the coefficient of
friction is µ.
Sol. Four forces are acting on the body : l
1. weight (mg) 2. normal reaction (N)
3. friction (f) and 4. the applied force (F)
Using work-energy theorem
Wnet = ∆KE
or Wmg + WN + Wf + WF = 0
Here, ∆KE = 0, because Ki = 0 = Kf B
Wmg = – mgh ⇒ WN = 0 ds
(as normal reaction is perpendicular to displacement at all points) F
Wf can be calculated as under : A
f = µ mg cos θ dl
∴ (dWAB)f = – f ds
= – (µ mg cos θ) ds = – µ mg (dl) (as ds cos θ = dl)
∴ f = – µ mg ∑ dl = – µ mgl
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get
WF = mgh + µmgl
: Here again, if we want to solve this problem without using work-energy theorem we will first find

magnitude of applied force F at different locations and then integrate dW ( = F. dr ) with proper
limits.
12. POWER
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work.
When the time taken to complete a given amount of work is important, we measure the power of
the agent doing work.
The average power (P or Pav ) delivered by an agent is given by
∆W Total work done
P or Pav = ∆ t = Total time
where ∆W is the amount of work done in time ∆ t.
Power is the ratio of two scalars-work and time. So, power is a scalar quantity. If time taken to
complete a given amount of work is more, then power is less.
dW
• The instantaneous power is, P = where dW is the work done by a force F in a small time dt.
dt
dW dr
• P= = .F = F. v where v is the velocity of the body..
dt dt
By definition of dot product,
P = Fvcosθ

where θ is the smaller angle between F and v
This P is called as instantaneous power if dt is very small.
12.1 Unit of Power :

A unit power is the power of an agent which does unit work in unit time.
The power of an agent is said to be one watt if it does one joule of work in one second.
1 watt = 1 joule/second = 107 erg/second
1 newton × 1 metre
Also, 1 watt = = 1 N ms–1.
1 sec ond
Dimensional formula of power
[ Work ] [ML2 T –2 ]
[Power ] = = = [ML2T–3]
[ Time] [ T]
Ex.24 A one kilowatt motor pumps out water from a well 10 metre deep. Calculate the quantity of
water pumped out per second.
Sol. Power, P = 1 kilowatt = 103 watt
mg × S
S = 10 m ; Time, t = 1 second ; Mass of water, m = ? Power =
t
m × 9.8 × 10
∴ 103 =
1
10 3
or m= kg = 10.204 kg
9.8 × 10
Ex.25 The blades of a windmill sweep out a circle of area A. (a) If the wind flows at a velocity v
perpendicular to the circle, what is the mass of the air passing through in time t? (b) What is
the kinetic energy or the air? (c) Assume that the windmill converts 25% of the wind’s energy
into electrical energy, and that A = 30m2, v = 36 km h–1 and the density of air is 1.2 kg m–3.
What is the electrical power produced?
Sol. (a) Volume of wind flowing per second = Av
Mass of wind flowing per second = Avρ
Mass of air passing in t second = Avρt
1 1 1
(b) Kinetic energy of air = mv 2 = ( Avρt)v 2 = Av 3 ρt
2 2 2
25 1 3 Av 3 ρt
(c) Electrical energy produced = × Av ρt =
100 2 8
Av 3 ρt Av 3 ρ
Electrical power = =
8t 8
5
Now, A = 30 m2, v = 36 km h–1 = 36 × m s–1 = 10 m s–1, ρ = 1.2 kg ms–1
18
30 × 10 × 10 × 12
.
∴ Electrical power = W = 4500 W = 4.5 kW
8
Ex.26 One coolie takes one minute to raise a box through a height of 2 metre. Another one takes
30 second for the same job and does the same amount of work. Which one of the two has
greater power and which one uses greater energy?
Work M × g × S M × 9.8 × 2 –1
Sol. Power of first coolie = = = Js
Time t 60
M × 9.8 × 2 –1  M × 9.8 × 2 
Power of second coolie = Js = 2   J s–1 = 2 × Power of first coolie
30  60 
So, the power of the second coolie is double that of the first. Both the coolies spend the same
amount of energy.
We know that W = Pt
For the same work,
W = p1t1 = P2t2
P2 t1 1minute
or = = =2 or P2 = 2P1
P1 t 2 30 s
13. VERTICAL CIRCULAR MOTION

C
To understand this consider the motion of a small body
(say stone) tied to a string and whirled in a vertical
circle.
Now we study the circular motion of the body in two B
parts. R
A) Motion of a body from A to B. T1 v1
B) Motion of a body from B to C. T
2
m A u mg mv1
A. Motion of a body from A to B. R
mv12
T1 = mg cos θ + ...(1)
R
During the motion of the body from A to B.
θ will increase so cos θ will decrease.
Due to which mg cos θ will decrease. From A to B speed of the body also decreases due to which
mv 2
decreases. Therefore tenstion in the string decreases from A to B.
R
But due to mg cos θ tension can never be zero.
B. Motion of a body from B to C.

C v2 mv2
2
mv 22 R
T2 = − mg cos θ ...(2)
R T2
From B → C mg
B
mv 22
speed decreases due to which decreases.
R
θ decreases due to which mg cos θ increases.
Therefore from B →C. Tension in the string decreases.
mv 22
String slacks at a point where = mg cos θ i.e., T = 0
R
13.1 Minimum velocity at point A for which body can complete the vertical circle
The condition for the body to complete the vertical circle is that the string should be taut all the
time i.e. the tension is greater than zero.
So the body can complete the vertical circle if the tension is not zero in between the region B to C.
Initially.
mv 2 finally
from figure (b) = TC + mg ...(1)
R mv2
Apply energy conservation from A to C then v C R
Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui
1 1 Tc+mg
mv 2 + 2mgR = mu 2 + 0 ...(2)
2 2 TA
body can complete vertical circle, when
TC ≥ 0 A u
mv 2 mg
– mg ≥ 0 fig(a) fig(b)
R
⇒ v ≥ gR
2
...(3)
Put the value from (3) to (2) and
u = umin
1 1 2
⇒ m(Rg) + 2mgR = mumin
2 2
2
⇒ umin = 5gR ⇒ umin = 5gR
It the velocity is greater than equal to 5gR then the body will complete the vertical circle.
Tension at A
mu2
TA = mg +
R
TA
If u = umin = 5gR
u
5mgR mu2
then TA = mg + ⇒ TA = 6mg mg +
R R
Tension at B
mv 2 v
TB =
R
energy conservation from A to B
TB B mv2
R
1 2 1 2
mumin = mgR + mv
2 2 mg
⇒ v2 = 3gR ⇒ TB = 3mg
A
13.2 Condition for the body to reach B :

Let us calculate the umin such that the body just reaches
B.
Work done by tension = 0 O R v=0, Ug=mgR
Only gravitational force is working on the body which is K= 0
R
a conservative force. Therefore Applying conservation
of energy, we get A u Ug=0
min
1 2
1 2 K = mumin
mgR = mumin ⇒ umin = 2gR 2
2
∴ if u ≤ 2gR then the body will oscillate about A.
13.3 When 2gR < u < 5gR
If the velocity of projection is greater than 2gR but less than 5gR , the particle rises above the
horizontal diameter and the tension vanishes before reaching the highest point.
We have seen that the tension in the string at the highest point is lower than the tension at the
lowest point.
At the point D, the string OD makes an angle φ with the vertical. The radial component of the
weight is mg cos φ towards the centre O.
mv 2  v2 
T + mg cos φ = ⇒ T = m – g cos φ 
 ...(i)
R R 
1
Kinetic energy at D = mv 2 B
2 D
N
Potential energy at D = mg(AN) φT
= mg (AO + ON) ⇒ mg(R + R cosφ) = mgR(1 + cosφ) O θ mg
From conservation of energy
1 1
mu 2 = mv 2 + mgR(1+ cosφ)
2 2 A
v2 = u2 – 2gR(1 + cos φ)
Substituting in equation (i),
 u2 
T = m  – 2g(1 + cos φ) – g cos φ
 R 
 u2  2 
T = m – 3g cos φ + 
 R  3 
This equation shows that the tension becomes zero. if
u2  2
= 3g cos φ +  ...(ii)
R  3
If the tension is not to become zero.
 2
u2 > 3Rg  cos φ + 
 3
Equation (ii) gives the values of φ at which the string becomes slack.
2 u2
cosφ + =
3 3Rg
u2 2
cosφ = –
3Rg 3
u 2 – 2gR
cos φ =
3gR
It is the angle from the vertical at which tension in the string vanishes to zero. And after that its
motion is projectile.
13.4 Tension in the string versus θ

We may find an expression for the tension in the string when it makes an angle θ with the vertical.
At C, the weight of the body acts vertically downwards, and the tension in the string is towards
the centre O.
The weight mg is resolved radially and tangentially.

The radial component is mg cos θ and the tangential component is mg sin θ.
mv 2
T – mg cos θ = , where v is the velocity at C.
R
 v2 
i.e., T = m + g cos θ 
 ...(i) B
R 
The velocity v can be expressed in terms of velocity u at A.
O
1 θ T v
2
The total energy at A = mu M C
2
A u θ mg cos θ
1 mg
The kinetic energy at C = mv 2
2
The potential energy at C = mg (AM)
= mg (AO – MO) = mg (R – R cosθ)
= mgR (1 – cos θ)
1
The total energy at C = mv 2 + mgR(1 – cos θ)
2
∴ From conservation of energy
1 1
mu 2 = mv 2 + mgR (1 – cosθ)
2 2
2
u2 = v2 + 2gR (1 – cos θ) or v2 = u – 2gR(1 – cos θ)
Substituting in equation (v),
 u2  mu 2  2
T = mg cos θ + – 2g(1 – cos θ) = + 3mg cos θ –  ...(ii)
 R  R  3 
This expression gives the value of the tension in the
string in terms of the velocity at the lowest point and
the angle θ.
T
Equation (i) shows that tension in the string decreases 6mg
as θ increases, since the term 'g cos θ' decreases as θ
increases. 3mg
when u = 5gR cosθ

–1 1
⇒ T = 3mg (1 + cos θ)
Now θ = 0 ⇒ cos θ = 1 ⇒ TA = 6 mg
if, θ = 90° ⇒ TB = 3 mg
θ = 180°, cosθ = – 1
Tc = 0
13.5 Different situations :
(A) A BODY MOVING INSIDE A HOLLOW TUBE OR SPHERE
The previous discussion holds good for this case, but v2
instead of tension in the string we have the normal N'
mg
reaction of the
R
surface. If N is the normal reaction at the lowest point, then
N
the condition u ≥ 5Rg for the body to complete the u
circle holds for this case also. All other equations (can mg
be) similarly obtained by replacing tension T by normal
reaction N.
(B) WHEN BODY IS ATTACHED TO A ROD OF LENGTH R

In this case since the body is attached to a rigid rod. The body can not leave the circular path.
Therefore, if the speed of the body becomes zero before the highest point C. It's motion will be
oscillatory about the centre of the rod.
Condition for completing the circle :
If the body just reaches the highest point then it will
completes the vertical circle
Applying energy conservation between the lowest and
highest point of circle, we get
v=0
Uf = mg2R
Kf = 0
1
Ui = 0, Ki = mu2
u 2
1
2mgR = mu 2 ⇒ u = 4gR
2
So, If the velocity at point A is greater than equal to 4gR then
body will compete the vertical circle.
(C) VERTICAL MOTION IN A DUAL RING
u
This system will behave as the preivious system. So
umin to
complete vertical circle umin = 4gR
Angle at which the normal reaction on the body will
change its direction from inward to outward the ring
is given by
u 2 – 2gR
cosφ =
3 gR
(D) BODY MOVING ON A SPHERICAL SURFACE

The small body of mass m is placed on the top of a smooth sphere of radius R and the body slides
down the surface.
At any instant, i.e., at point C the forces are the normal reaction N and the weight mg. The radial
component of the weight is mgcos φ acting towards the centre. The centripetal force is
mv 2 B
mg cos φ – N = , m N
R C
where v is the velocity of the body at O. D
φ
 v 2  mg
N = m  g cos φ – ...(i) O
 R 
The body flies off the surface at the point where N becomes zero.
v2 v2 A
i.e., g cos φ = ; cos φ = ...(ii)
R Rg
To find v, we use conservation of energy
1
i.e., mv 2 = mg (BD)
2
= mg (OB – OD) = mgR (1 – cos φ)
v2 = 2Rg (1 – cos φ)
v2
2(1 – cos φ) = ...(iii)
Rg
From equation (ii) and (iii) we get
cos φ = 2 – 2 cos φ ; 3 cos φ = 2
2  2
cos φ = ; φ = cos–1   ...(iv)
3  3
This gives the angle at which the body goes of the surface. The height from the ground of that
point
= AD = R(1 + cos φ)
 2 5
=R  1 +  = R
 3  3
CIRCULAR & W.P.E Page # 49

(A) CIRCULAR MOTION 3. A spot light S rotates in a horizontal plane with a
constant angular velocity of 0.1 rad/s. The spot of
1. A wheel is at rest. Its angular velocity increases light p moves along the wall at a distance 3 m. What is
uniformly and becomes 80 radian per second after 5 the velocity of the spot P when θ = 45° ?
second. The total angular displacement is : Wall P
(A) 800 rad (B) 400 rad
θ
(C) 200 rad (D) 100 rad
3m (Top view)
Sol.
S(Spot light)
(A) 0.6 m/s (B) 0.5 m/s
(C) 0.4 m/s (D) 0.3 m/s
Sol.
2. The second’s hand of a watch has length 6 cm. 4. Two moving particle P and Q are 10 m apart at a
Speed of end point and magnitude of difference of certain instant. The velocity of P is 8m/s making an
velocities at two perpendicular positions will be : angle 30° with the line joining P and Q and that of Q is
6m/s making an angle 30° with PQ as shown in the
(A) 2π & 0 mm/s (B) 2 2 π & 4.44 mm/s figure. Then angular velocity of P with respect to Q is
6m/s
(C) 2 2 π & 2π mm/s (D) 2π & 2 2 π mm/s
Sol.
10m 30°
P 30° Q
8m/s
(A) Zero (B) 0.1 rad/sec
(C) 0.4 rad/sec (D) 0.7 rad sec
Sol.
5. The magnitude of displacement of a particle moving

 20 
in a circle of radius a with constant angular speed ω 7. A particle moves along a circle of radius   m
π
varies with time t as
with constant tangential acceleration. If the velocity
ωt of the particle is 80 m/s at the end of the second
(A) 2 a sin ωt (B) 2a sin
2 revolution after motion has begun, the tangential
ωt acceleration is :
(C) 2a cos ωt (D) 2a cos
2 (A) 160 π m/s2 (B) 40 π m/s2
(C) 40 m/s 2
(D) 640 π m/s2
Sol. Sol.
6. Two bodies A & B rotate about an axis, such that 8. The graphs below show angular velocity as a
angle θ A (in radians) covered by first body is function of time. In which one is the magnitude of the
proportional to square of time, & θB (in radians) covered angular acceleration constantly decreasing?
by second body varies linearly. At t = 0, θA = θB = 0. If
A completes its first revolution in π sec. & B needs
(A) t (B) t
4π sec. to complete half revolution then; angular
velocity ωA : ωB at t = 5 sec. are in the ratio
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 20 : 1
(C) 80 : 1 (D) 20 : 4
Sol. (C) t (D) t
Sol.
9. A particle moves with deaceleration along the circle Sol.

of radius R so that at any moment of time its tangential
and normal accelerations are equal in moduli. At the
initial moment t = 0 the speed of the particle equals
v0, then :
(i) the speed of the particle as a function of the
distance covered s will be
(A) v = v0 e–s/R (B) v = v0es/R
(C) v = v0e –R/s
(D) v = v0eR/s
(ii) the total acceleration of the particle as function
of velocity and distance covered
v2 v
(A) a = 2 (B) a = 2
R R
R 2R
(C) a = 2 (D) a =
v v
Sol.
11. A particle moves along an arc of a circle of radius

R. Its velocity depends on the distance covered as
v = a s , where a is a constant then the angle α
between the vector of the total acceleration and the
vector of velocity as a function of s will be
R
(A) tanα = (B) tanα = 2s / R
2s
2R s
(C) tan α = (D) tanα =
s 2R
Sol.
10. If angular velocity of a disc depends an angle

rotated θ as ω = θ2 + 2θ, then its angular acceleration
α at θ = 1 rad is
(A) 8 rad/sec2 (B) 10 rad/sec2
(C) 12 rad/sec 2
(D) None
Sol. 13.Tangential acceleration of a particle moving in a

circle of radius 1 m varies with time t as (initial velocity
of particle is zero). Time after which total cceleration
of particle makes and angle of 30º with radial
acceleration is
60º
time(sec)
(A) 4 sec (B) 4/3 sec
(C) 2 2/3
sec (D) 2 sec
Sol.
12. A particle A moves along a circle of radius R = 50
cm so that its radius vector r relative to the point O
(Fig.) rotates with the constant angular velocity ω =
0.40 rad/s. Then modulus of the velocity of the particle,
and the modulus of its total Aacceleration will be
r
R
0
(A) v = 0.4 m/s, a = 0.4 m/s2

(B) v = 0.32 m/s, a = 0.32 m/s2
(C) v = 0.32 m/s, a = 0.4 m/s2
(D) v = 0.4 m/s, a = 0.32 m/s2
14. A particle is going in a uniform helical and spiral
Sol.
path separately as shown in figure with constant speed.
(A) (B)
(A) The velocity of the particle is constant in both

cases
(B) The acceleration of the particle is constant in
both cases
(C) The magnitude of acceleration is constant in (A)
and decreasing in (B)
(D) The magnitude of acceleration is decreasing
continuously in both the cases
Sol.
17. Three identical particles are joined together by a

thread as shown in figure. All the three particles are
moving on a smooth horizontal plane about point O. If
the speed of the outermost particle is v0, then the
ratio of the tensions in the three sections of the string
is : (Assume that the string remains straight)
O A B C

(A) 3 : 5 : 7 (B) 3 : 4 : 5
(C) 7 : 11 : 6 (D) 3 : 5 : 6
15. If the radii of circular paths of two particles of
Sol.
same masses are in the ratio of 1 : 2, then in order to
have same centripetal force, their speeds should be
in the ratio of :
(A) 1 : 4 (B) 4 : 1 (C) 1 : 2 (D) 2 :1
Sol.
18. A particle is kept fixed on a turntable rotating

16. A stone of mass of 16 kg is attached to a string uniformly. As seen from the ground, the particle goes
144 m long and is whirled in a horizontal smooth in a circle, its speed is 20 cm/s and acceleration is 20
surface. The maximum tension the string can withstand cm/s2. The particle is now shifted to a new position to
is 16 newton. The maximum speed of revolution of the make the radius half of the original value. The new
stone without breaking it, will be : values of the speed and acceleration will be
(A) 20 ms–1 (B) 16 ms–1 (C) 14 ms–1 (D) 12 ms–1 (A) 10 cm/s, 10 cm/s2 (B) 10 cm/s, 80 cm/s2
Sol. (C) 40 cm/s, 10 cm/s2 (D) 40 cm/s, 40 cm/s2
Sol.
Sol.
19. A particle moving along a circular path due to a

centripetal force having constant magnitude is an
example of motion with :
(A) constant speed and velocity
(B) variable speed and velocity
(C) variable speed and constant velocity
(D) constant speed and variable velocity.
Sol.
20. A curved section of a road is banked for a speed v.

If there is no friction between road and tyres of the
car, then : 22. A particle of mass m is fixed to one end of a light
(A) car is more likely to slip at speeds higher than v spring of force constant k and unstretched length .
than speeds lower than v The system is rotated about the other end of the
(B) car cannot remain in static equilibrium on the curved spring with an angular velocity ω, in gravity free space.
section The increase in length of the spring will be
(C) car will not slip when moving with speed v
k m
(D) none of the above
Sol.
mω 2 mω 2
(A) (B)
k k − mω 2
mω 2
(C) (D) None of these
k + mω 2
Sol.
21. The kinetic energy k of a particle moving along a

circle of radius R depends on the distance covered s
as k = as2 where a is a positive constant. The total
force acting on the particle is :
1/ 2
s2  s2 
(A) 2a (B) 2as 1 + 2 
R  R 
R2
(C) 2 as (D) 2a
S
23. A unifrom circular ring of mass per unit length λ

and radius R is rotating with angular velocity ω about 25. Water in a bucket is whirled in a vertical circle
its own axis in a gravity free space. Tension in the with a string attached to it. The water does not fall
ring is down even when the bucket is inverted at the top of
its path. We conclude that :
1
(A) zero (B) λ R2 ω2
2 mv 2 mv 2
(A) mg = (B) mg >
(C) λ R2 ω2 (D) λ R ω2 R R
Sol. mv 2
(C) mg < (D) none of these
R
Sol.
24. A uniform rod of mass m and length rotates in a

horizontal plane with an angular velocity ω about a
26. A man is standing on a rough (µ = 0.5) horizontal
vertical axis passing through one end. The tension in
the rod at distance x from the axis is : disc rotating with constant angular velocity of 5 rad/
sec. At what distance from centre should he stand so
1 2 1 x2
(A) mω x (B) mω 2 that he does not slip on the disc ?
2 2
1  x  2 (A) R ≤ 0.2 m (B) R > 0.2 m
2 1 mω
(C) mω  1 –  (D) [ 2 – x2 ] (C) R > 0.5 m (D) R > 0.3 m
2 2
Sol.
Sol.
27. A car travelling on a smooth road passes through 29. A conical pendulum is moving in a circle with
a curved portion of the road in form of an arc, of angular velocity ω as shown. If tension in the string is
circle of radius 10m. If the mass of car is 500 kg, the T, which of following equations are correct ?
reaction on car at lowest point P where its speed is l
20 m/s is
m
P (A) T = mω2l (B) T sinθ = mω2l

(C) T = mg cosθ (D) T = mω2l sinθ
(A) 35 kN (B) 30 kN Sol.
(C) 25 kN (D) 20 kN
Sol.
30. A road is banked at an angle of 30° to the horizontal

28. A pendulum bob is swinging in a vertical plane
for negotiating a curve of radius 10 3 m. At what
such that its angular amplitude is less than 90°. At its
velocity will a car experience no friction while
highest point, the string is cut. Which trajectory is
negotiating the curve?
possible for the bob afterwards.
(A) 54 km/hr (B) 72 km/hr
(C) 36 km/hr (D) 18 km/hr
(A) (B) Sol.
(C) (D)
Sol.
31. The ratio of period of oscillation of the conical 33. Which vector in the figures best represents the
pendulum to that of the simple pendulum is : (Assume acceleration of pendulum mass of the intermediate
the strings are of the same length in the two cases point in its swing?
and θ is the angle made by the string with the vertical
in case of conical pendulum)
(A) (B)
(A) cosθ (B) cosθ
(C) 1 (D) none of these
Sol.
(C) (D)
Sol.
34. The dumbell is placed on a frictionless horizontal

table. Sphere A is attached to a frictionless pivot so
32. A particle is moving in a circle: that B can be made to rotate about A with constant
(A) The resultant force on the particle must be towards angular velocity. If B makes one revolution in period P,
the centre. the tension in the rod is
(B) The cross product of the tangential acceleration 2M
and the angular velocity will be zero. d B
(C) The direction of the angular acceleration and the
A
angular velocity must be the same.
(D) The resultant force may be towards the centre.
Sol.
4 π 2Md 8 π 2Md 4π 2Md 2Md

(A) (B) (C) (D)
P2 P2 P P
Sol.
35. Two racing cars of masses m1 and m2 are moving 37. A block of mass m is suspended by a light thread
in circles of radii r1 and r2 respectively. Their speeds from an elevator. The elevator is accelerating upward
are such that each makes a complete circle in the with uniform acceleration a. The work done by tension
same time t. The ratio of the angular speeds of the on the block during t seconds is :
first to the second car is
(A) 1 : 1 (B) m1 : m2
(C) r1 : r2 (D) m1m2 : r1r2 T
Sol. a
m
m m
(A) (g + a)at 2 (B) ( g – a)at 2
2 2
m
(C) gat 2 (D) 0
2
Sol.
(B) WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

36. A rigid body of mass m is moving in a circle of
radius r with a constant speed v. The force on the
mv 2
body is and is directed towards the centre. What
r
is the work done by this force in moving the body
over half the cirumference of the circle.
mv 2
(A) (B) Zero
πr 2
mv 2 πr 2
(C) 2 (D)
r mv 2
Sol.
38. Equal force F(> mg) is applied to string in all the

three cases. Starting from rest, the point of application
of force moves a distance of 2 m down in all cases. In
which case the block has maximum kinetic energy?
F m F F
m m
(1) (2) (3)
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) equal in all 3 cases
Sol.
41. A body of mass m accelerates uniformly from rest

to a speed v0 in time t0. The work done on the body
till any time t is
1 2 t
 2  1 t 
(A) 2 mv 0  2  (B) mv 20  0 
 t0  2  t
3
2 t  2 t 
39. Two springs have their force constant as k1 and (C) mv 0  t  (D) mv 0  
k2(k1 > k2). When they are stretched by the same  0  t0 
force
(A) No work is done by this force in case of both the Sol.
springs
(B) Equal work is done by this force in case of both
the springs
(C) More work is done by this force in case of second
spring
(D) More work is done by this force in case of first
spring
Sol.
40. The work done by the frictional force on a surface

in drawing a circle of radius r on the surface by a
pencil of negligible mass with a normal pressing force
N (coefficient of friction µk) is :
(A) 4 πr 2 µ kN (B) –2πr 2 µ kN
(C) –3πr 2 µ kN (D) –2πrµ kN

42. A force F = k[ yi + xj] where k is a positive constant
Sol.
acts on a particle moving in x-y plane starting from
the point (3, 5), the particle is taken along a straight
line to (5, 7). The work done by the force is :
(A) zero (B) 35 K
(C) 20 K (D) 15 K
Sol. 45.When a conservative force does positive work on

a body
(A) the potential energy increases
(B) the potential energy decreases
(C) total energy increases
(D) total energy decreases
Sol.
43. A light spring of length 20 cm and force constant

2 kg/cm is placed vertically on a table. A small block
of mass 1 kg falls on it. The length h from the surface
of the table at which the ball will have the maximum
velocity is -
(A) 20 cm (B) 15 cm 46. The P.E. of a certain spring when stretched from
(C) 10 cm (D) 5 cm natural length through a distance 0.3 m is 10 J. The
Sol. amount of work in joule that must be done on this
spring to stretch it through an additional distance 0.15
m will be
(A) 10 J (B) 20 J (C) 7.5 J (D) 12.5 J
Sol.
44. The work done is joules in increasing the extension 47. A 10 kg block is pulled in the vertical plane along
of a spring of stiffness 10 N/cm from 4 cm to 6 cm is : a frictionless surface in the form of an arc of a circle
(A) 1 (B) 10 of radius 10 m. The applied force is 200 N as shown in
(C) 50 (D) 100 the figure. If the block started from rest at A, the
Sol. velocity at B would be :
60°
F
B
A
(A) 1.732 m/s (B) 17.32 m/s
(C) 173.2 m/s (D) None of these
Sol.
50. In the figure shown all the surfaces are frictionless,

and mass of the block, m = 1kg. The block and wedge
are held initially at rest. Now wedge is given a horizontal
acceleration of 10 m/s2 by applying a force on the
wedge, so that the block does not slip on the wedge.
Then work done by the normal force in ground frame
on the block in 3 seconds is
10m/s2
m
M
48. A man who is running has half the kinetic energy

of the boy of half his mass. The man speeds up by 1 (A) 30 J (B) 60 J
m/s and then has the same kinetic energy as the boy. (C) 150 J (D) 100 3J
The original speed of the man was
Sol.
(A) 2m/ s (B) ( 2 – 1)m / s
(C) 2 m/s (D) ( 2 + 1)m / s

Sol.
49. A particle is released from rest at origin. It moves 51. A 1.0 kg block collides with a horizontal weightless
under influence of potential field U = x2 – 3x, kinetic spring of force constant 2.75 Nm–1 as shown in figure.
energy at x = 2 is The block compresses the spring 4.0 m from the rest
(A) 2 J (B) 1 J position. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between
(C) 1.5 J (D) 0 J the block and horizontal surface is 0.25, the speed of
Sol. the block at the instant of collision is
(A) 0.4 ms–1 (B) 4 ms–1 (C) 0.8 ms–1 (D) 8 ms–1
Sol. 53. The correct statement is

(A) The block will cross the mean position
(B) The block come to rest when the forces acting on
it are exactly balanced
(C) The block will come to rest when the work done
by friction becomes equal to the change in energy
stored in spring.
(D) None
Sol.

A spring block system is placed on a rough horizontal
floor. The block is pulled towards right to give spring 54. A toy car of mass 5 kg moves up a ramp under the
2µmg µmg influence of force F plotted against displacement x.
an elongation less than but more than The maximum height attained is given by
K K
and released. 100
52. Which of the following laws/principles of physics F
80
can be applied on the spring block system 60
ymax
40
x=0 x=11m 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
(A) ymax = 20 m (B) ymax = 15 m
(A) conservation of mechanical energy
(C) ymax = 11 m (D) ymax = 5 m
(B) conservation of momentum Sol.
(C) work energy principle
(D) None
Sol.
55. A wedge of mass M fitted with a spring of stiffness Question No. 57 to 62 (6 questions)
'k' is kept on a smooth horizontal surface. A rod of A block of mass m moving with a velocity v0 on a
mass m is kept on the wedge as shown in the figure. smooth horizontal surface strikes and compresses a
System is in equilibrium. Assuming that all surfaces are spring of stiffness k till mass comes to rest as shown
smooth, the potential energy stored in the spring is : in the figure. This phenomenon is observed by two
observers:
V0
k m
K
M
m
θ
mg2 tan 2 θ m 2 g tan2 θ A : standing on the horizontal surface

(A) (B)
2K 2K B : standing on the block
57. To an observer A, the work done by spring force
m 2 g2 tan 2 θ m 2 g2 tan 2 θ is
(C) (D)
2K K (A) negative but nothing can be said about its
Sol. magnitude
1 2
(B) – mv 0
2
(C) positive but nothing can be said about its magnitude
1 2
(D) + mv 0
2
Sol.
56. A block of mass m is hung vertically from an elastic

thread of force constant mg/a. Initially the thread 58. To an observer A, the work done by the normal
was at its natural length and the block is allowed to reaction N between the block and the spring on the
fall freely. The kinetic energy of the block when it block is
passes through the equilibrium position will be : 1 2
(A) zero (B) – mv 0
(A) mga (B) mga/2 2
(C) zero (D) 2mga 1 2
(C) + mv 0 (D) none of these
Sol. 2
Sol.
59. To an observer A, the net work done on the block 62. According to observer B, the potential energy of
is the spring increases
2
(A) –mv 0 (B) +mv 20 (A) due to the positive work done by pseudo force
(B) due to the positive work done by normal reaction
1 2
(C) – mv 0 (D) zero between spring & wall
2 (C) due to the decrease in the kinetic energy of the block
Sol.
(D) all the above
Sol.
60. According to the observer A

(A) the kinetic energy of the block is converted into
the potential energy of the spring
(B) the mechanical energy of the spring-mass system
is conserved 63. A car of mass 'm' is driven with acceleration 'a'
(C) the block loses its kinetic energy because of the along a straight level road against a constant external
negative work done the conservative force of spring resistive force 'R'. When the velocity of the car is 'V',
(D) all the above the rate at which the engine of the car is doing work
Sol. will be :
(A) RV (B) maV
(C) (R + ma) V (D) (ma – R)V
Sol.
61. To an observer B, when the block is compressing

the spring
(A) velocity of the block is decreasing
(B) retardation of the block is increasing
(C) kinetic energy of the block is zero
(D) all the above 64. A truck of mass 30,000 kg moves up an inclined
Sol. plane of slope 1 in 100 at a speed of 30 kmph. The
power of the truck is (given g = 10 ms–2)
(A) 25 kW (B) 10 kW
(C) 5 kW (D) 2.5 kW
Sol.
Sol.
65. A part i c l e m ov es wi th a v el oc i t y

v = (5 i – 3 j + 6k ) m / s under the influence of a constant

force F = (10 i + 10 j + 20k )N. The instantaneous power
applied to the particle is :
(A) 200 J/s (B) 40 J/s
(C) 140 J/s (D) 170 J/s
Sol.
66. Assume the aerodynamic drag force on a car is

proportional to its speed. If the power output from
the engine is doubled, then the maximum speed of the
car.
(A) is unchanged (B) increases by a factor of 2 68. The diagrams represent the potential energy U of
(C) is also doubled (D) increases by a factor of four. a function of the inter-atomic distance r. Which diagram
Sol. corresponds to stable molecules found in nature.
U U
(A) (B)
r r
O O
U U
(C) (D)
r r
O O
Sol.
67. A body of mass 1 kg starts moving from rest at t

= 0, in a circular path of radius 8 m. Its kinetic energy
varies as a function of time as : K.E. = 2t2 Joules,
where t is in seconds. Then
(A) tangential acceleration = 4m/s2
(B) power of all forces at t = 2 sec is 8 watt
(C) first round is completed in 2 sec.
(D) tangential force at t = 2 sec is 4 newton.
71. A particle originally at rest the highest point of a

smooth vertical circle is slightly displaced. It will leave
the circle at a vertical distance h below the highest
point, such that
(A) h = R (B) h = R/3
(C) h = R/2 (D) h = 2R
Sol.

69. The potential energy for a force field F is given
by U(x, y) = sin (x + y). The force acting on the 72. A ball whose size is slightly smaller than width of
 π the tube of radius 2.5 m is projected from bottommost
particle of mass m at  0,  is
4 point of a smooth tube fixed in a vertical plane with
1 velocity of 10 m/s. If N1 and N2 are the normal reactions
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) (D) 0 exerted by inner side and outer side of the tube on
2
Sol. the ball
A C
B
O
10 m/s
(A) N1 > 0 for motion in ABC, N2 > 0 for motion in CDA
(B) N1 > 0 for motion in CDA, N2 > 0 for motion in ABC
(C) N2 > 0 for motion in ABC & part of CDA
(D) N1 is always zero.
Sol.
70. F = 2x2 – 3x –2. Choose correct option
(A) x = –1/2 is position of stable equilibrium
(B) x = 2 is position of stable equilibrium
(C) x = –1/2 is position of unstable equilibrium
(D) x = 2 is position of neutral equilibrium
Sol.
Sol.
73. A bob attached to a string is held horizontal and
released. The tension and vertical distance from point
of suspension can be represented by.
T T
(A) (B)
h h
T T
(C) (D)
h h
Sol.
75. The tube AC forms a quarter circle in a vertical

plane. The ball B has an area of cross-section slightly
smaller than that of the tube, and can move without
friction through it. B is placed at A and displaced
slightly. It will
74. A small cube with mass M starts at rest point 1 at A
a height 4R, where R is the radius of the circular part B
of the track. The cube slides down the frictionless
track and around the loop. The force that the track
exerts on the cube at point 2 is nearly _________
times the cube’s weight Mg.
C
1 (A) always be in contact with the inner wall of the
tube
(B) always be in contact with the outer wall of the
1R 2 tube
(C) initially be in contact with the inner wall and later
R with the outer wall
(D) initially be in contact with the outer wall and later
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 with the inner wall
Sol.
76. A particle is rotated in a vertical circle by

connecting it to a light rod of length l and keeping the
other end of the rod fixed. The minimum speed of
particle when the light rod is horizontal for which the
particle will complete the circle is
(A) gl (B) 2gl
(C) 3gl (D) none
Sol.
Exercise - II (Multiple Correct Problems)

(A) CIRCULAR MOTION Sol.

1. A person applies a constant force F on a particle
of mass m and finds that the particle moves in a circle
of radius r with a uniform speed v as seen (in the
plane of motion) from an inertial frame of reference.
(A) This is not possible.
(B) There are other forces on the particle.
mv 2
(C) The resultant of the other forces is towards
r
the centre.
(D) The resultant of the other forces varies in
magnitude as well as in direction.
Sol.
3. A simple pendulum of length l and mass (bob) M is

oscillating in a plane about a vertical line between
angular limits –φ and φ. For an angular displacement θ,
[|θ| < φ] the tension in the string and velocity of the
bob are T and v respectively. The following relations
hold good under the above conditions :
(A) T cos θ = Mg
Mv 2
(B) T – Mg cos θ =
L
(C) Tangential acc. = g sin θ
(D) T = Mg cos θ
Sol.
2.A machine, in an amusement park, consists of a

cage at the end of one arm, hinged at O. The cage
revolves along a vertical circle of radius r (ABCDEFGH)
ab out i ts hi nge O, at c onst ant l i near spe ed
v = gr . The cage is so attached that the man of
weight ‘w’ standing on a weighing machine, inside the
cage, is always vertical. Then which of the following
is correct E
F × D
×
G× r ×C
H B
×
×
×
A (B) W.P.E
(A) the reading of his weight on the machine is the 4. No work is done by a force on an object if
same at all positions (A) the force is always perpendicular to its velocity
(B) the weight reading at A is greater than the weight (B) the force is always perpendicular to its acceleration
reading at E by 2 w. (C) the object is stationary but the point of application
(C) the weight reading at G = w of the force moves on the object.
(D) the ratio of the weight reading at E to that at A = 0 (D) the object moves in such a way that the point of
(E) the ratio of the weight reading at A to that at C = 2 application of the force remains fixed.
Sol. Sol.
7. When total work done on a particle is positive

(A) KE remains constant (B) Momentum increases
(C) KE decreases (D) KE increases
Sol.
5. One end of a light spring of spring constant k is

fixed to a wall and the other end is tied to a block
pl aced on a smooth hori zontal surface. In a
1 2
displacement, the work done by the spring is kx .
2 8. A particle with constant total energy E moves in
The possible cases are : one dimension in a region where the potential energy
(A) the spring was initially compressed by a distance is U(x). The speed of the particle is zero where
x and was finally in its natural length
(B) it was initially stretched by a distance x and finally (A) U(x) = E (B) U(x) = 0
was in its natural length dU( x) d2U( x)
(C) =0 (D) =0
(C) it was initially in its natural length and finally in a dx dx2
compressed position.
(D) it was initially in its natural length and finally in a Sol.
stretched position.
Sol.
6. Work done by force of friction

(A) can be zero
(B) can be positive
(C) can be negative
(D) information insufficient
9. A block of mass m slides down a plane inclined at

an angle θ. Which of the following will NOT increase
the energy lost by the block due to friction ?
(A) Increasing the angle of inclination
(B) Increasing the distance that the block travels
(C) Increasing the acceleration due to gravity
(D) Increasing the mass of the block
Sol.
11. A ball of mass m is attached to the lower end of

light vertical spring of force constant k. The upper
end of the spring is fixed. The ball is released from
rest with the spring at its normal (unstreched) length,
comes to rest again after descending through a
distance x.
(A) x = mg/k (B) x = 2 mg/k
(C) The ball will have no acceleration at the position
where it has descended through x/2.
(D) The ball will have an upward acceleration equal to
g at its lowermost position.
Sol.
10. A box of mass m is released from rest at position

on the frictionless curved track shown. It slides a
distance d along the track in time t to reach position
2, dropping a vertical distance h. Let v and a be the
instantaneous speed and instantaneous acceleration,
respectively, of the box at position 2. Which of the
following equations is valid for this situation?
1
m
h
2
d
(A) h = vt (B) h = (1/2)gt2
(C) d = (1/2)at2 (D) mgh = (1/2)mv2

Sol.
12. A cart moves with a constant speed along a

horizontal circular path. From the cart, a particle is
thrown up vertically with respect to the cart
(A) The particle will land somewhere on the circular path
(B) The particle will land outside the circular path
(C) The particle will follow an elliptical path
(D) The particle will follow a parabolic path
Sol.

A particle of mass m is released from a height
H on a smooth curved surface which ends into a vertical
loop of radius R, as shown
m
13. The potential energy in joules of a particle of
mass 1 kg moving in a plane is given by U = 3x + 4y, R
the position coordinates of the point being x and y, C
measured in meters. If the particle is initially at rest H
θ
at (6, 4), then
(A) its acceleration is of magnitude 5 m/s2
14. Choose the correct alternative(s) if H = 2R
(B) its speed when it crosses the y-axis is 10 m/s
(A) The particle reaches the top of the loop with zero
(C) it crosses the y-axis (x = 0) at y = –4
velocity
(D) it moves in a straight line passing through the origin
(B) The particle cannot reach the top of the loop
(0, 0)
(C) The particle breaks off at a height H = R from the
Sol.
base of the loop
(D) The particle break off at a height R < H < 2R
Sol.
16. The minimum value of H required so that the particle

makes a complete vertical circle is given by
(A) 5 R (B) 4 R (C) 2.5 R (D) 2 R
Sol.
15. If θ is instantaneous angle which the line joining

the particle and the centre of the loop makes with
the vertical, then identify the correct statement(s)
related to the normal reaction N between the block
and the surface
(A) The maximum value N occurs at θ = 0
(B) The minimum value of N occurs at N = π for H > 5R/2
(C) The value of N becomes negative for π/2 < θ < 3π/2
(D) The value of N becomes zero only when θ ≥ π/2
Sol.

(A) CIRCULAR MOTION 3. A particle moves clockwise in a circle of radius 1 m
1. The 10 kg block is in equilibrium. with centre at (x, y) = (1m, 0). It starts at rest at
the origin at time t = 0. Its speed increases at the
(A) 10 kg  π
constant rate of   m/s2. (a) How long does it take
2
to travel halfway around the circle ? (b) What is the
(B)
speed at that time ?
(i) Find the tension in string A. Sol.
(ii) Find the tension in string A just after the string B
is cut?
Sol.
4. A point moves along a circle having a radius 20 cm

with a constant tangential acceleration 5 cm/s2. How
much time is needed after motion begins for the nor-
mal acceleration of the point to be equal to tangential
2. A particle moves in the x-y plane with the velocity acceleration?
Sol.
v = ai + bt j . At the instant t = a 3 / b the magnitude
of tangential, normal and total acceleration are
_________________, _______ & __________.
Sol.
5. A ring rotates about z axis as shown in figure. The

plane of rotation is xy. At a certain instant the accel-
eration of a particle P (shown in figure) on the ring is

(6 i – 8 j ) m/s2. find the angular acceleration of the
ring & the angular velocity at that instant. Radius of
the ring is 2m. y
P
O x
Sol.
7. Figure shows the total acceleration and velocity of

a particle moving clockwise in a circle of radius 2.5 m
at a given instant of time. At this instant, find :
2
a=25 m/s
5m
v
2.
a
°
30
6. A particle is revolving in a circle of radius 1m with
an angular speed of 12 rad/s. At t = 0, it was sub-
(a) the radial acceleration,
jected to a constant angular acceleration α and its
(b) the speed of the particle and
angular speed increased to (480/π) rpm in 2 sec. Par-
(c) its tangential acceleration
ticle then continues to move with attained speed.
Sol.
Calculate
(a) angular acceleration of the particle,
(b) tangential velocity of the particle as a function of
time.
(c) acceleration of the particle at t = 0.5 second and
at t = 3 second
(d) angular displacement at t = 3 second.
Sol.
8. A stone is launched upward at 45° with speed v0. A Sol.

bee follows the trajectory of the stone at a constant
speed equal to the initial speed of the stone.
(a) Find the radius of curvature at the top point of
the trajectory.
(b) What is the acceleration of the bee at the top
point of the trajectory? For the stone, neglect the air
resistance.
Sol.
9. A particle moves in circle of radius R with a con-

stant speed v. Then, find the magnitude of average
πR
acceleration during a time interval .
2v
Sol. 11. A rod of length 1 m is being rotated about its end
in a gravity free space with a constant angular accel-
eration of 5 rad/s2 starting from rest. A sleeve is fit-
ted on the rod at a distance of 0.5 m from the centre.
The coefficient of friction between the rod and the
sleeve is 0.05. Find the time after which sleeve will
start slipping on the rod.
Sol.
10. A 4 kg block is attached to a vertical rod by

means of two strings of equal length. When the
system rotaes about the axis of the rod, the strings
are extended as shown in figure.
(a) How many revolutions per minute must the system
make in order for the tension in the upper chord to be
20 kgf?
(b) What is the tension in the lower chord?
5m
8m θ
A
12. A mass m rotating freely in a horizontal circle of 14. The blocks are of mass 2 kg shown is in equilibrium.
radius 1 m on a frictionless smooth table supports a At t = 0 right spring in fig. (i) and right string in fig. (ii)
stationary mass 2m, attached to the other end of the breaks. Find the ratio of instantaneous acceleration
string passing through smooth hole O in table, hang- of blocks ?
ing vertically. Find the angular velocity of rotation.
37° 37° 37°

37°
O m
2m 2 kg
2 kg figure (ii)
Sol.
Sol.
13. A beam of mass m is attached to one end of a

spring of natural length 3 R and spring constant
( 3 + 1)mg
k= . The other end of the spring is fixed at
R
point A on a smooth fixed vertical ring of radius R as
shown in the figure. What is the normal reaction at B
just after the bead is released?
B
A 60°

Sol. 15. A block of mass m is pulled on a rough horizontal
surface which has a friction coefficient µ. A force F
isapplied which is capable of moving the body uniformly
with speed v. Find the work done on the block in time
t by (a) weight of the block, (b) Normal reaction by
surface on the block, (c) friction, (d) F.
Sol.
18. The relationship between force and position is

shown in the figure given (in one dimensional case).
What will be the work done by the force in displacing
a body from x = 1 cm to x = 5 cm.
20
(Force dyne)
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 x(cm)
20
Sol.
16. Calculate the work done against gravity by a coolie

in carrying a load of mass 10 kg on his head when he
walks uniformly a distance of 5 m in the (i) horizontal
direction (ii) vertical direction. (Take g = 10 m/s2)
Sol.
19. It is well known that a raindrop or a small pebble

falls under the influence of the downward gravitational
force and the opposing resistive force. The latter is
known to be proportional to the speed of the drop but
17. A body is constrained to move in the y-direction. is otherwise undetermined. Consider a drop or small
pebble of 1 g falling from a cliff of height 1.00 km. It hits
It is subjected to a force (–2i + 15 j + 6k ) newton. What t h e g r o u n d w
–1
i t h. What is the work
a s p e e d o f 5 0 . 0 m s
is the work done by this force in moving the body done by the unknown resistive force ?
through a distance of 10 m ? Sol.
Sol.
20. A rigid body of mass 2 kg initially at rest moves

under the action of an applied horizontal force 7 N on
a table with coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1.
Calculate the
(a) work done by the applied force on the body in 10 s.
(b) work done by friction on the body in 10 s.
(c) work done by the net force on the body in 10 s.
(d) change in kinetic energy of the body is 10 s.
Sol.
21. A rigid body of mass 0.3 kg is taken slowly up an

inclined plane of length 10 m and height 5 m, and then
allowed to slide down to the bottom again. The co-
efficient of friction between the body and the plane is
0.15. Using g = 9.8 m/s2 find the
22. A block of mass m sits at rest on a frictionless

table in a rail car that is moving with speed vc along a
straight horizontal track (fig.) A person riding in the
(a) work done by the gravitational force over the round trip. car pushes on the block with a net horizontal force F
(b) work done by the applied force (assuming it to be for a time t in the direction of the car's motion.
parallel to the inclined plane) over the upward journey
Ground Train
(c) work done by frictional force over the round trip.
(d) kinetic energy of the body at the end of the trip?
Sol.
m F
s1
s
(a) What is the final speed of the block according to
a person in the car ?
Sol.
(g) How much work does each say the force did ?
Sol.
(b) According to a person standing on the ground

outside the train?
Sol.
(h) Compare the work done to the K gain according

to each person.
Sol.
(c) How much did K of the block change according to

the person in the car ?
Sol.
(i) What can your conclude from this computation?

Sol.
(d) According to the person on the ground ?

Sol.
(e) In terms of F, m, & t, how far did the force displace 23. In the figure shown, pulley and
the object according to the person in car ?
Sol. spring are ideal. Find the potential k
energy stored in the spring

(m1 > m2)
m1 m2
Sol.
(f) According to the person on the ground ?

Sol.
24. A block of mass m placed on a smooth horizontal 26. A labourer lifts 100 stones to a height of 6 metre
surface is attached to a spring and is held at rest by in two minute. If mass of each stone be one kilogram,
a force P as shown. Suddenly the force P changes its calculate the average power. Given : g = 10 ms–2.
direction opposite to the previous one. How many times Sol.
is the maximum extension l2 of the spring longer
compared to its initial compression l2 ?
l1
P
Sol.
27. An engine develops 10 kW of power. How much

time will it take to lift a mass of 200 kg through a
height of 40 m? Given : g = 10 ms–2
Sol.
25. (a) Power applied to a particle varies with time as

P = (3t2 – 2t + 1) watt, where t is in second. Find the
change in its kinetic energy between time t = 2 s and
t = 4 s.
Sol. 28. Two trains of equal masses are drawn along smooth
level lines by engines; one of then X exerts a constant
force while the other Y works at a constant rate.
Both start from rest & after a time t both again have
the same velocity v. Find the ratio of travelled distance
during the interval.
Sol.
(b) The potential function for a conservative force is

given by U = k(x + y). Find the work done by the
conservative force in moving a particle from the point
A(1, 1) to point B (2, 3).
Sol.
30. A particle moves along a straight line. A force

acts on the particle which produces a constant power.
It starts with initial velocity 3 m/s and after moving a
distance 252 m its velocity is 6 m/s. Find the time
taken.
Sol.
29. Water is pumped from a depth of 10m and delivered

through a pipe of cross section 10–2m2 upto a height
of 10m. If it is needed to deliver a volume 0.2 m3 per
second, find the power required. [Use g = 10 m/s2]
Sol.
31. A force F = x2y2i + x2y2j (N) acts on a particle

which moves in the XY plane.
Y a C
D
A X
B
Find the work done by F as it moves the particle from
A to C (fig.) along each of the paths ABC, ADC, and
AC.
Sol. 32. Calculate the forces F(y) associated with the

following one-dimensional potential energies :
(a) U = –ωy (b) U = ay3 – by2
(c) U = U0 sin β y
Sol.
33. Consider the shown arrangement when a is bob of

mass ‘m’ is suspended by means of a string connected

to peg P. If the bob is given a horizontal velocity u
having magnitude 3gl , find the minimum speed of
the bob in subsequent motion.
P
u
Sol.
34. A person rolls a small ball with speed u along the 35. A toy rocket of mass 1 kg has a small fuel of mass
floor from point A. If x = 3R, determine the required 0.02 kg which it burns out in 3 s. Starting from rest on
speed u so that the ball returns to A after rolling on a horizontal smooth track, it gets a speed of 20 ms–1
the circular surface in the vertical plane from B to C after the fuel is burnt out. What is the average thrust
and becoming a projectile at C. What is the minimum of the rocket? What is the energy content per unit
value of x for which the game could be played if mass of the fuel? (Ignore the small mass variation of
contact must be maintained to point C ? Neglect the rocket during fuel burning).
friction. Sol.
Sol.

Q.1 A particle which moves along the curved path
shown passes point O with a speed of 12 m/s and
slows down to 5m/s at point A in a distance of 18 m
measured along the curve from O. The deceleration
measured along the curve it proportional to distance
from O. If the total acceleration of the particle is 10
m/s2 on it passes A. Find the radius of curvature of A.
A
O
Sol.
Q.3 A small is block can move in a straight horizontal

line a along AB. Flash lights from one side projects its
shadow on a vertical wall which has horizontal cross
section as a circle. Find tangential & normal accelera-
tion of shadow of the block on the wall as a function
of time if the velocity of the block is constant (v).
B
R
v=const
A
Top View
Q.2 A ball of mass 1 kg is released from position A Sol.
inside a wedge with a hemispherical cut of radius 0.5
m as shown in the figure. Find the force exerted by
the vertical wall OM on wedge, when the ball is in
position B. (neglect friction everywhere) Take (g =
10m/s2)
M
A C
60°
O N
Sol.
Q.4 A particle is confined to move along the +x axis Sol.

under the ac tion of a force F(x) that is derivable from
thePotential U(x) = ax3 – bx.
U
x
Ox1
x0
(a) Find the expression for F(x)
(b) When the total energy of the particle is zero, the
particle can be trapped with in the interval x = 0 to x
= x1. For this case find the values of x1.
(c) Determine the maximum kinetic energy that the
trapped particle has in its motion. Express all answers
in terms a and b.
Sol.
Q.6 Two blocks of mass m1 = 10kg and m2 = 5kg

connected to each other by a massless inextensible
string of length 0.3 m are placed along a diameter of a
turn table. The coefficient of friction between the
table and m1 is 0.5 while there is no friction between
m2 and the table. The table is rotating with an angular
velocity of 10 rad/sec about a vertical axis passing
through its centre. The masses are placed along the
diameter of the table on either side of the centre O
such that m1 is at a distance of 0.124 m from O. The
masses are observed to be at rest with respect to an
observer on the turn table.
(i) Calculate the frictional force on m1
Q.5 A particle of mass 5 kg is free to slide on a smooth (ii) What should be the minimum angular speed of the
ring of radius r = 20 cm fixed in a vertical plane. The turn table so that the masses will slip from this posi-
particle is attached to one end of a spring whose tion
other end is fixed to the top point O of the ring. (iii) How should the masses be placed with the string
Initially the particle is at rest at a point A of the ring remaining taut, so that there is no frictional force
such that ∠OCA = 60º, C being the centre of the ring. acting on the mass m1.
The natural length of the spring is also equal to Sol.
r = 20 cm. After the particle is released and slides
down the ring the contact force between the particle
& the ring becomes zero when it reaches the lowest
position B. Determine the force constant of the spring.
O
A
60°
C
Q.8 Two identical beads of mass 1 kg each are con-

nected by an inextensible massless string & they can
slide along the two arms AB and BC of a rigid smooth
wire frame in vertical plane. If the system is released
from rest, find the speeds of the particles when they
have moved by a dis tance of 0.1 m. Also find tension
in the string.
0.4m
A B
0.3m
Sol.
Q.7 A ring of mass m can slide over a smooth vertical
rod. The ring is connected to a spring of force con-
4mg
stant K = where 2R is the natural length of the
R
spring. The other end of the spring is fixed to the
ground at a horizontal distance 2R from the base of
the rod. The mass is released at a height of 1.5 R
from ground
3R/2
A
2R Q.9 The ends of spring are attached to blocks of mass
(a) calculate the work done by the spring 3 kg and 3 kg. The 3 kg block rests on a horizontal
(b) calculate the velocity of the ring as it reaches the surface and the 2 kg block which is vertically above it
ground. is in equilibrium producing a compression of 1cm of
Sol. the spring. The 2kg mass must be compressed further
by at least ________, so that when it is released, the
3 kg block may be lifted off the ground.
2kg
3 kg
Sol.
Q.10 A uniform rod of mass m length L is sliding along Sol.

its length on a horizontal table whose top is partly
smooth & rest rough with friction coefficient µ. If the
rod after moving through smooth part, enters the rough
with velocity v0.
(a) What will be the magnitude of the friction force
when its x length (< L) lies in the rough part during
sliding.
(b) Determine the minimum velocity v0 with which it
must enter so that it lies completely in rough region
before coming to rest.
(c) If the velocity is double the minimum velocity as
calculated in part (a) then what distance does its
front end A would have travelled in rough region be-
fore rod comes to rest.
L
v0
B M A m
Sol.
Q.12 A small bead of mass m is free to slide on a fixed
smooth vertical wire, as indicated in the diagram. One
end of a light elastic string, of unstretched length a
and force constant 2 mg/a is attached to B. The string
passes through a smooth fixed ring R and the other
end of the string is attached to the fixed point A, AR
being horizontal. The point O on the wire is at same
horizontal level as R, and AR = RO = a.
(i) In the equilibrium, find OB
(ii) The bead B is raised to a point C of the wire above
O, where OC = a, and is released from rest. Find the
speed of the bead as it passes O, and find the great-
est depth below O of the bead in the subsequent
motion.
a R A
O
B
Sol.
Q.11 Find the velocity with which a block of mass 1

kg must be horizontally projected on a conveyer belt
moving uniformly at a velocity of 3 m/s so that
maximum heat is liberated. Take coefficient of fric-
tion of 0.1. Also find the corresponding amount of
heat liberated. What happens when belt velocity is 5
m/s ?
1kg
v=3m/s
8m
Q.13 A small block of mass m is projected horizon-

tally from the top the smooth hemisphere of radius r
with speed u as shown. For values of u ≥ u0, it does
not slide on the hemisphere (i.e. leaves the surface
at the top itself)
(a) For u = 2u0 it lands at point P on ground Find OP.
(b) For u = u0/3, Find the height from the ground at
which it leaves the hemisphere.
(c) Find its net acceleration at the instant it leaves
the hemisphere.
u
r
o
Sol.

Q.1 A force F = −K( y i + x j ) where K is a positive con-
stant, acts on a particle moving in the x-y plane.
Starting from the origin, the particle is taken along
the positive x-axis to the point (a, 0) and then paral-
lel to the y-axis to the point (a, a). The total work

done by the force F on the particle is [JEE-98]
(A) –2Ka2 (B) 2Ka2
(C) –Ka2 (D) Ka2 Q.3 A particle is suspended vertically from a point O
Sol. by an inextensible massless string of length L. A verti-
cal line AB is at a distance L/8 from O as shown. The
object given a horizontal velocity u. At some point,
its motion ceases to be circular and eventually the
object passes through the line AB. At the instant of
crossing AB, its velocity is horizontal. Find u.
[JEE-99]
A
u B
Sol.
Q.2 A stone is tied to a string of length l is whirled in

a vertical circle with the other end of the string at
the centre. At a certain instant of time, the stone is
at its lowest position and has a speed u. The magni-
tude of the change in its velocity at it reaches a
position where the string is horizontal is
[JEE-98]
(A) (u 2 − 2gl ) (B) 2gl
(C) (u2 − gl ) (D) 2(u2 − gl )

Sol.
Q.4 A long horizontal rod has bead which can slide

along its length, and initially placed at a distance L
from one end of A of the rod. The rod is set in angular (A) (B)
motion about A with constant angular acceleration α. v v
If the coefficient of friction between the rod and the
bead is µ and gravity is neglected, then the time after
which is bead starts slipping is [JEE-2000] (C) (D) v
v
µ µ 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) infinitesimal Sol.
α α µα
Sol.
Q.6 An insect crawls up a hemispherical surface very

slowly (see the figure). The coefficient of friction be-
tween the insect and the surface is 1/3. If the line
joining the centre of the hemispherical surface to the
insect makes an angle α with the vertical, the maxi-
mum possible value of α is given by
[JEE(Scr.)-2001]
(A) cot α = 3 (B) tan α = 3

(C) sec α = 3 (D) cosec α = 3
Sol.
Q.5 A small block is shot into each of the four tracks

as shown below. Each of the tracks risks to the same
height. The speed with which the block enters the
track is the same in all cases. At the highest point of
the track, the normal reaction is maximum in
[JEE-2001]
(A) (B)
Q.7 A small ball of mass 2 × 10–3 Kg having a charge (C) (D)

of 1µc is suspended by a string of length 0.8m. An-
other identical ball having the same charge is kept at
the point of suspension. Determine the minimum hori-
zontal velocity which should be imparted to the lower Sol.
ball so that it can make complete revolution.
[JEE-2001]
Sol.
Q.9 A particle, which is constrained to move along

the x-axis, is subjected to a force in the same direc-
tion which varies with the distance x of the particle x
of the particle from the origin as F(x) = –kx + ax2.
Here k and a are positive constants. For x ≥ 0, the
functional form of the potential energy U(x) of the
particle is [JEE(Scr.)-2002]
U(x)
U(x)
(A) x (B) x
Q.8 A simple pendulum is oscillating without damping.

U(x) U(x)
When the displacement of the bob is less that maxi-

mum, its acceleration vector a is correctly shown in (C) x (D) x
[JEE(Scr.)-2002]
Sol. (a) Express the total normal reaction force exerted by

the spheres on the ball as a function of angle θ.
Sphere B
d O
R
Sphere A
(b) Let NA and NB denote the magnitudes of the nor-
mal reaction force on the ball exerted by the spheres
A and B, respectively. Sketch the variations of NA and
NB as functions of cosθ in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ π by draw-
ing two separate graphs in your answer book, taking
Q.10 An ideal spring with spring-constant k is hung cosθ on the horizontal axes.
from the ceiling and a block of mass M is attached to Sol.
its lower end. The mass is released with the spring
initially unstretched. Then the maximum extension in
the spring is [JEE(Scr.)-2002]
(A) 4 Mg/k (B) 2 Mg/k
(C) Mg/k (D) Mg/2k
Sol.
Q.12 In a region of only gravitational field of mass ‘M’

a particle is shifted from A to B via three different
paths in the figure. The work done in different paths
are W1, W2, W3 respectively then [JEE(Scr.)-2003]
Q.11 A spherical ball of mass m is kept at the highest (3)

B C
point in the space between two fixed, concentric M
spheres A and B (see figure.) The smaller sphere A (2)
has a radius R and the space between the two spheres
has a width d. The ball has a diameter very slightly
less than d. All surfaces are frictionless. The ball is (1)
given a gentle push (towards the right in the figure). A
The angle made by the radius vector of the ball with
the upward vertical is denoted by θ (shown in the (A) W1 = W2 = W3 (B) W1 = W2 > W3
figure) [JEE-2002] (C) W1 > W2 > W3 (D) W1 < W2 < W3
Sol. U(x)
U(x)
x x
(A) (B)
U(x) U(x)
x
(C) (D)
x
Sol.
Q.13 A particle of mass m, moving in a circular path

of radius R with a constant speed v2 is located at
point (2R, 0) at time t = 0 and a man starts moving
with velocity v1 along the +ve y-axis from origin at
time t = 0. Calculate the linear momentum of the
particle w.r.t. the man as a function of time.
[JEE-2003]
y
v2
v1
R
(0,0)
m x
Sol.
Q.15 STATEMENT-1
A block of mass m starts moving on a rough horizontal
surface with a velocity v. It stops due to friction be-
tween the block and the surface after moving through
a certain distance. The surface is now tilted to an
angle of 30º with the horizontal and the same block is
made to go up on the surface with the same initial
velocity v. The decrease in the mechanical energy in
the second situation is smaller than that in the first
situation.
because
STATEMENT-2
The coefficient of friction between the block and the
surface decreases with the increase in the angle of
inclination. [JEE-2007]
Q.14 A particle is placed at the origin and a force F = (A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; State-
kx is acting on it (where k is a positive constant). If ment-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
U(0) = 0, the graph of U(x) versus x will be (where U (B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; State-
is the potential energy function) ment-2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement-1
[JEE(Scr.)-2004] (C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
Sol.
[JEE 2009]
Sol.
16. A bob of mass M is suspended by a massless
string of length L. The horizontal velocity V at posi-
tion A is just sufficient to make it reach the point B.
The angle θ at which the speed of the bob is half of
that at A, satisfies [JEE 2008]
B
V
A
π π π
(A) θ = (B) <θ<
4 4 2 18. A ball of mass (m) 0.5 kg is attached to the end
π 3π 3π of a string having length (L) 0.5 m. The ball is rotated
(C) < θ < (D) <θ<π
2 4 4 on a horizontal circular path about vertical axis. The
Sol. maximum tension that the string can bear is 324 N.
the maximum possible value of angular velocity of ball
(in radian/s) is [JEE-2011]
m
(A) 9 (B) 18 (C) 27 (D) 36
Sol.
17. A light inextensible string that goes over a smooth

fixed pulley as shown in the figure connects two blocks
of masses 0.36 kg and 0.72 kg. Taking g = 10 m/s2,
find the work done (in joules) by the string on the
block of mass 0.36 kg during the first second after
the system is released from rest.
20. Consider a disc rotating in the horizontal plane

with a constant angular speed ω about its centre O.
The disc has a shaded region on one side of the
diameter and an unshaded region on the other side as
shown in the figure. When the disc is in the orientation
as shown, two pebbles P and Q are simultaneously
projected at an angle towards R. The velocity of
projection is in the y-z plane and is same for both
pebbles with respect to the disc. Assume that (i) they
land back on the disc before the disc has completed
19. A block of mass 0.18 kg is attached to a spring of 1/8 rotation, (ii) their range is less than half the disc
radius, and (iii) ω remains constant throughout. Then
force-constant 2 N/m. The coefficient of friction be-
tween the block and the floor is 0.1. Initially the block y R
is at rest and the spring is un-stretched. An impulse is
x Q
given to the block as shown in the figure. The block
O
slides a distance of 0.06 m and comes to rest for the
first time. The initial velocity of the block in m/s is V = P
(A) P lands in the shaded region and Q in the unshaded
N/10. Then N is [JEE-2011]
region
(B) P lands in the unshaded region and Q in the shaded
region
(C) Both P and Q land in the unshaded region
(D) Both P and Q land in the shaded region
[JEE-2012]
Sol.
Sol.
21. Two identical discs of same radius R are rotating

about their axes in opposite directions with the same
constant angular speed ω. The discs are in the same
horizontal plane At time t = 0, the points P and Q are
facing each other as shown in the figure. The relative
speed between the two points P and Q is νr.In one
time period (T) of rotation of the discs, νr as a function
of time is best represented by [JEE-2012]
P Q
R R
(A)
0 t
T
(B)
0 t
T
(C)
0 t
T
(D)
0 t
T
Sol.
Exercise-I
(A) CIRCULAR MOTION

1. C 2. D 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. C
8. A 9. (i) A (ii) A 10. C 11. B 12. D 13. C 14. C
15. C 16. D 17. D 18. A 19. D 20. C 21. B
22. B 23. C 24. D 25. C 26. A 27. C 28. C
29. A 30. C 31. B 32. D 33. B 34. B 35. A
36. B 37. A 38. C 39. C 40. D 41. A 42. C
43. B 44. A 45. B 46. D 47. B 48. D 49. A
50. C 51. D 52. C 53. C 54. C 55. C 56. B
57. B 58. B 59. C 60. D 61. C 62. B 63. C
64. A 65. C 66. B 67. B 68. A 69. A 70. A
71. B 72. C 73. A 74. C 75. C 76. B
Exercise-II
(A) CIRCULAR MOTION

1. B,D 2. B,C,D,E 3. B,C
4. A,C,D 5. A,B 6. A,B,C 7. B,D 8. A 9. A 10. D
11. B,C,D 12. B,D 13. A,B,C 14. B,D 15. A,B,D 16. C
Exercise-III
(A) CIRCULAR MOTION
1. (i) 125 N, (ii) 80 N 2. 3b / 2 , b/2, b 3. (a) t = 2s, (b) 3.14 m/s 4. 2 sec
5. −3 k rad / s 2 , − 2 k rad / s 6. (a) 2 rad/s2, (b) 12 + 2t for t ≤ 2s, 16 for t ≥ 2s, (c) 28565 ≈ 169 , 256 m/
s2 (d) 44 rad
1/ 2
3  3 v2
7. (a) 25 m / s 2 (b)  125  m/s (c) 25/2 m/s2 8. (a) v02/2g, (b) 2g 9. 2 2
2  4  πR
30 35 25
10. (a) per min., (b) 150 N 11. 0.1 sec. 12. 2 g rad/s 13. (1 – 3 / 2)mg 14.
π 2 24
15. (a) Zero, (b) Zero, (c) –µmgvt (d) µmgvt 16. (i) Zero, (ii) 500 J 17. 150 J
18. 20 Ergs 19. –8.75 J
20. (a) 875 Joule (b) –250 joule (c) 625 joule.
(d) Change in kinetic energy of the body is equal to the work done by the net force in 10 second.
This is in accordance with work-energy theorem
21. (a) Since the gravitational force is a conservative force therefore the work done in round trip is
zero.
(b) 18.5 J (c) –7.6 J (d) 10.9 J
22. (a) a1 = F/m, so v1 = a1t = Ft/m (b) Since velocities and, v = vc + v1 = vc + Ft/m
m( v1 ) 2 F2t2 m( v c + v1) 2 mv c2 a1t 2 Ft 2

(c) ∆K1 = = (d) ∆K = – (e) s1 is = (f) s1 + vct
2 2m 2 2 2 2m
(h) Compare W and W1 and ∆K and ∆K1, they are respectively equal.
(i) The work-energy theorem holds for moving observers.
2m12 g2
23. 24. 3 25. (a) 46 J, (b) –3k 26. 50 W 27. 8 s 28. 3/4 29. 80
k
KW
a5 2a 5
30. 54 sec. 31. WABC = WADC = (J), WAC = (J)
3 5
dU dU dU
32. (a) F = – =ω (b) F = – = –3ay2 + 2by (c) F = – = –β U0 cosβ y
dy dy dy
1 gl 5
33. 34. gR, xmin = 2R 35. 20/3 N, 10000 J kg–1
3 3 2
Exercise-IV
15 3 vR R( vt − R) v1/ 2 b
1. 3.3 m 2. N 3. aN = , at = 4. F = –3ax 2 + b , x = ,
2 ( 2Rt − vt 2 ) ( 2Rt − vt 2 ) 3 / 2 a
2b b
KEmax = 5. 500 N/m 6. (i) 36 N, (ii) 11.66 rad/sec, (iii) 0.1 m, 0.2m 7. mgR / 2, 2 gR
3 3 a
4 2 3 2 µm 5
8. , 3a1 = 4a2 + 20, T = 12 N 9. 2.5 cm 10. (a) f = – xg ; (b) µg ; (c)
5 5 2
a 19 r
1. 4 m/s, 24.5J, 40 J 12. (i) , (ii) 2 ag, 2a 13. (a) 2 2 r (b) h = , (c) g
2 27
Exercise-V
3 3 
1. C 2. D 3. u = gL + 2 4. A 5. A 6. A 7. 5.79 m/s
 2 
8. C 9. D 10. B
NB
NA
5mg
mg
11. (a) N = 3mg cos θ – 2mg, (b) cosθ

cos θ
cos θ = 2 / 3 cosθ = 1 cos θ = 2 / 3

cos θ = –1

12. A 13. PPM = mv PM = −mv 2 sinωt î + m( v 2 cos ωt − v 1 ) ĵ 14. A 15. C 16. D
17. Work = T.S. = 4.8 × 10/6 = 8N 18. D 19. 4 20. C 21. A
CENTRE OF MASS
CONTENTS
1. Centre of Mass .................................................................................................................. 3– 10
2. Combination of Structure .......................................................................................................11
3. Cavity Problems ............................................................................................................... 12 – 13
4. Motion of Centre of Mass & .............................................................................................. 13 – 21
Conservation of Momentum
5. Spring Block System ........................................................................................................ 22 – 25
6. Impulse ............................................................................................................................. 25 – 29
7. Coefficient of Restitution ................................................................................................... 29 – 36
8. Collision or Impact ............................................................................................................ 37 – 42
9. Variable Mass ................................................................................................................... 42 – 45
10. Exercise - I ...................................................................................................................... 46 – 51
11. Exercise - II ...................................................................................................................... 52– 54
12. Exercise - III .................................................................................................................... 55 – 57
13. Exercise - IV ................................................................................................................... 58 – 59
14. Exercise - V .................................................................................................................... 60 – 61
15. Answer key ...................................................................................................................... 62 – 63

IVRS No : 0744-2439051, 52, 53, www. motioniitjee.com, info@motioniitjee.com
Page # 2 CENTRE OF MASS
Syllabus
Systems of particles; Centre of mass and its motion; Impulse;
Elastic and inelastic collisions.

CENTRE OF MASS Page # 3
1. CENTRE OF MASS :
Every physical system has associated with it a certain point whose motion characterises the motion of
the whole system. When the system moves under some external forces, then this point moves as if the
entire mass of the system is concentrated at this point and also the external force is applied at this
point for translational motion. This point is called the centre of mass of the system.
1.1 Centre of Mass of a System of ‘N’ Discrete Particles :

Consider a system of N point masses m1, m2, m3, .................... mn whose position vectors from origin
   
O are given by r1, r2 , r3 .............. rn respectively. Then the position vector of the centre of mass C of
the system is given by.
Y
. . . .. . .. . . .
. . . ..m...1 .. ..C. ..m..2
.. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. .
. . .. .. . . . r2.. .
 .. . . . . . .. . .m.
r1 .. . .. . .. .. .n
. rn
m

rc
O x
n


  
m r  m 2 r2 ...........mn rn 
m r
i 1
i i
1
n
 11
 
rcm ; rcm  n
rcm  m r i i
m1  m 2 .........mn M i 1
i 1
m i

where, mi ri is called the moment of mass of particle with respect to origin.
 n 
M    m i is the total mass of the system.
 i 1
 
Further, r i  xi i  y i j  zik and r COM  xCOM i  y COM j  zCOMk
So, the cartesian co-ordinates of the COM will be
n
m x
i 1
i i
m1x1  m 2 x 2 ......mn xn
 n
xCOM = m1  m 2 ....... mn
m i 1
i
or xCOM =
m x
i 1
i i
M
n n
 mi y i m z i i
Similarly, yCOM = i 1 and i 1
z COM 
M M
Note :
n

• If the origin is taken at the centre of mass then m r
i1
i i = 0. hence, the COM is the point about which
the sum of “mass moments” of the system is zero.
   
• If we change the origin then r1, r2 , r3 ....... changes. So rcm also changes but exact location of center of
mass does not change.

1.2 Position of COM of two particles : -

Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance l as shown in figure.
m1 C m2
l
Let us assume that m1 is placed at origin and m2 is placed at position (l, 0) and the distance of centre
of mass from m1 & m2 is r1 & r2 respectively.
m1x1  m 2 x2
So xCOM = m1  m 2
r1 C r2
0  m2l m2l
r1 = m  m = m m ...(1) (0,0) m1
1 2 1 2 m2
l
m2l m1l
r2 = l – = m m...(2)
m1  m 2 1 2
From the above discussion, we see that
l
r1 = r2 = if m1 = m2, i.e., COM lies midway between the two particles of equal masses.
2
Similarly, r1 > r2 if m1 < m2 and r1 < r2 if m2 < m1 i.e., COM is nearer to the particle having larger mass.
From equation (1) & (2)
m1r1 = m2r2 ...(3)
Centre of mass of two particle system lie on the line joining the centre of mass of two particle system.
Ex.1 Two particle of mass 1 kg and 2 kg are located at x = 0 and x = 3 m. Find the position of their
centre of mass.
m1=1kg COM m2=2kg
Sol. x=0 x=x x=3

r1=x r2=(3–x)
Since, both the particles lie on x-axis, the COM will also lie on x-axis. Let the COM is located at x = x,
then
r1 = distance of COM from the particle of mass 1 kg = x
and r2 = distance of COM from the particle of mass 2 kg = (3 – x)
r1 m 2
Using 
r2 m1
x 2
or 
3–x 1
or x=2m
thus, the COM of the two particles is located at x = 2m.
Ex.2 Two particle of mass 4 kg & 2kg are located as shown in figure then find out the position of
centre of mass.
y 2kg
5m
4kg 37°
(0,0) x
Sol. First find out the position of 2 kg mass
x2kg = 5 cos 37° = 4 m

y2kg = 5 sin 37° = 3 m

So these system is like two particle system of mass 4 kg and 2kg are located (0, 0) and (4, 3)
respectively. then
m1x1  m 2 x2 024 8 4
xcom = = = =
m1  m 2 42 6 3
m1y1  m 2 y 2 032 4kg 2kg

ycom =
m1  m 2
=
42
=1m
(0,0) r C (4,3)
4 
So position of C.O.M is  , 1
3 
Ex.3 Two particles of mass 2 kg and 4 kg lie on the same line. If 4 kg is displaced rightwards by 5m
then by what distance 2 kg should be move for which centre of mass will remain at the same
position.
Sol. Let us assume that C.O.M. lie at point C and the distance of C from 2kg and 4kg particles are r1 & r2
respectively. Then from relation
2kg C 4kg
r1 r2
m1r1 = m2r2
2r1 = 4r2 ...(i)
Now 4kg is displaced rightwards by 5m then assume 2kg is displaced leftwards by x distance to keep
the C.O.M. at rest.
from relation m1r1 = m2r2
 m1(r1 + x) = m2 (r2 + y)
2(r1 + x) = 4(r2 + 5) ...(ii) 2kg C 4kg
r1 r2 y
2x = 20 x
x = 10 m
To keep the C.O.M at rest 2 kg displaced 10 m left wards
Aliter : If centre of mass is at rest then we can write
m1x = m2y
2×x=4×5
x = 10 m
Ex.4 Two particles of mass 1 kg and 2 kg lie on the same line. If 2kg is displaced 10m rightwards
then by what distance 1kg should displaced so that centre of mass will displaced 2m right
wards.
Sol. Initially let us assume that C.O.M is at point C which is r1 & r2 distance apart from mass m1 & m2
respectively as shown in figure.
1kg C 2kg
r1 r2
from relation m1 r1 = m2 r2
 (1) r1 = 2r2
Now 2kg is displaced 10 m rightwards then we assume that 1 kg is displaced x m leftward to move the
C.O.M 2m rightwards.
So from relation m1r1 = m2r2
1kg C C' 2kg
r1 r2 10m
x
2m

 1 (x + r1 + 2) = 2 (10 + r2 – 2)
 x + r1 + 2 = 20 + 2r2 – 4 ...(ii)
from eq. (i) & (ii) x = 14m (leftwards)
Ex.5 Three particles of mass 1 kg, 2 kg, and 3 kg are placed at the corners A, B and C respectively of
an equilateral triangle ABC of edge 1m. Find the distance of their centre of mass from A.
Sol. Assume that 1kg mass is placed at origin as shown in figure.
co-ordinate of A = (0, 0)
1 3
co-ordinate of B = (1cos60°,1sin60°) =  2 , 2 
 
co-ordinate of C = (1, 0)
B 2kg
y
1m 1m
A 60° C
(0,0) 1kg 1m 3kg x
Let us assume that position of C.O.M is given by


rcom = xcom i + ycom j
m A x A  mB xB  m C xC
Now xcom = m A  mB  m C
 1
1( 0)  2   3(1) 4 2
=  2 = =
6 3
1 2  3
 3
1( 0)  2   3( 0) 3
ycom =  2  =
6
1 2  3
2 3
Position of centre of mass =  3 , 6 
 
2 2
 2  3 19
distance of C.O.M from point A =      = m
 3  6  6
1.3 Centre of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution
For continuous mass distribution the centre of mass can be located by replacing summation sign with
an integral sign. Proper limits for the integral are chosen according to the situation
x cm 
 xdm , y cm 
 y dm , z cm 
 zdm
...(i)
 dm  dm  dm
 dm = M (mass of the body)
here x,y,z in the numerator of the eq. (i) is the coordinate of the centre of mass of the dm mass.

 1 
rcm = rdm 
M
Note :
• If an object has symmetric mass distribution about x axis then y coordinate of COM is zero and vice-versa
(a) Centre of Mass of a Uniform Rod
Suppose a rod of mass M and length L is lying along the x-axis with its one end at x = 0 and the other at
M
x = L. Mass per unit length of the rod  =
L
Hence, dm, (the mass of the element dx situated at x = x is) =  dx
The coordinates of the element dx are (x, 0, 0). Therefore, x-coordinate of COM of the rod will be
dx
x=0 x=x x=L

L L
 xdm  ( x)dx  1
0 0
L
x dx 
L
xCOM = =
L =  L
dm L 0 2
   dx
0 0
The y-coordinate of COM is
yCOM =
 y dm = 0
 dm
Similarly, zCOM = 0
L 
i.e., the coordinates of COM of the rod are  , 0, 0 , i.e, it lies at the centre of the rod.
2 
Ex.6 A rod of length L is placed along the x-axis between x = 0 and x = L. The linear density (mass/
length)  of the rod varies with the distance x from the origin as  = Rx. Here, R is a positive
constant. Find the position of centre of mass of this rod.
Sol. Mass of element dx situated at x = x is
dm =  dx = R x dx
The COM of the element has coordinates (x, 0, 0). Therefore, x-coordinates of COM of the rod will be
L L
x COM 
 xdm   ( x )(Rx )dx
0 0
L
 dm  (Rx )dx 0
y
L
x  3
L
R x 2 dx  
0  3  0 2L dx
  
L L 3 x=x x
R  xdx  x2  x=0 x=L
0  
 2  0
The y-coordinates of COM of the rod is y COM 

 y dm  0 (as y = 0)
 dm
Similarly, zCOM = 0
 2L 
Hence, the centre of mass of the rod lies at  , 0, 0 
3 

(b) Centre of mass of a Semicircular Ring :

Figure shows the object (semi circular ring). By observation we can say that the x-coordinate of the
centre of mass of the ring is zero as the half ring is symmetrical about y-axis on both sides of the
origin. Only we are required to find the y-coordinate of the centre of mass.
Y Y
Rd
y  R sin 
ycm d
ycm

X X
R
To find ycm we use ycm 

 (dm)y ...(i)
 dm
Here y is the position of C.O.M. of dm mass
Here for dm we consider an elemental arc of the ring at an angle  from the x-direction of angular width
d. If radius of the ring is R then its y coordinate-will be R sin, here dm is given as
dm  Rd
where  = mass density of semi circular ring.
So from equation ----(i), we have

 Rd(Rsin )
0 R

y cm   sin  d

 
 Rd
0
0
2R
y cm  ...(ii)

(c) Centre of mass of Semicircular Disc :
Figure shows the half disc of mass M and radius R. Here, we are only required to find the y-coordinate
of the centre of mass of this disc as centre of mass will be located on its half vertical diameter. Here to
find ycm, we consider a small elemental ring of mass dm of radius r on the disc (disc can be considered
to be made up such thin rings of increasing radii) which will be integrated from 0 to R. Here dm is given
as
dm   rdr
where  is the mass density of the semi circular disc.
M 2M
= 2

R / 2 R 2
Y Y
ycm
ycm dr
r
X X
R R
2r
Now the y-coordinate of the element is taken as , (as in previous section, we have derived that the


2R
centre of mass of a semi circular ring is concentrated at )
R 
 dm . y
y cm  0 R
 dm
0
Here y is the position COM of dm mass.

R
2r
0
 dm  R
4 4R
Here ycm is given as y cm  R  r 2 dr  y cm 
 R 2 3
 rdr
0
0
(d) Centre of mass of a Hollow Hemisphere :

A hollow hemisphere of mass M and radius R. Now we consider an elemental circular strip of angular
width d at an angular distance  from the base of the hemisphere. This strip will have an area.
dS  2R cos  Rd
Y Y
Rcos
Rd
ycm
X X
R R
Its mass dm is given as dm  2RcosRd
Here  is the mass density of a hollow hemisphere
M
=
2 R 2
Here y-coordinate of this strip of mass dm can be taken as R sin. Now we can obtain the centre of
mass of the system as.
 
2 2
2
 dmR sin   2R 
cos d R sin 
2
y cm  0 0
R
/2  /2
2
 sin  cos  d  O
 dm
0
 2R cos d  0
R
y cm 
2 y
(e) Centre of mass of a Solid Cone :
A solid cone has mass M, height H and base radius R. r H
Obviously the centre of mass of this cone will lie somewhere dy
on its axis, at a height less than H/2. To locate the centre
of mass we consider an elemental disc of width dy and
radius r, at a distance y from the apex of the cone. Let the
mass of this disc be dm, which can be given as
dm =  × r2 dy
Here  is the mass density of the solid cone
R

here ycm can be given as

H
1
y cm   y dm
M
0
H
1  3M  Ry  2 
    dy y
M  R 2H  H  
0  
H
3 3 3H

H3 y
0
dy 
4
(f) C.O.M of a solid Hemisphere : -
A hemisphere is of mass density  and radius R To find its centre of mass (only y co-ordinate) we
consider an elemental hollow hemispshere of radius r on the solid hemisphere (solid hemisphere can be
considered to be made up such hollow hemisphere of increasing radii) which will be integrate from O to
R.
solid
hemisphere
R
dr
Here y Co-ordinate of centre of mass of elemental hollow hemisphere is (0, r/2, 0)
dm =  2r2 dr
R R
2
 dm. y  (2r
0
)dr (r / 2)
3R
0 y CM 
yCM = R ; R ; yCM =
2
8
 dm  .2r
0
. dr
0
(g) Centre of mass of Triangular Plate :

A triangular plate has mass density  height H and base is 2R. Obviously the centre of mass of this
plate will lie some where on its axis at a height less than H/2. To locate the centre of mass we consider
an elemental rod of width dy and length 2r at a distance y from the apex of the plate. Let the mass of
this rod be dm which can be gives as
dm =  (2r) dy
from the theorem of triangle
H y
 y
R r
r H
Ry
 r= rod
H dy
Here YCM can be given as
H H
ydm
 0
 (2r )dy. y
0
yCM = H
; yCM =
H
 dm
0
 (2r ) dy
0

H
2Ry
 (
0
H
)ydy
2H
yCM = ; yCM =
H 3
2Ry
 (
0
H
) dy
2. COMBINATION OF STRUCTURE :
Ex.7 Two circular disc having radius R and mass density  and 2 respectively are placed as shown
in figure. Then find out the position of COM of the system.
T
R R
O O'
A B
2
Sol. Mass of disc A mA = R
Mass of disc B mB = 2R2
Due to symmetry the COM of disc A lie at point O and COM O C
O'
of disc B lie at point O. So we realize the above mA mB
problem in a following way x
Centre of mass due to both the disc lie at point C (assume), 2R
having distance x from mA
mB (2R) 2R2 (2R) 4R

 x ; x ; x
m A  mB ( R2  2R2 ) 3
4R
So the centre of mass lie in the disc B having distance from O.
3
Ex.8 Find out the position of centre of mass of the figure shown below.
2R
R
2R
B rectangular
A C plate
Sol.
Plate
2R
We divide the above problem in two parts
(i) First find out position of centre of mass of both semicircular plate and rectangular plate separately.
(ii) Then find the position of centre of mass of given structure .
4R
Centre of mass of semicircular disc lie at
3
4R
 AB 
3
Centre of mass of rectangular plate lie at the centre of plate at point C
 BC = R
 mSC mR
R 2
mSC  ; mR   4 R2
2
C
 m sc r1 mR

 Let us assume COM is at r1 distance from mR
R 2  4R 
. R  
2  3  R (3   4)
 r1  2  r1  Ans.
R 3(   8)
.   4R 2
2
3. CAVITY PROBLEMS :
If some mass or area is removed from a rigid body then the position of centre of mass of the remaining
portion is obtained by assuming that in a remaining part +m & – m mass is there. Further steps are
explained by following example.
Ex.9 Find the position of centre of mass of the uniform lamina shown in figure. If the mass density of
t he lam ina is  .
y
a
x
Sol. We assume that in remaining portion a disc of radius a/2 having mass density + is there then we also
include one disc of a/2 radius having – mass density. So now the problem change in following form
–

a/2 O O' 
a –
O + O'
a/2
A B
So the centre of mass of both disc A & B lie in their respective centre such as O & O'.
Now
mA a / 2 O C O'
 C.O.M. of the lamina  m  m
A B m A a/2 m B
mA =  ( a2)
a2
mB = –  () (a/2)2 = –  
4
a 2 . a / 2
a3 / 2 a3 4 2a
 c= 2 = ;  2 
2 a 3 a 2
/ 4 2 3 a 3
a – 
4
i.e., C.O.M lie on leftward side from point O.

Ex.10 Find out the position of centre of mass of the uniform lamina as shown in figure.
R
4R
Sol. We assume that a disc of radius R having mass density ±  is in the removed section.
Now the problem change in following form

 –
R – O
O O'
O' 4R +
= R
R
When disc of mass density + and radius R is include than a complete rectangular plate is make having
centre of mass at point O. When consider only disc having mass density –  and radius R then C.O.M of
this disc lie at point O
O' O
–R2 R (4R) 2
Then the position of C.O.M
( 4R) 2 .R 16R3 16 R
= = =
– R2  (4R2 ) R2 (16 – ) 16 – 
i.e., centre of mass lie in the rightwards side from the cavity.
Ex.11 The centre of mass of rigid body always lie inside the body. Is this statement true or false?
Sol. False.
Ex.12 The centre of mass always lie on the axis of symmetry if it exists. Is this statement true of
false?
Sol. True
Ex.13 If all the particles of a system lie in y-z plane, the x-coordinate of the centre of mass will be
zero. Is this statement true or not?
Sol. True
4. MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM: -

The position of centre of mass is given by
  
 m r  m 2 r 2  m 3 r 3  ........
r COM  1 1 ....(1)
m1  m 2  m 3  .......
  
Here m1, m2, m3 ..... are the mass in the system and r1, r2 , r3 ......... is the corresponding position vector of
m1, m2, m3 respectively

4.1 Velocity of C.O.M of system :

To find the velocity of centre of mass we differentiate equation (1) with respect to time
  
dr1 dr2 dr3
 m1  m2  m3 .......
drcom dt dt dt

dt m1  m 2  m 3 .........
  
d r1 dr dr
 m1  m 2 2  m3 3  .......
 Vcom  dt dt dt
m1  m 2  m 3  .........
  
 m1v1  m2 v 2  m3 v 3  ......
Vcom  ...(2)
m1  m2  m3  ...
4.2 Acceleration of centre of mass of the system : -
To find the acceleration of C.O.M we differentiate equation (2)
  
dv dv dv
 m1 1  m 2 2  m 3 3 ......
dVcom dt dt dt
 
dt m1  m 2  m 3 ........
  
 m1a1  m 2 a 2  m 3 a 3 ......
a com  ...(3)
m1  m 2  m 3 ........
   
Now (m1 + m2 + m3) a com = m1a1  m 2 a 2  m 3 a 3 ......
   
Fnet( system)  F1net  F2 net  F3 net ........
The internal forces which the particles exert on one another play absolutely no role in the motion of
the centre of mass.
Ex.14 Two particles A and B of mass 1 kg and 2 kg respectively are projected in the directions shown
in figure with speeds uA = 200 m/s and uB = 50 m/s. Initially they were 90 m apart. Find the
maximum height attained by the centre of mass of the particles. Assume acceleration due to
gravity to be constant. (g = 10 m/s2)
Sol. Using mArA = mBrB
or (1) (rA) = (2) (rB) B
or rA = 2rB ...(i)
uB
and rA + rB = 90 m ...(ii) 90m
uA
Solving these two equations, we get
rA = 60 m and rB = 30 m A
i.e., COM is at height 60 m from the ground at time t = 0.

 
 m A a A  mB aB
Further, a COM 
m A  mB
= g = 10 m/s2 (downwards)
 
as a A  aB  g (downwards)
 
 m u  mB uB
u COM  A A
m A  mB
(1)( 200 )  ( 2)(50 ) 100

  m / s (upwards)
1 2 3

Let, h be the height attained by COM beyond 60 m. Using,
v 2COM  uCOM
2
 2aCOMh
2
 100 
or 0   (2) (10)h
 3 
(100) 2
or h  55.55 m
180
Therefore, maximum height attained by the centre of mass is
H = 60 + 55.55 = 115.55 m Ans.
Case I : If Fnet = 0 then we conclude :


(a) The acceleration of centre of mass is zero ( a com  0 )
If a1, a2, a3.... is acceleration of m1, m2, m3 mass in the system then a1, a2, a3 may or may not be zero.
(b) K.E. of the system is not constant it may change due to internal force.

(c) Velocity of centre of mass is constant ( v com  cons tan t) but v1, v2, v3 may or may not constant. It may
y
be change due to internal force.
from eq (2)
  
m1v1  m 2 v 2  m 3 v 3 ..........  cons tan t
This is called momentum conservation.
"If resultant external force is zero on the system, then the net momentum of the system must
remain constant".
Case II : When centre of mass is at rest.


(a) Vcom  0 then

drcom 
 0  rcom = constant.
dt
  
i.e. r1, r2 , r3 ......... may or may not change
Ex.15 A wooden plank of mass 20 kg is resting on a smooth horizontal floor. A man of mass 60 kg
starts moving from one end of the plank to the other end. The length of the plank is 10 m. Find
the displacement of the plank over the floor when the man reaches the other end of the plank.
10m
Sol. Here, the system is man +plank. Net force on this system is horizontal direction is zero and initially the
centre of mass of the system is at rest. Therefore, the centre of mass does not move in horizontal
direction.
Let x be the displacement of the Plank. Assuming the origin, i.e., x = 0 at the position shown in figure.

x
x=0 10m Initial position
x 10-x Final position

As we said earlier also, the centre of mass will not move in horizontal direction (x-axis). Therefore, for
centre of mass to remain stationary,
xi = xf
20x = 60 × (10 – x)
30
or x= m or x = 7.5 m Ans.
4
Ex.16 Mr. Verma (50 kg) and Mr. Mathur (60 kg) are sitting at the two extremes of a 4 m long boat (40
kg) standing still in water. To discuss a mechanics problem, they come to the middle of the
boat. Neglecting friction with water, how far does the boat move on the water during the
process?
Sol. Here the system is Mr. Verma + Mr. Mathur + boat. Net force on this system is in horizontal direction is
zero and initially the centre of mass of the system is at rest. Therefore the C.O.M does not move in
horizontal direction. Let x be the displacement of the boat. Then We can use the concept
m1x 1  m v x v  mM x M
40 × x = 50 × ( 2 – x) – 60 (2 + x) Mr.Verma Mr. Mathur

40x = 100 – 50 x – 120 – 60x
(60 kg)
150 x = – 20 (50kg)
2
x– m
15
4m 40kg
x  13 cm (right wards)
Initially
x
x
2m 2m
Case III : When net force is zero only in one direction.
Let us assume that Fnet in x direction is zero then we conclude
(i) Acceleration of the system in x direction is zero (ax = 0)
(ii) v(com)x = constant
 m1v1 x + m2 v2 x + m3v3 x = constant.
i.e., momentum is conserved only in x direction

Ex.17 A man of mass m1 is standing on a platform of mass m2 kept on a smooth horizontal surface.
The man starts moving on the platform with a velocity vr relative to the platform. Find the
recoil velocity of platform.
Sol. Absolute velocity of man = vr – v where v = recoil velocity of platform. Taking the platform and the man
a system, net external force on the system in horizontal direction is zero. The linear momentum of the
system remains constant. Initially both the man and the platform were at rest.
vr –v
v
Hence,0 = m1(vr – v) – m2v
m1v r
 v = m m Ans.
1 2
Ex.18 A gun (mass = M) fires a bullet (mass = m) with speed vr relative to barrel of the gun which is
inclined at an angle of 60° with horizontal. The gun is placed over a smooth horizontal surface.
Find the recoil speed of gun.
Sol. Let the recoil speed of gun is v. Taking gun + bullet as the system. Net external force on the
vr
60°
vrsin60°
vrcos60°–v
v
Components of velocity
M of bullet relative to ground
system in horizontal direction is zero. Initially the system was at rest. Therefore, applying the principle
of conservation of linear momentum in horizontal direction, we get
Mv – m(vr cos 60° – v) = 0
mv r cos 60 mv r
 v= or v= Ans.
Mm 2(M  m)
Ex.19 A particle of mass m is placed at rest on the top of a smooth wedge of mass M, which in turn is
placed at rest on a smooth horizontal surface as shown in figure. Then the distance moved by
the wedge as the particle reaches the foot of the wedge is :
m

m
Sol. There is no external force in horizontal direction
on the wedge block system, So the x-coordinate
of the C.O.M of the wedge block system is at rest.
Let us assume that wedge move x when block M
reaches the ground. We can use the following
relation when
x - coordinate of C.O.M is at rest 
m1x1 = m2x2
Mx = m ( – x)
m
x
mM
M
m
x
x –x
Ex.20 A projectile is fired at a speed of 100 m/s at an angle of 37° above the horizontal. At the
highest point, the projectile breaks into two parts of mass ratio 1 : 3, the lighter piece coming
to rest. Find the distance from the launching point to the point where the heavier piece lands.
Sol. Internal force do not effect the motion of the centre of mass, the centre of mass hits the ground at
the position where the original projectile would have landed. The range of the original projectile is,
4m
37° m
3m
N com
3 4
2u 2 sin  cos  2  10 4  
5 5m
xCOM = =
g 10
= 960 m
The centre of mass will hit the ground at this position. As the smaller block comes to rest after
breaking, it falls down vertically and hits the ground at half of the range, i.e., at x = 480 m. If the
heavier block hits the ground at x2, then
m1x1  m 2 x2 (m)(480)  ( 3m)( x2 )
xcom = m1  m 2  960 = x2 = 1120 m Ans.
(m  3m)
Ex.21 A shell is fired from a cannon with a speed of 100 m/s at an angle 60° with the horizontal
(positive x-direction). At the highest point of its trajectory, the shell explodes into two equal
fragments. One of the fragments moves along the negative x-direction with a speed of 50 m/
s. What is the speed of the other fragment at the time of explosion.
Sol. As we know in absence of external force the motion of centre of mass of a body remains unaffected.
Thus, here the centre of mass of the two fragments will continue to follow the original projectile path.
The velocity of the shell at the highest point of trajectory is vM = u cos  = 100 × cos 60° = 50 m/s Let
v1 be the speed of the fragment which moves along the negative x-direction and the other fragment
has speed v2,. which must be along positive x-direction. Now from momentum conservation, we have
–m m
mv  v1  v 2
2 2
or 2v = v2 – v1 or v2 = 2v + v1
= (2 × 50) + 50 = 150 m/s

Ex.22 A particle of mass 2 m is projected at an angle of 45° with horizontal with a velocity of 20 2m / s.
After 1 s explosion takes place and the particle is broken into two equal pieces.
As a result of explosion one part comes to rest. Find the maximum height attained by the other
part.
(Take g = 10 m/s2)
Sol. Applying conservation of linear momentum at the time of collision, or at t = 1 s,

mv  m(0)  2m(20 î  10 ĵ )

 v  40 ĵ  20 ĵ
At 1 sec, masses will be at height :
1 1
v y t 2  (20 )(1)  (–10 )(1)2  15m
h1  u y t 
2 2
After explosion other mass will further rise to a height :
u 2y
( 20 )2
h2    20 m
2g 2  10
uy = 20 m/s just after collision.
 Total height h = h1 + h2 = 35 m
Ex.23 A plank of mass 5 kg placed on a frictionless horizontal plane. Further a block of mass 1 kg is
placed over the plank. A massless spring of natural length 2m is fixed to the plank by its one
end. The other end of spring is compressed by the block by half of spring's natural length. They
system is now released from the rest. What is the velocity of the plank when block leaves the
plank? (The stiffness contant of spring is 100 N/m)
1kg
5kg
4m
Sol. Let the velocity of the block and the plank, when the block leaves the spring be u and v respectively.
1 2 1 1
By conservation of energy kx = mu 2 + Mv 2 [M = mass of the plank, m = mass of the block]
2 2 2
 100 = u2 + 5 v2 ...(i)
By conservation of momentum mu + Mv = 0
 u=–5v ...(ii)
Solving Eqs(i) and (ii)
10
30v2 = 100  v  m/s
3
From this moment until block falls, both plank and block keep their velocity constant.
10
Thus, when block falls, velocity of plank = m/s Ans.
3
Ex.24 Two identical blocks each of mass M = 9 kg are placed on a rough horizontal surface of frictional
coefficient  = 0.1. The two blocks are joined by a light spring and block B is in contact with a
vertical fixed wall as shown in figure. A bullet of mass m = 1kg and v0 = 10 m/s hits block A and
gets embedded in it. Find the maximum compression of spring. (Spring constant = 240 N/m, g
= 10 m/s2)
Sol. For the collision
1 × 10 = 10 × v  v = 1 m/s
If x be the maximum compression
v0 A B
1 2
1 2
× 10 × 1 = (m + M)gx+ kx M M
2 2 m
1
5 = 10x + 120 x2  x  m Ans.
6

Ex.25 A flat car of mass M is at rest on a frictionless floor with a child of mass m standing at its edge.
If child jumps off from the car towards right with an initial velocity u, with respect to the car,
find the velocity of the car after its jump.
Sol. Let car attains a velocity v, and the net velocity of the child with respect to earth will be u – v, as u
is its velocity with respect to car.
m u
v
M M
Initially, the system was at rest, thus according to momentum conservation, momentum after jump
must be zero, as
m(u – v) = M v
mu
v
m M
Ex.26 A flat car of mass M with a child of mass m is moving with a velocity v1 on a friction less surface.
The child jumps in the direction of motion of car with a velocity u with respect to car. Find the
final velocities of the child and that of the car after jump.
Sol. This case is similar to the previous example, except now the car is moving before jump. Here also no
external force is acting on the system in horizontal direction, hence momentum remains conserved in
this direction. After jump car attains a velocity v2 in the same direction, which is less than v1, due to
backward push of the child for jumping. After jump child attains a velocity u + v2 in the direction of
motion of car, with respect to ground.
m
m u
v2
M v1 M
According to momentum conservation

(M + m) v1 = Mv2 + m (u + v2)
Velocity of car after jump is
(M  m)v1  mu
v2 
Mm
(M  m)v1  (M) u
Velocity of child after jump is u  v 2 
Mm
Ex.27 Two persons A and B, each of mass m are standing at the two ends of rail-road car of mass M.
The person A jumps to the left with a horizontal speed u with respect to the car. There after,
the person B jumps to the right, again with the same horizontal speed u with respect to the car.
Find the velocity of the car after both the persons have jumped off.
m m

Sol. Let car attain the velocity v in right ward and velocity of man A with respect to ground is v then
v = v – u
from momentum conservation
0 = mv  + (M + m)v
mu
 m(v – u) + (M + m)v = 0  v
(M  2m)
After wards mass B jumps to the right with the same horizontal speed u with respect to car, than car
attain v" velocity from linear momentum conservation.
(M+m)v = m(u + v") + Mv"
 mu 
(M  m)   mu  (m  M)v "
 M  2m 
m 2u
Now v" =
(M  2m)(M  m)
Ex.28. A block of mass m is placed on a triangular block of mass M, which in turn is placed on a horizontal
surface as shown in figure. Assuming frictionless surfaces find the velocity of the triangular
block when the smaller reaches the bottom end.
m
h
M
Sol. Let us assume that wedge move leftward with velocity v and block move down ward with velocity u
with respect to wedge.
 Net force is horizontal direction is zero so momentum is conserved in x direction.
Now velocity of block with respect to ground is
  
v m  v mw  v w
  
Vm  u  v

Vm  (u cos  – v ) î – u sin  ĵ
Now from momentum conservation in x direction
0 = – Mv + mVmx
 Mv = m (u cos  – v) ...(1)
From energy conservation M
v u cos 
1 1
mgh = mv 2  mv m
2 

2 2 u sin 
u
1 1
 mgh= mv 2  m(u 2  v 2 – 2uv cos ) ...(2)
2 2
from eq. (1) & (2)
1/ 2
 2m 2 gh cos  
v 2 
 (M  m)(M  m sin ) 

5. SPRING BLOCK SYSTEM :

A light spring of spring constant k and natural length l0 attached in a compressed condition between
two blocks of mass m1 & m2 on a smooth horizontal surface as shown in the figure. The spring is initially
compressed by a distance x0.
l0
m1 m2
l0–x0
When system is released the block acquire velocities in opposite direction. Let us assume that the
velocities of block m1 & m2 is v1 & v2 respectively at natural length of the spring and since no external
force acts on this system in horizontal direction. Hence the linear momentum remains constant. Then
from momentum conservation.
0 = m2v2 – m1v1
m2v2 = m1v1 ..(1)
From mechanical energy conservation
K i + Ui = K f + Uf
1 2 1 1
 0+ kx 0 = m1v12 + m 2 v 22 + 0
2 2 2
1 2 1 1
 kx 0  m1v12  m 2 v 22 ...(2)
2 2 2
In initial condition there is no external force on the system and both the block is at stationary
condition. Therefore centre of mass of the system is at rest. So we can write.
m1x1 = m2x2 ...(3)
l0
v1 v2
m1 m2
m1 m2
l0–x0
x1 x2
from above figure we can conclude
l0 – x 0 + x 1 + x 2 = l0
 x0 = x1 + x2 (4)
Due to inertia both the block move further from the position of the natural length of the spring.
Maximum extension occur when both the blocks come to rest. Let us assume that x1' & x2' are the
extension in the spring from the initial position due to block m1 & m2 from natural length
So at maximum extension v1 = v2 = 0
l0
v1=0 v2=0
m1 m2
x1' l0–x0 x2'
 Centre of mass is at rest Therefore we can write

m1x1 = m2x2
x1 + x2 + l0 – x 0 = l0 + x 0
x1 + x2 = 2x0
Ex.29 A light spring of spring constant k is kept compressed between two blocks of masses m and M
on a smooth horizontal surface. When released, the blocks aquirse velocities in opposite
directions. The spring loses contact with the blocks when it acquires natural length. If the spring
was initially compressed through a distance x, find the final speeds of the two blocks.

Sol. Consider the two blocks plus the spring to be the system. No external force acts on this system in
horizontal direction. Hence, the linear momentum will remain constant. Suppose, the block of mass M
moves with a speed v1 and the other block with a speed v2 after losing contact with the spring. From
conservation of linear momentum in horizontal direction we have
m
Mv1 – mv2 = 0 or v1 = v 2 ...(i)
M
1 2
Initially, the energy of the system = kx
2
Finally, the energy of the system
1 2 1 2
= mv 2  Mv1
2 2
As there is no friction, mechanical energy will remain conserved.
1 2 1 2 1
Therefore, mv 2  Mv1  kx 2 ..(ii)
2 2 2
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
1/ 2
 kM 
or, v2    x
 m(M  m) 
1/ 2
 kM 
and v1 =   x Ans.
 m(M  m) 
IInd Format : Figure shows two blocks of masses 2m and m are placed on a frictionless surface and connected
with a spring. An external kick gives a velocity v0 m/s to the m mass towards right
v0
B A
2m m
l0
Now velocity of centre of mass is
 
 m1v1  m 2 v 2 mv 0  0 v0
Vcom   Vcom = = m / sec
m1  m 2 2m  m 3
Due to kick on m mass block is starts moving with a velocity v0 towards right immediately but due to
inertia 2m block remain at rest at that moment. Thus velocity of block A & B with respect to the centre
v0 2v 0
of mass is vA = v 0 – = m/sec. (towards right)
3 3
v0 v0 v0
vB = 0 – =– = (towards left)
3 3 3
Now the following figure shown the condition when centre of mass is rest.
v0/3
2v0/3
2m m
B A
l0
If the maximum extension of the spring is x0 then at this position both the block come to rest condition
with respect to COM so from mechanical energy conservation
 K i + Ui = K f + Uf ...(1)
2 2
1  2v 0  1  v0 
K i = m   2m 
2  3  2  3
Ui = 0 (spring is in natural length)

Kf = 0 (VA = VB = 0)
1 2
Uf = Kx0
2
Put the above value is equation 1
2 2
1  2v 0  1  v0  1 2 2 2 2
 m   2m   0 = kx 0  kx 0  mv 0
2  3  2  3 2 3
2
Maximum extension x0 = v 0 m
3k
IIIrd format :
Example
A block of mass m is connected to another block of mass M by a massless spring of spring constant k.
The blocks are kept on a smooth horizontal plane and are at rest. The spring is unstretched when a
constant force F starts acting on the block of mass M to pull it. Find the maximum extension of the
spring.
F
m M
We solve the situation in the reference frame of centre of mass. As only F is the external force acting
on the system, due to this force, the acceleration of the centre of mass is F/(M+m). Thus with respect
to centre of mass there is a Pseudo force on the two masses in opposite direction, the free body
diagram of m and M with respect to centre of mass (taking centre of mass at rest) is shown in figure.
mF
mM MF
m M F–
mM
Taking centre of mass at rest, if m moves maximum by a distance x1 and M moves maximum by a
distance x2, then the work done by external forces (including Pseudo force) will be
mF
mM mF
m M
mM
mF  MF  mF
W= .x + F –  . x2 = .( x1  x 2 )
mM 1  m  M mM
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of the spring as
1
U= k( x1  x 2 ) 2
2
Thus on equating we get the maximum extension in the spring, as after this instant the spring starts
contracting.
1 mF
k( x1  x 2 ) 2 = .( x1  x 2 )
2 mM
2mF
xmax = x1 + x2 =
k (m  M)
Ex.30 Two blocks of equal mass m are connected by an unstretched spring and the system is kept at
rest on frictionless horizontal surface. A constant force F is applied on one of the blocks pulling
it away from the other as shown in figure.

k
m m F
(a) Find the displacement of the centre of mass at time t

(b) If the extension of the spring is x0 at time t, find the displacement of the two blocks at this instant.
Sol. (a) The acceleration of the centre of mass is
F
aCOM =
2m
The displacement of the centre of mass at time t will be
1 Ft 2
x= a COM t 2 = Ans.
2 4m
(b) Suppose the displacement of the first block is x1 and that of the second is x2. Then,
mx1  mx2
x=
2m
Ft 2 x1  x2
or, 
4m 2
Ft 2
or, x1 + x 2 = ...(i)
2m
Further, the extension of the spring is x1 – x2. Therefore,
x1 – x2 = x0 ...(ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
1  Ft 2  1  Ft 2 
x1 = 2  2m  x0  and x2 = 2  2m – x0  Ans.
   
6. IMPULSE :

Impulse of a force F acting on a body for the time interval t = t1 to t = t2 is defined as
 t2 
I = F dt
 t1
 
I = F dt
 
dv 
 m
 dt  mdv 
dt
    
I = m(v 2  v1 )   P  change in momentum due to force F
 t2  
Also IRe =  FRe s dt   P (impulse - momentum theorem)
t1
Note :
* Impulse applied to an object in a given time interval can also be calculated from the area under force
time (F-t) graph in the same time interval.
6.1 Instantaneous Impulse :

There are many cases when a force acts for such a short time that the effect is instantaneous, e.g.,
a bat striking a ball. In such cases, although the magnitude of the force and the time for which it acts
may each be unknown but the value of their product (i.e., impulse) can be known by measuring the
initial and final momentum. Thus, we can write.
    
I = F dt  P  Pf  Pi


Important Points :
(1) It is a vector quantity.
(2) Dimensions = [MLT–1]
(3) SI unit = kg m/s
(4) Direction is along change in momentum.
(5) Magnitude is equal to area under the F-t. graph.
   
(6) I = F dt  Fav dt  Fav t
 
(7) It is not a property of a particle, but it is a measure of the degree to which an external force
changes the momentum of the particle.
Ex.31 The hero of a stunt film fires 50 g bullets from a machine gun, each at a speed of 1.0 km/s. If he
fires 20 bullets in 4 seconds, what average force does he exert against the machine gun during
this period.
Sol. The momentum of each bullet
= (0.050 kg) (1000 m/s)
= 50 kg-m/s.
The gun has been imparted this much amount of momentum by each bullet fired. Thus, the rate of
change of momentum of the gun
(50kg – m / s)  20
=
4s
= 250 N
In order to hold the gun, the hero must exert a force of 250 N against the gun.
Ex.32 A ball of mass m = 1kg strikes smooth horizontal floor shown in figure. Find out impulse exerted
on the floor is :
m
5ms–1
m
53° 37°
Sol. As the ball strike on the surface on impulsive normal force is exerted on the ball as shown in figure.
N
v vx=5cos53°
vy =5sin53°
53° v'sin37
53° 37°
5m/sec
53° 37°
5m/s
v'cos 37
N
This normal force can change only the component vy. So in x direction momentum is conserved.
(Fnet x = 0)
 v cos 37° = 5 cos 53°
535 15
v = = m / sec
54 4
15 3 9
So, v'y = v sin37° =  = m / sec
4 5 4
Impulse = change in linear momentum in y direction
 9
I  N.dt = m(vy – (–v y )) = 1 4   = 6.25 N-sec
  4

6.2 Impulsive force :

A force, of relatively higher magnitude and acting for relatively shorter time, is called impulsive force.
An impulsive force can change the momentum of a body in a finite magnitude in a very short time
interval. Impulsive force is a relative term. There is no clear boundary between an impulsive and
Non-Impulsive force.
Note :
* Usually colliding forces are impulsive in nature.
Since, the application time is very small, hence, very little motion of the particle takes place.
Important points :
1. Gravitational force and spring force are always non-Impulsive.
2. Normal, tension and friction are case dependent.
3. An impulsive force can only be balanced by another impulsive force.
1. Impulsive Normal : In case of collision, normal forces at the surface of collision are always impulsive
m1 Ni Ni m2
e.g. Ni = Impulsive; Ng = Non-impulsive
N1g m1g N2g m2g
N1
N2 Both normals are Impulsive
N1
N1
N1, N3 = Impulsive; N2 = non-impulsive

N3
N2
N1
Both normals are Impulsive
N2
2. Impulsive Friction : If the normal between the two objects is impulsive, then the friction between the
two will also be impulsive
N1
Friction at both surfaces is impulsive

N2
N1
N1
N3
N2
Friction due to N2 is non-impulsive and due to N3 and N1 are impulsive

3. Impulsive Tensions :
When a string jerks, equal and opposite tension act suddenly at each end. Consequently equal and
opposite impulses act on the bodies attached with the string in the direction of the string. There are
two cases to be considered.
• One end of the string is fixed :
The impulse which acts at the fixed end of the string cannot change the momentum of the fixed
object. The object attached to the free end however will undergo a change in momentum in the
direction of the string. The momentum remains unchanged in a direction perpendicular to the string
where no impulsive forces act.
• Both ends of the string attached to movable objects :
In this case equal and opposite impulses act on the two objects, producing equal and opposite
changes in momentum. The total momentum of the system therefore remains constant, although the
momentum of each individual object is changed in the direction of the string. Perpendicular to the
string however, no impulse acts and the momentum of each particle in this direction is unchanged.
T
T is impulsive
A
T is non-impulsive B
C
T is non-impulsive
All normal are impulsive but tension

T is impulsive only for the ball A
For this example :
In case of rod, tension is always impulsive and in case of spring, tension is always non-impulsive.
Ex.33 A block of mass m and a pan of equal mass are connected by a string going over a smooth light
pulley. Initially the system is at rest when a particle of mass m falls on the pan and sticks to it.
If the particle strikes the pan with a speed v, find the speed with which the system moves just
after the collision.
m
v
m m
Sol. Let the required speed is V.

Further, let J1 = impulse between particle and pan
and J2 = impulse imparted to the block and the pan by the string
Using, Impulse = change in momentum
For particle J1 = mv – mV ...(i)
For pan J1 – J2 = mV ...(ii)
For block J2 = mV ...(iii)
v
Solving, these three equation, we get V Ans.
3
Alternative solution :
Applying conservation of linear momentum along the string ;
mv = 3mV
v
we get, V= Ans.
3

Ex.34 Two identical block A and B, connected by a massless string are placed on a frictionless horizontal
plane. A bullet having same mass, moving with speed u strikes block B from behind as shown.
If the bullet gets embedded into the block B then find :
m
m u m
C
A B
(A) The velocity of A, B, C after collision

(B) Impulse on A due to tension in the string
(C) Impulse on C due to normal force of collision.
(D) Impulse on B due to normal force of collision.
Sol. Let us assume that all the three are move with velocity v
v v
N N
T
A B
Take rightward direction is +ve. Then first we write impulse equation on bullet
–  N.dt  mv – mu ...(1)
Now impulse equation on block B
 (N – T)dt  mv ...(2)
Impulse equation on block A
 T.dt  mv ...(3)
(a) Add eq. (1), (2), (3) then
u
0 = 3mv – mu  v=
3
mu
(b) Impulse on A due to Tension in the string from eq. (3)  T. dt  3
(c) Impulse on C due to normal force of collision
u 2mu

from eq. (1)  N. dt  m 3 – u
3
= –
(d) Impulse on B due to normal force of collision
from eq. (2)
mu
(N – T )dt 
3
mu mu mu 2mu
N. dt   T. dt =
  
3 3 3 3
7. COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)

The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the impulses of reformation and deformation of
either body.
Im pulse of reformation  F dt
r
e= =
Im pulse of deformation  F dt
d
Velocity of separation of point of contact

e
Velocity of approach of point of contact

Example for calculation of e :

Two smooth balls A and B approaching each other such that their centres are moving along line CD in
absence of external impulsive force. The velocities of A and B just before collision be u1 and u2
respectively. The velocities of A and B just after collision be v1 and v2 respectively.
Just Before collision Just After collision
u1 u2 v1 v2
u1>u2
C D C D
A B A B v2 > v1
v 2 – v1
e = u –u
1 2
Note : Coefficient of restitution is a factor between two colliding bodies which is depends on the material of
the body but independent of shape.
We can say e is a factor which relates deformation and reformation of the body.
0  e1
Ex.35 If a body falls normally on a surface from height h, what will be the height regained after
collision if coefficient of restitution is e?
Sol. h
If a body falls from height h, from equations of motion we know that it will hit the ground with a
velocity say u = 2gh which is also the velocity of approach here.
Now if after collision it regains a height h1 then again by equations of motion v = 2gh1 which is also
the velocity of separation. So, by definition of e,
2gh1
e= or h1 = e2h
2gh
Ex.36 A block of mass 2 kg is pushed towards a very heavy

object moving with 2 m/s closer to the block (as 2m/s
shown). Assuming elastic collision and frictionless very
10m/s heavy
surface, find 2kg object
the final velocities of the blocks.
Sol. Let v1 and v2 be the final velocities of 2kg block
2m/s
and heavy object respectively then, very
14m/s heavy
v1 = u1 + 1 (u1 – u2) = 2u1 – u2 2kg object
= – 14 m/s
v2 = – 2m/s
Ex.37 A ball is moving with velocity 2 m/s towards a heavy wall moving towards the ball with speed
1 m/s as shown in fig. Assuming collision to be elastic, find the velocity of the ball immediately
2m/s 1m/s
Sol. The speed of wall will not change after the collision. So, let v be the velocity of the ball after collision
in the direction shown in figure. Since collision is elastic (e = 1).

2m/s 1m/s v 1m/s
Before Collision After Collision

separation speed = approach speed
or v–1=2+1
or v = 4 m/s Ans.
Ex.38 A ball is dropped from a height h on to a floor. If in each collision its speed becomes e times of
its striking value (a) find the time taken by ball to stop rebounding (b) find the total change in
momentum in this time (c) find the average force exerted by the ball on the floor using results of
part (a) and (b).
Sol. (a) When the ball is dropped from a height h, time taken by it to reach the ground will be
2h
t0 =
g
and its speed v0 = 2gh
h v0 v1
v2
t0 t1 t0
Now after collision its speed will becomes e times, i.e., v1 = ev0 = e 2gh and so, it will take time to go
up till its speed becomes zero = (v1/g). The same time it will take to come down. So total time between
I and II collision will be t1 = 2v1/g. Similarly, total time between II and III collision t2 = 2v2/g.
So total time of motion
T = t0 + t1 + t2 +.........
2 v1 2v 2
or T = t0 + + .......
g g
2ev 0 2e 2 v 0
or T = t0 + + .......
g g
[as v2 = ev1 = e2v0]
2h
or T = [1  2e(1  e  e2 ....)]
g
2h   1  2h  1  e 
 1  2e  
g  1 e  g  1 – e 
(b) Change in momentum in I collision

= mv1 – (–mv0) = m (v1 + v0)
Change in momentum in II collision = m(v2 + v1)
Change in momentum in nth collision = m(vn + vn–1)
Adding these all total change in momentum
p = m[v0 + 2v1 + ....+ 2vn–1 + vn]
or p = mv0[1 + 2e + e2 + .....]
  1  1 e 
or p = mv0 1  2e 1 – e    m 2gh  1 – e  ...(2)
   


 dp p
(C) Now as F  so, Fav =
dt T
Substituting the value of T and p from Eqns. (1) and (2)
1 e  g 1 – e 
Fav = m 2gh   × = mg ...(3)
1 – e  2h  1  e 
7.1 Line of Motion

The line passing through the centre of the body along the direction of resultant velocity.
7.2 Line of Impact

The line passing through the common normal to the surfaces in contact during impact is called line of
impact. The force during collision acts along this line on both the bodies.
Direction of Line of impact can be determined by :
(a) Geometry of colliding objects like spheres, discs, wedge etc.
(b) Direction of change of momentum.
If one particle is stationary before the collision then the line of impact will be along its motion after
collision.
Examples of line of impact
(i) Two balls A and B are approaching each
Line of impact other such that their centres are moving along line CD.
and
line of motion
C D
A B
(ii) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such that their centre are moving along dotted lines
as shown in figure.
B Line of motion
of ball A
Line of motion
of ball B
D
A
Line of impact
(iii) Ball is falling on a stationary wedge.
Line of motion of ball
Line of impact

Note : In previous discussed examples line of motion is same as line of impact. But in problems in which line of
impact and line of motion is different then e will be
velocity of seperation along line of impact

e=
velocity of approach along line of impact
Ex.40 A ball of mass m hits a floor with a speed v making an angle of incident  with the normal. The
coefficient of restitution is e. Find the speed of the reflected ball and the angle of reflection of the
ball.
Sol. Suppose the angle of reflection is  and the speed after the collision is v  (shown figure) The floor
exerts a force on the ball along the normal during the collision. There is no force parallel to the surface.
Thus, the parallel component of the velocity of the ball remains unchanged. This gives
v  sin   = v sin  ...(i)
For the components normal to the floor, the velocity
of separation is v cos  and the velocity of approach is v cos . v v'
 '
Hence, v  cos   = ev cos 
From (i) and (ii), v  = v sin 2   e 2 cos 2  v sin v'cos '
tan v cos  v' sin  '
Hence, tan   =
e Initial velocity Final velocity
For elastic collision, e = 1, so that  =  and v = v.
Ex.41 A ball is projected from the ground at some angle with horizontal. Coefficient of restitution
between the ball and the ground is e. Let a, b and c be the ratio of times of flight, horizontal
range and maximum height in two successive paths. Find a, b and c in terms of e?
1
2
Sol. Let us assume that ball is projected with speed u at an angle  with the horizontal. Then
Before first collision with the ground.
2u y
Time fo flight T  euy
g
u
2u x u y u y  u sin  I
ux II
Horizontal range R  
g
u x  u cos 
u2y uy
Maximum Height Hmax = ...(1)
2g
After striking the ground the component uy is change into e uy, so
2eu y 2u x ( eu y )
Time of flight T = , R' 
g g
'
(eu y )2
Hmax  ...(2)
2g
from eq (1) & (2)
T 1
Now a
T' e

R 1 Hmax 1
b ; '
 2 =c
R' e Hmax e
Ex.42 A ball is projected from the ground with speed u at an angle  with horizontal. It collides with a
wall at a distance a from the point of projection and returns to its original position. Find the
coefficient of restitution between the ball and the wall.
Sol. A ball is a projected with speed u at an angle  with horizontal. It collides at a distance a with a wall
parallel to y-axis as shown in figure.
Let vx and vy be the components of its velocity along x and y-directions at the time of impact with wall.
Coefficient of restitution between the ball and the wall is e.
Component of its velocity along y-direction (common tangent) vy will remain unchanged while component
of its velocity along x-direction (common normal) vx will becomes evx is opposite direction.
*Further, since vy does not change due to collision, the time of flight (time taken by the ball to return
to the same level) and maximum height attained by the ball remain same as it would had been in the
absence of collision with the wall. Thus,
vy v vy
B B
A vx C evx
u
y

O x O
a a
From O A B, R = a = u cos  . tOAB
from BCO, R = a = eucos. tBCO
T = tOAB + tBCO
2u sin a a a 2u sin a
or = + or = –
g u cos  eu cos  eu cos  g u cos 
a 2u 2 sin  cos  – ag ag
or   e= 2
eu cos  gu cos  2u sin  cos  – ag
1
or e =  u 2 sin 2  Ans.
 – 1
 ag 
Ex.43 To test the manufactured properties of 10 N steel balls, each ball is released from rest as
shown and strikes a 45° inclined surface. If the coefficient of restitution is to be e = 0.8.
determine the distance s to where the ball must strike the horizontal plane at A. At what speed does
the ball strike at A? (g = 9.8 m/s2)
1.5m
1.0m
45°
A
s

Sol. v0 = 2gh = 2  9.8  15

. = 5.42 m/s
Component of velocity parallel and perpendicular to plane at the time of collision.
v0
v1 = v2 = = 3.83 m/sec.
2
ev2=0.8v2
C C v1
v2 v1 1.0 m
v0 45° x
45° D E A
s
y
x
Component parallel to plane (v1) remains unchanged, while component perpendicular to plane becomes
ev2, where
ev2 = 0.8 × 3.83 = 3.0 m/s
 Component of velocity in horizontal direction after collision
( v1  ev 2 ) (3.83  3.0)
vx = = = 4.83 m/s
2 2
While component of velocity in vertical direction after collision.
v1 – ev 2 3.83 – 3.0
vy = = = 0.59 m/s
2 2
Let t be the time, the particle takes from point C to A, then
1
1.0 = 0.59 t + × 9.8 × t2 ; t = 0.4 sec
2
Solving this we get,
 DA = vxt = (4.83)(0.4) = 1.93 m
 S = DA – DE = 1.93 – 1.0
S = 0.93 m
vyA = vyc + gt = (0.59) + (9.8) (0.4) = 4.51 m/s
vxA = vxC = 4.83 m/s
 vA = ( v xA ) 2  ( v yA ) 2 = 6.6 m/s
Ex.44 A ball of mass m = 1 kg falling vertically with a velocity v0 = 2m/s strikes a wedge of mass
M = 2kg kept on a smooth, horizontal surface as shown in figure. The coefficient of restitution
1
between the ball and the wedge is e = . Find the velocity of the wedge and the ball immediately
2
after collision.
m
v0
M 30°
Sol. Given M = 2kg and m = 1kg

J
v3 Jcos30°
Jsin30°
v1 m v2 m
Jsin30°
M J 30°
30°
Jcos30°
Let, J be the impulse between ball and wedge during collision and v1, v2 and v3 be the components of
velocity of the wedge and the ball in horizontal and vertical directions respectively.
Applying impulse = change in momentum
we get J sin 30° = Mv1 = mv2
J
or = 2v1 = v2
2
J cos 30° = m(v3 + v0) ...(i)
3
or J = (v3 + 2) ...(ii)
2
Applying, relative speed of separation = e

(relative speed of approach) in common normal direction, we get
1
(v1 + v2) sin 30° + v3 cos30° = ( v 0 cos 30 )
2
Common normal
3 direction
or v1 + v2 + 3v3 = ...(iii)
2
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
30°
1
v1 = m/s
3
2
v2 = m / s and v = 0
3 3
Thus, velocities of wedge

1
and ball are v1 = m/s
3
1 2
v1  m/s v2  m/s
3 3
30°
2
and v2 = m / s in horizontal direction as shown in figure.
3

8. COLLISION OR IMPACT
Collision is an event in which an impulsive force acts between two or more bodies for a short time,
which results in change of their velocities.
Note :
• In a collision, particles may or may not come in physical contact.
• The duration of collision, t is negligible as compared to the usual time intervals of observation of
motion.
• In a collision the effect of external non impulsive forces such as gravity are not taken into account as
due to small duration of collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for collision is much larger
than external forces acting on the system.
The collision is in fact a redistribution of total momentum of the particle :
Thus law of conservation of linear momentum is indepensible in dealing with the phenomenon of
collision between particles. Consider a situation shown in figure.
Two balls of masses m1 and m2 are moving with velocities v1 and v2 (< v1) along the same straight line
in a smooth horizontal surface. Now let us see what happens during the collision between two particles.
v1 v2
m1 m2
figure (a)
v1 ' v2 '
N N N
N
figure(b)
figure(c)
figure (a) : Balls of mass m1 is behind m2. Since v1 > v2, the balls will collide after some time.
figure (b) : During collision both the balls are a little bit deformed. Due to deformation two equal and
opposite normal forces act on both the balls. These forces decreases the velocity of m1 and increase
the velocity of m2
figure (c): Now velocity of ball m1 is decrease from v1 to v1 and velocity of ball m2 is increase from v2
to v2. But still v1 > v2 so both the ball are continuously deformed.
figure(d) : Contact surface of both the balls are deformed till the velocity of both the balls become
equal. So at maximum deformation velocities of both the blocks are equal
v1 '' v 2 ''
figure(d)
at maximum deformation v1 ''  v 2 ''
figure(e) : Normal force is still in the direction shown in figure i.e. velocity of m1 is further decreased

and that of m2 increased. Now both the balls starts to regain their original shape and size.
v1 '' v 2 ''
N N v 2 ''  v1 ''
figure(e)
figure (f) : These two forces redistributes their linear momentum in such a manner that both the
blocks are separated from one another, Velocity of ball m2 becomes more than the velocity of block m1
i . e . ,
v2 > v1
v1 v2
m1 m2 v2>v1
figure(f)
The collision is said to be elastic if both the blocks regain their original form, The collision is said to be
inelastic. If the deformation is permanent, and the blocks move together with same velocity after the
collision, the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
8.1 Classification of collisions

(a) On the basis of line of impact
(i) Head-on collision : If the velocities of the colliding particles are along the same line before and
(ii) Oblique collision : If the velocities of the colliding particles are along different lines before and
(b) On the basis of energy :
(i) Elastic collision :
(a) In an elastic collision, the colliding particles regain their shape and size completely after collision.
i.e., no fraction of mechanical energy remains stored as deformation potential energy in the bodies.
(b) Thus, kinetic energy of system after collision is equal to kinetic energy of system before collision.
(c) e=1
(d) Due to Fnet on the system is zero linear momentum remains conserved.
(ii) Inelastic collision :
(a) In an inelastic collision, the colliding particles do not regain their shape and size completely after
collision.
(b) Some fraction of mechanical energy is retained by the colliding particles in the form of deformation
potential energy. Thus, the kinetic energy of the particles no longer remains conserved.
(c) However, in the absence of external forces, law of conservation of linear momentum still holds
good.
(d) (Energy loss)Perfectly Inelastic > (Energy loss)Partial Inelastic
(e) 0 < e < 1

(iii) Perfectly Inelastic collision :

(i) In this the colliding bodies do not return to their original shape and size after collision i.e. both the
particles stick together after collision and moving with same velocity
(ii) But due to Fnet of the system is zero linear momentum remains conserved.
(iii) Total energy is conserved.
(iv) Initial kinetic energy > Final K.E. Energy
(v) Loss in kinetic energy goes to the deformation potential energy
(vi) e = 0
8.2 Value of Velocities after collision :

Let us now find the velocities of two particles after collision if they collide directly and the coefficient
of restitution between them is given as e.
m1 m2 m1 m2
u1 u2 v1 v2
(a) (b)
Before Collision After Collision
u1 > u2 v2 > v1
v 2 – v1
e = u –u
1 2
 (u1 – u2)e = (v2 – v1) ...(i)

By momentum conservation
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ...(ii)
v2 = v1 + e(u1 – u2) ...(iii)
from above equation
m 1u1  m 2u 2  m 2 e(u 2 – u1 )
v1 = m1  m 2 ...(iii)
m 1u1  m 2 u 2  m 1e(u 1 – u 2 )
v2 = m1  m 2 ...(iv)
Special cases :
u
1. If m1 >> m2 and u2 = 0 and u1 = u
and e=1 m1
m2
m1 = m2
from eq. (iii) & (iv)
m1u – m 2u u(m1 – m 2 )
v1 = m1  m 2 = m1  m 2
v1 ~– u
m1u  m 2u 2m1u
v2 = = ; v2 = 2u
m1  m 2 m1  m 2

2. If m1 = m2 = m and e = 1 then u1 u2
from eq. (iii) & (iv) m m
m(u1  u 2 )  m(u2 – u1 )
v1 =
2m
v 1 = u2
In this way v2 = u1
i.e when two particles of equal mass collide elastically and the collision is head on, they exchange their
velocities.
8.3 Collision in two dimension (oblique) :
1. A pair of equal and opposite impulses act along common normal direction. Hence, linear momentum of
individual particles change along common normal direction. If mass of the colliding particles remain
constant during collision, then we can say that linear velocity of the individual particles change during
collision in this direction.
2. No component of impulse act along common tangent direction. Hence, linear momentum or linear
velocity of individual particles (if mass is constant) remain unchanged along this direction.
3. Net impulse on both the particles is zero during collision. Hence, net momentum of both the particles
remain conserved before and after collision in any direction.
4. Definition of coefficient of restitution can be applied along common normal direction, i.e., along common
normal direction we can apply Relative speed of separation = e (relative speed of approach)
Ex.45 A ball of mass m makes an elastic collision with another identical ball at rest. Show that if the
collision is oblique, the bodies go at right angles to each other after collision.
Sol. In head on elastic collision between two particles, they exchange their velocities. In this case, the
component of ball 1 along common normal direction, v cos  becomes zero after collision, while
v sin
v sin
1
v 1
v cos
2
2
v cos
Before collision After collision
that of 2 becomes v cos . While the components along common tangent direction of both the particles
remain unchanged. Thus, the components along common tangent and common normal direction of both
the balls in tabular form are given a head :
Component along common Component along common

Ball
tangent direction normal direction
Before collision After collision Before collision After collision

1 v sin  v sin  v cos  0
2 0 0 0 v cos 

From the above table and figure, we see that both the balls move at right angles after collision with
velocities v sin  and v cos .
Note : When two identical bodies have an oblique elastic collision, with one body at rest before collision, then
the two bodies will go in  directions.
Ex.46 Two spheres are moving towards each other. Both have same radius but their masses are 2kg
and 4kg. If the velocities are 4m/s and 2m/s respectively and coefficient of restitution is e =
1/3, find.
(a) The common velocity along the line of impact.
(b) Final velocities along line of impact.
2kg 4m/s
A
R 2m/s R
B
4kg
(c) Impulse of deformation.
(d) impulse of reformation
(e) Maximum potential energy of deformation
(f) Loss in kinetic energy due to collision.
BC R 1
Sol. In ABC sin = = =
AB 2R 2
or  = 30°
A 4m/s C Line of motion

2kg 
R R
R 4kg
Line of motion 2m/s B
Line of impact
(a) By conservation of momentum along line of impact.
LOI 4sin30°
2kg 4m/s 4sin30°

30°
4cos30°
2cos30° v
30° B 4kg 2cos30°
2m/s
Maximum Deformed
2sin30° State
Just Before Collision Along LOI
2(4 cos 30°) – 4(2cos30°) = (2 + 4)v

or v = 0 (common velocity along LOI)
(b) Let v1 and v2 be the final velocity of A and B respectively then, by conservation of momentum
along line of impact, 2(4 cos 30°) – 4(2cos30°) = 2(v1) + 4(v2)

4sin30°
A v1
2kg
4kg B
v2
2sin30°
Just After Collision
Along LOI
or 0 = v1 + 2v2 ........(1)
By coefficient of restitution,
velocity of separation along LOI

e=
velcoity of approach along LOI
1 v 2 – v1
or
3
=
4 cos 302 cos 30
or v2 – v1 = 3 ...(2)
from the above two equations,
–2 1
v1 = m / s and v = m/s
3 2 3
(c) J0 = m1(v – u1) = 2 (0 – 4 cos 30°) = – 4 3 N-s
1 4
(d) JR = eJ0 = (–4 3 ) = – N s
3 3
(e) Maximum potential energy of deformation is equal to loss in kinetic energy during deformation upto
maximum deformed state,
1 1 1 1 1 1
U= m1(u1 cos ) 2  m 2 (u 2 cos ) 2 – (m1  m 2 )v 2 = 2( 4 cos 30 ) 2  4(–2 cos 30 ) 2 – ( 2  4)(0)
2 2 2 2 2 2
or U = 18 Joule
(f) Loss in kinetic energy
1 1 1 2 1 2
KE = m1(u1 cos ) 2 + m 2 (u 2 cos ) 2 –  m1v1  m 2 v 2 
2 2  2 2 
 1  2  2 1  1  2
1 1   
= 2 (4 cos 30°) + 4 (–2 cos 30°) –  2 2   4
2  3  
2 2  3
KE = 16 Joule
9. VARIABLE MASS
In our discussion of the conservation linear momentum, we have so far dealt with systems whose
system whose mass remains constant. We now consider those mass is variable, i.e., those in which
mass enters or leaves the system. A typical case is that of the rocket from which hot gases keep on
escaping thereby continuously decreasing its mass.

In such problem you have nothing to do but apply a thrust force (Ft ) to the main mass in addition to
the all other force acting on it. This thrust force is given by,
   dm 
Ft  v rel  
 dt 


Here v rel is the velocity of the mass gained or mass ejected relative to the main mass. In case of
dm
rocket this is sometimes called the exhaust velocity of the gases. is the rate at which mass is
dt
increasing or decreasing.
v vr
dm v + dv
m m–dm
system
The expression for the thrust force can be derived from the conservation of linear momentum in the
absence of any external forces on a system as follows :

Suppose at some moment t = t mass of a body is m and its velocity is v . After some time at t = t + dt
 
its mass becomes (m – dm) and velocity becomes v  dv . The mass dm is ejected with relative velocity
   
v r . Absolute velocity of mass ‘dm’ is therefore ( v r  v  dv) . If no external forces are acting on the
system, the linear momentum of the system will remain conserved,
       
or Pi  Pf or mv  (m  dm)( v  dv)  dm ( v r  v  dv)
       
or mv  mv  mdv  dmv  (dm)(dv)  dm v  v r dm  (dm)((dv)
 
 mdv   v r dm

 dv    dm 
or m    vr   
 dt   dt 
 
  dm
 dv  
Here, m   = thrust force (F1 ) and  = rate at which mass is ejecting
 dt  dt
 
Problems related to variable mass can be solved in following three steps
1. Make a list of all the forces acting on the main mass and apply them on it.
   dm 
2. Apply an additional thrust force Ft on the mass, the magnitude of which is v r   dt  and direction is
 
given by the direction of v r in case the mass is increasing and otherwise the direction of  v r if it is
decreasing.
3. Find net force on the mass and apply

 dv
Fnet  m (m = mass at that particular instant)
dt

9.1 Rocket Propulsion
Let m0 be the mass of the rocket at time t = 0. m its mass at any time t and v its velocity at that
moment. Initially let us suppose that the velocity of the rocket is u.
u u
At t=0 At t=t
v=u m=m
m = m0 v=v
Exhaust velocity = vr
  dm 
Further, let   be the mass of the gas ejected per unit time and vr the exhaust velocity of the
dt 
  dm 
gases. Usually   and vr are kept constant throughout the journey of the rocket. Now, let us
dt 
write few equations which can be used in the problems of rocket propulsion. At time t = t
1. Thrust force on the rocket
 dm 
Ft  v r    (upwards)
 dt 
2. Weight of the rocket

W = mg (downwards)
3. Net force on the rocket
Fnet = Ft – W (upwards)
 – dm 
or Fnet  v r   – mg
 dt 
F
4. Net acceleration of the rocket a 
m
dv v r   dm 
or    g
dt m  dt 
  dm 
or dv  v r    g dt
 m 
v m dm t
or  dv  v 
u
r
m0 m
 g dt
0
m 
or v – u = vr In  0   gt
 m
 m0 
Thus, v = u – gt + vr In   ...(i)
m

 dm  dm
Note : 1. Ft  v r    is upwards, as vr is downwards and is negative.
 dt  dt
 m0 
2. If gravity is ignored and initial velocity of the rocket u = 0, Eq. (i) reduces to v = vr In  .
m
Ex.47 A uniform chain of mass per unit length  begins to fall with a velocity v on the table. Find the
thrust force exerted by the chain on the table.
Sol. Let us assume that the mass of the chain is m and length .
We assume that after time t, x length of the chain has fallen on the table. Then the speed of the upper
part of the chain is 2gx as shown in figure.
x
m
2gx  v  v r
at t =0
at time t = t
Now its time t + dt, length of chain has fallen on the table is v dt. Then the mass of chain has fallen on
the table is
m
dm  .vdt
 x
t
Now the rate of increase of mass t + dt vdt
dm m m
 v 2gx
dt  
Here v is downward and mass is increasing so thrust
force act in down ward direction and is given by
dm
ft  v r at time t + dt
dt
m
= 2gx ( 2gx )

ft =  v2

Exercise - I Objective Problems

1. A semicircular portion of radius 'r' is cut from a 5. A man of mass M stands at one end of a plank of
uniform rectangular plate as shown in figure. The length L which lies at rest on a frictionless surface.
distance of centre of mass 'C' of remaining plate, from The man walks to other end of the plank. If the mass
point 'O' is M
r of the plank is , then the distance that the man
3
moves relative to ground is :
3L L
(A) (B)
4 4
2r O 4L L
C (C) (D)
5 3
6. A particle of mass 3m is projected from the ground
at some angle with horizontal. The horizontal range is
2r 3r R. At the highest point of its path it breaks into two
(A) (B)
(3 – ) 2(4 – ) pieces m and 2m. The smaller mass comes to rest and
larger mass finally falls at a distance x from the point
of projection where x is equal to
2r 2r
(C)
(4   )
(D)
3(4 – ) 3R 3R
(A) (B)
4 2
2. From a circle of radius a, an isosceles right angled
triangle with the hypotenuse as the diameter of the 5R
(C) (D) 3R
circle is removed. The distance of the centre of gravity 4
of the remaining position from the centre of the circle is 7. A man weighing 80 kg is standing at the centre of
(  – 1)a a flat boat and he is 20 m from the shore. He walks 8
(A) 3( – 1)a (B)
6 m on the boat towards the shore and then halts. The
a a boat weight 200 kg. How far is he from the shore at
(C) (D)
3(  – 1) 3(   1) the end of this time?
(A) 11.2 m (B) 13.8 m
3. In the figure shown a hole of radius 2 cm is made in
(C) 14.3 m (D) 15.4 m
semicircular disc of radius 6 at a distance 8 cm from
the centre C of the disc. The distance of the centre of
8. Two particles having mass ratio n : 1 are
mass of this system from point C is
interconnected by a light inextensible string that
passes over a smooth pulley. If the system is released,
2cm then the acceleration of the centre of mass of the
8cm system is :
2
(A) 4 cm (B) 8 cm  n  1
2
(A) (n –1) g (B)   g
(C) 6 cm (D) 12 cm  n – 1
4. Centre of mass of two thin uniform rods of same
2
length but made up of different materials & kept as  n – 1  n  1
(C)   g (D)  g
shown, can be, if the meeting point is the origin of  n  1 n – 1
co-ordinates
y Question No. 9 to 10 (2 questions)
A uniform chain of length 2L is hanging in equilibrium
position, if end B is given a slightly downward
L displacement the imbalance causes an acceleration.
Here pulley is small and smooth & string is inextensible
x
L
(A) (L/2, L/2) (B) (2L/3, L/2)
(C) (L/3, L/3) (D) (L/3, L/6)

A B

9. The acceleration of end B when it has been displaced (A) depends on the direction of the motion of the
by distance x, is balls
x 2x x (B) depends on the masses of the two balls
(A) g (B) g (C) g (D) g
L L 2 (C) depends on the speeds of the two balls
(D) is equal to g
10. The velocity v of the string when it slips out of
the pulley (height of pulley from floor > 2L) 15. There are some passengers inside a stationary
gL railway compartment. The track is frictionless. The
(A) (B) 2gL centre of mass of the compartment itself (without
2
the passengers) is C1, while the centre of mass of the
(C) gL (D) none of these compartment plus passengers system is C2. If the
passengers move about inside the compartment along
11. Internal forces can change the track.
(A) the linear momentum but not the kinetic energy of (A) both C1 and C2 will move with respect to the
the system. ground
(B) the kinetic energy but not the linear momentum of (B) neither C1 nor C2 will move with respect to the
the system. ground
(C) linear momentum as well as kinetic energy of the (C) C1 will move but C2 will be stationary with respect
system. to the ground
(D) neither the linear momentum nor the kinetic energy (D) C2 will move but C1 will be stationary with respect
of the system. to the ground
12. A small sphere is moving at a constant speed in a 16. A system of N particles is free from any external
vertical circle. Below is a list of quantities that could forces
be used to describe some aspect of the motion of the (a) Which of the following is true for the magnitude
sphere of the total momentum of the system ?
I - kinetic energy
II - gravitational potential energy (A) It must be zero
III - momentum (B) It could be non-zero, but it must be constant
Which of these quantities will change as this sphere (C) It could be non-zero, and it might not be constant
moves around the circle ? (D) It could be zero, even if the magnitude of the
(A) I and II only (B) I and III only total momentum is not zero.
(C) III only (D) II and III only
(b) Which of the following must be true for the sum
13. Which of the following graphs represents the of the magnitudes of the momenta of the individual
graphical relation between momentum (p) and kinetic particles in the system ?
energy (K) for a body in motion ? (A) It must be zero
(B) It could be non-zero, but it must be constant
(C) It could be non-zero, and it might not be constant
(D) The answer depends on the nature of the internal
ln p ln p forces in the system
(A) (B)
17. An isolated rail car of mass M is moving along a
straight, frictionless track at an initial speed v0. The
ln K ln K car is passing under a bridge when a crate filled with
N bowling balls, each of mass m, is dropped from the
bridge into the bed of the rail car. The crate splits
open and the bowling balls bounce around inside the
ln p rail car, but none of them fall out.
(a) Is the momentum of the rail car + bowling balls
(C) (D) none system conserved in this collision ?
(A) Yes, the momentum is completely conserved
ln K (B) Only the momentum component in the vertical
direction is conserved
14. Two balls are thrown in air. The acceleration of (C) Only the momentum component parallel to the
the centre of mass of the two balls while in air (neglect track is conserved
air resistance) (D) No components are conserved

(b) What is the average speed of the rail 22. When the person standing at A jumps from the
car + bowling balls system some time after the collision trolley towards left with urel with respect to the trolley,
? then
(A) (M + Nm)v0/M (A) the trolley moves towards right
(B) Mv0/(Nm + M) m1urel
(C) Nmv0/M (B) the trolley rebounds with velocity m  m  M
1 2
(D) The speed cannot be determined because there is (C) the centre of mass of the system remains
not enough information
stationary
Question No. 18 to 21 (D) all the above
A small ball B of mass m is suspended with light inelastic 23. When only the person standing at B jumps from
string of length L from a block A of same mass m the trolley towards right while the person at A keeps
which can move on smooth horizontal surface as shown standing, then
in the figure. The ball is displaced by angle  from (A) the trolley moves towards left
equilibrium position & then released.
m 2urel
(B) the trolley mones with velocity m  m  M
A 1 2
(C) the centre of mass of the system remains
 L stationary
L (D) all the above
u=0
24. When both the persons jump simultaneously with
B same speed then
(A) the centre of fmass of the systyem remains
18. The displacement of block when ball reaches the stationary
equilibrium position is (B) the trolley remains stationary
L sin (C) the trolley moves toward the end where the person
(A) (B) L sin 
2 with heavier mass is standing
(C) L (D) none of these (D) None of these
19. Tension in string when it is vertical, is 25. When both the persons jump simultaneously with
(A) mg (B) mg(2 – cos ) urel with respect to the trolley, then the velocity of
(C) mg (3 – 2 cos) (D) none of these the trolley is
20. Maximum velocity of block during subsequent motion | m1  m 2 |urel | m1  m 2 |urel
(A) m  m  M (B)
of the system after release of ball is 1 2 M
(A) [gl(1 – cos )]1/2 m1urel m 2urel
(B) [2gl(1 – cos )]1/2 (C) m  M  m  M (D) none of these
2 1
(C) [glcos]1/2
(D) informations are insufficient to decide 26. Choose the incorrect statement, if m1 = m2 = m
21. The displacement of centre of mass of A + B system and both the persons jump one by one, then
till the string becomes vertical is (A) the centre of mass of the system remains
stationary
L
(A) zero (B) (1 – cos ) (B) the final velocity of the trolley is in the direction
2 of the person who jumps first
L
(C) (1 – sin ) (D) none of these  murel murel 
2 (C) the final velocity of the trolley is   
M  m M  2m 
Question No. 22 to 26 (5 questions) (D) none of these
Two persons of mass m1 and m2 are standing at the
two ends A and B respectively, of a trolley of mass M 27. In the diagram shown, no friction at any contact
as shown. surface. Initially, the spring has no deformation. What
m1 m2 will be the maximum deformation in the spring ? Consider
all the strings to be sufficiency large. Consider the
spring constant to be K
M
A B F
2M M
L

(A) 4F / 3K (B) 8F / 3K is masselss and frictionless. Initially the system is at

(C) F / 3K (D) none rest when, a bullet of mass 'm' moving with a velocity
'u' as shown hits the block 'B' and gets embedded
28. A super-ball is to bounce elastically back and forth into it. The impulse imparted by tension force to the
between two rigid walls at a distance d from each block of mass 3m is :
other. Neglecting gravity and assuming the velocity of
super-ball to be v0 horizontally, the average force being
exerted by the super-ball on each wall is :
m
1 mv 20 mv 20 u
(A) (B)
2 d d
m B
2mv 20 4mv 20 A 3m
(C) (D)
d d
5mu 4mu
(A) (B)
29. In the figure (i), (ii) & (iii) shown the objects A, B 4 5
& C are of same mass. String, spring & pulley are 2mu 3mu
(C) (D)
massless. C strikes B with velocity ‘u’ in each case 5 5
and sticks to it. The ratio of velocity of B in case (i)
to (ii) to (iii) is 34. A ball strikes a smooth horizontal ground at an
angle of 45° with the vertical. What cannot be the
possible angle of its velocity with the vertical after
(i) (ii) (iii) the collision. (Assume e  1).
C C (A) 45° (B) 30°
A B (C) 53° (D) 60°
A B A B
C
(A) 1 : 1 : 1 (B) 3 : 3 : 2 35. As shown in the figure a body of mass m moving
(C) 3 : 2 : 2 (D) none of these vertically with speed 3 m/s hits a smooth fixed inclined
plane and rebounds with a velocity vf in the horizontal
30. A force exerts an impulse I on a particle changing direction. If  of inclined is 30°, the velocity vf will be
its speed from u to 2u. The applied force and the
initial velocity are oppositely directed along the same vf
line. The work done by the force is m
3 1
(A) Iu (B) Iu
2 2
(C) Iu (D) 2 Iu
(A) 3 m/s (B) 3 m/s
31. A parallel beam of particles of mass m moving with
velocity v impinges on a wall at an angle  to its (C) 1 / 3 m/s
normal. The number of particles per unit volume in the (D) this is not possible
beam is n. If the collision of particles with the wall is
elastic, then the pressure exerted by this beam on 36. Two massless string of length 5 m hang from the
,
the wall is ceiling very near to each other as shown in the figure.
(A) 2 mn v2 cos  (B) 2 mn v2 cos2  Two balls A and B of masses 0.25 kg and 0.5 kg are
(C) 2 mn v cos  (D) 2 mn v cos2  attached to the string. The ball A is released from
rest at a height 0.45 m as shown in the figure. The
32. A boy hits a baseball with a bat and imparts an
collision between two balls is completely elastic
impulse J to the ball. The boy hits the ball again with
Immediately after the collision. the kinetic energy of
the same force, except that the ball and the bat are
ball B is 1 J. The velocity of ball A just after the
in contact for twice the amount of time as in the first
collision is
hit. The new impulse equals.
(A) half the original impulse
(B) the original impulse
(C) twice the original impulse
(D) four times the original impulse
A
33. A system of two blocks A and B are connected by 0.45m
an inextensible massless strings as shown. The pulley B

(A) 5 ms–1 to the right (B) 5 ms–1 to the left 42. A body of mass ‘m’ is dropped from a height of ‘h’.
(C) 1 ms–1 to the right (D) 1 ms–1 to the left Simultaneously another body of mass 2m is thrown up
37. Two balls A and B having masses 1 kg and 2 kg, vertically with such a velocity v that they collide at
moving with speeds 21 m/s and 4 m/s respectively in the height h/2. If the collision is perfectly inelastic,
opposite direction, collide head on. After collision A the velocity at the time of collision with the ground
moves with a speed of 1 m/s in the same direction, will be
then the coefficient of restitution is 5gh
(A) (B) gh
(A) 0.1 (B) 0.2 4
(C) 0.4 (D) None
38. A truck moving on horizontal road east with velocity gh 10 gh
(C) (D)
20ms–1 collides elastically with a light ball moving with 4 3
velocity 25 ms–1 along west. The velocity of the ball
43. A sphere of mass m moving with a constant velocity
just after collision
hits another stationary sphere of the same mass, if e
(A) 65 ms–1 towards east
is the coefficient of restitution, then ratio of speed of
(B) 25 ms–1 towards west
the first sphere to the speed of the second sphere
(C) 65 ms–1 towards west
after collision will be
(D) 20 ms–1 towards east
 1– e  1 e
(A)   (B)  
39. Two perfectly elastic balls of same mass m are 1 e 1– e
moving with velocities u1 and u2. They collide elastically
n times. The kinetic energy of the system finally is :  e  1  e – 1
(C)   (D)  
1m 2 1m 2 e – 1 e  1
(A) u1 (B) (u1  u 22 )
2 u 2 u
44. In a smooth stationary cart of length d, a small
1 1
(C) m(u12  u22 ) (D) mn(u12  u 22 ) block is projected along it’s length with velocity v
2 2 towards front. Coefficient of restitution for each
collision is e. The cart rests on a smooth ground and
40. In the figure shown, the two identical balls of can move freely. The time taken by block to come to
mass M and radius R each, are placed in contact with rest w.r.t. cart is
each other on the frictionless horizontal surface. The d
third ball of mass M and radius R/2, is coming down
vertically and has a velocity = v0 when it simultaneously
hits the two balls and itself comes to rest. The each v
of the two bigger balls will move after collision with a
speed equal to
ed ed
(A) (B)
(1 e) v (1 e) v
d
(C) (D) inifinite
e
45. Three blocks are initially placed as shown in the

figure. Block A has mass m and initial velocity v to the
right. Block B with mass m and block C with mass 4 m
(A) 4 v 0 / 5 (B) 2 v 0 / 5 are both initially at rest. Neglect friction. All collisions
are elastic. The final velocity of block A is
(C) v 0 / 5 (D) none V
A B C
41. In the above, suppose that the smaller ball does m m 4m
not stop after collision, but continues to move
downwards with a speed = v0/2, after the collision. (A) 0.60 v to the left (B) 1.4 v to the left
Then, the speed of each bigger ball after collision is (C) v to the left (D) 0.4 v to the left
(A) 4 v 0 / 5 (B) 2 v 0 / 5 46. A block of mass m starts from rest and slides
down a frictionless semi-circular track from a height h
(C) v 0 / 2 5 (D) none as shown. When it reaches the lowest point of the

track, it collides with a stationary piece of putty also (A) 1 sec (B) 2 sec
having mass m. If the block and the putty stick (C) 3 sec (D) infinite
together and continue to slide, the maximum height
that the block-putty system could reach is 52. A ball is projected from ground with a velocity V
at an angle  to the vertical. On its path it makes an
elastic collision with a vertical wall and returns to
h ground. The total time of flight of the ball is
2v sin 2v cos 
(A) h/4 (B) h/2 (A) (B)
g g
(C) h (D) independent of h
47. Two billiard balls undergo a head-on collision. Ball v sin2 v cos 
(C) (D)
1 is twice as heavy as ball 2. Initially, ball 1 moves g g
with a speed v towards ball 2 which is at rest.
Immediately after the collision, ball 1 travels at a speed 53. The Gardener water the plants by a pipe of diameter
of v/3 in the same direction. What type of collision 1 mm. The water comes out at the rate of 10 cm3/
has occured ? sec. The reactionary force exerted on the hand of
(A) inelastic (B) elastic the Gardener is : (density of water is 103 kg/m3)
(C) completely inelastic (A) zero (B) 1.27 × 10–2 N
(D) Cannot be determined from the information given –4
(C) 1.27 × 10 N (D) 0.127 N
48. The diagram shows the velocity - time graph for 54. An open water tight railway wagon of mass
two masses R and S that collided elastically. Which of 5 × 103 kg coasts at an initial velocity 1.2 m/s without
the following statements is true ? friction on a railway track. Rain drops fall vertically
downwards into the wagon. The velocity of the wagon
V(ms–1)
after it has collected 103 kg of water will be
1.2 S (A) 0.5 m/s (B) 2 m/s
R
0.8 (C) 1 m/s (D) 1.5 m/s
0.4
55. If the force on a rocket which is ejecting gases
1 2 3 4 t(s) with a relative velocity of 300 m/s, is 210 N. Then the
I. R and S moved in the same direction after the rate of combustion of the fuel will be
collision. (A) 10.7 kg/sec (B) 0.07 kg/sec
II. The velocities of R and S were equal at the mid (C) 1.4 kg/sec (D) 0.7 kg/sec
time of the collision.
III. The mass of R was greater than mass of S. 56. A rocket of mass 4000 kg is set for vertical firing.
(A) I only (B) II only How much gas must be ejected per second so that
(C) I and II only (D) I, II and III the rocket may have initial upwards acceleration of
49. A ball is dropped from a height h. As is bounces magnitude 19.6 m/s2. [Exhaust speed of fuel = 980 m/
off the floor, its speed is 80 percent of what it was s]
just before it hit the floor. The ball will then rise to a (A) 240 kg s–1 (B) 60 kg s–1
–1
height of most nearly (C) 120 kg s (D) none
(A) 0.80 h (B) 0.75 h
(C) 0.64 h (D) 0.50 h 57. A wagon filled with sand has a hole so that sand
leaks through the bottom at a constant rate . An
50. A ball is thrown vertically downwards with velocity 
external force F acts on the wagon in the direction of
2gh from a height h. After colliding with the ground
motion. Assuming instantaneous velocity of the wagon
it just reaches the starting point. Coefficient of
to be v and initial mass of system to be m0, the force
restitution is
equation governing the motion of the wagon is :
(A) 1 / 2 (B) 1/2  
 dv   dv 
(A) F  m 0  v (B) F  m 0 – v
(C) 1 (D) 2 dt dt
 
 dv  dv 
(C) F  (m 0 – t ) (D) F  (m 0 – t )  v
51. A ball is dropped from height 5m. The time after dt dt
which ball stops rebounding if coefficient of restitution
between ball and ground e = 1/2, is

Exercise - II Multiple Choice Problem

1. A body has its centre of mass at the origin. The x- (A) must not move (B) must not accelerate
coordinates of the particles (C) may move (D) may accelerate
(A) may be all positive
(B) may be all negative Question No. 6 to 12 (7 Questions)
(C) may be all non-negative A particle of mass m moving horizontal with v0 strikes
(D) may be positive for some cases and negative in a smooth wedge of mass M, as shown in figure. After
other cases collision, the ball starts moving up the inclined face of
the wedge and rises to a
2. An object comprises of a uniform ring of radius R height h.
and its uniform chord AB (not necessarily made of the
same material) as shown. Which of the following can
not be the centre of mass
y of the object.
h
B
m v0 M
x 6. The final velocity of the wedge v2 is

A
mv 0 mv 0
(A) (B)
(A) (R/3, R/3) (B) (R3, R/2) M Mm
(C) v0 (D) insufficient data
(C) (R/4, R/4) (D) (R / 2, R / 2 )
7. When the particle has risen to a height h on the

3. In which of the following cases the centre of mass wedge, then choose the correct alternative(s)
of a an rod is certainly not at its centre ? (A) The particle is stationary with respect to ground
(A) the density continuously increases from left to (B) Both are stationary with respect to the centre of
right mass
(B) the density continuously decreases from left to (C) The kinetic energy of the centre of mass remains
right constant
(C) the density decreases from left to right upto the (D) The kinetic energy with respect to centre of mass
centre and then increase is converted into potential energy
(D) the density increases from left to right upto the
centre and then decreases 8. The maximum height h attained by the particle is
4. Consider following statements 2 2
 m  v0  m v0
[1] CM of a uniform semicircular disc of radius R = 2R/ from (A)   (B)  
m  M 2g M 2g
the centre
[2] CM of a uniform semicircular ring of radius R = 4R/3 from 2
 M  v0
the centre (C)   (D) none of these.
m  M 2g
[3] CM of a solid hemisphere of radius R = 4R/3 from
the centre
9. Identify the correct statement(s) related to the
[4] CM of a hemisphere shell of radius R = R/2 from situation when the particle starts moving downward.
the centre
(A) The centre of mass of the system remains sta-
Which statements are correct? tionary
(A) 1, 2, 4 (B) 1, 3, 4 (B) Both the particle and the wedge remain stationary
(C) 4 only (D) 1, 2 only with respect to centre of mass
(C) When the particle reaches the horizontal surface
5. If the external forces acting on a system have zero its velocity relative to the wedge is v0
resultant, the centre of mass (D) None of these

10. Suppose the particle when reaches the horizontal (C) maximum extension and maximum compression oc-
surfaces, its velocity with respect to ground is v1 and cur alternately.
that of wedge is v2. Choose the correct statement (s) (D) the maximum compression occur for the first time

after sec.
56
v2 14. Two identical balls are interconnected with a mass-

v1 m less and inextensible thread. The system is in gravity
M
free space with the thread just taut. Each ball is im-
parted a velocity v, one towards the other ball and
(A) mv1 = Mv2 (B) Mv2 – mv1 = mv0
the other perpendicular to the first, at t = 0. Then,
(C) v1 + v2 = v0 (D) v1 + v2 < v0
(A) the thread will become taut at t = (L/v)
(B) the thread will become taut at some time t < (L/
11. Choose the correct statement(s) related to par-
v).
ticle m
(C) the thread will always remain taut for t > (L/v)
 mM  (D) the kinetic energy of the system will always re-
(A) Its kinetic energy is K f    gh
 m  M main mv2.
 M  m
(B) v1  v 0  
M  m 15. A ball moving with a velocity v hits a massive wall
(C) The ratio of its final kinetic energy to its initial moving towards the ball with a velocity u. An elastic
2
Kf  M  impact lasts for a time t.
kinetic energy is  
K i  m  M (A) The average elastic force acting on the ball is
(D) It moves opposite to its initial direction of motion m(u  v)
t
(B) The average elastic force acting on the ball is
12. Choose the correct statement related to the wedge
M 2m(u  v)
t
 4 m2  (C) The kinetic energy of the ball increases by 2mu (u
(A) Its kinetic energy is K f    gh
 m  M + v)
 2m  (D) The kinetic energy of the ball remains the same
(B) v 2    v0
m  M after the collision.
 4 mM   1 
(C) Its gain in kinetic energy is K   
2 
mv 20  16. A particle moving with kinetic energy = 3 joule
 (m  M)   2 
makes an elastic head on collision with a stationary
(D) Its velocity is more that the velocity of centre of particle when has twice its mass during the impact.
mass
(A) The minimum kinetic energy of the system is 1
joule
13. Two blocks A (5kg) and B(2kg) attached to the (B) The maximum elastic potential energy of the
ends of a spring constant 1120 N/m are placed on a system is 2 joule.
smooth horizontal plane with the spring undeformed.
(C) Momentum and total kinetic energy of the system
Simultaneously velocities of 3m/s and 10m/s along the
are conserved at every instant.
line of the spring in the same direction are imparted to
(D) The ratio of kinetic energy to potential energy of
A and B then
the system first decreases and then increases.
3m/s 10m/s
17. Two balls A and B having masses 1 kg and 2 kg,
A 5 2 B moving with speeds 21 m/s and 4 m/s respectively in
(A) when the extension of the spring is maximum the opposite direction, collide head on. After collision A
velocities of A and B are zero. moves with a speed of 1 m/s in the same direction,
then correct statements is :
(B) the maximum extension of the spring is 25 cm

(A) The velocity of B after collision is 6 m/s opposite L

to its direction of motion before collision. (A) The last block starts moving at t = n(n–1)
2V
(B) The coefficient of restitution is 0.2. L
(C) The loss of kinetic energy due to collision is 200 J. (B) The last block starts moving at t = (n – 1)
V
(D) The impulse of the force between the two balls is (C) The centre of mass of the system will have a final
40 Ns. speed v/n
(D) The centre of mass of the system will have a final
18. The diagram to the right shown the velocity-time speed v
graph for two masses R and S that collided elastically.
Which of the following statements is true? 22. An isolated rail car original moving with speed v0
v(ms )
–1
on a straight, frictionless, level track contains a large

1.2 S amount of sand. A release value on the bottom of the
R car malfunctions, and sand begins to pour out straight
0.8
down relative to the rail car.
0.4 (a) Is momentum conserved in this process?
(A) The momentum of the rail car along is conserved
1 2 3 4
t (milli sec) (B) The momentum of the rail car + sand remaining
within the car is conserved
(I) R and S moved in the same direction after the
(C) The momentum of the rail car + all of the sand,
collision.
both inside and outside the rail car, is conserved
(II) Kinetic energy of the system (R & S) is minimum
(D) None of the three previous systems have momen-
at t = 2 milli sec.
tum conservation
(III) The mass of R was greater than mass of S.
(A) I only (B) II only
(b) What happens to the speed of the rail car as the
(C) I and II only (D) I, II and III
sand pours out?
19. In an inelastic collision, (A) The car begins to roll faster
(A) the velocity of both the particles may be same (B) The car maintains the same speed
after collision. (C) The car begins to slow down
(B) kinetic energy is not conserved (D) The problem cannot be solved since momentum is
(C) linear momentum of the system is conserved. not conserved
(D) velocity of separation will be less than velocity of
approach.
20. In a one-dimensional collision between two par-


ticles, their relative velocity is v1 before the collision

and v 2 after the collision
 
(A) v1  v 2 if the collision is elastic
 
(B) v1  – v 2 if the collision is elastic
 
(C) | v 2 | | v1| in all cases
 
(D) v1  – kv 2 in all cases, where k  1
21. A set of n-identical cubical blocks lie at rest par-

allel to each other along a line on a smooth horizontal
surface. The separation between the near surfaces
of any two adjacent blocks is L. The block at one end
is given a speed V towards the next one at time t = 0.
All collision are completely inelastic, then

Exercise - III Subjective Problem

1. The mass of an uniform ladder of length l increases 6. In the arrangement, mA = 2 kg and mB = 1 kg. String is light
uniformly from one end A to the other end B, and inextensible. Find the acceleration of centre of mass of
(a) Form an expression for linear mass density as a function both the blocks. Neglect friction everywhere.
of distance x from end A where linear mass density 0. The
density at one end being twice that of the other end. 7. A small cube of mass m slides down a circular path of radius
(b) find the position of the centre of mass from end A. R cut into a large block of mass M. M rests on a table and
both blocks move without friction. The blocks initially are at
2. Find the distance of centre of mass of a uniform plate having rest and m starts from the top of the path. Find the velocity v of
semicircular inner and other boundaries of radii a and b from the cube as it leaves the block.
the centre O. m
R
M
a
b
O 8. A (trolley + child) of total mass 200 kg is moving with a
uniform speed of 36 km/h on a frictionless track. The child of
3. A thin sheet of metal of uniform thickness is cut into the mass 20 kg starts running on the trolley from one end to the
shape bounded by the line x = a and y = ± k x2, as shown. other (10 m away) with a speed of 10 ms–1 relative to the trolley
Find the coordinates
y of the centre of mass. in the direction of the trolley's motion and jumps out of the
trolley with the same relative velocity. What is the final speed
y=kx2 of the trolley? How much has the trolley moved from the time
x the child begins to run?
a
y=–kx2 9. In the figure shown the spring is compressed by ‘x0’ and
released. Two blocks ‘A’ and ‘B’ of masses ‘m’ and ‘2m’
respectively are attached at the ends of the spring. Blocks are
4. Two balls of equal masses are projected upwards simulta- kept on a smooth horizontal surface and released.
neously, one from the ground with speed 50 m/s and other k
from a 40m high tower with initial speed 30 m/s. Find the A B
maximum height attained by their centre of mass.
(a) Find the speed of block A by the time compression of the
5. In the figure shown, when the persons A and B exchange
spring is reduced to x0/2.
their positions, then
(b) Find the work done by the spring on ‘A’ by the time com-
pression of the spring reduced to x0/2.
A B
10. The figure showns the force versus time graph for a par-
m1 M m2 ticle.
(i) Find the change in momentum p of the particle (ii)
Find the average force acting on the particle
2m
m1=50kg, m2 = 70kg, M = 80 kg
100 N
(i) the distance moved by the centre of mass of the system
is__________.
t(a)
(ii) the plank moves towards_________ 0 0.2 0.4
(iii) the distance moved by the plank is _________.
(iv) the distance moved by A with respect to ground is 11. A force F acts on an object (mass = 1kg) which is initially
____________ at rest as shown in the figure. Draw the graph showing the
(v) the distance moved by B with respect to ground is momentum of the object varying during the time for which the
____________. force acts.

with which the second particle begins to move if the direction of

F(N) u is, (a) along BA, (b) at an angle of 120° with AB, (c) perpen-
dicular to AB. In each case calculate (in terms of m and u) the
5
impulsive tension in the string.
18. Two particle P of mass 2m and Q of mass m are subjected
to mutual force of attraction and no other act on them. At time
t = 0, P is at rest at a fixed O and Q is directly moving away
50 100 t(ms) from O with a speed 5 u. At a later instant when t = T before
any collision has taken place Q is moving towards O with speed
u.
12. A man hosing down his driveway hits the wall by mistake. (a) Find in terms of m and u the total work done by the forces of
Knowing that the velocity of the stream is 25 m/s and the cross- attraction during the time interval 0  t  T.
sectional area of the stream is 300 mm2, determine the force (b) At the instantt = T, impulses of magnitude J and K and
exerted on the wall. Assume that streamstrikes wall horizon- applied to P and Q bringing them to rest. Find the values of J
tally and after striking the wall, stream comes to rest. Also find and K
the pressure exerted on the wall by stream.
19. A block of mass m moving with a velocity v, enters a region
where it starts colliding with the stationary dust particles. If the
desnsity of dust particles is , & all colliding particle stick to its
front surface of cross-sectional area A. The velocity of block
after it has covered a distance x in this region is
__________________.
13. A bullet of mass m strikes an obstruction and deviates off at
60° to its original direction. If its speed is also changed from u 20. A football approaches a player at v = 12 m/s. At what speed
to v, find the magnitude of the impulse acting on the bullet. u and in which direction should the player’s foot move in order
to stop the ball upon contact? Assume that the mass of the
14. A neutro intially at rest, decays into a proton, an electron foot is much greater than that of the ball and that the collision
and an antineutrio. The ejected electron has a momentum of p1 is elastic.
= 1.4 × 10–28 kg-m/s and the antineutrino p2 = 6.5 × 10–27 kg-m/
s. Find the recoil speed of the proton (a) if the electron and the 21. Three carts move on a frictioless track with inertias and
antineutrino are ejected along the the same direection and (b) if velocities as shown. The carts collide and stick together after
they are ejected along perpendicular direction. Mass of the pro- successive collisions.
ton mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg.
m1 = 2 kg m2 = 1 kg m3 = 2 kg
15. A steel ball of mass 0.5 kg is dropped from a height of 4 m v1 = 1 m/s v2 = 1 m/s v3 = 2 m/s
on to a horizontal heavy steel slab. The collision is elastic and
the ball rebounds to its original height. A B C
(a) Calculate the impulse delivered to the ball during impact.
(b) If the ball is in contact with the slab for 0.002 s, find the (a) Find loss of mechanical energy when B & C stick together.
average reaction force on the ball during impact. (b) Find magnitude of impulse experienced by A when it sticks
to combined mass (B & C).
16. A particle A of mass 2 kg lies on the edge of a table of
height 1m. It is connected by a light inelastic string of length 22. A sphere of mass m1 in motion hits directly another sphere
0.7 m to a second particle B of mass 3 kg which is lying on the of mass m2 at rest and sticks to it, the total kinetic energy after
table 0.25 m from the edge (line joining A & B is perpendicular collision is 2/3 of their total K.E. before collision. Find the ratio
to the edge). If A is pushed gently so that it start falling from of m1 : m2.
table then, find the speed of B when it starts to move. Also find
the imulsive tension in the string at that moment. 23. A body is thrown vertically upwards from ground with a speed
of 10 m/s. If coefficient of restitution of ground, e = 1/2. Find
17. Two particles, each of mass m, are connected by a light (a) the total distance travelled by the time it almost stops.
inextensible string of length 2l. Initially they lie on a smooth (b) time elapsed (after the ball has been thrown) when it is at
horizontal table at points A and B distant l apart. The particle at its subsequent maximum height for the third time.
A is projected across the table with velocity u. Find the speed

24. A ball of mass 'm' is suspended by a massless string of A

2kg
length '' from a fixed point. A ball of mass 2m strikes in the 90°
direction of  = 45° from horizontal and sticks to it. 1.5 m
(a) What should be the initial velocity of 2m so that system
4 kg

deflects by  = B
2
(b) If at  = 60° the stirng is cut then what will be the velocity (b) the maximum displacement of B after the impact.
at highest point of trajectory.
28. A small block of mass 2m initially rests at the bottom of a
fixed circular, vertical track, which has a radius of R. The con-
 tact surface between the mass and the loop is frictionless. A
2m bullet of mass m strikes the block horizontally with initial speed
v0 and remain embedded in the block as the block and the
bullet circle the loop. Determine each of the following in terms
45° m
m, v0, R and g.
25. A ball is thrown horizontally from a cliff 10 m high with a

R
velocity of 10 m/s. It strikes the smooth ground and rebounds
as shown. The coefficient of restitution e for collision with the
ground e = 1/ 2 . Find
10 m/s
m, v0
(a) The speed of the masses immediately after the impact.
(b) The minimum initial speed of the bullet if the block and the
(a) velocity of ball just before striking ground. bullet are to successfully execute a complete ride on the loop.
(b) angle of velocity vector with horizontal before striking.
(c) angle of velocity vector with horizotal after striking. 29. A Cart of total mass M0 is at rest on a rough horizontal
(d) range of ball after first collision. road. It ejects bullets at rate of  kg/s at an angle  with the
horizontal and at velocity 'u' (constant) relative to the cart. The
26. A wedge free to move of mass 'M' has one face making an coefficient of friction between the cart and the ground is .
angle  with horizotnal and is resting on a smooth rigid floor. A Find the velocity of the cart in terms of time 't'. The cart moves
particle of mass 'm' hits the inclined face of the wedge with a with sliding.
horizontal velocity v0. It is observed that the particle rebounds
in vertical direction after impact. Neglect friction between par-
ticle and the wedge & take M = 2m, v0 = 10 m/s, tan  = 2, g

= 10 m/s2
 M
(a) Determine the coefficient of restitution for the impact.

(b) Assume that the inclined face of the wedge is sufficiently
long so that the particle hits the same face once more during
its downward motion. Calculate the time elapsed between the
two impacts.
27. A sphere A is released from rest in the position shown and

strikes the block B which is at rest. If e = 0.75 between A and
B and k = 0.5 between B and the support, determine
(a) the velocity of A just after the impact

Exercise - IV Tough Subjective Problem
1. In a game of Carom Board, the Queen (a wooden 5. A massive vertical wall is approaching a man at a
disc of radius 2 cm and mass 50 gm) is placed at the speed u. When it is at a distance of 10m, the man
exact center of the horizontal board. The striker is a throws a ball with speed 10 m/s an at angle of 37°
smooth plastic disc of radius 3 cm and mass 100 gm. which after completely elastic rebound reaches back
The board is frictionless. Th striker is given an initial directly into his bands. Find the velocity u of the wall.
velocity ‘u’ parallel to the sides BC or AD so that is
hits the Queen inelastically with same coefficient of 6. Mass m1 hits & sticks with m2 while sliding horizon-
restitution = 2/3. The impact parameter for the colli- tally with velocity v along the common line of centres
sion is ‘d’ (shown in the figure). The Queen rebounds of the three equal masses (m1 = m2 = m3 =m). Initially
from the edge AB of the board inelastically with same masses m2 and m3 are stationary and the spring is
coefficient of restitution = 2/3. and enters the hole D unstretched. Find
following the dotted path shown. The side of the board
is L. Find the value of impact parameter ‘d’ and the v k
m1 m2 m3
time which the Queen takes to enter hole D af-
ter collision with the striker.
Frictionless
A L B (a) the velocities of m1, m2 and m3 immediately after
impact.
(b) the maximum kinetic energy of m3.
u
L d (c) the minimum kinetic energy of m2.
(d) the maximum compression of the spring.
D C
7. Two masses A and B connected with an inextensible
2. A flexible chain has a length l and mass m. It is string of length l lie on a smooth horizontal plane. A is
lowered on the table top with constant velocity v. giv en a velo city of v m/s alon g the gro und
Find the force that the chain exerts on the table as a perpendicular to line AB as shown in figure. Find the
function of time. tension in string during their sub sequent motion.
B m
3. A 24-kg projectile is fired at an angle of 53° above
the horizontal with an initial speed of 50 m/s. At the
l
highest point in its trajectory, the projectile explodes
into two fragments of equal mass, the first of which
falls vertically with zero initial speed. A 2m v
(a) How far from the point of firing does the second
fragment strike the ground? (Assume the ground is 8. The simple pendulum A of mass mA and length l is
level.) suspended from the trolley B of mass mB. If the sys-
(b) How much energy was released during the explo- tem is released from rest at  = 0, determine the
sion? velocity vB of the trolley and tension in the string
when  = 90°. Friction is negligible.
4. A particle is projected from point O on level ground
towards a smooth vertical wall 50m from O and hits
the wall. The initial velocity of the particle is 30m/s at
45° to the horizontal and the coefficient of restitution
between the particle and the wall is e. Find the dis- B
tance from O of the point at which the particle hits
the ground again if (a) e = 0, (b) e = 1, (c) e = 1/2 l A

9. A ball with initial speed 10m/s collides elastically 11. A cart is moving along +x direction with a velocity
with two other identical ball whose centres are on a of 4m/s. A person in the cart throws a stone with a
line perpendicular to the initial velocity and which are velocity of 6m/s relative to himself. In the frame of
initially in contact with each other. All the three ball reference of the cart the stone is thrown in y-z plane
are lying on a smooth horizontal table. The first ball is making an angle of 30° with the vertical z-axis. At the
aimed directly at the contact point of the other two highest point of its trajectory, the stone hits an ob-
balls All the balls are smooth. Find the velocities of ject of equal mass hung vertically from branch of a
the three balls after the collision. tree by means of a string of length L. A completely
inelastic collosion occurs, in which the stone gets
embedded in the object. Determine
(a) the speed of the combined mass immediately after
10 m/s
collision with respect to an observer on the ground.
(b) the length L of the string such that tension in the
.
string becomes zero when the string becomes hori-
10. A mass m1 with initial speed v0 in the positive x-
zontal during the subsequent motion of the combined
direction collides with a mass m2 = 2m1 which is ini-
mass.
tially at rest at the origin, as shown in figure. After
the collision m1 moves off with speed v1 = v0/2 in the
negative y-direction, and m2 moves off with speed v2 12. Twp equal sphere of mass ‘m’ are suspended by
at angle . vertical strings so that they are in contact with their
centres at same level. A third equal spheres of mass
(A) Find the velocity (magnitude and direction) of the
m falls vertically and strikes the other two simulta-
center of mass before the collision, as well as its ve-
neously so that their centres at the instant of impact
locity after the collision.
form an equilateral triangle in a vertical plane. If u is
(B) Write down the x and y-components of the equa-
the velocity of m just before impact, find the veloci-
tion of conservation of momentum for the collision.
ties just after impact and the impulsive tension of the
(C) Determine tan, and find v2 in terms of v0. strings.
(D) Determine how much (if any) energy was gained
or lost in the collision, and state whether the collision u
was elastic or inelastic.
y v2 m
y m2
v
v
m m

x
v0 m1
m2 = 2m1 After
Before

5. Two block of masses 10 kg and 4 kg are connected
1. Two trolleys A and B of equal masses M are moving
  by a spring of negligible mass and placed on a fric-
in opposite directions with velocities v and  v re- tionless horizontal surface. An impulse gives a veloc-
spectively on separate horizontal frictionless parallel ity of 14 m/s to the heavier block in the direction of
tracks. When they start crossing each other, a ball of the lighter block. The velocity of the centre of mass
mass m is thrown from B to A and another of same is is [IIT(Scr.)-2002]
 (A) 30 m/s (B) 20 m/s
thrown from A to B with velocities normal to v . The
balls may be thrown in following two ways (C) 10 m/s (D) 5 m/s
(i) balls from A to B to A are thrown simultaneously. 6. STATEMENT-1
(ii) ball is thrown from A to B after the ball thrown In an elastic collision between two bodies, the rela-
from B reaches A. tive speed of the bodies after collision is equal to the
Which procedure would lead to a larger change in the relative speed before the collision.
velocities of the trolleys ? [REE-2000] because
2. A wind-powered generator converts wind energy STATEMENT-2
into electrical energy. Assume that the generator con- In an elastic collision, the linear momentum of the
verts a fixed fraction of the wind energy intercepted system is conserved
by its blades into electrical energy. For wind speed v, (A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; State-
the electrical power output will be proportional to ment-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
[IIT(Scr.)-2000] (B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; State-
(A) v (B) v2 ment-2 is NOT correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) v 3
(D) V4 (C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
3. Two particles of masses m1 and m2 in projectile

 
motion have velocities v 1 and v 2 respectively at time 7. The balls, having linear momenta p1  p i and

t = 0. They collide at time t0. Their velocities become p 2  –p i , undergo a collision in free space. There is
   
v 1 and v 2 at time 2t0 while still moving in air. The no external force acting on the balls. Let p1 and p 2
    be their final momenta. The following options(s) is
value of [(m1v 1  m 2 v 2 )  (m1u1  m 2u 2 )] is
(are) NOT ALLOWED for any non-zero value of p, a1,
[IIT(Scr.)-2001)]
a2, b1, b2, c1 and c2.
(A) zero (B) (m1 + m2)gt0
[JEE 2008]
(C) 2(m1 + m2)gt0 (D) ½(m1 + m2)gt0 
(A) p'1  a1î  b1 ĵ  c 1k̂
4. A car P is moving with a uniform speed of 5(31/2)m/   
s towards a carriage of mass, 9 Kg at rest kept on the (B) p'1  c1k̂ ; p' 2  a 2 î  b 2 ĵ ; p'2  c 2k̂
rails at a point B as shown in fig. The height AC is 120 
(C) p'1  a1î  b1 ĵ  c 1k̂
m. Cannon balls of 1 Kg are fired from the car with an   
initial velocity 100 m/s at an angle 30º with the hori- (D) p'1  a1î  b1 ĵ ; p' 2  a 2 î  b 2 ĵ – c1k ; p' 2  a 2 î  b1 ĵ
zontal. The first canon ball hits the stationary car-
riage after a time t0 ans stricks to it. Determine t0. At Paragraph for Question No. 8 to 10
t0, the second cannon ball is fired. Assume that the A small block of mass M moves on a frictionless sur-
resistive force between the rails and the carriage is face of an inclined plane, as shown in figure. The
constant and ignore the vertical motion of the car- angle of the incline suddenly changes from 60° to 30°
riage throughout. If the second ball also hits and sticks at point B. The block is initially at rest at A. Assume
to the carriage. What will be the horizontal velocity of that collisions between the block and the incline are
the carriage just after the second impact ? totally inelastic (g = 10 m/s2). Figure :
[IIT-2001] [JEE 2008]
M
A
v
C 60° B
P
30° C
A B 3m 3 3m

8. The speed of the block at point B immediately after 13. Three objects A, B and C are kept in a straight
it strikes the second incline is line on a frictionless horizontal surface. These have
masses m, 2m and m, respectively. The object A
(A) 60 m / s (B) 45 m / s
moves towards B with a speed 9 ms–1 and makess an
(C) 30 m / s (D) 15 m / s elastic collision with it. There after, B makes completely
inelastic collision with C. All motions occur on the same
straight line. Find the final speed (in ms–1 ) of the
9. The speed of the block at point C, immediately
object C. [JEE 2009]
before it leaves the second incline is
(A) 120 m / s (B) 105 m / s
m 2m m
(C) 90 m / s (D) 75 m / s A B C
10. If collision between the block and the incline is 14. A point mass of 1 kg collides elastically with a
completely elastic, then the vertical (upward) stationary point mass of 5 kg. After their collision, the
component of the velocity of the block at point B, 1 kg mass reverse its direction and moves with a speed
immediately after it strikes the second incline is of 2 ms–1. Which of the following statement(s) is (are
) correct for the system of these two masses ?
(A) 30 m / s (B) 15 m / s
(A) Total momentum of the system is 3 kg ms–1
(C) 0 (D) – 15 m / s (B) Momentum of 5 kg mass after collision is 4 kg ms–1
(C) Kinetic energy of the centre of mass is 0.75 J
11. Look at the drawing given in the figure which has (D) Total kinetic energy of the system is 4 J
been drawn with ink of uniform line-thickness. The [JEE 2010]
mass of ink used to draw each of the two inner circles,
and each of the two line segments is m. The mass of 15. A ball of mass 0.2 kg rests on a vertical post of
the ink unsed to draw the outer circle is 6m. The height 5 m. A bullet of mass 0.01 kg traveling with a
coordinates of the centres of the different parts are velocity V m/s in a horizontal direction, hits the cen-
outer circle (0, 0), left inner circle (–a, a), right inner tre of the ball. After the collision, the ball and bullet
circle (a, a), vertical line (0, 0) and horizontal line (0, travel independently. The ball hits the ground at a
– a). The y-coordinate of the centre of mass of the distance of 20 m and the bullet at a distance of 100 m
ink in this drawing is [JEE 2009] from the foot of the post. The initial velocity V of the
bullet is
m
m
(-a, a)
(a, a) v m/s
(0, 0) 7m
m
(0, -a)
12. Two small particles of equal masses start moving

in opposite directions from a point A in a horizontal
circle orbit. Their tangential velocities are v and 2v, 0 20 100
respectively, as shown in the figure. Between
collisions, the particles move with constant speeds.
(A) 250 m/s (B) 250 2 m/s
After making how many elastic collisions, other than
that at A, these two particulars will again reach the (C) 400 m/s (D) 500 m/s
point A ? [JEE 2011]
V A 2V
(A) 4 (B) 3
(C) 2 (D) 1 [JEE 2009]

Exercise-I
1. D 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. C
8. C 9. A 10. C 11. B 12. D 13. D 14. D
15. C 16. (a) B, (b) C 17. (a) C, (b) B 18. A 19. D 20. A 21. B
22. D 23. D 24. A 25. A 26. D 27. B 28. B
29. B 30. B 31. B 32. C 33. D 34. B 35. B
36. D 37. B 38. A 39. C 40. C 41. C 42. D
43. A 44. D 45. A 46. A 47. B 48. D 49. C
50. A 51. C 52. B 53. D 54. C 55. D 56. C
57. D
Exercise-II
1. C,D 2. B,D 3. A,B 4. C 5. B,C 6. B 7. B,D

8. C 9. C 10. B,C 11. B 12. A,B,C,D 13. B,C 14. A,C
15. B,C 16. A,B,D 17. A,B,C 18. D 19. A,B,C,D 20. B,D 21. A,C
22. (a) A,C (b) B
Exercise-III
x 5 4  b3  a3  3
1. (a) ( x)    , (b) L 2. y  3  2 2  3. a 4. 100 m
L 9 b – a  4
2gR
5. (i) zero; (ii) right ; (iii) 20 cm ; (iv) 2.2 m ; (v) 1.8 m 6. g/9 downwards 7. v 
m
1
M
kx 20 Kx20
8. 9 m/s, 9 m 9. (a) , (b) 10. (i) 20Ns, (ii) 50 N
2m 4
P(N-sec)
0.25
0.125
11. 12. 187.5 N, 625 kPa 13. m  u 2  uv  v 2
50 100 t(ms)
p1  p 2 p12  p 2 2
14. (a)  12.3 m / sec , (b) = 9.4 m/s 15. (a) 4 5 N , (b) 2000 5 N
mp mp
16. 1.5 m/s, 3.6 Ns 17. (a) u/2, mu/2; (b) u 13 / 8 , m u 13 / 8 (c) u 3 / 4 , mu 3 / 4
mv
18. W = –3mu2; J = 6 mu, K = mu 19. (m  Ax) 20. 6 m/s in the direction of football’s velocity

12 40
21. (a) 3J, (b) Ns 22. 2 : 1 23. (a) m , (b) te = 3.25 s
5 3
gl
24. (a) v  3 gl , (b) v = 25. (a) 10 3 , (b) tan–1 2 , (c) 45º, (d) 20 m
2
m 3
26. (a) e = cot2 + = , (g) t = 3 sec. 27. v A  g / 12 m / s , Smax = 49/48 m
M 4
 M0 
28. (a) v0/3, (b) 3 5gR 29. v = (ucos –  u sin  ) ln  M – t  – gt
 0 
Exercise-IV
m
1. ( 5 / 17 cm , 153L / 80u 2. v( v  gt) 3. (a) 360 m, (b) 10800 J 4. (a) 50 m, (b) 10 m, (c) 30 m

5. 13/3 m/s 6. (a) v/2, v/2, 0; (b) 2mv2/9, (c) mv2/72, (d) x  m / 6k v
mA 2gl 2m2A g
7. 2mv2/3l 8. vB  m 1+ m A / mB ; T = 3mA
g + 9. -2m/s, 6.93 m/s 30º
B mB
mv 0 1 5 mv 20
10. (a) v0/3, (b) mv0 = 2mv2 cos, 0 = 2mv2sin– , (c) , v 0 , (d)
2 2 4 16
2 3u 5u 6
11. 2.5 m/sec, 0.312 m 12. v  , u  , T  mv
7 7 7
Exercise-V
1. 2 in case I 2. C 3. C 4. t0 = 12 sec, v = 100 3 /11

1 5. C 6. B
7. A, D 8. B 9. B 10. C 11. a/10 12. C
13. 4 14. A,C 15. D

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ROTATIONAL MOTION
CONTENTS

1. Rigid Body .............................................................................................. 3 – 5
2. Moment of Inertia ................................................................................... 5 – 10
3. Theorems of Moment of Inertia ............................................................. 11 – 14
4. Cavity Problems ................................................................................... 14 – 15
5. Torque ................................................................................................... 15 – 18
6. Body In Equilibrium ............................................................................... 18 – 22
7. Relation between Torque & ................................................................... 23 – 25
Angular acceleration
8. Angular Momentum ............................................................................... 25 – 27
9. Conservation of Angular Momentum ..................................................... 27 – 30
10. Angular Impulse .................................................................................... 30 – 31
11. Combined Translational & ..................................................................... 31 – 39
Rotational Motion
12. Uniform Pure Rolling ............................................................................. 39 – 47
13. Toppling ................................................................................................ 47 – 49
14. Instantaneous Axis of Rotation ............................................................. 49 – 51
15. Exercise - I ........................................................................................... 52 – 59
16. Exercise - II .......................................................................................... 60 – 62
17. Exercise - III ......................................................................................... 63 – 66
18 Exercise - IV ........................................................................................ 67 – 69
19. Exercise - V .......................................................................................... 70 – 76
20. Answer key ........................................................................................... 77 – 78
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Page # 2 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
Syllabus
Rigid body, moment of inertia, parallel and
perpendicular axes theorems, moment of inertia
of uniform bodies with simple geometrical shapes;
Angular momentum; Torque; Conservation of
angular momentum; Dynamics of rigid bodies with
fixed axis of rotation; Rolling without slipping of
rings, cylinders and spheres; Equilibrium of rigid
bodies; Collision of point masses with rigid bodies.
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ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS Page # 3
1. RIGID BODY :
Rigid body is defined as a system of particles in which distance between each pair of particles
remains constant (with respect to time) that means the shape and size do not change,
during the motion. Eg. Fan, Pen, Table, stone and so on.
Our body is not a rigid body, two blocks with a spring attached between them is also not a
rigid body. For every pair of particles in a rigid body, there is no velocity of seperation or
approach between the particles. In the figure shown velocities of A and B with respect to
 
ground are VA and VB respectively
A
VA sin1
A
A VA cos 1
 1 VA
B B
VBA
VB  2 B
VB sin 2
VB cos  2
If the above body is rigid
VA cos 1 = VB cos 2
Note : With respect to any particle of rigid body the motion of any other particle of that rigid body is
circular.
VBA = relative velocity of B with respect to A.
Types of Motion of rigid body
Pure Translational Pure Rotational Combined Translational and

Motion Motion Rotational Motion
1.1. Pure Translational Motion :

A body is said to be in pure translational motion if the displacement of each particle is same
 
during any time interval however small or large. In this motion all the particles have same s, v

& a at an instant.
example.
A box is being pushed on a horizontal surface.
10
6 6
10
16
   
Vcm  V of any particle, a cm  a of any particle
 
Scm  S of any particle
For pure translational motion :-
v
v m2 m2
m1 v m1
v m3 m3
m4 v v m4
m5 vm6 m5 m6
v m8 m8
m7 m7
   
Fext  m1a1  m 2 a 2  m 3 a 3 .............
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Where m1, m2, m3, ......... are the masses of different particles of the body having accelerations
  
a1, a 2 , a 3 ,............... respectively..
   
But acceleration of all the particles are same So, a1  a 2  a 3  .........  a
 
Fext  Ma
Where M = Total mass of the body

a = acceleration of any particle or of centre of mass of body
   
P  m1v1  m 2 v 2  m 3 v 3 .............
Where m1, m2, m3 ...... are the masses of different particles of the body having velocities
  
v 1, v 2 , v 3 ............. respectively
   
But velocities of all the particles are same so v1  v 2  v 3 ..........  v
 
P  Mv

Where v = velocity of any particle or of centre of mass of the body..
1 1 1
Total Kinetic Energy of body = m1v 12  m 2 v 22  .......... .  Mv 2
2 2 2
1.2. Pure Rotational Motion :

A body is said to be in pure rotational motion if the perpendicular distance of each particle
remains constant from a fixed line or point and do not move parallel to the line, and that line
  
is known as axis of rotation. In this motion all the particles have same ,  and  at an
instant. Eg. : - a rotating ceiling fan, arms of a clock.
For pure rotation motion :-
s
 Where  = angle rotated by the particle
r m3
s = length of arc traced by the particle. m2
m2
m1
m5
r = distance of particle from the axis of rotation. 

m3
m4
d m1
m6
 m5 m6
Where  = angular speed of the body..
dt
m4
d
 Where  = angular acceleration of the body..
dt
All the parameters ,  and  are same for all the particles. Axis of rotation is perpendicular to
the plane of rotation of particles.
Special case : If  = constant,
 = 0 +  t Where 0 = initial angular speed
1 2
  0t  t t = time interval
2
2 = 02 + 2
1 1
Total Kinetic Energy  m1v12  m 2 v 22 .................
2 2
1
 [m1r12  m 2r22 ................]  2
2
1 2
 I Where I = Moment of Inertia = m1r12  m 2r22 .......
2
 = angular speed of body.
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1.3 Combined translation and rotational Motion

A body is said to be in translation and rotational motion if all the particles rotates about an
axis of rotation and the axis of rotation moves with respect to the ground.
2. MOMENT OF INERTIA
Like the centre of mass, the moment of inertia is a property of an object that is related to its
mass distribution. The moment of inertia (denoted by I) is an important quantity in the study
of system of particles that are rotating. The role of the moment of inertia in the study of
rotational motion is analogous to that of mass in the study of linear motion. Moment of inertia
gives a measurement of the resistance of a body to a change in its rotaional motion. If a body
is at rest, the larger the moment of inertia of a body the more difficuilt it is to put that body
into rotational motion. Similarly, the larger the moment of inertia of a body, the more difficult
to stop its rotational motion. The moment of inertia is calculated about some axis (usually the
rotational axis).
Moment of inertia depends on :
(i) density of the material of body
(ii) shape & size of body
(iii) axis of rotation
In totality we can say that it depends upon distribution of mass relative to axis of rotation.
Note :
Moment of inertia does not change if the mass :
(i) is shifted parallel to the axis of the rotation
(ii) is rotated with constant radius about axis of rotation
2.1 Moment of Inertia of a Single Particle

r
For a very simple case the moment of inertia of a
single particle about an axis is given by,
I = mr2 ...(i)
Here, m is the mass of the particle and r its distance from the axis under consideration.
2.2 Moment of Inertia of a System of Particles
The moment of inertia of a system of particles about an axis is given by,
2
I= m r i i ...(ii)
i
r1
m1
r2
m2
r3
m3
where ri is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the ith particle, which has a mass mi.
Ex.1 Two heavy particles having masses m1 & m2 are situated in a plane perpendicular to
line AB at a distance of r1 and r2 respectively.
C A
r1 r2
E F
m1 m2
D B
(i) What is the moment of inertia of the system about axis AB?
(ii) What is the moment of inertia of the system about an axis passing through m1
and perpendicular to the line joining m1 and m2 ?
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(iii) What is the moment of inertia of the system about an axis passing through m1
and m2?
Sol. (i) Moment of inertia of particle on left is I1 = m1r12.
Moment of Inertia of particle on right is I2 = m2r22.
Moment of Inertia of the system about AB is
I = I1+ I2 = m1r12 + m2r22
(ii) Moment of inertia of particle on left is I1 = 0
Moment of Inertia of the system about CD is
I = I1 + I2 = 0 + m2(r1 + r2)2
(iii) Moment of inertia of particle on left is I1 = 0
Moment of inertia of particle on right is I2 = 0
Moment of Inertia of the system about EF is
I = I1 + I2 = 0 + 0
Ex.2 Three light rods, each of length 2, are joined together to form a triangle. Three particles
A, B, C of masses m, 2m, 3m are fixed to the vertices of the triangle. Find the moment
of inertia of the resulting body about
(a) an axis through A perpendicular to the plane ABC,
(b) an axis passing through A and the midpoint of BC.
Sol. (a) B is at a distant 2 from the axis XY so the moment of X
A
inertia of B (IB) about XY is 2 m (2)2 m
Similarly Ic about XY is 3m (2)2 and IA about XY is m(0)2
Y
2l
2l
Therefore the moment of inertia of the body about XY is
2m (2)2 + 3 m(2)2 + m(0)2 = 20 m2
(b) IA about X' Y' = m(0)2 B
C
IB about X' Y' = 2m () 2
2m 3m
2
IC about X' Y' = 3m ()
Therefore the moment of inertia of the body about X' Y' is
m(0)2 + 2m()2 + 3m()2 = 5 m2
X'
A m
B C
2m 3m
Y'
Ex.3 Four particles each of mass m are kept at the four corners of a square of edge a. Find
the moment of inertia of the system about a line perpendicular to the plane of the
square and passing through the centre of the square.
Sol. The perpendicular distance of every particle from
the given line is a / 2 . The moment of inertia of
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1
one particle is, therefore, m(a / 2 ) 2 = ma 2 . The m
m
2
moment of inertia of the system is,
1
2
therefore, 4  ma2 = 2 ma2.
/
2
a
m m
2.3 Moment of Inertia of Rigid Bodies
For a continuous mass distribution such as found
in a rigid body, we replace the summation of
2
I m r i i by an integral. If the system is divided
i
r
into infinitesimal element of mass dm and if r is
the distance from a mass element to the axis of
rotation, the moment of inertia is,
2
I= r dm
where the integral is taken over the system.
(A) Uniform rod about a perpendicular bisector

Consider a uniform rod of mass M and length l figure and suppose the moment of inertia is to
be calculated about the bisector AB. Take the origin at the middle point O of the rod. Consider
the element of the rod between a distance x and x + dx from the origin. As the rod is uniform,
Mass per unit length of the rod = M / l
A dx
so that the mass of the element = (M/l)dx. x
The perpendicular distance of the element from 0
the line AB is x. The moment of inertia of this B
element about AB is
M
dI  dx x 2 .
l
When x = – l/2, the element is at the left end of the rod. As x is changed from – l/2 to l/2, the
elements cover the whole rod.
Thus, the moment of inertia of the entire rod about AB is
l/2 l/2
M 2 M x3  Ml 2
I  x dx    
l / 2
l  l 3  –l / 2
12
(B) Moment of inertia of a rectangular plate about a line parallel to an edge and passing
through the centre
The situation is shown in figure. Draw a line parallel to AB at a distance x from it and another
at a distance x + dx. We can take the strip enclosed between the two lines as the small
element.
A x
dx B
l
It is “small” because the perpendiculars from different points of the strip to AB differ by not
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more than dx. As the plate is uniform,

M
its mass per unit area =
bl
M M
b dx  dx .
Mass of the strip =
bl l
The perpendicular distance of the strip from AB = x.
M
The moment of inertia of the strip about AB = dI = dx x 2 . The moment of inertia of the given
l
plate is, therefore,
l/2
M 2 Ml 2
I  x dx 
l 12
l / 2
The moment of inertia of the plate about the line parallel to the other edge and passing
through the centre may be obtained from the above formula by replacing l by b and thus,
Mb 2
. I
12
(C) Moment of inertia of a circular ring about its axis (the line perpendicular to the plane of
the ring through its centre)
Suppose the radius of the ring is R and its mass is M. As all the elements of the ring are at the
same perpendicular distance R from the axis, the moment of inertia of the ring is
I  r 2 dm  R2 dm  R2 dm  MR2 .
  
(D) Moment of inertia of a uniform circular plate about its axis
Let the mass of the plate be M and its radius R. The centre is at O and the axis OX is
perpendicular to the plane of the plate.
X
dx
0
x
R
Draw two concentric circles of radii x and x + dx, both centred at O and consider the area of
the plate in between the two circles.
This part of the plate may be considered to be a circular ring of radius x. As the periphery of
the ring is 2 x and its width is dx, the area of this elementary ring is 2xdx. The area of the
plate is  R2. As the plate is uniform,
M
 R2
Its mass per unit area =
M 2 M x dx
Mass of the ring  2
2  x dx 
R R2
Using the result obtained above for a circular ring, the moment of inertia of the elementary
ring about OX is
 2 Mx dx  2
dI   x .
 R2 
The moment of inertia of the plate about OX is
R
2M MR 2
I R 2
x 3 dx  .
2
0
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(E) Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder about its axis

Suppose the radius of the cylinder is R and its mass is M. As every element of this cylinder is
at the same perpendicular distance R from the axis, the moment of inertia of the hollow
cylinder about its axis is
I  r 2 dm  R 2 dm  MR 2
 
(F) Moment of inertia of a uniform solid cylinder about its axis
Let the mass of the cylinder be M and its radius R. Draw two cylindrical surface of radii x and
x + dx coaxial with the given cylinder. Consider the part of the cylinder in between the two
surface. This part of the cylinder may be considered to be a hollow cylinder of radius x. The
area of cross-section of the wall of this hollow cylinder is 2 x dx. If the length of the cylinder
is l, the volume of the material of this elementary hollow cylinder is 2 x dxl.
The volume of the solid cylinder is  R2 l and it is uniform, hence its mass per unit volume is
M

 R2 l
The mass of the hollow cylinder considered is
M 2M
2 x dx l  x dx .
 R2 l R2
dx
As its radius is x, its moment of inertia about the given axis is
x
 2M 
dI   2 x dx x2 .
R 
The moment of inertia of the solid cylinder is, therefore,
R
2M MR 2
I R 2
x 3 dx 
2 .
0
Note that the formula does not depend on the length of the cylinder.
(G) Moment of inertia of a uniform hollow sphere about a diameter
Let M and R be the mass and the radius of the sphere, O its centre and OX the given axis
(figure). The mass is spread over the surface of the sphere and the inside is hollow.
Let us consider a radius OA of the sphere at an angle  with the axis OX and rotate this radius
about OX. The point A traces a circle on the sphere. Now change  to  + d and get another
circle of somewhat larger radius on the sphere. The part of the sphere between these two
circles, shown in the figure, forms a ring of radius R sin. The width of this ring is Rd and its
periphery is 2R sin. Hence,
the area of the ring = (2R sin) (Rd).
x
M R sin
Mass per unit area of the sphere  . A
4 R2 Rd
M M R
The mass of the ring  2
(2R sin )(Rd)  sin  d. d
4 R 2 0
The moment of inertia of this elemental ring about OX is
M
d I   sin  d. (R sin ) 2  M R2 sin 3  d

2  2
As  increases from 0 to , the elemental rings cover the whole spherical surface. The
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moment of inertia of the hollow sphere is, therefore,

  
M 2 MR2   MR 2  
I  R sin3  d   (1  cos 2 )sin  d 
  (1  cos 2 ) d (cos )

2 2   2  
0 0    0 

MR2  cos 3   2 2
 cos     MR
2  3  3
0
(H) Moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere about a diameter

Let M and R be the mass and radius of the given solid sphere. x
Let O be centre and OX the given axis. Draw two spheres of
radii x and x + dx concentric with the given solid sphere. The dx
thin spherical shell trapped between these spheres may be treated
as a hollow sphere of radius x. 0 x
The mass per unit volume of the solid sphere
M 3M
=  3
4
R 3 4 R
3
The thin hollow sphere considered above has a surface area 4x2 and thickness dx. Its
volume is
4  x2 dx and hence its mass is
 3M  3M
=  3
 (4  x 2 dx) = 3 x 2 dx
 4 R  R
Its moment of inertia about the diameter OX is, therefore,

2  3M 2  2M
dl = x 4 dx
x dx x2 =
3  R 3
R3 
If x = 0, the shell is formed at the centre of the solid sphere. As x increases from 0 to R, the
shells cover the whole solid sphere.
The moment of inertia of the solid sphere about OX is, therefore,
R
2M 2
I= x 4 dx = MR 2 .
R
0
3 5
Ex.4 Find the moment of Inertia of a cuboid along the axis as shown in the figure.
I
b
a
c
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M(a 2  b 2 )
Sol. After compressing the cuboid parallel to the axis I =
12
3. THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA

There are two important theorems on moment of inertia, which, in some cases enable the
moment of inertia of a body to be determined about an axis, if its moment of inertia about
some other axis is known. Let us now discuss both of them.
3.1 Theorem of parallel axes
A very useful theorem, called the parallel axes theorem relates
the moment of inertia of a rigid body about two parallel axes,
one of which passes
through the centre of mass. COM
Two such axes are shown in figure for a body of mass M. If r is

the distance between the axes and ICOM and I are the respective r
moments of inertia about them, these moments are related by,
I = ICOM + Mr2
* Theorem of parallel axis is applicable for any type of rigid body whether it is a two dimensional
or three dimensional
Ex 5. Three rods each of mass m and length l are joined A

together to form an equilateral triangle as shown in
figure. Find the moment of inertia of the system
about an axis passing through its centre of mass and
perpendicular to the plane
COM
of triangle.
Sol. Moment of inertia of rod BC about an axis perpendicular
B C
to plane of triangle ABC and passing through the mid-
point of rod BC (i.e., D) is
ml 2
I1 =
12
From theorem of parallel axes, moment of inertia of this A
rod about the asked axis is
2
ml 2  l  ml 2 COM
I2 = I1 + mr =  m 2  
12 2 3 6
r
 Moment of inertia of all the three rod is 30°
B D C
 ml 2  ml 2
I  3I2  3  
 6  2
Ex.6. Find the moment of inertia of a solid sphere of mass M and radius R about an axis XX
shown in figure.
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x
Sol. From theorem of parallel axis,
IXX = ICOM + Mr2
2 COM
= MR2  MR2
5
7
= MR 2 x
5
r=R
Ex.7. Consider a uniform rod of mass m and length 2l with two particles of mass m each at
its ends. Let AB be a line perpendicular to the length of the rod passing through its
centre. Find the moment of inertia of the system about AB.
Sol. IAB = Irod + Iboth particles A
m(2l )2
  2(ml 2 ) I I
12
m m
7 2
 ml Ans.
3 B
3.2 Theorem of perpendicular axes

The theorem states that the moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular
to the plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about
two axes perpendicular to each other, in its own plane and intersecting each other, at the
point where the perpendicular axis passes through it.
Let x and y axes be chosen in the plane of the body and z-axis perpendicular, to this plane,
three axes being mutually perpendicular, then the theorem states that.
z
y
xi
P
ri yi
O x
Iz = Ix + Iy
Important point in perpendicular axis theorem
(i) This theorem is applicable only for the plane bodies (two dimensional).
(ii) In theorem of perpendicular axes, all the three axes (x, y and z) intersect each other and this
point may be any point on the plane of the body (it may even lie outside the body).
(iii) Intersection point may or may not be the centre of mass of the body.
Ex.8 Find the moment of inertia of uniform ring of mass M and radius R about a diameter.
B
Z
C 0 D
A
Sol. Let AB and CD be two mutually perpendicular diameters of the ring. Take them ax X and Y-
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axes and the line perpendicular to the plane of the ring through the centre as the Z-axis. The
moment of inertia of the ring about the Z-axis is I = MR2. As the ring is uniform, all of its
diameter equivalent and so Ix = Iy, From perpendicular axes theorem,
Iz MR2
Iz = Ix + Iy Hence Ix = =
2 2
Similarly, the moment of inertia of a uniform disc about a diameter is MR2/4
Ex.9 Two uniform identical rods each of mass M and length  are joined to form a cross as
shown in figure. Find the moment of inertia of the cross about a bisector as shown
dotted in the figure.
Sol. Consider the line perpendicular to the plane of the figure through the centre of the cross. The
M 2
moment of inertia of each rod about this line is and hence the moment of inertia of the
12
M 2
cross is . The moment of inertia of the cross about the two bisector are equal by
6
symmetry and according to the theorem of perpendicular axes, the moment of inertia of the
M 2
cross about the bisector is .
12
Ex.10 In the figure shown find moment of inertia of a plate having mass M, length  and
width b about axis 1,2,3 and 4. Assume that C is centre and mass is uniformly distributed
4 2
1
C
3 b

Sol. Moment of inertia of the plate about axis 1 (by taking rods perpendicular to axis 1)
l1 = Mb2/3
Moment of inertia of the plate about axis 2 (by taking rods perpendicular to axis 2)
I 2 = M2/12
Moment of inertia of the plate about axis 3 (by taking rods perpendicular to axis 3)
Mb 2
I3 
12
Moment of inertia of the plate about axis 4(by taking rods perpendicular to axis 4)
I4 = M2/3
3.3 Moment of Inertia of Compound Bodies
Consider two bodies A and B, rigidly joined together. The moment of inertia of this compound
body, about an axis XY, is required. If IA is the moment of inertia of body A about XY. IB is the
moment of inertia of body B about XY.Then, moment of Inertia of compound body I = IA + IB
Extending this argument to cover any number of bodies rigidly joined together, we see that
the moment of inertia of the compound body, about a specified axis, is the sum of the
moments of inertia of the separate parts of the body about the same axis.
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A
X Y
Ex.11 Two rods each having length l and mass m joined together at point B as shown in
figure.Then findout moment of inertia about axis passing thorugh A and perpendicular
to the plane of page as shown in figure.
 A
B ×
C
Sol. We find the resultant moment of inertia I by dividing in two parts such as
I = M.I of rod AB about A +
M.I of rod BC about A
I = I1 + I2 ... (1)
first calculate I1 :
B  A
×
m 2
I1 = ...(2)
3
Calculation of I2 :  ×
use parallel axis theorem /2
d
I2 = ICM + md2 COM ×
m 2  2 
  2  m 2 5 2
= 12  m  m
 4  = ...(3)
  12 4
Put value from eq. (2) & (3) into (1)
m  2 m  2 5 2m
I=  
3 12 4
m 2 5m 2
I= (4  1  15 )  I=
12 3
4. CAVITY PROBLEMS :
Ex.12 A uniform disc having radius 2R and mass density  as shown in figure. If a small disc
of radius R is cut from the disc as shown. Then find out the moment of inertia of
remaining disc around the axis that passes through O and is perpendicular to the plane
of the page.
2R O R
Sol. We assume that in remaning part a disc of radius R and mass density ±  is placed. Then
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M1  (2R) 2
M2  –R2
2R O   R 2R I2 R
× I1
 + ×
when – is takes
when  is taken
Total Moment of Inertia I = I1 + I2
M1(2R)2
I1 =
2
4R2 .4R2
I1 = = 8  R4
2
To calculate I2 we use parallel axis theorem.
I2 = ICM + M2R2
M2R2
I2 = + M2R2
2
3 3 3
I2 = M2R2 = (– R 2 )R2 I2 = – R4
2 2 2
Now I = I1 + I2
4 3 13
I = 8 R – R4 I= R 4
2 2
Ex.13 A uniform disc of radius R has a round disc of radius R/3 cut as shown in Fig. The mass
of the remaining (shaded) portion of the disc equals M. Find the moment of inertia of
such a disc relative to the axis passing through geometrical centre of original disc and
perpendicular to the plane of the disc.
O
3
R/
Sol. Let the mass per unit area of the material of disc
be . Now the empty space can be considered as
having density –  and .
Now I0 = I + I– 
(R2)R2/2 = M.I of  about O
– (R / 3) 2 (R / 3) 2
I– =  [– (R / 3) 2 ]( 2R / 3) 2
2
= M.I of –  about 0
4
 I0 = R 4 Ans.
9
5. TORQUE :
Torque represents the capability of a force to produce change in the rotational motion of the
body
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Line of action
of force
P F
r
r sin
Q
5.1 Torque about point :

   
Torque of force F about a point   r F

where F = force applied
P = point of application of force
Q = point about which we want to calculate the torque.

r = position vector of the point of application of force from the point about which we
want to determine the torque.

  rF sin  = rF = rF
where  = angle between the direction of force and the position vector of P wrt. Q.
r = perpendicular distance of line of action of force from point Q.
F = force arm
SI unit to torque is Nm
Torque is a vector quantity and its direction is determined using right hand thumb rule.
Ex.14 A particle of mass M is released in vertical plane from a point P at x = x0 on the x-axis
it falls vertically along the y-axis. Find the torque  acting on the particle at a time t
about origin?
O x0 P
x
 r

Sol.

mg
Torque is produced by the force of gravity

  r F sin  k
or   r F  x 0 mg
Ex.15 Calculate the total torque acting on the body shown in figure about the point O
10N
15N
37°
m
6c
90°
O
4cm
3c
30° m
150°
5N
20N
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15sin37°
10N 15N
37°
m
90°
6c
O
Sol. 4cm 5N
4cm
30° 20N
150°
20sin30°
0 = 15sin37 × 6 + 20 sin 30° × 4 – 10 × 4

= 54 + 40 – 40 = 54 N-cm
0 = 0.54 N-m
Ex.16 A particle having mass m is projected with a velocity

v0 from a point P on a horizontal ground making an
angle  with horizontal. Find out the torque about V0
the point of projection acting on the particle when

(a) it is at its maximum height ?
P Q
(b) It is just about to hit the ground back ?
Sol.
(a) Particle is at maximum height then  about point P is  p  r F v0
R r
mg
F = mg ; r 
2 
R v 20 sin 2 P
 P = mg = mg 
2 2g
mv 20 sin 2
p =
2
(b) when particle is at point Q then  about point P is  p'  rF
r  R ; F = mg Q
P
v 02 sin2 mg
 p'  mgR = mg
g
Ex.17 In the previous question, during the motion of particle from P to Q. Torque of
gravitational force about P is :
(A) increasing (B) decreasing
(C) remains constant (D) first increasing then decreasing
Sol. Torque of gravitational force about P is increasing because r is increasing from O to R.
(Range)
5.2 Torque about axis :

  
  r F

where  = torque acting on the body about the axis of rotation

r = position vector of the point of application of force about the axis of rotation.
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
F = force applied on the body..
   
 net   1   2   3 .....
To understand the concept of torque about axis we
take a general example which comes out in daily life.
Figure shows a door ABCD. Which can rotate about axis
AB. Now if we apply force. F at point.
A D
r × y
x
B C
in inward direction then AB = r F and direction of this

AB is along y axis from right hand thumb rule. Which is
parallel to AB
so gives the resultant torque.
Now we apply force at point C in the direction as shown
 
figure. At this time r & F are perpendicular to each other
which gives
 AB  rF
But door can’t move when force is applied in this direction because the direction of  AB is
perpendicular to AB according to right hand thumb rule.
So there is no component of  along AB which gives res  0

Now conclude Torque about axis is the component of r  F parallel to axis of rotation.
Note : The direction of torque is calculated using right hand thumb rule and it is always
perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the body.
F2
r2
F3 r3 × r1 F1
If F1 or F2 is applied to body, body revolves in anti-clockwise direction and F3 makes body

revolve in clockwise direction. If all three are applied.

 resul tan t  F1r1  F2r2 – F3 r3 (in anti-clockwise direction)
6. BODY IS IN EQUILIBRIUM : -
We can say rigid body is in equillibrium when it is in
(a) Translational equilibrium

i.e. Fnet  0
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Fnet x = 0 and Fnet y = 0 and

(b) Rotational equillibrium

 net  0
i.e., torque about any point is zero
Note :
(i) If net force on the body is zero then net torque of the forces may or may not be zero.
example.
A pair of forces each of same magnitude and acting in opposite direction on the rod.
F
A B C
2
F
 A  2F
(2) If net force on the body is zero then torque of the forces about each and every point is same
 about B  B  F  + F
 B  2F
 about C  C  2F
Ex.18 Determine the point of application of third force for which body is in equillibrium when
forces of 20 N & 30 N are acting on the rod as shown in figure
20N
A 10cm C 20cm B
30N
Sol. Let the magnitude of third force is F, is applied in upward direction then the body is in the
equilibrium when

(i) Fnet  0 (Translational Equillibrium)
 20 + F = 30  F = 10 N
So the body is in translational equilibrium when 10 N force act on it in upward direction.
(ii) Let us assume that this 10 N force act. 10N
Then keep the body in rotational equilibrium 20N
x
So Torque about C = 0
i.e. c = 0 A C 20cm B
 30 × 20 = 10 x
30N
x = 60 cm
so 10 N force is applied at 70 cm from point A to keep the body in equilibrium.
Ex.19 Determine the point of application of force, when forces are acting on the rod as shown in
figure.
10N
5N
5cm 5cm
3N
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
Sol. Since the body is in equillibrium so we conclude F net  0 and torque about any point is zero

i.e., 
net  0
10N
5N 6
F2 x 37°
A  8N
F
F1 3N
Let us assume that we apply F force downward at A angle  from the horizontal, at x distance
from B

From F net  0
 Fnet x = 0 which gives
F2 = 8 N
From Fnet y = 0  5 + 6 = F1 + 3
 F1 = 8 N
If body is in equillibrium then torque about point B is zero.
 3 × 5 + F1. x – 5 × 10 = 0
 15 + 8x – 50 = 0
35
x=  x = 4.375 cm
9
Ex.20 A uniform rod length , mass m is hung from two strings of equal length from a ceiling
as shown in figure. Determine the tensions in the strings ?
/4
A B
Sol. Let us assume that tension in left and right string is TA and TB respectively. Then
 
Rod is in equilibrium then Fnet  0 & net  0

From Fnet  0
mg = TA + TB ...(1)
TA TB
From net = 0 about A
 /2  /4
 3
mg  TB  0 A B
2 4
mg
2mg
 TB =
3
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2mg mg
from eq. (1) TA  = mg  TA =
3 3
Ladder Problems :
Ex.21 A stationary uniform rod of mass ‘m’, length ‘’ leans against a smooth vertical wall
making an angle  with rough horizontal floor. Find the normal force & frictional force
that is exerted by the floor on the rod?
smooth

rough
Sol. As the rod is stationary so the linear acceleration and angular acceleration of rod is zero.
i.e., acm = 0 ;  = 0.
A
N2 = f N2
 acm =0
N = mg
1
N1
mgcos 
Torque about any point of the rod should also be zero
=0 
mg 
 B
A = 0  mg cos  + f  sin  = N1 cos . 
2 f
Free Body Diagram
mgcos 
N1 cos  = sin  f +
2
mgcos  mgcot 
f= =
2 sin  2
Ex.22 The ladder shown in figure has negligible mass and rests on a frictionless floor. The
crossbar connects the two legs of the ladder at the middle. The angle between the two
legs is 60°. The fat person sitting on the ladder has a mass of 80 kg. Find the contanct
force exerted by the floor on each leg and the tension in the crossbar.
W
1m
60°
N T N
1m °
30
Sol. The forces acting on different parts are shown in figure. Consider the vertical equilibrium of
“the ladder plus the person” system. The forces acting on this system are its weight (80 kg)
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g and the contact force N + N = 2 N due to the floor. Thus

2 N = (80 kg) g or N = (40 kg) (9.8 m/s2) = 392 N
Next consider the equilibrium of the left leg of the ladder. Taking torques of the forces acting on
it about the upper end,
2 2
N (2m) tan 30° = T (1m) or T=N = (392 N) × = 450 N
3 3
Ex.23 A thin plank of mass m and length  is pivoted at one end and it is held stationary in
horizontal position by means of a light thread as shown in the figure then find out the
force on the pivot.
Sol. Free body diagram of the plank is shown in figure. N2 T

 Plank is in equilibrium condition
So Fnet & net on the plank is zero N1 O A
(i) from Fnet = 0 mg
 Fnet x = 0
N1 = 0
Now Fnet  0
y
 N2 + T = mg ...(i)
from net = 0
 net about point A is zero
so N2 .  = mg . /2
mg
 N2 
2
Ex.24 A square plate is hinged as shown in figure and it is held stationary by means of a light
thread as shown in figure. Then find out force exerted by the hinge.
square plate
T
Sol. F.B.D.
 Body is in equilibrium and
N
T and mg force passing through one line so
from net = 0, N=0
mg
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7. RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION

The angular acceleration of a rigid body is directly proportional to the sum of the torque
components along the axis of rotation. The proportionality constant is the inverse of the
moment of inertia about that axis, or


I
Thus, for a rigid body we have the rotational analog of Newton's second law ;
   I ...(iii)
Following two points are important regarding the above equation.
(i) The above equation is valid only for rigid bodies. If the body is not rigid like a rotating tank
of water, the angular acceleration  is different for different particles.
(ii) The sum  in the above equation includes only the torques of the external forces,
because all the internal torques add to zero.
Ex.25 A uniform rod of mass m and length  can rotate in vertical plane about a smooth
horizontal axis hinged at point H.

×
H A
(i) Find angular acceleration  of the rod just after it is released from initial horizontal position
from rest?
(ii) Calculate the acceleration (tangential and radial) of point A at this moment.
Sol. (i) H = IH 
 m 2 3g
mg. =  =
2 3 2
3g 3g
(ii) aA = a = . =
2 2
aCA = 2r = 0. = 0 (  = 0 just after release)
Ex.26 A uniform rod of mass m and length  hinged at point H can rotate in vertical plane
about a smooth horizontal axis. Find force exerted by the hinge just after the rod is
released from rest, from an initial position making an angle of 37° with horizontal ?

37°
×
H
Sol. Just After releasing at 37º from horizontal F.B.D. of plank 
from net = I
N1
R 37º
 m 2
 about point A = A = mg cos 37° = . mg mgcos 37º
2 3
A N2
6g
= rad/sec2
5
Now Tangential acceleration of centre of mass
3g
m / s2

at = . =
2 5
just after release vcm = 0  ar = 0
Now resolving of at in horizontal and vertical direction as shwon in figure
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9g
a t || 
25 N1
N1 37°
R 3g/5 mg
12g
N2 a t  N2
25
from Fnet = ma in both horizontal and vertical direction
 9g  13mg
N2= m   N1 =
25 25
Now R= N12  N22
mg 10
R=
5
PULLEY BLOCK SYSTEM
If there is friction between pulley and string and pulley have some mass then tension is
different on two sides of the pulley.
Reason : To understand this concept we take a pulley block system as shown in figure.

B R
C
T1
A D a M>m
a
M m
Let us assume that tension induced in part AB of the string is T1 and block M move downward.
If friction is present between pulley and string then it opposes the relative slipping between
pulley and string, take two point e and f on pulley and string respectively. If friction is there
then due to this, both points wants to move together. So friction force act on e and d in the
direction as shown is figure
This friction force f acting on point d increases the tension T2
T1 by a small amount dT.
f
Then T1 = T2 + dT
or we can say T2 = T1 – f d e C
f
In this way the tension on two side of pulley is different
If there is no relative slipping between pulley and string T1
at a
then   =
R R
Ex.27 The pulley shown in figure has moment of inertia l about its axis and radius R. Find the
acceleration of the two blocks. Assume that the string is light and does not slip on the
pulley.
Sol. Suppose the tension in the left string is T1 and that in the right string is T2. Suppose the block
of mass M goes down with an acceleration a and the other block moves up with the same
acceleration. This is also the tangential acceleration of the rim of the wheel as the string
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does not slip over the rim.
a
The angular acceleration of the wheel  = .
R
The equations of motion for the mass M,
the mass m and the pulley are as follows ; R
Mg – T1 = Ma ...(i)
T2 – mg = ma ...(ii)
m
Ia
T1R – T2R = I = ...(iii) M
R
Substituting for T1 and T2 from equations (i) and (ii) in equation (iii)
Ia
[M(g – a) – m (g + a)]R =
R
Solving, we get
(M – m)gR2
a=
I  (M  m)R2
8. ANGULAR MOMENTUM
8.1 Angular momentum of a particle about a point.
  
L  r P  L = r p sin 

|L|  r  P

|L|  P  r Pcos 
 
Where P = momentum of partilcle 
P

r = position of vector of particle with respect to point about which 
r P sin 
angular momentum is to be calculated.
 
 = angle between vectors r & p
O
r = perpendicular distance of line of motion of particle from point O.
P = perpendicular component of momentum.
SI unit of angular momentum is kgm2/sec.
Ex.28 A particle of mass m is moving along the line y = b, z = 0 with constant speed v. State
whether the angular momentum of particle about origin is increasing, decreasing or
constant.
 y P 
Sol. | L |  mvr sin  v
= mvr 
r r  b
mvb
 
 | L | = constant as m, v and b all are constants. O
X
 
Direction of r  v also remains the same. Therefore, angular momentum of particle about
origin remains constant with due course of time.

Note : In this problem | r | is increasing,  is decreasing but r sin , i.e., b remains constant. Hence,
the angular momentum remains constant.
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Ex.29 A particle of mass m is projected with velocity v at an angle  with the horizontal. Find
its angular momentum about the point of projection when it is at the highest point of
its trajectory.
Sol. At the highest point it has only horizontal velocity
vx = v cos . Length of the perpendicular to the y
horizontal velocity from 'O' is the maximum height,
where
v 2 sin 2 
Hmax 
2g H
mv 3 sin 2  cos  O x
 Angular momentum L =
2g
8.2 Angular Momentum of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis

Suppose a particle P of mass m is going in a circle of radius r and at some instant the speed
of the particle is v. For finding the angular momentum of the particle about the axis of
rotation, the origin may be chosen anywhere on the axis. We choose it at the centre of the
 
circle. In this case  
r and P are perpendicular to each other and r  P is along the axis.
 
Thus, component of r  P along the axis is mvr itself. The angular momentum of the whole
rigid body about AB is the sum of components of all particles, i.e.,
L= m r v i i i
i
Here, vi = r i 
2 2
 L= m r i i  i or L =  m r i i
i i
or L = I
Here, I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about AB.

Note : Angular momentum about axis is the component of I along the axis. In most of the cases
angular momentum about axis is I.
Ex.30 Two small balls A and B, each of mass m, are attached rigidly to the ends of a light rod
of length d. The structure rotates about the perpendicular bisector of the rod at an
angular speed . Calculate the angular momentum of the individual balls and of the
system about the axis of rotation.
d
Sol. A
O B
Consider the situation shown in figure. The velocity of the ball A with respet to the centre O
d
is v = .
2
The angular momentum of the ball with respect to the axis is
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 d   d  1
L1 = mvr = m    = md2. The same the angular momentum L2 of the second ball. The
 2   2 4
angular momentum of the system is equal to sum of these two angular momenta i.e., L = 1/2
md2.
9. CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM :
The time rate of change of angular momentum of a particle about some referenence point in
an inertial frame of reference is equal to the net torques acting on it.

 dL
or net  ....(i)
dt
 
 dL
Now, suppose that  net  0 , then  0 , so that L = constant.
dt
"When the resultant external torque acting on a system is zero, the total vector angular
momentum of the system remains constant. This is the principle of the conservation of
angular momentum.
For a rigid body rotating about an axis (the z-axis, say) that is fixed in an inertial reference
frame, we have
Lz = I
It is possible for the moment of inertia I of a rotating body to change by rearrangement of its
parts. If no net external torque acts, then Lz must remains constant and if I does change,
there must be a compensating change in . The principle of conservation of angular momentum
in this case is expressed.
I = constant.
Ex.31 A wheel of moment of inertia I and radius R is rotating about its axis at an angular
speed 0. It picks up a stationary particle of mass m at its edge. Find the new angular
speed of the wheel.
Sol. Net external torque on the system is zero. Therefore, angular momentum will remain conserved.
Thus,
I1 1
I11 = I22 or 2 = I
2
Here, I1 = I, 1 = 0, I2 = I + mR2
I 0
 2 =
I  mR 2
Note :
A Hinge
m
u u
O O
m m m
Case I Case II
Comments on Linear Momentum :

In case I : Linear momentum is not conserved just before and just after collision because during
collision hinge force act as an external force.
In case II : Linear momentum is conserved just before and just after collision because no external
force on the string.
Comments on Angular Momentum :
In case I : Hinge force acts at an external force during collision but except point A all the other
reference point given net  0. So angular momentum is conserved only for point A.
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In case II : angular momentum is conserved at all points in the world.
Ex.32 A uniform rod of mass m and length  can rotate freely on a smooth horizontal plane
about a vertical axis hinged at point H. A point mass having same mass m coming with
an initial speed u perpendicular to the rod, strikes the rod in-elastically at its free end.
Find out the angular velocity of the rod just after collision?
m, 
×
H
u
m
Sol. Angular momentum is conserved about H because no external force is present in horizontal
plane which is producing torque about H.
 m 2 2
 3u
mu =  3  m    w =
  4
Ex.33 A uniform rod of mass m and length  can rotate freely on a smooth horizontal plane
about a vertical axis hinged at point H. A point mass having same mass m coming with
an initial speed u perpendicular to the rod, strikes the rod and sticks to it at a distance
of 3/4 from hinge point. Find out the angular velocity of the rod just after collision?
m, 
H×
m,
Sol. H Initial position
3/4 u
m
from angular momentum conservation about H
initial angular momentum = final angular momentum
2 2
3  3  ml
m. u  m   + 
4  4 3
m, 
3mu 1 9  H
  m 2    m
4  3 16 
3u  16  27 
 
4   48 
36 u
 
43 
Ex.34 A uniform rod AB of mass m and length 5a is free to rotate on a smooth horizontal
table about a pivot through P, a point on AB such that AP = a. A particle of mass 2m
moving on the table strikes AB perpendicularly at the point 2a from P with speed v, the
1
rod being at rest. If the coefficient of restitution between them is , find their speeds
4
immediately after impact.
Sol. Let the point of impact be Q so that
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PQ = 2a
Let P be the point of pivot that AP = a
5a
Pm Q
A B
C v
a
2m
Before Collision
Let the velocities of point, Q and the particle after impact
be vq and vp respectively then from momentum conservation about point P.
Li = L f
2a(2mv) = Ip + (2a) (2mvp) ...(i)  Vq
P
2 2 C Q
1  5a   3a  use parallel 
IP  m   m     3a/2
3  2  2 axis theorem Vp
After Collision
13 ma 2
 ...(ii)
3
use equation (ii) in equation (i)
13 ma2
4ma(v – vp) = 
3
12(v – vp) = 13a ....(iii)
velocity of seperation
coefficient of restitution e =
velocity of approach
1 vq  vp

4 v
v
 vq – vp = ...(iv)
4
vq = 2a ...(v)
Put value of  from eq (iii) to equation (v)
 12 
vq  2   (v  vp )
 13 
So now from equation (iv)
24 v 83 v
( v – vp )  v p   vp 
13 4 148
15 v
So in this way we get  
37 a
Ex.35 A person of mass m stands at the edge of a circular platform of radius R and moment
of inertia. A platform is at rest initially. But the platform rotate when the person jumps
off from the platform tangentially with velocity u with respect to platfrom. Determine
the angular velocity of the platform.
Sol. Let the angular velocity of platform is . Then the velocity of person with respect to ground
v.
vmD = vmG – VDG

u = vm + R R
vm = u –  R M
Now from angular momentum conservation
R
Li = L f
0 = mvmR – I 
 I  = m (u –  R) . R u
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muR
 =
I  mR 2
Ex.36 Consider the situation of previous example. If the platform is rotating intially with
angular velocity 0 and then person jumps off tangentially. Determine the new angular
velocity of the platform.
Sol. Let the angular velocity of platfrom after jumps off the mass is . Then velocity Of man.
0

R
R
u
Initially
vm = vmp + vp
vm = u – R
From Angular momentum conservation
(I + mR2) 0 = I  – m (u –  R) R
I0 + mR2 0 = I  – m u R + m  R2
(I  mR 2 )0  mu R
 
(I  mR 2 )
10. ANGULAR IMPULSE

t2 
The angular impulse of a torque in a given time interval is defined as   dt
t1
Here, 
 is the resultant torque acting on the body. Further, since

 dL 
     dt  d L
dt
t2   
or  dt = angular impulse = L 2 – L 1
 t1
Thus, the angular impulse of the resultant torque is equal to the change in angular momentum.
Let us take few examples based on the angular impulse.
Ex.37 Figure shows two cylinders of radii r1 and r2 having moments of inertia I1 and I2 about
their respective axes. Initially, the cylinders rotate about their axes with angular speeds
1 and 2 as shown in the figure. The cylinders are moved closer to touch each other
keeping the axes parallel. The cylinders first slip over each other at the contact but the
slipping finally ceases due to the friction between them. Find the angular speeds of
the cylinders after the slipping ceases.
2
1
r I1 r I2
1 2
Sol. When slipping ceases, the linear speeds of the points of contact of the two cylinders will be
equal. If  1 ' and  2 ' be the respective angular speeds, we have
 1 ' r1   2 ' r2 .....(i)
The change in the angular speed is brought about by the frictional force which acts as long
as the slipping exists. If this force f acts for a time t, the torque on the first cylinder is fr1 and
that on the second is f r2. Assuming 1 r1 > 2 r2, the corresponding angular impluses are – f
r1 t and f r2 t. We, therefore, have
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– f r1 t = I 1 (  1 '   1 )
and f r2 t = I 2 (  2 '   2 )
I1 I
or, – ( 1 '– 1 ) = 2 ( 2 '– 2 ) ...(ii)
r1 r2
Solving (i) and (ii),
I1 1r2  I2  2r1 I1 1r2  I2  2r1
 1' = r2 and  2 '  r1
I2r12  I1r22 I2r12  I1r22
Kinetic Energy of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis.
Suppose a rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis with angular speed . 
Then, kinetic energy of the rigid body will be :
ri
1 1 mi
K=  mi v i2 =  mi (ri ) 2
i
2 i
2
1 2 2 1 2
= 2 m r
i
i i =
2
I (as m ri i
2
 I)
i
1 2
Thus, KE =I
2
Sometimes it is called the rotational kinetic energy.
Ex.38 A uniform rod of mass m and length  is kept vertical with the lower end clamped. It is
slightly pushed to let it fall down under gravity. Find its angular speed when the rod is
passing through its lowest position. Neglect any friction at the clamp. What will be the
linear speed of the free end at this instant?
Sol. As the rod reaches its lowest position, the centre of mass is lowered by a distance . Its
gravitational potential energy is decreased by mg. As no energy is lost against friction, this
should be equal to the increase in the kinetic energy. As the rotation occurs about the
horizontal axis through the clamped end, the moment of inertia is I = m 2/3. Thus,
1 2 1  m 2  2
I  mg     = mg 
2 2  3  
6g 
–
or =

The linear speed of the free end is
v =  = 6g
11. COMBINED TRANSLATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL MOTION OF A RIGID BODY :
We have already learnt about translational motion caused by a force and rotational motion
about a fixed axis caused by a torque. Now we are going to discuss a motion in which body
undergoes translational as well as rotational motion. Rolling is an example of such motion. If
the axis of rotation is moving then the motion is combined translational and rotational motion.
To understand the concept of combined translational and rotational motion we consider a
uniform disc rolling on a horizontal surface. Velocity of its centre of mass is Vcom and its
angular speed is  as shown in figure.
R A v
Let us take a point A on the disc and concentrate on its motion.
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Path of point A with respect to ground will be a cycloid as shown in figure.
A

v A A
A A
Motion of point A with respect to center of mass is pure rotational while center of mass itself
is moving in a straight line. So for the analysis of rolling motion we deal translational motion
seperately and rotational motion seperately and then we combine the result to analyses the
over all motion.
The velocity of any point A on the rigid body can be obtained as
  
VA  VCOM  VA COM

| VCOM |  V

| V A.COM | r in the direction  to line OA
 
Thus, the velocity of point A is the vector sum of VCOM and VP.COM as shown in figure

r VA O
A VCOM
Important points in combined Rotational + translation motion :

1. Velocity of any point of the rigid body in combined R + T motion is the vector sum of
v(velocity of centre of mass) and r
for example
A disc of radius r has linear velocity v and angular velocity  as shown in figure then find
velocity of point A. B, C, D on the disc
C
r
B v
D

A
We divide our problem in two parts
(1) Pure Rotational + (2) Pure Translational
about centre of mass.
C
r
r v
B D
v v
r +
r
r A
v
Then combine the result of above both
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r C v  r
)2
r
(
2
D
v
B v
v  (r )2
2
A v – r
r
2. In combined rotational and translational motion angular velocity of any point of a

rigid body with respect to other point in the rigid body is always same.
For example :
C
2v
v
2v
v D
B v D
v
2r
r (v = r)
2v 2v
v=0
v
A A
2v v
Now for DA DA = =
2r r
C 2v
For CA : 2R
A
2v v
CA = =
2r r
For DB :
2v
2r D
B 2v
vDB = 2v
2v
2v
2v v
 DB = =
2r r
3. Distance moved by the centre of mass of the rigid body in one full rotation is 2R.
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This can be shown as under :

In one rotation angular displacement  = 2 = t
 2 
s = v . T = ( R)    2R
 
In forward slipping s > 2R (as v > R)

and in backward slipping s < 2R (as v < R)
t
4. The speed of a point on the circumference of the body at any instant t is 2R sin
2
Proof :
vxp = v – v cos  = v[1 – cos ] 
vyp = v sin 

| v p |  v 2 sin2   v 2 (1 – cos ) 2 v = R v

v= 2 v 2 – 2 v 2 cos  P v
= 2v(1 – cos )1/ 2
 t   ωt 
= 2v sin    = 2 v sin  = 2R  sin 
 2  2   2 
5. The path of a point on circumference is a cycloid and the distance moved by this point
in one full rotation is 8R.
A3
A2 A4
A1 A5
In the figure, the dotted line is a cycloid and the distance A1 A2 ......A5 is 8R. This can be
proved as under.
According to point (3), speed of point A at any moment is,
 t 
vA = 2R sin  
2
Distance moved by A in time dt is,
c c
 t  v
ds = vA dt = 2R sin   dt  A 
2
A t=t
Therefore, total distance moved in one full rotation is, t=0
T  2 / 
S=  ds
0
T  2 / 
 t 
or S=  2 R sin  dt
 2
0
On integration we get, s = 8R
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6. x and y coordinates of the bottommost point at any time t.

At time t the bottommost point will rotate an angle  = t with respect to the centre of the
disc C. The centre C will travel a distance s = vt.
In the figure, PQ = R sin  = R sin t y
CQ = R cos = R cost
Coordinates of point P at time t are,
C C
R

x = OM – PQ = vt – R sin t P Q
and y = CM – CQ = R – R cos t O M
 (x, y)  (vt – R sin t, R – R cos t) s=vt
11.1 Angular momentum of a rigid body in combined rotation and translation
COM

 v0

r0
O
Let O be a fixed point in an inertial frame of reference. Angular momentum of the body about
O is.
   
L  L cm  M( r 0  v 0 )

The first term L cm represents the angular momentum of the body as seen from the centre of
 
mass frame. The second term M( r 0  v 0 ) equals the angular momentum of centre of mass
about point O.
Ex.39 A circular disc of mass m and radius R is set into motion on a horizontal floor with a
v
linear speed v in the forward direction and an angular speed   in clockwise direction
R
as shown in figure. Find the magnitude of the total angular momentum of the disc
about bottommost point O of the disc.
   
Sol. L  L cm  m( r0  v 0 ) ...(i)
 v
Here, L cm  I (perpendicular to paper inwards)

1 2  v  O
  mR   
2  R

1 r0
 mvR
2
 
and m( r0  v 0 )  mRv (perpendicular to paper inwards) 90º 
v0
Since, both the terms of right hand side of Eq. (i) are in the
same direction.
O
 1
 | L | mvR  mvR
2
 3
or | L | mvR Ans.
2
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11.2 Kinetic Energy of a Rolling Body

If a body of mass M is rolling on a plane such that velocity of its centre of mass is V and its
angular speed is , its kinetic energy is given by
1 1
KE = Mv 2  I  2
2 2
I is moment of inertia of body about axis passing through centre of mass.
In case of rolling without slipping.
1 1
KE = M  2 R2 + I  2 [ v = R]
2 2
1 1
 MR2  I  2
  = Ic  2
2 2
Ic is moment of inertia of the body about the axis passing through point of contact.
Ex.40 A uniform rod of mass M and length a lies on a smooth horizontal plane. A particle of
mass m moving at a speed v perpendicular to the length of the rod strikes it at a
distance a/4 from the centre and stops after the collision. Find (a) the velocity of the
centre of the rod and (b) the angular velocity of the rod about its centre just after the
collision.
r0
A a A v
a/4
Sol.
(a) (b)
The situation is shown in figure. Consider the rod and the particle together as the system. As
there is no external resultant force, the linear momentum of the system will remain constant.
Also there is no resultant external torque on the system and so the angular momentum of the
system about any line will remain constant.
Suppose the velocity of the centre of the rod is V and the angular velocity about the centre
is .
(a) The linear momentum before the collision is mv and that after the collision is MV. Thus,
m
mv = MV, or V = v
M
(b) Let A be the centre of the rod when it is at rest. Let AB be the line perpendicular to the
plane of the figure. Consider the angular momentum of "the rod plus the particle" system
about AB. Initially the rod is at rest. The angular momentum of the particle about AB is
L = mv(a/4)
After the collision, the particle mass to rest. The angular momentum of the rod about A is
   
L  L cm  M( r 0  V )
   
As r 0 || V , r0  V  0
 
Thus, L  L cm
Hence the angular momentum of the rod about AB is
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Ma 2
L  I  
12
mva Ma 2 3mv
Thus,   or, =
4 12 Ma
Ex.41 A uniform rod of length  lies on a smooth horizontal table A particle moving on the
table has a mass m and a speed v before the collision and it sticks to the rod after the
collision. The rod has a mass M then find out.
(a) The moment of inertia of the system about the vertical axis passing through the centre
of mass C after the collision.
(b) The velocity of the centre of mass C and the angular velocity of the system about the
centre of mass after the collision.
Sol. Figure shows the situation of system just before and just after collision.
Initially the centre of mass of the rod is at point O. After collision when the particle sticks to
the rod. Centre of mass is shifted from point O to C as shown in figure. Now the system is
rotated about axis passing through C
v A M
1 
m 2(m  M)
v'
/2 C m
 2 
2(M  m)
O M O
 /2
M
Before collision After collision
Now from linear momentum conservation
mv
mv = (M + m) v  v' 
Mm
(a) Let us assume that moment of inertia of the system about C is 1. Then I  I(rod)C  I(part ) C
I  I0  M 22  m 21
M 2 Mm2  2 mM2  2 M(M  4m) 2

I  2
 2  I 
12 4(m  M) 4(m  M) 12(m  M)
(b) From Angular momentum conservation about A
Li = L f
0 + 0 = I  – (m + M) v 1  I = (m + M) v 1
Put the value of I, v, & 1 we get
6mv
=
(M  4m)
11.3 Acceleration of a point on the circumference of the body in R + T motion :

(A) Both  & v are constant :
C 
r
 2r
D
 2r  2r
2
 r
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(B) When  is constant and v is variable.
 
v1, a v2= v1+at
t=0 t=t
So acceleration of different point on the body is given by following figure.
a
2
 r  2r
 2r 2
 r
a a
+  2r = a  2r
 2r 2
 r
(Translational) (Rotational) a
(Combined R + T)
(C) When  is variable and v is constant :

   i  t
 i ,
v v
t=0 t=t
So acceleration of different point on the body is given by following way
R
 R 2
 R
 2r  2R
 2r a=0
2  2R
 2r   R
 2r R
R
(D) When both  & v are variable :

 i,   f   i  t
v1, a v2=v1+at
time t =0 time t =t
Now the net acceleration of different points on the rigid body is given by following way.
R a
R R
R  2r
 2R  2r
 2R =
a + a
2  2R  2
r
 R R
R R a
R
(Translational) (combined Rotational
(Rotational)
+ Translational)
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Ex.42 A force F acts at the centre of a thin spherical shell of mass m and radius R.
Find the acceleration of the shell if the surface is smooth. N
Sol.  Force F, mg & N passes through centre so
net = 0, i.e., body is in rotational equilibrium F
R
 F
But F net  F so body moves with constant acceleration a =
m mg
Ex.43 In a previous problem if force F applied at a distance x above the centre then find out
linear and angular acceleation.
Sol. This force F translate the body linearly as well as rotate it. So,
Net toruqe about O it 0 = Fx
N
From rotational motion 0 = I 
 Fx F
  3Fx x R
I 2MR2   O a
2
3 2MR mg
From linear motion of sphere smooth
F
F = ma  a=
m
Ex.44 A rigid body of mass m and radius r starts coming down an inclined plane of inclination
. Then find out the acceleration of centre of mass if friciton is absent.
Sol. Friction is absent so body is moving down the incline with out
rolling so acceleration of centre of mass is g sin 

in
gs

12. UNIFORM PURE ROLLING
Pure rolling means no relative motion (or no slipping at point of contact between two bodies.)
For example, consider a disc of radius R moving with linear velocity v and angular velocity 
on a horizontal ground. The disc is said to be moving without slipping if velocities of points P and
Q (shown in figure b) are equal, i.e.,
v 
COM

R P
v
Q
(a) (b)
vp = vQ
or v – R = 0 or v = R
If vp > vQ or v > R, the motion is said to be forward slipping and if vp < vQ < R, the motion
is said to be backward slipping.
Now, suppose an external force is applied to the rigid body, the motion will no longer remain
uniform. The condition of pure rolling on a stationary ground is,
a = R
Thus, v = R, a = R is the condition of pure rolling on a stationary ground. Sometime it is
simply said rolling.
Note : We can represent the moment of inertia of a different rigid body in a following way.
I = CMR2
1
value of C = 1 for circular ring (R), C = for circular disc (D) and solid cylinder (S.C.)
2
2 2
C= for Hollow sphere (H.S) , C= for solid sphere (S.S)
3 5
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Ex.45 A rigid body I = CMR2 is set into a motion on a rough horizontal surface with a linear
speed v0 in the forward direction at time t = 0 as shown in figure. After what time
slipping finally stop and pure rolling starts. Find the linear speed of the body after it
starts pure rolling on the surface.
v0
O
R
at t = 0
Sol. According to the given condition in problem the point P in the body move with speed v0 while
the point Q on the ground is at rest. So the friciton acts on the body is in backward direction
which gives the resultant torque on the body and increase the angualr speed  as shown in
figure.
1 1
v1   1R
v0 O v1 v1 v1 R
O O
P  1R
f v0 v1 R v1
f
(kinetic) Q (kinetic) friction
Q Q
at t = 0 at t = t1 static
at t = t
As shown in above figure initially v > R so forward slipping takes place. After introducing the
friciton speed decreases and  increases and at time t = t the relation v = r  is satisfied.
Therefore pure rolling starts. Initially the friciton is kinetic untill the motion is in slipping
condition. Afterwards at v = r fricition is static. We divide the above problem in two parts.
(1) Translational Motion :
Linear acceleration a = – g
So after time t, v = v0 – gt ...(1)
(2) Rotational Motion :
From net = I 
Only friction force is responsible for providing torque. So torque about O is
f. R = I 
mgR = CmR2 ...(2)
 is angular acceleration of the body
μg
from eq. (2) =
CR
from f = i +  t
g
 = t   = .t
CR
v
= at pure rolling condition.
R
μgt
So, v= ...(3)
C
from eq. (1) & (3)
μgt v 0C
 v0 – gt =  t= ...(4)
C μg(1  C)
Equation (4) gives the time after the pure rolling starts.
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Put the value from eq. (4) to eq. (1)
v 0C v0
v = v0 –  v= ...(5)
(1  C) 1 C
Equation (5) gives the linear speed at pure rolling situation.

Alternate solution :
Net torque on the body about the bottom most point A is zero. Therefore angular momentum
of the body will remain conserved about the bottom most point
Net torque about A A = 0
v
 from Angular momentum conservation Li = Lf 
R
mv0R = I + mvR
v0 v
v
mv0R = CmR2 + mvR
R
v0 A f A f
v0 = Cv + v  v=
1 C
Ex.46 In the previous problem take rigid body a solid cylinder then find out the work done by
friciton from time t = 0 to t = t (at v = r)
Sol. Let us suppose that in between time t = 0 to t = t cylinder displaced s.
t=0 t=t
v0
v  R
S
Translational work done by friciton + Rotational work Done by friciton
Now calculate each type of work done one by one
(A) Translational work done by friciton :
1
for solid cylinder c =
2
v0 2
from eq. (5) v   v0
1 3
1
2
2
2  2
from eq. v 2f  ui2  2as   v 0   ( v 0 ) – 2gs
3 
5 v 20
s=
18 g
Translation W.D by friciton = – f.s
5 v 20 5mv 20
( w.D) f T  – mg. = –
18 g 18
(B) Rotational W.D. by friciton :
We known that =I

= ...(a)
I
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from  f 2 –  i2  2  
2
 2v 0  2
   .
 3R  I
mR2 v 02m
Put I =  =
2 9
Rotation W.D by friciton W = .
v 20 m
Wf R =
9
5 v 2m
(C) So total W.D. by friciton W = Wf + Wf = – mv 20  0
T R
18 9
mv 20
W= –
6
Alternative Method :
from work – Energy Theorem
work done by friciton = change in kinetic energy
(W.D)f = K = kf – ki
Now
1 1
kf = mv 2f + I 2
2 2
2 2
1  2v 0  1 mR 2  2v 0   2v 0 
kf = m   +    v f  
2  3  2 2  3R   3 
mv 20
kf =
3
1
ki = mv 20
2
mv 20 1 mv 20
So., (w.D)f = – mv 20  ( w.D)f  –
3 2 6
To calculate work done mostly prefer alternative method.
Ex.47 A solid sphere of radius r is gently placed on a rough horizontal ground with an initial
angular speed 0 and no linear velocity. If the coefficient of friciton is , find the linear
velocity v and angular velocity  at the end of slipping.
0
Sol. m be the mass of the sphere.

Since, it is a case of backward slipping, force of
friction is in forward direction. Limiting friciton will
act in this case.
Net torque on the sphere about the bottommost
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point is zero. Therefore, angular momentum of

the sphere will remain conserved about the
bottommost point.
Li = L f v
 I0 = I + mrv 0 fmax 0
2 2 2
or mr  0 = mr 2   mr (r )
5 5
2 2
 =  0 and v = r = r 0
7 7
12.1 Pure rolling when force F act on a body :
Suppose a force F is applied at a distance x above the centre of a rigid body of radius R, mass
M and moment of inertia CMR2 about an axis passing through the centre of mass. Now, the
applied force F can produces by itself
(i) a linear acceleration a and
(ii) an angular acceleration 
If a = R, then there is no need of friction and force of friction f = 0,
If a < R, then to support the linear momentum the force of friciton f will act in forward
direction,
Similarly, if a > R, then no support the angular motion the force of friciton will act in
backward direction.
So, in this case force of friction will be either backward, forward or even zero also. It all
depends on M, I and R. For calculation you choose any direction of friction. Let we assume it
in forward direction.
Let, a = linear acceleration, 
 = angualr acceleration
F
from linear motion x
F + f = Ma ...(1) C a
from rotational motion.
Fx – f R = I  f
a
Fx – f R = CMR2.
R
Fx – f R = CMaR ...(2)
from eq. (1) and (2)
F(x+r) = MaR (C + 1)
F(R  x )
a= ...(3)
MR(C  1)
Put the value from eq. (3) to eq. (1)
F(x – RC)
f=
R(C  1)
f should be   s mg for pure rolling
Ex.48 Consider the arrangment shown in figure. The string is wrapped around a uniform
cylinder which rolls without slipping. The other end of the string is passed over a
massless, frictionless pulley to a falling weight. Determine the acceleration of the falling
mass m in terms of only the mass of the cylinder M, the mass m and g.
M
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Sol. Let T be the tension the string and f the force of (static) friction, between the cylinder and
the surface
a1 = acceleration of centre of mas of cylinder towards right
a2 = downward acceleration of block m
 = angular acceleration of cylinder (clockwise)
Equations of motion are :
For block mg – T = ma2 ...(i)
For cylinder, T + f = Ma1 ...(ii)
( T – f )R

1
MR 2 ...(iii)
2
The string attaches the mass m to the highest point of the cylinder, hence
vm = vCOM + R
Differentiating, we get
a2 = a1 + R ...(iv)
We also have (for rolling without slipping)
a1 = R ...(v)
8mg
Solving these equations, we get a2 
3M  8m
Note : Work done by friction in pure rolling on a stationary ground is zero as the point of application
of the force is at rest. Therefore, machanical energy can be conserved if all other dissipative
forces are ignored.
12.2 Pure Rolling on an Inclined Plane:
A rigid body of radius R, and mass m is released
at rest from height h on the incline whose
inclination with horizontal is  and assume that
 f
friciton is sufficient for pure rolling then.
a = R and v = R
a
From figure
mg sin  – f = ma ...(1) 
in
{Fnet = ma} gs
m
2 a
f.R = cmR . ...(2)
R
{Fnet = I}
from eq. (1) & (2)
g sin
a=
1 c
So body which have low value of C have greater acceleration.
value of C = 1 for circular ring (R)
1
C= for circular disc (D) and solid cylinder (S.C.)
2
2
C= for Hollow sphere (H.S)
3
2
C= for solid sphere (S.S)
5
So, descending order of a
aS.S > aD = aS.C > aH.S. > aR
and order of time of descend is
ts.s < tD = ts.c < tH.S < tR
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Kinetic Eneregy : Work done by friction in pure rolling is zero. Therefore,

Increase in kinetic energy = change in potential energy  K.E. = mgh
i.e., kinetic energy is constant for all rigid body rolling down the incline.
Requirement of Friction :
From eq. ...(2)
f = Cma
mg sin 
f ...(3)
 1
1  
 C
from eq. (3) as the value of C increase requirement of friciton is increases.
Ex.49 A cylinder of mass M is suspended through two strings wrapped around it as shown in
figure. Find the tension in the string and the speed of the cylinder as it falls through a
distance h.
Sol. The portion of the strings between ceiling and cylinder are at rest. Hence the points of the
cylinder where the strings leave it are at rest also. The cylinder is thus rolling without slipping
on the strings. Suppose the centre of cylinder falls with an acceleration a. The angular
acceleration of cylinder about its axis given by
a
= ...(i)
R
as the cylinder does not slip over the strings.
The equation of motion for the centre of mass of cylinder is
Mg – 2T = Ma T T
and for the motion about the centre of mass it is
 MR2  MR2
2T.R =   , where I =
 2  2
mg
MR2 a Ma
2TR=  2T= ...(ii)
2 R 2
From (i) and (ii) on adding
Ma 3a
Mg =  Ma ; g
2 2
2g
a=
3
M 2g Mg
 2T= .  T=
2 3 6
As the centre of cylinder starts moving from rest, the velocity after it has fallen a height h is
given by
 2g  4gh
v2 = 2  h or v =
3 3
Ex.50 A thin massless thread is wound on a reel of mass 3kg and moment of inertia 0.6 kg-
m2. The hub radius is R = 10 cm and peripheral radius is 2R = 20 cm. The reel is placed
on a rough table and the friction is enough to prevent slipping. Find the acceleration of
the centre of reel and of hanging mass of 1 kg.
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2R
R
Sol. Let, a1 = acceleration of centre of mass of reel

a2 = acceleration of 1 kg block
 = angular acceleration of reel (clockwise)
T = tension in the string 
and f = force of friction
Free body diagram of reel is as shown below :
(only horizontal forces are shown). a1
Equations of motion are : T
T – f = 3a1 ...(i) f
 f (2R) – T.R 0.2f – 0.1T f T
   = – ...(ii)
I I 0.6 3 6
Free body diagram of mass is,
Equation of motion is, T
10 – T = a2 ...(iii)
For no slipping condition, a2
a1 = 2R or a1 = 0.2 ...(iv)
and a2 = a1 – R or a2 = a1 – 0.1 ...(v)
Solving the above five equations, we get
a1 = 0.27 m/s2 and a2 = 0.135 m/s2 10N
Ex.51 Determine the maximum horizontal force F that may be applied to the plank of mass
m for which the solid sphere does not slip as it begins to roll on the plank. The sphere
has a mass M and radius R. The coefficient of static and kinetic friction between the
sphere and the plank are s and k respectively.
M
R
m F
Sol. The free body diagrams of the sphere and the plank are as shown below :
Writing equations of motion : 
For sphere : Linear acceleration a1
 sMg
a1 =  sg ...(i)  s Mg
M
Angular acceleration  s Mg a2
F M
(  sMg)R 5  s g
 
2 2 R R
MR 2 ..(ii)
5
B a1  R
For plank : Linear acceleration A a2
m F
F –  sMg
a2  ..(iii)
m
For no slipping acceleration of point B and A is same,
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so : a2 = a1 + R
Solving the above four equation, we get
 7 
F   s g M  m
 2 
 7 
Thus, maximum value of F can be  s g M  m
2
Ex.52 Find out the maximum height attained by the solid sphere on a friciton less track as
shown in figure.
v0
0 
R
R v0
Sol. Let us assume that sphere attain a maximum height H on the track.
0
Final Position
v=0
v0 H
0 
R
R v0
Initial Position
As the sphere move upward speed is decreased due to gravity but there is no force to
change the 0 (friction less track). So from energy conservation
1 1 1
mv 20  I 20 = mg Hmax + I 20
2 2 2
v 20
Hmax =
2g
13. TOPPLING
You might have seen in your practical life that if a force F is applied to a block A of smaller
width it is more likely to topple down, before sliding while if the same force F is applied to an
another block B of broader base, chances of its sliding are more compared to its toppling.
Have you ever throught why it happens so. To understand it better let us take an example.
F F
A B
Suppose a force F is applied at a height b above the base AE of the block. Further, suppose
the friction f is sufficient to prevent sliding. In this case, if the normal reaction N also passes
through C, then despite the fact that the block is in translational equilibium (F = f and N =
mg), an unbalanced torque (due to the couple of forces F and f) is there. This torque has a
tendency to topple the block about point E. To cancel the effect of this unbalanced torque
the normal reaction N is shifted towards right a distance 'a' such that, net anticlockwise
torque is equal to the net clockwise torque or
N
B D
F
C b
f
A E
W=mg
Fb = (mg) a
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Fb
or a=
mg
N N
B D B D
F F
C b C b
a
f f
A E A E
mg mg
(a) (b)
Now, as F or b (or both) are increased, distance a also increases. But it can not go beyond
the right edge of the block. So, in extreme case (beyond which the block will topple down),
the normal reaction passes through E as shown in figure.
Now, if F or b are further increased, the block will topple down. This is why the block having
the broader base has less chances of toppling in comparison to a block of smaller base.
Because the block of larger base has more margin for the normal reaction to shift.
Why the rolling is so easy on the ground.
N
F
mg
Because in this case the normal reaction has zero margin to shift. so even if the body is in
translational equilibrium (F = f, N = mg) an unbalanced torque is left behind and the body
starts rolling clockwise. As soon as the body starts rolling the force of friction is so adjusted
(both in magnitude and direction) that either the pure rolling starts (if friciton is sufficient
enough) or the body starts sliding. Let us take few examples related to toppling.
Ex.53 A uniform block of height h and width a is placed on a rough inclined plane and the
inclination of the plane to the horizontal is gradually increased. If  is the coefficient of
friction then under condition the block will
(A) slide before toppling :
The block will slide when
mg sin  > f
 mg sin  >  mg cos 
 tan  > 
i.e., block is at rest when
tan . ...(1)
(B) Now suppose the friction f is sufficient to prevent sliding. Then we assume that N is shifted
towards downward a distance x to prevent toppling Therefore. torque about O is zero.
h h f
 f. =Nx N
2
xO
h
mg sin . = mg cos .x a
2 
os
tan .h
in
 gc
x= s m
2 g
m
Maximum value of x is a/2 
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a
so to prevent toppling x 
2
tan .h
  a/2
2
a
 tan   ...(2)
h
So, the block topple before sliding from (1) & (2)
a
s >
h
14. INSTANTANEOUS AXIS OF ROTATION

The combined effects of translation of the centre of mass and rotation about an axis through
the centre of mass are equivalent to a pure rotation with the same angular speed about an
axis passing through a point of zero velocity. Such an axis is called the instantaneous axis of
rotation. (IAOR). This axis is always perpendicular to the plane used to represent the motion
and the intersection of the axis with this plane defines the location of instantaneous centre
of zero velocity (IC).

IC
For example consider a wheel which rolls without slipping. In this case the point of contact
with the ground has zero velocity. Hence, this point represents the IC for the wheel. If it is
imagined that the wheel is momentarily pinned at this point, the velocity of any point on the
wheel can be found using v = r. Here r is the distance of the point from IC. Similarly, the
kinetic energy of the body can be assumed to be pure rotational about IAOR or,
P v
vP P
r r 
v vP  r  
r


IC
1
I IAOR 2
K
2
Rotation + Translation  Pure rotation about IAOR passing through IC
1 1 1
KE = mv 2COM  ICOM 2  KE  I IAOR 2
2 2 2
14.1 Location of the IC
If the location of the IC is unknown, it may be determined by using the fact that the relative
position vector extending from the IC to a point is always perpendicular to the velocity of the
point. Following three possibilities exist.
(i) Given the velocity of a point (normally the centre of mass) on the body and the
angular velocity of the body

If v and  are known, the IC is located along the line drawn perpendicular to v at P, such that
v
the distance from P to IC is, r  . Note that IC lie on that side of P which causes rotation

 
about the IC, which is consistent with the direction of motion caused by  and v .
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
P v
IC
Ex.54 A rotating disc moves in the positive direction of the x-axis. Find the equation y(x)
describing the position of the instantaneous axis of rotation if at the initial moment
the centre c of the disc was located at the point O after which it moved with constant
velocity v while the disc started rotating counter clockwise with a constant angular
acceleration . The initial angular velocity is equal to zero.
y
O c v x
x x y
Sol. t and   t 
v v
IC
The position of IAOR will be at a distance y
O c v x
v v
y or y 
 x
v x
v2 v2
or yor xy   constant
x 
This is the desired x-y equation. This equation represents a rectangular hyperbola.
(ii) Given the lines of action of two non-parallel velocities

 
Consider the body shown in figure where the line of action of the velocities v A and v B are
known. Draw perpendiculars at A and B to these lines of action. The point of intersection of
these perpendiculars as shown locates the IC at the instant considered.
 A 
vB vA
IC
B
(iii) Given the magnitude and direction of two parallel velocities

When the velocities of points A and B are parallel and
have known magnitudes vA and vB then the location of
the IC is determined by proportional triangles as shown
in figure. A  IC
vA
v
In both the cases, rA,IC  A 
 d A vA
IC
v d
and rB,IC  B  
 vB vB
B B
In fig. (a) rA, I C + rB, I C = d
(a) (b)
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and in fig (b) rB, I C – rA, I C = d

As a special case, if the body is translating, vA = vB and the IC would be located at infinity, in
which case  = 0.
Ex.55 A uniform thin rod of mass m and length l is standing on a smooth horizontal surface.
A slight disturbance causes the lower end to slip on the smooth surface and the rod
starts falling. Find the velocity of centre of mass of the rod at the instant when it
makes an angle  with horizontal.
Sol. As the floor is smooth, mechanical energy of the rod will remain conserved. Further, no
horizontal force acts on the rod, hence the centre of mass moves vertically downwards in a
straight line. Thus velocities of COM and the lower end B are in the direction shown in figure.
 
The location of IC at this instant can be found by drawing perpendiculars to v C and v B at
respective points. Now, the rod may be assumed to be in pure rotational motion about IAOR
passing through IC with angular speed .
A
COM
l
h (1  sin )
 IC 2
vC 
l
sin
2


B vB
Applying conservation of mechanical energy. Decrease in gravitational potential energy of the
rod = increase in rotational kinetic energy about IAOR
1 l 1  ml 2 ml 2 2
 2
 mgh  I IAOR 2 or mg 2 (1  sin )  2  12  4 cos  
2  
Solving this equation, we get

12g(1  sin )

l (1  3 cos 2 )
 l 
Now, | v C |   cos  
2 
3gl (1  sin ) cos 2 

 Ans.
(1  3 cos 2 )
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(A) MOMENT OF INERTIA (A) about P = I/2 (B) about R = I/2

(C) about P > I/2 (D) about R > I/2
1. The moment of inertia of a uniform semicircular
7. A thin uniform rod of mass M and length L has
wire of mass M and radius r about a line
its moment of inertia I1 about its perpendicular
perpendicular to the plane of the wire through
bisector. The rod is bend in the form of a
the centre is
semicircular arc. Now its moment of inertia
1 2 through the centre of the semi circular arc and
(A) Mr2 (B) Mr
2 perpendicular to its plane is I2. The ratio of I1 : I2
will be _________________
1 2 2 2
(C) Mr (D) Mr (A) < 1 (B) > 1
4 5 (C) = 1 (D) can’t be said
2. Let IA and IB be moments of inertia of a body 8. Moment of inertia of a thin semicircular disc
about two axes A and B respectively. The axis A (mass = M & radius = R) about an axis through
passes through the centre of mass of the body point O and perpendicular to plane of disc, is
but B does not. given by :
(A) IA < IB O
(B) If IA < IB, the axes are parallel.
(C) If the axes are parallel, IA < IB R
(D) If the axes are not parallel, IA  IB
3. Three bodies have equal masses m. Body A is 1 1
solid cylinder of radius R, body B is a square lamina (A) MR 2 (B) MR
2
4 2
of side R, and body C is a solid sphere of radius R.
1 2
Which body has the smallest moment of inertia (C) MR (D) MR2
about an axis passing through their centre of mass 8
and perpendicular to the plane (in case of lamina) 9. A rigid body can be hinged about any point on
(A) A (B) B the x-axis. When it is hinged such that the hinge
(C) C (D) A and C both is at x, the moment of inertia is given by
I = 2x2 – 12x + 27 The x-coordinate of centre of
4. For the same total mass which of the following
mass is
will have the largest moment of inertia about an
(A) x = 2 (B) x = 0
axis passing through its centre of mass and
(C) x = 1 (D) x = 3
perpendicular to the plane of the body
(A) a disc of radius a 10. A square plate of mass M and edge L is shown
(B) a ring of radius a in figure. The moment of inertia of the plate about
(C) a square lamina of side 2a the axis in the plane of plate passing through one
(D) four rods forming a square of side 2a of its vertex making an angle 15° from horizontal is.
axis
5. Two rods of equal mass m and length l lie along
the x axis and y axis with their centres origin. 15°
What is the moment of inertia of both about the
line x = y :
L
ml 2 ml 2
(A) (B)
3 4
2
ml ml 2 L
(C) (D)
12 6 ML2 11ML2
(A) (B)
6. Moment of inertia of a rectangular plate about 12 24
an axis passing through P and perpendicular to
the plate is I. Then moment of PQR about an axis 7 ML2
perpendicular to the plane of the plate : (C) (D) none
12
P Q
11. Consider the following statements
Assertion (A) : The moment of inertia of a rigid
body reduces to its minimum value as compared
to any other parallel axis when the axis of rotation
S R
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passes through its centre of mass. 17. One end of a uniform rod of mass m and
Reason (R) : The weight of a rigid body always length I is clamped. The rod lies on a smooth
acts through its centre of mass in uniform horizontal surface and rotates on it about the
gravitational field. Of these statements : clamped end at a uniform angular velocity . The
(A) both A and R are true and R is the correct force exerted by the clamp on the rod has a
explanation of A horizontal component
(B) both A and R are true but R is not a correct (A) m2 l (B) zero
explanation of A 1 2
(C) A is true but R is false (C) mg (D) m 
2
(D) A is false but R is true
18. A rod of length 'L' is hinged from one end. It
Question No. 12 to 14 (3 questions) is brought to a horizontal position and released.
The figure shows an isosceles triangular plate of The angular velocity of the rod when it is in vertical
mass M and base L. The angle at the apex is 90°. position is
The apex lies at the origin and the base is parallel
to X - axis. 2g 3g
(A) (B)
Y L L

M g g
(C) (D)
2L L
X
12. The moment of inertia of the plate about the (B) TORQUE AND PURE ROTATIONAL
z-axis is
MOTION
ML2 ML2
(A) (B) 19. A horizontal force F = mg/3 is applied on the
12 24
upper surface of a uniform cube of mass ‘m’ and
ML2 side ‘a’ which is resting on a rough horizontal
6 surface having s = 1/2. The distance between
13. The moment of inertia of the plate about the lines of action of ‘mg’ and normal reaction ‘N’ is :
x-axis is (A) a/2 (B) a/3
(C) a/4 (D) None
ML2 ML2
(A) (B)
8 32 20. A man can move on a horizontal plank
ML2 ML2 supported symmetrically as shown. The variation
(C) (D) of normal reaction on support A with distance x
24 6
of the man from the end of the plank is best
14. The moment of inertia of the plate about its represented by :
base parallel to the x-axis is x=0
ML2 ML2 A B
(A) (B)
18 36
ML2 1m 4m 1m
24
15. The moment of inertia of the plate about the N N
y-axis is
(A) (B)
ML2 ML2
(A) (B) x x
6 8
ML2 N N
24
SECTION (D) ; FIXED AXIS (C) (D)
16. A body is rotating uniformly about a vertical x x
axis fixed in an inertial frame. The resultant force
on a particle of the body not on the axis is 21. A weightless rod is acted on by upward parallel
(A) vertical forces of 2N and 4N ends A and B respectively.
(B) horizontal and skew with the axis The total length of the rod AB = 3m. To keep the
(C) horizontal and intersecting the axis rod in equilibrium a force of 6N should act in the
(D) none of these following manner :
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(A) Downwards at any point between A and B. (A) left half (B) right half
(B) Downwards at mid point of AB. (C) both applies equal pressure
(C) Downwards at a point C such that AC = 1m. (D) the answer depend upon coefficient of friction
(D) Downwards at a point D such that BD = 1m. 26. Consider the following statements
Assertion (A) : A cyclist always bends inwards
22. A right triangular plate ABC of mass m is free while negotiating a curve
to rotate in the vertical plane about a fixed Reason (R) : By bending he lowers his centre of
horizontal axis through A. It is supported by a gravity Of these statements,
string such that the side AB is horizontal. The (A) both A and R are true and R is the correct
reaction at the support A is : explanation of A
(B) both A and R are true but R is not the correct
A l explanation of A
B
(C) A is true but R is false
l (D) A is false but R is true
27. A solid cone hangs from a frictionless pivot
C
mg 2 mg at the origin O, as shown. If i , j and k are unit
(A) (B)
3 3 vectors, and a, b, and c are positive constants,
mg which of the following forces F applied to the rim
(C) (D) mg of the cone at a point P results in a torque  on
2
the cone with a negative component Z ?
23. In an experiment with a beam balance on z
unknown mass m is balanced by two known mass
m is balanced by two known masses of 16 kg and k o
i y
4 kg as shown in figure. j
l1 l1
x c
l2 l2
m m
16kg 4kg
b
The value of the unknown mass m is (A) F = a k , P is (0, b, –c)
(A) 10 kg (B) 6 kg
(C) 8 kg (D) 12 kg (B) F = –a k , P is (0, –b, –c)
24. A uniform cube of side ‘b’ and mass M rest on (C) F = a j , P is (–b, 0, –c)
a rough horizontal table. A horizontal force F is (D) None
applied normal to one of the face at a point, at a
28. A rod is hinged at its centre and rotated by
height 3b/4 above the base. What should be the
applying a constant torque starting from rest.
coefficient of friction () between cube and table
The power developed by the external torque as a
so that is will tip about an edge before it starts
function of time is :
slipping?
F Pext Pext
b
3b/4 (A) (B)
time time
Pext Pext
2 1
(A)   (B)  
3 3 (C) (D)
3
(C)   (D) none time time
2
25. A homogeneous cubical brick lies motionless 29. A pulley is hinged at the centre and a massless
on a rough inclined surface. The half of the brick thread is wrapped around it. The thread is pulled
which applies greater pressure on the plane is : with a constant force F starting from rest. As
the time increases,
F
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(A) its angular velocity increases, but force on (C) ANGULAR MOMENTUM
hinge remains constant 34. A particle moves with a constant velocity
(B) its angular velocity remains same, but force parallel to the X-axis. Its angular momentum with
on hinge increases respect to the origin.
(C) its angular velocity increases and force on (A) is zero (B) remains constant
hinge increases (C) goes on increasing
(D) its angular velocity remains same and force (D) goes on decreasing.
on hinge is constant.
35. A thin circular ring of mass 'M' and radius 'R'
30. The angular momentum of a flywheel having
is rotating about its axis with a constant angular
a moment of inertia of 0.4 kg m2 decreases from
velocity . Two objects each of mass m, are
30 to 20 kg m2/s in a period of 2 second. The
attached gently to the opposite ends of a diameter
average torque acting on the flywheel during this
of the ring. The ring now rotates with an angular
period is :
velcoity.
(A) 10 N.m (B) 2.5 N.m (C) 5 N.m (D) 1.5 N.m
31. A rod hinged at one end is released from the M M
(A) (B)
horizontal position as shown in the figure. When (M  m) (M  2m)
it becomes vertical its lower half separates without
exerting any reaction at the breaking point. Then M (M  3m)
(C) (D)
the maximum angle ‘’ made by the hinged upper (M – 2m) M
half with the vertical is :
C B A 36. A person sitting firmly over a rotating stool
has his arms streatched. If he folds his arms, his
angular momentum about the axis of rotation
(A) increases (B) decreases
B B (C) remains unchanged (D) doubles.
C 37. A small bead of mass m moving with velocity
(A) 30° (B) 45° (C) 60° (D) 90° v gets threaded on a stationary semicircular ring
32. A block of mass m is attached to a pulley of mass m and radius R kept on a horizontal table.
disc of equal mass m, radius r by means of a The ring can freely rotate about its centre. The
slack string as shown. The pulley is hinged about bead comes to rest relative to the ring. What will
its centre on a horizontal table and the block is be the final angular velocity of the system?
projected with an initial velocity of 5 m/s. Its
velocity when the string becomes taut will be
R
O
v
m
(A) v/R (B) 2v/R
(A) 3 m/s (B) 2.5 m/s (C) v/2R (D) 3v/R
(C) 5/3 m/s (D) 10/3 m/s 38. A man, sitting firmly over a rotating stool has
33. A particle starts from the point (0m, 8m) and his arms streched. If he folds his arms, the work
done by the man is
moves with uniform velocity of 3 i m/s. After 5
(A) zero
seconds, the angular velocity of the particle about
(B) positive
the origin will be :
(C) negative
y
(D) may be positive or negative.
3m/s 39. A particle of mass 2 kg located at the position
( i  j ) m has a velocity 2(  i – j  k ) m/s. Its
8m
angular momentum about z-axis in kg-m2 /s is :
x (A) zero (B) +8
O (C) 12 (D) – 8
8 3
(A) rad / s (B) rad / s
289 8 40. A thin uniform straight rod of mass 2 kg and
24 8 length 1 m is free to rotate about its upper end
(C) rad / s (D) rad / s when at rest. It receives an impulsive blow of 10
289 17
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Ns at its lowest point, normal to its length as Question No. 44 & 45 (2 questions)
shown in figure. The kinetic energy of rod just after A uniform rod is fixed to a rotating turntable so
impact is that its lower end is on the axis of the turntable
and it makes an angle of 20° to the vertical.
(The rod is thus rotating with uniform angular
velocity about a vertical axis passing through one
10 NS
end.) If the turntable is rotating clockwise as
(A) 75 J (B) 100 J seen from above.
(C) 200 J (D) none
20°
41. A ball of mass m moving with velocity v, collide
with the wall elastically as shown in the figure.
After impact the change in angular momentum
about P is :
P
d
 44. What is the direction of the rod’s angular
momentum vector (calculated about its lower end)
(A) vertically downwards
(B) down at 20° to the horizontal
(A) 2 mvd (B) 2 mvd cos (C) up at 20° to the horizontal
(C) 2 mvd sin (D) zero (D) vertically upwards
42. A uniform rod of mass M is hinged at its upper 45. Is there a torque acting on it, and if so in
end. A particle of mass m moving horizontally what direction?
strikes the rod at its mid point elastically. If the (A) yes, vertically (B) yes, horizontally
particle comes to rest after collision find the value (C) yes at 20° to the horizontal
of M/m = ? (D) no
46. One ice skater of mass m moves with speed
2v to the right, while another of the same mass
v m moves with speed v toward the left, as shown
m in figure I. Their paths are separated by a distance
b. At t = 0, when they are both at x = 0, they
grasp a pole of length b and negligible mass. For
M
t > 0, consider the system as a rigid body of two
(A) 3/4 (B) 4/3
masses m separated by distance b, as shown in
(C) 2/3 (D) none
figure II. Which of the following is the correct
43. A child with mass m is standing at the edge formula for the motion after t = 0 of the skater
of a disc with moment of inertia I, radius R, and initially at y = b/2 ?
initial angular velocity . See figure given below.
y y
The child jumps off the edge of the disc with
tangential velocity v with respect to the ground. m 2v
The new angular velocity of the disc is
v b/2
b x x
 t=0
m
(t<0) v
Figure 1 Figure II
I 2 – mv 2 (I + mR 2 ) 2 – mv 2 (A) x = 2vt, y = b/2
(A) (B)
I I (B) x = vt + 0.5b sin (3vt/b), y = 0.5b cos(3vt/b)
(C) x = 0.5vt + 0.5b sin (3vt/b), y = 0.5b cos(3vt/b)
I – mvR (I + mR 2 )  mvR (D) x = 0.5vt + 0.5b sin (6vt/b), y = 0.5b cos(6vt/b)
(C) (D)
I I 47. Two equal masses each of mass M are joined
by a massless rod of length L. Now an impulse MV
is given to the mass M making an angle of 30º
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with the length of the rod. The angular velocity ml

rod after time t  is
of the rod just after imparting the impulse is 12J
J J
M M (A) 2 (B)
m 2m
30° J J
(C) (D) 2
m m
MV
v 2v
(D) COMBINED TRANSLATIONAL +
(A)
L
(B)
L
ROTATIONAL MOTION
v 52. The centre of a wheel rolling without slipping
(C) (D) none of these in a plane surface moves with speed v0. A particle
2L
on the rim of the wheel at the same level as the
48. A uniform rod AB of length L and mass M is centre will be moving at speed.
lying on a smooth table. A small particle of mass (A) zero (B) v0
m strike the rod with a velocity v0 at point C at a (C) 2v0 (D) 2v0
distance x from the centre O. The particle comes 53. A solid sphere, a hollow sphere and a disc, all
to rest after collision. The value of x, so that having same mass and radius, are placed at the
point A of the rod remains ststionary just after top of an incline and released. The friction
collision is : coefficients between the objects and the incline
are same and not sufficient to allow pure rolling.
B
The smallest kinetic energy at the bottom of the
m v0 incline will be achieved by
C (A) the solid sphere (B) the hollow sphere
x (C) the disc
O (D) all will achieve same kinetic energy.
54. A solid sphere, a hollow sphere and a disc, all
having smooth incline and released. Least time
A
will be taken in reaching the bottom by
(A) the solid sphere (B) the hollow sphere
(A) L/3 (B) L/6 (C) L/4 (D) L/12 (C) the disc (D) all will take same time.
49. Two particles of equal mass m at A and B are 55. Fig. shows a smooth inclined plane fixed in a
connected by a rigid light rod AB lying on a smooth car accelerating on a horizontal road. The angle
horizontal table. An impulse J is applied at A in the of incline  is related to the acceleration a of the
plane of the table and perpendicular at AB. Then car as a = g tan . If the sphere is set in pure
the velocity of particle at A is : rotation on the incline.
J J
(A) (B)
2m m
a
2J
(C) (D) zero 
m
50. A uniform rod of mass M has an impulse applied
at right angles to one end. If the other end begins (A) it will continue pure rolling
to move with speed V, the magnitude of the (B) it will slip down the plane
impulse is (C) its linear velocity will increase
MV (D) its linear velocity will decrease.
(A) MV (B)
2 56. A straight rod of length L is released on a
frictionless horizontal floor in a vertical position.
2 MV As it falls + slips, the distance of a point on the
(C) 2MV (D)
3 rod from the lower end, which follows a quarter
51. A uniform rod AB of mass m and length l is at circular locus is
rest on a smooth horizontal surface. An impulse J (A) L/2 (B) L/4 (C) L/8 (D) None
is applied to the end B, perpendicular to the rod
57. A wheel of radius r rolling on a straight line,
in the horizontal direction. Speed of particle P at
the velocity of its centre being v. At a certain
l instant the point of contact of the wheel with
a distance from the centre towards A of the
6
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the grounds is M and N is the highest point on 63. Portion AB of the wedge shown in figure is
the wheel (diametrically opposite to M). The rough and BC is smooth. A solid cylinder rolls
incorrect statement is : without slipping from A to B. The ratio of
(A) The velocity of any point P of the wheel is translational kinetic energy to rotational kinetic
proportional to MP. energy, when the cylinder reaches point C is :
(B) Points of the wheel moving with velocity
greater than v form a larger area of the wheel A
than points moving with velocity less than v.
(C) The point of contact M is instantaneously at
rest. B
(D) The velocities of any two parts of the wheel
which are equidistant from centre are equal. D AB=BC C
58. There is rod of length l. The velocities of its
two ends are v1 and v2 in opposite directions (A) 3/4 (B) 5 (C) 7/5 (D) 8/3
normal to the rod. The distance of the 64. A plank of mass M is placed over smooth
instantaneous axis of rotation from v1 is : inclined plane and a sphere is also placed over
v2 the plank. Friction is sufficient between sphere
(A) zero (B) v  v l and plank. If plank and sphere are released from
1 2
v 1l rest, the frictional force on sphere is :
(C) v  v (D) l/2
1 2
59. A ladder of length L is slipping with its ends

against a vertical wall and a horizontal floor. At a
certain moment, the speed of the end in contact
with the horizontal floor is v and the ladder makes 
an angle  = 30º with the horizontal. Then the (A) up the plane (B) down the plane
speed of the ladder’s center must be (C) horizontal (D) zero
(A) 2 v / 3 (B) v/2 (C) v (D) none 65. A plank with a uniform sphere placed on it
rests on a smooth horizontal plane. Plank is pulled
60. In the previous question, if dv/dt = 0, then to right by a constant force F. If sphere does not
the angular acceleration of the ladder when  = slip over the plank. Which of the following is
45º is incorrect.
(A) 2v2/L2 (B) v2/2L2 F
(C) 2 [ v 2 / L2 ] (D) None
61. A ring of radius R rolls without sliding with a
(A) Acceleration of the centre of sphere is less
constant velocity. The radius of curvature of the
than that of the plank
path followed by any particle of the ring at the
(B) Work done by friction acting on the sphere is
highest point of its path will be
equal to its total kinetic energy.
(A) R (B) 2R (C) 4R (D) none
(C) Total kinetic energy of the system is equal to
62. Inner and outer radii of a spool are r and R work done by the force F
respectively. A thread is wound over its inner (D) None of the above
surface and placed over a rough horizontal
surface. Thread is pulled by a force F as shown 66. A time varying force F = 2t is applied on a
in fig. then in case of pure rolling spool rolling as shown in figure. The angular
momentum of the spool at time t about bottom
most point is :
F=2t
r
F
R
(A) Thread unwinds, spool rotates anticlockwise
and friction act leftwards
(B) Thread winds, spool rotates clockwise and r 2t2 (R  r ) 2 2
(A) (B) t
friction acts leftwards R r
(C) Thread winds, spool moves to the right anf (C) (R + r)t2 (D) data is insufficient
friction act rightwards
(D) Thread winds, spool moves to the right and 67. A ring of mass m and radius R has three
friction does not come into existence. particles attached to the ring as shown in the
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figure. The centre of the ring has speed v0. The v0

kinetic energy of the system is (Slipping is absent) the direction of motion. Then r is
0
m 0
2m m
v0
(A) 6mv02 (B) 12 mv02 1 3

(A) (B) 1 (C) (D) 2
(C) 4 mv02 (D) 8 mv02 2 2
74. A ball rolls down an inclined plane, figure.
68. The linear speed of a uniform spherical shell The ball is first released from rest from P and
after rolling down an inclined plane of vertical height then later from Q. Which of the following
h from rest, is : statement is/ are correct ?
Q
10 gh 4 gh 6 gh
(A) (B) (C) (D) 2gh
7 5 5
P
2h
69. A uniform sphere of radius R is placed on a
h
rough horizontal surface and given a linear velocity
v0 angular velocity 0 as shown. The sphere comes O
to rest after moving some distance to the right. (i) The ball takes twice as much time to roll from
It follows that : Q to O as it does to roll from P to O.
(ii) The acceleration of the ball at Q is twice as
large as the acceleration at P.
v0 (iii) The ball has twice as much K.E. at O when
rolling from Q as it does when rolling from P.
0 (A) i, ii only (B) ii, iii only
(A) v0 = 0R (B) 2v0 = 50R (C) i only (D) iii only
(C) 5v0 = 20R (D) 2v0 = 0R 75. Starting from the rest, at the same time, a
70. A body kept on a smooth horizontal surface ring, a coin and a solid ball of same mass roll
is pulled by a constant horizontal force applied at down an incline without slipping. The ratio of their
the top point of the body. If the body rolls purely translational kinetic energies at the bottom will
on the surface, its shape can be : be
(A) thin pipe (B) uniform cylinder (A) 1 : 1 : 1 (B) 10 : 5 : 4
(C) uniform sphere (D) thin spherical shell (C) 21 : 28 : 30 (D) none
71. A solid sphere with a velocity (of centre of 76. In the figure shown a ring A is initially rolling
mass) v and angular velocity  is gently placed without sliding with a velocity v on the horizontal
on a rough horizontal surface. The frictional force surface of the body B (of same mass as A). All
on the sphere : surfaces are smooth. B has no initial velocity.
(A) must be forward (in direction of v) What will be the maximum height reached by A
(B) must be backward (opposite to v) on B.
(C) cannot be zero
(D) none of the above v
A
72. A cylinder is pure rolling up an incline plane. Smooth
It stops momentarily and then rolls back. The B
force of friction.
(A) on the cylinder is zero throughout the journey
(B) is directed opposite to the velocity of the 3v2 v2 v2 v2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
centre of mass throughout the journey 4g 4g 2g 3g
(C) is directed up the plane throughout the journey
(D) is directed down the plane throughout the 77. A Cubical bloc of mass M and edge a slides
journey down a rough inclined plane of inclination  with a
uniform velocity. The torque of the normal force
73. A uniform circular disc placed on a rough on the block about its centre has a magnitude.
horizontal surface has initially a velocity v0 and
an angular velocity 0 as shown in the figure. The 1
(A) zero (B) Mga (C) Mga sin  (D) Mga sin
disc comes to rest after moving some distance in 2
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Exercise - II (Multiple Choice Problems)

(A) MOMENT OF INERTIA 5. A block of mass m moves on a horizontal rough
1. ABCD is a square plate with centre O. The surface with initial velocity v. The height of the
moments of inertia of the plate about the per- centre of mass of the block is h from the surface.
pendicular axis through O is I and about the axes Consider a point A on the surface
1, 2, 3 & 4 are I1, I2, I3 & I4 respectively. It follows (A) angular momentum about A is mvh initially
that : (B) the velocity of the block decreases at time
1 passes
2 (C) torque of the forces acting on block is zero
A about A
B
(D) angular momentum is not conserved about A
3
6. Four point masses are fastened to the corners
O
of a frame of negligible mass lying in the xy plane.
D C Let w be the angular speed of rotation. Then
4
y-axis
(A) I2 = I3 (B) I = I1 + I4 m
(C) I = I2 + I4 (D) I1 = I3 b
(B) TORQUE & PURE ROTATIONAL MOTION
M M x-axis
2. A rod of weight w is supported by two parallel
m a
knife edges A and B and is in equilibrium in a z-axis
horizontal position. The knives are at a distance (A) rotational kinetic energy associated with a
d from each other. The centre of mass of the rod given angular speed depends on the axis of rota-
is at a distance x from A. tion.
wx (B) rotational kinetic energy about y-axis is inde-
(A) the normal reaction at A is pendent of m and its value is Ma22
d
w(d  x) (C) rotational kinetic energy about z-axis depends
(B) the normal reaction at A is on m and its value is (Ma2 + mb2)2
d (D) rotational kinetic energy about z-axis is inde-
wx pendent of m and its value is Mb22
(C) the normal reaction at B is
d
w(d  x) 7. A particle falls freely near the surface of the
(D) the normal reaction at B is earth. Consider a fixed point O (not vertically
d
below the particle) on the ground.
3. A block with a square base measuring axa and (A) Angular momentum of the particle about O is
height h, is placed on an inclined plane. The co- increasing
efficient of friction is . The angle of inclination (B) Torque of the gravitational force on the par-
() of the plane is gradually increased. The block ticle about O is decreasing
will (C) The moment of inertia of the particle about O
a is decreasing
(A) topple before sliding if   (D) The angular velocity of the particle about O
h
a is increasing
(B) topple before sliding if  
h (C) ANGULAR MOMENTUM
a 8. If a person sitting on a rotating stool with his
(C) slide before toppling if  
h hands outstretched, suddenly lowers his hands,
a then his
(D) slide before toppling if  
h (A) Kinetic energy will decrease
(B) Moment of inertia will decrease
4. A body is in equilibrium under the influence of
(C) Angular momentum will increase
a number of forces. Each force has a different
(D) Angular velocity will remain constant
line of action. The minimum number of forces re-
9. A man spinning in free space changes the shape
quired is
of his body, eg. by spreading his arms or curling
(A) 2, if their lines of action pass through the
up. By doing this, he can change his
centre of mass of the body
(A) moment of inertia
(B) 3, if their lines of action are not parallel
(B) angular momentum
(C) 3, if their lines of action are parallel
(C) angular velocity
(D) 4, if their lines of action are parallel and all
(D) rotational kinetic energy
the forces have the same magnitude
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(D) COMBINED TRANSLATIONAL + ROTA- (A) acceleration of centre of sphere is less than
TIONAL MOTION that of the plank
(B) acceleration of centre of sphere is greater
10. A ring rolls without slipping on the ground. Its
than the plank because friction acts rightward
centre C moves with a constant speed u. P is
on the sphere
any point on the ring. The speed of P with re-
(C) acceleration of the centre of sphere may be
spect to the ground is v.
towards left
(A) 0  v  2u
(D) acceleration of the centre of sphere relative
(B) v = u, if CP is horizontal
to plank may be greater than that of the plank
(C) v = u, if CP makes an angle of 30º with the
relative to floor
horizontal and P is below the horizontal level of C
14. A hollow sphere of radius R and mass m is
(D) v  2 u , if CP is horizontal fully filled with water of mass m. It is rolled down
11. A yo-yo is resting on a perfectly rough hori- a horizontal plane such that its centre of mass
zontal table. Forces F1, F2 and F3 are applied moves with a velocity v. If it purely rolls
separately as shown.The F correct
F statement is 5
2 2
3
(A) Kinetic energy of the sphere is mv
6
4 2
(B) Kinetic energy of the sphere is mv
5
(C) Angular momentum of the sphere about a
8
fixed point on ground is mvR
F1 3
(D) Angular momentum of the sphere about a
14
(A) when F3 is applied the centre of mass will fixed point on ground is mvR
5
move to the right
(B) when F2 is applied the centre of mass will 15. In the figure shown, the plank is being pulled
move to the left to the right with a constant speed v. If the cylin-
(C) when F1 is applied the centre of mass will der does not slip then :
move to the right
(D) when F2 is applied the centre of mass will R
move to the right
12. A disc of circumference s is at rest at a point v
A on a horizontal surface when a constant hori-
zontal force begins to act on its centre. Between (A) the speed of the centre of mass of the cylin-
A and B there is sufficient friction to prevent slip- der is 2v
ping, and the surface is smooth to the right of B. (B) the speed of the centre of mass of the cylin-
AB = s. The disc moves from A to B in time T. To der is zero
the right of B, (C) the angular velocity of the cylinder is v/R
(D) the angular velocity of the cylinder is zero
Force
16. If a cylinder is rolling down the incline with
,
sliding
A B (A) after some time it may start pure rolling
(A) the angular acceleration of the disc will dis- (B) after sometime it will start pure rolling
appear, linear acceleration will remain unchanged (C) it may be possible that it will never start pure
(B) linear acceleration of the disc will increase rolling
(C) the disc will make one rotation in time T/2 (D) none of these
(D) the disc will cover a distance greater than s
in further time T. 17. Which of the following statements are cor-
rect
13. A plank with a uniform sphere placed on it, (A) friction acting on a cylinder without sliding on
rests on a smooth horizontal plane. Plank is pulled an inclined surface is always upward along the
to right by a constant force F. If the sphere does incline irrespective of any external force acting
not slip over the plank. on it.
(B) friction acting on a cylinder without sliding on
an inclined surface is may be upward may be
F downwards depending on the external force act-
ing on it.
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(C) friction acting on a cylinder rolling without (C) The friction force accelerates the ring in the
sliding may be zero depending on the external clockwise sense about its centre of mass
force acting on it. (D) As the ring enters on the rough surface it
(D) nothing can be said exactly about it as it starts rolling
depends on the friction coefficient on inclined
plane
(A) The momentum of the ring is conserved
Question No. 18 to 20 (3 Questions)
(B) The angular momentum of the ring is con-
A cylinder and a ring of same mass M and radius
served about its centre of mass
R are placed on the top of a rough inclined plane
(C) The angular momentum of the ring conserved
of inclination . Both are released simultaneously
about any point on the horizontal surface
from the same height h.
(D) The mechanical energy of the ring is con-
18. Choose the correct statement(s) related to served
the motion of each body
(A) The friction force acting on each body op-
(A) The ring starts its rolling motion when the
poses the motion of its centre of mass
centre of mass stationary
(B) The friction force provides the necessary
(B) The ring starts rolling motion when the point
torque to rotate the body about its centre of
of contact becomes stationary
mass
(C) The time after which the ring starts rolling is
(C) without friction none of the two bodies can
roll v0
(D) The friction force ensures that the point of 2 g
contact must remain stationary v0
(D) The rolling velocity is
19. Identify the correct statement(s) 2
(A) The friction force acting on the cylinder may
be more than that acting on the ring 24. Choose the correct alternative(s)
(B) The friction force acting on the ring may be (A) The linear distance moved by the centre of
more than that acting on the cylinder 3 v 20
(C) If the friction is sufficient to roll the cylinder mass before the ring starts rolling is
8 g
then the ring will also roll
3
(D) If the friction is sufficient to roll the ring then (B) The net work done by friction force is  mv 20
the cylinder will also roll 8
mv 20
20. When these bodies roll down to the foot of (C) The loss is kinetic energy of the ring is
the inclined plane, then 4
(A) the mechanical energy of each body is con- mv 20
(D) The gain in rotational kinetic energy is 
served 8
(B) the velocity of centre of mass of the cylinder
25. Consider a sphere of mass ‘m’ radius ‘R’ doing
gh
is 2 pure rolling motion on a rough surface having
3 
(C) the velocity of centre of mass of the ring is velocity v 0 as shown in the Figure. It makes an
gh elastic impact with the smooth wall and moves
back and starts pure rolling after some time again.
(D) the velocity of centre of mass of each body
is 2 gh
Question No. 21 to 24 (4 Questions)
A ring of mass M and radius R sliding with a ve- v0
locity v0 suddenly enters into rough surface where
the coefficient of friction is , as shown in figure. O
v0 (A) Change in angular momentum about ‘O’ in the

entire motion equals 2mv0 R in magnitude.
(B) Moment of impulse provided by wall during
Rough ( )
impact about O equals 2mv0R in magnitude
3
(A) As the ring enters on the rough surface, the (C) Final velocity of ball will be v 0
limiting friction force acts on it 7
(B) The direction of friction is opposite to the 3
(D) Final velocity of ball will be  v 0
direction of motion 7
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(A) MOMENT OF INERTIA 8. Assuming frictionless contacts, determine the
1. Find the moment of inertia of a uniform half- magnitude of external horizontal force P applied
disc about an axis perpendicular to the plane and at the lower end for equilibrium of the rod. The
passing through its centre of mass. Mass of this rod is uniform and its mass is 'm'.
disc is M and radius is R. Wall
2. Find the moment of inertia of a pair of solid
spheres, each having a mass m and radius r, kept
in contact about the tangent passing through
P
the point of contact. 
3. Find the radius of gyration of a circular ring of

radius r about a line perpendicular to the plane of 9. A rod of mass m and length L, lying horizontally,
this ring and tangent to the ring. is free to rotate about a vertical axis through its
centre. A horizontal force of constant magnitude
F acts on the rod at a distance of L/4 from the
centre. The force is always perpendicular to the
rod. Find the angle rotated by the rod during the
time t after the motion starts.
10. The uniform rod AB of mass m is released

from rest when  = 60°. Assuming that the friction
4. Moment of inertial of a triangle plane of mass
force between end A and the surface is large
M shown in figure about vertical axis AB is :
enough to prevent sliding, determine (for the
instant just after release)
A
l B
45° L
l m
A 
B
(a) The angular acceleration of the rod

5. A uniform rod of mass m is bent into the form (b) The normal reaction and the friction force at A.
of a semicircle of radius R. The moment of inertia (c) The minimum value of , compatible with the
of the rod about an axis passing through A and described motion.
perpendicular to the plane of the paper is
A 11. Figure shows two blocks of mass m and m
R connected by a string passing over a pulley. The
horizontal table over which the mass m slides is
smooth. The pulley (uniform disc) has mass m
(B) TORQUE & PURE ROTATIONAL and it can freely rotate about this axis. Find the
MOTION acceleration of the mass m assuming that the
6. A simple pendulum of length  is pulled aside to string does not slip on the pulley.
made an angle  with the vertical. Find the
m
magnitude of the torque of the weight w of the
bob about the point of suspension. When is the m
torque zero ?
 
7. Two forces F1  2 i – 5 j – 6k and F2  – i  2j – k m
are acting on a body at the points (1, 1, 0) and
(0, 1, 2). Find torque acting on the body about
point (–1, 0, 1).
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12. A solid cylinder of mass M = 1kg & radius R = 18. The moment of inertia of the pulley system
0.5m is pivoted at its centre & has three particles as shown in the figure is 4 kgm2. The radii of
of mass m = 0.1 kg mounted at its perimeter as bigger and smaller pulleys 2m and 1m respectively.
shown in the figure. The system is originally at The angular acceleration of the pulley system is
rest. Find the angular speed of the cylinder, when
it has swung through 90° in anticlockwise
direction. 1m
2m
4kg
5kg
19. The two small spheres each have a mass of 3
kg and are attached to the rod of negligible mass.
13. A cube is in limiting equilibrium on an inclined A torque M = 8t Nm, where t is in seconds is
plane forming an angle of 30° with the horizontal. applied to the rod. Find the value of time when
The line of action of the normal reaction of the each sphere attains a speed of 3 m/s starting
plane on the cube is from rest.
3kg 3kg
1m 1m
14. A body weighs 6 gms when placed in one pan
and 24 gms when placed on the other pan of a
false balance. If the beam is horizontal when both
the pans are ampty, the true weight of the body M
is :
20. A rectangular plate of mass 20 kg is suspended
15. An inverted “V” is made up of two uniform from points A and B as shown. If pin B is removed
boards each weighing 200 N. Each side has the determine the initial angular acceleration (in rad/
same length and makes an angle 30° with the s2) of plate. (g = 10m/s2)
vertical as shown in figure. The magnitude of the
static frictional force that acts on each of the A B
lower end of the V is
0.15m
P
0.2m
30°30° 21. A solid homogeneous cylinder of height h and
l
base radius r is kept vertically on a conveyer belt
moving horizontally with an increasing velocity
v = a + bt2. If the cylinder is not allowed to slip
find the time when the cylinder is about to topple.
16. A uniform sphere of weight W and radius 5
cm is being held by a string as shown in the 22. A square frame made up of a wire of mass m
figure. The wall is smooth. The tension in the & length l is held in horizontal plane. It is free to
string will be
rotate about AD. If the frame is released, the
8cm work done by gravity during the time frame
rotates through an angle of 90° is equal to
P
D
17. A light string is wrapped around a cylinder of

mass ‘m and radius ‘R’. The string is pulled vertically
upward to prevent the centre of mass from falling C
as the cylinder unwinds the string. Then length
of the string unwound when the cylinder has
B
reached a speed  will be :
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23. Three equal masses m are rigidly connected (C) ANGULAR MOMENTUM
to each other by massless rods of length l forming 26. A particle having mass 2 kg is moving along
an equilateral triangle, as shown above. The straight line 3x+ 4 y = 5 with speed 8m/s. Find
assembly is to be given an angular velocity  angular momentum of the particle about origin, x
about an axis perpendicular to the triangle. For and y are in meters.
fixed , the ratio of the kinetic energy of the
assembly for an axis through B compared with 27. A particle having mass 2 kg is moving with
that for an axis through A is equal to
m velcoity ( 2i  3 j )m / s . Find angular momentum of
the particle about origin when it is at (1, 1, 0).
l l
A 28. A uniform square plate of mass 2.0 kg and

Bm l m edge 10 cm rotates about one of its diagonals
under the action of a constant torque of 0.10
24. In the figure A & B are two blocks of mass 4
N.m. Calculate the angular momentum and the
kg & 2 kg respectively attached to the two ends kinetic energy of the plate at the end of the fifth
of a light string passing over a disc C of mass 40
second after the start.
kg and radius 0.1m. The disc is free to rotate
about a fixed horizontal axes, coinciding with its
29. A wheel of moment of inertia 0.500 kg-m2
own axis. The system is released from rest and
and radius 20.0 cm is rotating about its axis at
the string does not slip over the disc. Find :
an angular speed of 20.0 rad/s. It picks up a
stationary particle of mass 200 g at its edge.
Find new angular speed of the wheel.
30. A uniform circular disc can rotate freely about

A a rigid vertical axis through its centre O. A man
stands at rest at A on the edge due east of O.
B
The mass of the disc is 22 times the mass of the
(i) the linear acceleration of mass B.
man. The man starts walking anticlockwise. When
(ii) the number of revolutions made by the disc
he reaches the point A after completing one
at the end of 10 sec. from the start.
rotation relative to the disc he will be :
(iii) the tension in the string segment supporting
the block A.
31. Two identical disks are positioned on a vertical
axis. The bottom disk is rotating at angular
25. A mass m is attached to a pulley through a
velocity 0 and has rotational kinetic energy KE0.
cord as shown in the fig. The pulley is a solid disk
The top disk is initially at rest. It is allowed to
with radius R. The cord does not slip on the disk.
fall, and sticks to the bottom disk. What is the
The mass is released from rest at a height h from
rotational kinetic energy of the system after the
the ground and at the instant the mass reaches
collision?
the ground, the disk is rotating with angular
velocity . Find the mass of the disk.
R
m
0
h
32. A uniform ring is rotating about vertical axis
with angular velocity  initially. A point insect (S)
having the same mass as that of the ring starts
walking from the lowest point P1 and finally
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reaches the point P2 (as shown in figure). The 39. Two small spheres A & B respectively of mass
final angular velocity of the ring will be equal to m & 2m are connected by a rigid rod of length  &
negligible mass. The two spheres are resting on a
axis of
rotation
horizontal, frictionless surface. When A is suddenly
given the velocity v0 as shown. Find velocities of
A & B after the rod has rotated through 180°.
O P2 A v0
90°

P1 S
B
33. A particle of mass 10 kg is moving with a
40. A uniform rod of mass m and length  is struck
uniform speed of 6m/sec. in x-y plane along the at an end by a force F perpendicular to the rod
line 3y = 4x+ 10 the magnitude of its angular for a short time interval t. Calculate
momentum about the origin in kg –m 2/s is (a) the speed of the centre of mass,
(b) the angular speed of the rod about the centre
(D) COMBINED TRANSLATIONAL + of mass,
ROTATIONAL MOTION (c) the kinetic energy of the rod and
(d) the angular momentum of the rod about the
34. A sphere of mass m rolls on a plane surface.
centre of mass after the force has stopped to
Find its kinetic energy at an instant when its
act. Assume that t is so small that the rod does
centre moves with speed v.
not appreciably change its direction while the force
acts.
35. A cylinder rolls on a horizontal plane surface.
If the speed of the centre is 25 m/s, what is the
41. A hollow cylinder with inner radius R, outer
speed of the highest point ?
radius 2R mass M is rolling with speed of its axis v.
Its kinetic energy is
36. A small spherical ball is released from a point
at a height h on a rough track shown in figure.
Assuming that it does not slip anywhere, find its
linear speed when it rolls on the horizontal part of R
the track.
42. The cylinder shown, with mass M and radius

R, has a radially dependent density. The
h cylinder starts from rest and rolls without
slipping down an inclined plane of height H. At
the bottom of the plane of height H. At the
bottom of the plane its translational speed is
37. A sphere starts rolling down an incline of (8gH/7)1/2. Which of the following is the
inclination . Find the speed of its centre when it rotational inertia of the cylinder?
has covered a distance . R
M
38. A solid uniform sphere of mass m is released
from rest from the rim of a hemispherical cup so H
that it rolls without sliding along the surface. If
the rim of the hemisphere is kept horizotnal, find
the normal force exerted by the cup on the ball
when the ball reaches the bottom of the cup.
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Exercise - IV TOUGH SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS
1. A thin uniform rod of mass M and length L is 6. A carpet of mass ‘M’ made of inextensible
hinged at its upper end, and released from rest in material is rolled along its length in the form of a
a horizontal position. The tension at a point cylinder of radius ‘R’ and is kept on a rough floor.
located at a distance L/3 from the hinge point, The carpet starts unrolling without sliding on the
when the rod becomes vertical, will be floor when a negligibly small push is given to it.
The horizontal velocity of the axis of the cylindrical
2. A rigid horizontal smooth rod AB of mass 0.75 part of the carpet when its radius reduces to R/2
kg and length 40 cm can rotate freely about a will be :
fixed vertical axis through its mid point O. Two
rings each of mass 1 kg are initially at rest a
distance of 10 cm from O on either side of the
rod. The rod is set in rotation with an angular R R/2
velocity of 30 radians per second. The velocity
of each ring along the length of the rod in m/s
then they reach the ends of the rod is
7. A slightly loosely fit window is balanced by
two strings which are connected to weights w/2
each. The strings pass over the frictionless pulleys
C D as shown in the figure. The strings are tied almost

A B at the corner of the window. The string on the
O right is cut and then the window accelerates
downwards. If the coefficients of friction between
the window and the side supports is  then
calculate the acceleration of the window in terms
3. A straight rod AB of mass M and length L is of , a, b and g, where a is width and b is the
placed on a frictionless horizontal surface. A length of the window.
horizontal force having constant magnitude F and
a fixed direction starts acting at the end A. The
rod is initially perpendicular to the force. The initial
acceleration of end B is
w/2 w/2
4. A wheel is made to roll without slipping, towards w b
right, by pulling a string wrapped around a coaxial
a
spool as shown in figure. With what velocity the
string should be pulled so that the centre of the fixed window support
wheel moves with a velocity of 3 m/s?
8. A uniform wood door has mass m, height h,

and width w. It is hanging from two hinges
0.3m C attached to one side; the hinges are located h/3
0.1m
and 2h/3 from the bottom of the door. Suppose
B String
A that m = 20.0 kg, h = 2.20 m, and w = 1.00 m
and the bottom smooth hinge is not screwed into
the door frame. Find the forces acting on the
5. A solid uniform disk of mass m rolls without door.
slipping down a fixed inclined plane with an
acceleration a. The frictional force on the disk
due to surface of the plane is :
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(d) Find the angular velocity with which the rod

W begins to rotate.
(e) Find minimum value of impulse P if B passes
com through a point vertically above A.
Hinges h
12. Two separate cylinders of masses m (= 1kg)

and 4m and radii R(=10cm) and 2R rotating in
clockwise direction with 1 = 100 rad/sec and 2
9. A hole of radius R/2 is cut from a solid sphere
= 200 rad/sec. Now they are held in contact with
of radius R. If the mass of the remaining plate is
each other as in fig. Determine their angular
M, then moment of inertia of the body about an
velocities after the slipping between the cylinders
axis through O perpendicular to plane is
stops.
_________.
R
O R/2
13. A circular disc of mass 300 gm and radius 20
cm can rotate freely about a vertical axis passing
through its centre of O. A small insect of mass
100 gm is initially at a point A on the disc (which
10. A uniform beam of length L and mass m is
is initially stationary) the insect starts walking
supported as shown. If the cable suddenly breaks,
from rest along the rim of the disc with such a
determine ;
time varying relative velocity that the disc rotates
in the opposite direction with a constant angular
(1/4)L acceleration = 2 rad/s2. After some time T, the
insect is back at the point A. By what angle has
the disc rotated till now ; as seen by a stationary
A B
earth observer ? Also find the time T.
L
(a) the acceleration of end B. 14. A spool of inner radius R and outer radius 3R
(b) the reaction at the pin support. has a moment of inertia = MR2 about an axis
passing through its geometric centre, where M is
the mass of the spool. A thread woudn on the
11. A thin rod AB of length a has variable mass inner surface of the spool is pulled horizontally
 x with a constant force = Mg. Find the acceleration
per unit length  0  1  where x is the distance
a of the point on the thread which is being pulled
measured from A and 0 is a constant. assuming that the spool rolls purely on the floor.
(a) Find the mass M of the rod.
(b) Find the position of centre of mass of the
rod.
(c) Find moment of inertia of the rod about an
axis passing through A and perpendicular to AB.
Rod is freely pivoted at A and is hanging in
equilibrium when it is struck by a horizontal impulse 15. A sphere of mass m and radius r is pushed
of magnitude P at the point B. onto the fixed horizontal surface such that it rolls
without slipping from the beginning. Determine
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the minimum speed v of its mass centre at the 18. One side of a spring of initial, unstretched
bottom so that it rolls completely around the loop length l0 = 1m, lying on a frictionless table, is
of radius (R + r) without leaving the track in fixed, the other one is fastened to a small puck
between. of mass m = 0.1kg. The puck is given velocity in
a direction perpendicular to the spring, at an
initial speed v0 = 11 m/s. In the course of the
(R+r) motion, the maximum elongation of the spring is l
Sphere = l0/10. What is the force constant of the spring
r V
(in SI units) ?
v0
16. Two uniform cylinders, each of mass m = 10
m
kg and radius r = 150 mm, are connected by a l0
rough belt as shown. If the system is released
from rest, determine
19. A block X of mass 0.5 kg is held by a long
r massless string on a frictionless inclined plane of
inclination 30º to the horizontal. The string is
wound on a uniform solid cylindrical drum Y of
mass 2kg and of radius 0.2 m as shown in the
figure. The drum is given an initial angular velocity
such that the block X starts moving up the plane.
r
(a) the velocity of the centre of cylinder A after Y

it has moved through 1.2 m &
X
(b) the tension in the portion of the belt connecting
the two cylinders.
(i) Find the tension in the string during the motion

17. A uniform rod of mass m and length l is resting
on a smooth horizontal surface. A particle of mass (ii) At a certain instant of time the magnitude of
m/2 travelling with a speed v0 hits the rod normally the angular velocity of Y is 10 rad/sec. Calculate
and elastically. Find final velocity of particle and the distance travelled by X from that instant of
the angular velocity of the rod. time until it comes to rest.
l/4 C Rod
(m, l)
v0
m/2
Top view
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1. Let I be the moment of inertia of a uniform 5. A smooth sphere A is moving on a frictionless
square plate about an axis AB that passes through horizontal p lane with angular speed  and centre
its centre and is parallel to two of its sides. CD is of mass velocity v. It collides elastically and head
a line in the plane of the plate that passes on with an identical sphere B at rest. Neglect
through centre of the plate and makes an angle friction everywhere. After the collision, their
 with AB. The moment of inertia of the plate angularspeeds are A and B, respectively. Then
about the axis CD is then equal to [JEE’ 99]
(A) I (B) I sin2 (A) A < B (B) A = B
2
(C) I cos  (D) I cos2(/2) (C) A =  (D) B = 
[JEE’ 98]
 6. A disc of mass M and radius R is rolling with
2. The torque  on a body about a given point angular speed w on a horizontal as shown. The
   magnitude of angular momentum of the disc about
is found to be equal to A  L where A is a
 the origin O is : [JEE’ 99]
constant vector and L is the angular momentum y
of the body about that point. From this it follows
that  [JEE’ 98]

(A) dL / dt is perpendicular to L at all instants of
time
  M 
(B) the components of L in the direction of A
does not change with time O x
(C) the magnitude of L does not change with (A) (1/2) MR2  (B) MR2 
time (C) (3/2) MR2  (D) 2MR2 

(D) L does not change with time
7. A man pushes a cylinder of mass m1 with the
3. A uniform circular disc has radius R and mass help of a plank of mass m2 as shown. There is no
m. A particle also of mass m is fixed at a point A slipping at any contact. The horizontal component
on the wedge of the disc as in fig. The disc can of the force applied by the man is F. Find
rotate freely about a fixed horizontal chord PQ
F
that is at a distance R/4 from the centre C of m2
the disc. The line AC is perpendicular to PQ. m1
Initially the disc is held vertical with the point A
at its highest position. It is then allowed to fall
so that it starts rotating about PQ. Find the
linear speed of the particle at it reaches its lowest (a) the accelerations of the plank and the center
position. [JEE’ 98] of mass of the cylinder, and
A
(b) the magnitudes and directions of frictional
forces at contact points. [JEE’ 99]
8. A cubical block of side L rests on a rough
C
R/4 horizontal surface with coefficient of friction . A
horizontal force F is applied on the block as shown.
P Q
If the coefficient of friction is sufficiently high so
that the block does not slide before toppling, the
4. A cubical block of side a is moving with velocity minimum force required to topple the block is :
v on a horizontal smooth plane as shown. It hits
a ridge at point O. The angular speed of the F
block after it hits O is :
L
a
v
(A) infinitesimal (B) mg/4
M
O (C) mg/2 (D) mg(1 – )
////////////////// [JEE’ 2000]
(A) 3v/4a (B) 3v/2a 9. A thin wire of length L and uniform linear mass
density  is bent into a circular loop with centre
(C) 3 v / 2a (D) zero [JEE’ 99]
at O as shown. The moment of inertia of
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the loop about the axis XX’ is : the laminar sheet is zero during the impact. Initially
the laminar sheet hits one of the obstacles with an
B
angular velocity 1 rad/s and turns back. If the impulse
x x' on the sheet due to each obstacle is 6N-s
90° A
O
Q
(A) L3/82 (B) L3/162 P
(C) 5L3/162 (D) 3L3/82
B
[JEE’ 2000]
10. An equilateral triangle ABC formed from a (a) Find the location of the centre of mass of the
uniform wire has two small identical beads initially laminar sheet from AB
located at AO. Then, the beads are released from (b) At what angular velocity does the laminar
rest simultaneously and allowed to slide down, sheet come back after the first impact ?
one along AB and the other AC as shown. (c) After how many impacts, does the laminar
Neglecting frictional effects, the quantities that sheet come to rest ? [JEE’ 2001]
are conserved as the beads slide down, are : 13. One quarter sector is cut from a uniform
circular disc of radius R. This sector has mass M.
It is made to rotate about a line perpendicular to
A
its plane and passing through the centre of the
original disc. Its moment of inertia about the axis
of rotation is
g
B O C
(A) angular velocity and total energy (kinetic and

potential)
(B) total angular momentum and total energy
(C) angular velocity and moment of inertia about
the axis of rotation
(D) total angular momentum and moment of inertia 1 1
about the axis of rotation. [JEE’ 2000] (A) MR2 (B) MR 2
2 4
11. A rod AB of Mass M and length L is lying on a
1
horizontal frictionless surface. A particle of mass (C) MR 2 (D) 2 MR2
m travelling along the surface hits the end ‘A’ of 8
the rod with a velocity v 0 in the direction [JEE’(Scr) 2001]
perpendicular to AB. The collision is completely 14. Three particles A, B and C, each of mass m,
elastic. After the collision the particle comes to are connected to each other by three massless
rest. [JEE’ 2000] rigid rods to form a rigid, equilateral triangular
(a) Find the ratio m/M body of side l. This body is placed on a horizontal
(b) A point P on the rod is at rest immediately frictionless table (x-y plane) and is hinged to it
after the collision. Find the distance AP at the point A so that it can move without friction
(c) Find the linear speed of the point P at a time about the vertical axis through A (see figure).
L/(3v0) after the collision The body is set into rotational motion on the
12. Two heavy metallic plates are joined together table about A with a constant angular velocity .
at 90º to each other. A laminar sheet of mass 30 y
Kg is hinged at the line AB joining the two heavy
metallic plates. The hinges are frictionless. The A
moment of inertia of the laminar sheet about an x
axis parallel to AB and passing through its centre
of mass is 1.2 Kg-m2. Two rubber obstacles P and 
Q are fixed, one on each metallic plate at a
distance 0.5 m from the line AB. This distance is F
chosen so that the reaction due to the hinges on
B l C
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(a) Find the magnitude of the horizontal force of inertia of the system doubles. The kinetic
exerted by the hinge on the body energy of the system now is
(b) At time T, when the side BC is parallel to the [JEE’(Scr) 2004]
x-axis, a force F is applied on B along BC (as (A) 2K (B) K/2
shown). Obtain the x-component and the y- (C) K/4 (D) 4K
component of the force exterted by the hinge on
the body, immediately after time T. 19. A block of mass m is held fixed against a wall
by a applying a hor izontal force F. Which of the
15. A particle is moving in a horizontal uniform following option is incorrect :
circular motion. The angular momentum of the
particle is conserved about the point : F
[JEE’(Scr) 2003] 2a
a
(A) Centre of the circle (B) Outside the circle
(C) Inside the circle
2a
(D) Point on circumference
(A) friction force = mg
16. Two particles each of mass M are connected (B) F will not produce torque
by a massless rod of length l. The rod is lying on (C) normal will not produce torque
the smooth surface. If one of the particle is (D) normal reaction = F
given an impulse MV as shown in the figure then
angular velocity of the rod would be 20. A disc has mass 9m. A hole of radius R/3 is cut
from it as shown in the figure. The moment of inertia
of remaining part about an axis passing through
the centre ‘O’ of the disc and perpendicular to the
plane of the disc is :
R/3
2R/3
Mv M O
R
(A) v/l (B) 2v/l
(C) v/2 l (D) none (A) 8 mR2 (B) 4 mR2

[JEE’(Scr) 2003]
40 37
(C) mR 2 (D) mR 2
17. A disc is rolling (without slipping) on a 9 9
horizontal surface. C is its center and Q and P [JEE’(Scr) 2005]
are two points equidistant from C. Let Vp, VQ and
VC be the magnitude of velocities of points P, Q 21. A particle moves in circular path with
and C respectively, then decreasing speed. Which of the following is correct

(A) L is constant
Q 
C (B) only direction of L is constant

P (C) acceleration a is towards the centre
(D) it will move in a spiral and finally reach the
centre
(A) VQ > VC > VP (B) VQ < VC < VP [JEE’(Scr) 2005]
1
(C) VQ = Vp, VC  VP (D) VQ < VC > VP 22. A wooden log of mass M and length L is hinged
2 by a frictionless nail at O. A bullet of mass m
[JEE’(Scr) 2004] strikes with velocity v and sticks to it. Find angular
velocity of the system immediately after the
18. A child is standing with folded hands at the collision about O.
centre of a platform rotating about its central
axis. The kinetic energy of the system is K. The
child now stretches his arms so that the moment
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OLYMPIADS

O
A C
L hA hC
M B
m
v (A) hA > hC ; KB > KC (B) hA > hC ; KC > KA
[JEE’ 2005]
(C) hA = hC ; KB = KC (D) hA < hC ; KB > KC
23. A cylinder of mass m and radius R rolls down
28. There is a rectangular plate of mass M kg of
an inclined plane of inclination . Calculate the
dimensions (a × b). The plate is held in horizontal
linear acceleration of the axis of cylinder.
position by striking n small balls each of mass m
[JEE’ 2005]
per unit area per unit time. These are striking in
the shaded half region of the plate. The balls are
24. Two identical ladders, each of mass M and
colliding elastically with velocity v. What is v ?
length L are resting on the rough horizontal surface
[JEE’ 2006]
as shown in the figure. A block of mass m hangs
from P. If the system is in equilibrium, find the b
magnitude and the direction of frictional force at
A and B. [JEE’ 2005] a
P
L m
It is given n = 100, M = 3 kg, m = 0.01 kg; b = 2
m, a = 1m; g = 10 m/s2.
  Paragraph for Question Nos. 29 to 31 (3

A B questions)
Two discs A and B are mounted coaxially on a
vertical axle. The discs have moments of inertia I
25. A solid sphere of mass M, radius R and having and 2I respectively about the common axis. Disc
moment of inertia about an axis passing through A is imparted an initial angular velocity 2 using
the centre of mass as I, is recast into a disc of the entire potential energy of a spring compressed
thickness t, whose moment of inertia about an by a distance x1. Disc B is imparted an angular
axis passing through its edge and perpendicular velocity  by a spring having the same spring
to its plane remains I. Then, radius of the disc constant and compressed by a distance x2. Both
will be [JEE’ 2006] the discs rotate in the clockwise direction.
(A) 2R / 15 (B) R 2 / 15 Q.29 The ratio x1/x2 is [JEE’ 2007]
(A) 2 (B) 1/2
(C) 4 R / 15 (D) R/4 (C)  2 (D) 1/ 2
26. A solid cylinder of mass m and radius r is 30. When disc B is brought in contact with disc
rolling on a rough inclined plane of inclination . A, they acquire a common angular velocity in time
The coefficient of friction between the cylinder t. The average frictional torque on one disc by
and incline is . Then [JEE’ 2006] the other during this period is [JEE’ 2007]
(A) frictional force is always mg cos  (A) 2I/(3t) (B) 9I/(2t)
(B) friction is a dissipative force (C) 9I/(4t) (D) 3I/(2t)
(C) by decreasing , frictional force decreases
(D) friction opposes translation and supports 31. The loss of kinetic energy during the above
rotation process is [JEE’ 2007]
(A) I2 / 2 (B) I2 /3
27. A ball moves over a fixed track as shown in (C) I2 /4 (D) I2 / 6
the figure. From A to B the ball rolls without
slipping. Surface BC is frictionless. KA, KB and KC 32. A small object of uniform density rolls up a
are kinetic energies of the ball at A, B and C, curved surface with an initial velocity v. It reaches
respe0ctively. Then [JEE’ 2006] up to a maximum height of 3v2 / (4g) with respect
to the initial position. The object is [JEE’ 2007]
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36. A sphere is rolling without slipping on a fixed

horizontal plane surface. In the figure A is the
point of contact, B is the centre of the sphere
v and C is its topmost point Then, [JEE 2009]
C
(A) ring (B) solid sphere
(C) hollow sphere (D) disc
B
33. STATEMENT-1 If there is no external torque
on a body about its center of mass, then the
A
velocity of the center of mass remains constant
because    
(A) VC – VA  2( VB – VC )
STATEMENT-2
   
The linear momentum of an isolated system (B) VC – VB  VB – VA
remains constant.    
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; (C) | VC – VA |  2| VB – VC |
Statement-2 is a correct explanation for   
Statement-1 (D) | VC – VA |  4| VB |
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for 37. A boy is pushing a ring of mass 2 kg and
Statement-1 radius 0.5 m with a stick as shown in the figure.
(C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False The stick applies a force of 2 N on the ring and
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True rolls it without slipping with an acceleration of
[JEE 2007] 0.3 m/s2. The coefficient of friction between the
34. STATEMENT-1 ground and ring is large enough that rolling always
Two cylinders, one hollow (metal) and the other occurs and the coefficient of friction between
solid (wood) with the same mass and identical the stick and the ring is (P/10). The value of P
dimensions are simultaneously allowed to roll with- is?
out slipping down an inclined plane from the same stick [JEE 2011]
height. The hollow cylinder will reach the bottom
of the inclined plane first.
STATEMENT-2
By the principle of conservation of energy, the
total kinetic energies of both the cylinders are
identical when they reach the bottom of the in-
cline. Ground
STATEMENT-2 is a correct explanation for STATE-
MENT-1 38. A thin uniform rod, pivoted at O is rotating in
(B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True; the horizontal plane with constant angular speed
STATEMENT-2 is NOT a correct explanation for , as shown in the figure. At time t = 0, small
STATEMENT-1 insect starts from O and moves with constant
(C) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is False speed  with respect to the rod towards the other
(D) STATEMENT-1 is False, STATEMENT-2 is True end. it reaches the end of the rod at t = T and
[JEE-2008] stops. The angular speed of the system remains

 throughout. The magnitude of the torque    on
35. If the resultant of all the external forces act-
the system about O, as a function of time is best
ing on a system of particles is zero, then from an
represented by which plot?
inertial frame, one can surely say that
Z
[JEE 2009]
(A) linear momentum of the system does not
change in time
(B) kinetic energy of the system does not change
in time
(C) angular momentum of the system does not O
change in time
(D) potential energy of the system does not
change in time
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OLYMPIADS

41. Consider a disc rotating in the horizontal plane

with a constant angular speed  about its centre
O. The disc has a shaded region on one side of
the diameter and an unshaded region on the other
(A) (B) side as shown in the figure. When the disc is in
the orientation as shown, two pebbles P and Q
0 t 0 t
T T are simultaneously projected at an angle towards
R. The velocity of projection is in the y-z plane
and is same for both pebbles with respect to the
disc. Assume that (i) they land back on the disc
before the disc has completed 1/8 rotation, (ii)
(C) (D) their range is less than half the disc radius, and
0 t 0 t (iii)  remains constant throughout. Then
T T
y R
[JEE 2012]
x Q
39. A small mass m is attached to a massless O
string whose other end is fixed at P as shown in
the figure. The mass is undergoing circular motion P
in the x-y plane with centre at O and constant (A) P lands in the shaded region and Q in the
angular speed .If the angular momentum of the unshaded region
system, calculated about O and P are denoted (B) P lands in the unshaded region and Q in the
  shaded region
by L0 and LP respectively, then.
(C) Both P and Q land in the unshaded region
z
(D) Both P and Q land in the shaded region
P [JEE 2012]
Paragraph for Question Nos. 42 to 43

m The general motion of a rigid body can be
O
considered to be a combination of (i) a motion of
its centre of mass about an axis, and (ii) its motion
  about an instantaneous axis passing through the
(A) L0 and LP do not vary with time
  centre of mass. These axes need not be
(B) L0 varies with time while LP remains constant stationary. Consider, for example, a thin uniform
 
(C) L0 remains constant while LP varies with time disc welded (rigidly fixed) horizontally at its rim
  to a massless stick, as shown in the figure. When
(D) L0 and LP both vary with time.
the disc-stick system is rotated about the origin
[JEE 2012]
on a horizontal frictionless plane with angular
40. A lamina is made by removing a small disc of speed , the motion at any instant can be taken
diameter 2R from a bigger disc of uniform mass as a combination of (i) a rotation of the centre of
density and radius 2R, as shown in the figure. mass of the disc about the z-axis, and (ii) a
The moment of inertia of this lamina about axes rotation of the disc through an instantaneous
passing through O and P is Io and IP, respec- vertical axis passing through its centre of mass
tively. Both these axes are perpendicular to the (as is seen from the changed orientation of points
P and Q). Both these motions have the same
IP
plane of the lamina. The ratio I to the nearest angular speed in this case.
o
integer is [JEE 2012]
Now consider two similar systems as shown in

the figure: Case (a) the disc with its face vertical
and parallel to x-z plane; case (b) the disc with
its face making an angle of 45o with x-y plane
CBSE|SAT|NTSE

and its horizontal diameter parallel to x-axis. In

both the cases, the disc is welded at point P, and
the systems are rotated with constant angular
speed about the z-axis.
(A) the point O has a linear velocity 3R î 

(B) the po int P has a linear v eloc ity
Case (a) Case (b)
42. Which of the following statements about the 11 ˆ 3 ˆ
R i  Rk
instantaneous axis (passing through the centre 4 4
of mass) is correct ? (C) the po int P has a linear v eloc ity
(A) It is vertical for both the cases (a) and (b).
(B) It is vertical for case (a); and is at 45o to the 13 3 ˆ
R î  Rk
x-z plane and lies in the plane of the disc for 4 4
case (b). (D) the po int P has a linear v eloc ity
(C) It is horizontal for case (a); and is at 45o to
 
the x-z plane and is normal to the plane of the  3  3 R î  1 Rk
ˆ
disc for case (b).  4  4
 
(D) It is vertical for case (a); and is at 45o to the
[JEE 2012]
x-z plane and is normal to the plane of the disc
for case (b). [JEE 2012]
45. Two solid cylinders P and Q of same mass and
same radius start rolling down a fixed inclined
43. Which of the following statements regarding
plane from the same height at the same time.
the angular speed about the instantaneous axis
Cylinder P has most of its mass concentrated
(passing through the centre of mass) is correct
near its surface, while Q has most of its mass
(A) It is 2  for both the cases. concentrated near the axis. Which statement(s)
is(are) correct?
 (A) Both cylinders P and Q reach the ground at
(B) It is  for case (a); and for case (b).
2 the same time.
(B) Cylinder P has larger linear acceleration than
(C) It is for case (a); and 2  for case (b).
cylinder Q.
(D) It is  for both the cases. [JEE 2012] (C) Both cylinders reach the ground with same
translational kinetic energy.
44. The figure shows a system consisting of (i) a (D) Cylinder Q reaches the ground with larger
ring of outer radius 3R rolling clockwise without angular speed.
slipping on a horizontal surface with angular speed [JEE 2012]
and (ii) an inner disc of radius 2R rotating anti-
clockwise with angular speed 2. The ring and
disc are separated by frictionless ball bearings.
The system is in the x-z plane. The point P on
the inner disc is at a distance R from the origin,
where OP makes an angle of 30 o with the
horizontal. Then with respect to the horizontal
surface.
IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS

Exercise-I
1. A 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. C 6. C
7. A 8. B 9. D 10. B 11. B 12. C
13. A 14. C 15. C 16. C 17. D 18. B
19. B 20. B 21. D 22. B 23. C 24. A
25. A 26. B 27. C 28. B 29. A 30. C
31. C 32. D 33. C 34. B 35. B 36. C
37. C 38. B 39. D 40. A 41. B 42. A
43. D 44. B 45. B 46. C 47. C 48. B
49. B 50. B 51. D 52. C 53. B 54. D
55. A 56. B 57. D 58. C 59. C 60. A
61. C 62. B 63. B 64. D 65. D 66. C
67. A 68. C 69. C 70. A 71. D 72. C
73. A 74. D 75. C 76. B 77. D
Exercise-II
1. A,B,C,D 2. B,C 3. A,D 4. B,C,D 5. A,B,D 6. A,B,C

7. A,C,D 8. B 9. A,C,D 10. A,C,D 11. C 12. B,C,D
13. A 14. C 15. B,C 16. A,C 17. B,C 18. A,B,C,D
19. B,D 20. A,B,C 21. A,B,C 22. C 23. B,C,D 24. A,C,D
25. A,B,D
Exercise-III
2
MR 2  4R  14mr 2 Ml 2
1. – M  2. 3. 2r 4. 5. 2mR2
2  3  5 2
6. w  sin , when the bob is at the lowest point 7. –14 i  10 j – 9k
mg 3Ft 2
8. P= cot  9.
2 2m
3g 13mg 3 3 3 3
10. (a) ( cw ) (b) N  16 , F   16  mg  (c)
4L   16
2g
11.  12. w = 5 rad/s 13. at a distance a / 2 3 from the centre down the plane.
5
100 R2 2
14. 12 gm 15. N 16. 13 W / 12 17. 18. 2.1 rad/s2 19. 15
. 2 sec
3 4g
mgl
20. 48 21. gr/bh 22. 23. 2 24. (i) 10/13 m/s2, (ii) 5000/26, (iii) 480/13 N
8
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 2gh 
25. M = 2m 2 2 – 1 26.16 kg m2/s 27. 2k kg m 2 / s 28. 0.5 kg – m2/s, 75 J
R  

29. 19.7 rad/s 30. 60° east of south, 30° south of east. 31. (1/2)KE0 32.
3
7 10 gh 10 17
33. 120 34. mv 2 35. 50m/s 36. 37. g sin 38. mg
10 7 7 7
v0 2v Ft 6Ft 2F 2 t 2 Ft 13 3
39. (), 0 () 40. (a) (b) (c) (d) 41. Mv 2 42. MR 2
3 3 m m m 2 16 4
Exercise-IV
14gR
1. 2mg 2. 3 3. 2F/M 4. 2m/s 5. 1/2 ma 6. v =
3
 b – a  3mgw 9g 4mg
7. a    g 8. Fdlx = and Fduy = mg 9. 57/140 MR2 10. (a)  (b) 
 3b  a  2h 7 7
3 0 a 5a 7a3 0 18P M
11. (a) (b) , (c) , (d) , (e) 70ag 12. 300 rad/sec, 150 rad/sec
2 9 12 7Ma 9
27 3 200
13. t = 2 / 5 sec, q = 4p/5 rad 14. 16 m/s2 15. v = gR 16. (a) 4 m / s, (b) N
7 7 7
1
17. – v0 18. 210 19. 1.63 N, 1.224 m
15
Exercise-V
1. A 2. A,B,C 3. v  5gR 4. A 5. C 6. C
4F 8F 3 m1 F m1 F
7. ac  (3m  8m ) , ap  ( 3m  8m ) ; f1  (3m  8m ) , f2  (3m  8m )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
8. C 9. D 10. B
m 1 2L v0
11. (a)  ; (b) x  ; (c)
M 4 3 2 2
12. (a) 1 = 0.1m; (b) w = 1 rad/s; (c) laminar sheet will never come to rest
2 2
13. A 14. (a) 3 m  l, (b) Fx = F/4, Fy = 3 m l
15. A 16. A 17. A 18. B 19. C 20. B
3 mv 2g sin
21. B 22.   23. a axis 
( 3m  M) L 3
cot 
24. f  (M  m) g 25. A 26. C,D 27. A,B 28. 10m/s
2
29. C 30. A 31. B 32. D 33. D
34. D 35. A 36. B,C
37. 0004 38. B 39. C 40. 0003 41. C 42. A 43. D
44. A,B 45. D
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GRAVIT
GRAVITA
VITATION
CONTENTS
S.NO . TO PI C PAGE NO.
1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 3
2. Gravitational field ...................................................................................... 4 – 5
3. Interaction Energy ..................................................................................... 5 – 7
4. Gravitational Potential ............................................................................... 7 – 8
5. Gravitational Lines of Forces ................................................................... 9 – 12
6. Satellite and Planetary Motion ................................................................ 12 – 15
7. Motion of a satellite in Elliptical path ...................................................... 15 – 20
8. Communication Satellites ....................................................................... 20 – 23
9. Kepler's laws ........................................................................................... 23 – 27
10. Exercise I ................................................................................................ 28 – 34
11. Exercise II ............................................................................................... 35 – 37
12. Exercise III.............................................................................................. 38 – 42
13. Exercise IV ................................................................................................. 43
14. Exercise V .............................................................................................. 44 – 47
15. Answer key ................................................................................................. 48

Page # 2 GRAVITATION
Syllabus :
Law of gravitation; Gravitational potential and field; Acceleration
due to gravity; Motion of planets and satellites in circular orbits.

GRAVITATION Page # 3
INTRODUCTION
Newton observed that an object, an apple, when released near the earth surface is accelerated
towards the earth. As acceleration is caused by an unbalanced force, there must be a force pulling
objects towards the earth. If someone throws a projectile with some initial velocity, then instead of
that object moving off into space in a straight line, it is continously acted on by a force pulling it back
to earth. If we throw the projectile with greater velocity then the path of projectile would be different
as well and its range is also increased with initial velocity. If the projection velocity is further increased
until at some initial velocity, the body would not hit the earth at all but would go right around it in an
orbit. But at any point along its path the projectile would still have a force acting on it pulling it toward
the surface of earth.
Newton was led to the conclusion that the same force that causes the apple to fall to the earth
also causes the moon to be pulled to the earth. Thus the moon moves in its orbit about the earth
because it is pulled toward the earth. But if there is a force between the moon and the earth, why not
a force between the sun and the earth or why not a force between the sun and the other planets ?
Newton proposed that the same force, named gravitational force which acts on objects near the earth
surface also acts on all the heavenly bodies. He proposed that there was a force of gravitation
between each and every mass in the universe.
1.1 Newtons's Law of Universal Gravitation
All physical bodies are subjected to the action of the forces of mutual gravitational attraction. The
basic law describing the gravitational forces was stated by Sir Issac Newton and it is called Newton's
Law. of Universal gravitation.
The law is stated as : "Between any two particles of masses mI and m2 at separation r from each other

there exist attractive forces FAB and FBA directed from one body to the other and equal in magnitude
which is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the two". Thus we can write
m1m2
FAB = FBA = G ...(1)
r2
Where G is called universal gravitational constant. Its value is equal to 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg. The law of
gravitation can be applied to the bodies whose dimensions are small as compared to the separation
between the two or when bodies can be treated as point particles.

m1 FAB FBA m2
A B
r
If the bodies are not very small sized, we can not directly apply the expression in equation-(1) to find
their natural gravitational attraction. In this case we use the following procedure to find the same. The
bodies are initially split into small parts or a large number of point masses. Now using equation-(1) the
force of attraction exerted on a particle of one body by a particle of another body can be obtained.
Now we add all forces vectorially which are exerted by all independent particles of second body on the
particle of first body. Finally the resultants of these forces is summed over all particles of the first body
to obtain the net force experinced by the bodies. In general we use integration or basic summation of
these forces.
⇒ Gravitational force is a conservative force.
⇒ Gravitational force is a central force.
⇒ Gravitational force is equal in magnitude & opposite in direction
⇒ Gravitational forces are action - reaction pair.
⇒ Gravitational force acts along the line joining the two masses.
⇒ Gravitational force doesn't depend upon the medium
⇒ Gravitational force is an attractive force.
–Gm m r
F= 1 2
| r |3
[Head of r is placed at that position where we have to evaluate force]

2. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
We can state by Newton's universal law of gravitation that every mass M produces, in the region
around it, a physical situation in which, whenever any other mass is placed, force acts on it, is called
gravitational field. This field is recognized by the force that the mass M exerts another mass, such as
m, brought into the region.
2.1 Strength of Gravitational Field
We define gravitational field strength at any point in space to be the gravitational force per unit mass
on a test mass (mass brought into the field for experimental observation). Thus for a point in space if
→
a test mass m0, experiences a force F , then at that point in space, gravitational field strength which
→
→ → F
is denoted by g , is given as g =
m0
→
Gravitational field strength g is a vector quantity and has same direction as that of the force on the
test mass in field.
Generally magnitude of test mass is very small such that its gravitational field does not modify
the field that is being measured. It should be also noted that gravitational field strength is just the
acceleration that a unit mass would experience at that point in space.
2.2 Gravitational Field Strength of Point Mass
As per our previous discussion we can state that every point mass also Fg m0
produces a gravitational field in its surrounding. To find the gravitational
field strength due to a point mass, we put a test mass m0 at a point P at x
distance x from a point mass m then force on m0 is given as
Gmm0
Fg = m
x2
Now if at point P, gravitational field strength due to m is gp then it is given as
Fg Gm
gp = = 2
m0 x
The expression written in above equation gives the gravitational field strength at a point due to a point
mass.
It should be noted that the expression in equation written above is only applicable for gravitational
field strength due to point masses. It should not be used for extended bodies.
However, the expression for the gravitational field strength produced by extended masses has already
been derived in electrostatics section.
[Just replace k by –G & Q by M in those expression]
So we will just revise the expression of gravitational field strength at points due to various extended
masses. Gravitational field strength :
–GMx
1. At a point on the axis of Ring =
(x + R 2 )3 / 2
2
2GM  x 
2. At a point on the axis of disc = 2 1 – 
R  R + x2
2

–GM  1 1 
–
L  x x + L 

3. At an axial point of a rod =
–2GM sin(φ / 2)
4. Due to a circular Arc =
φR 2
–2Gλ
5. Due to a long infinite thread =
x
6. Due to long solid cylinder
–2GρπR 2
(a) at an outer point = (where ρ is mass density per volume)
x
(b) at an inner point = – 2G ρ πx

7. Due to hollow sphere :

–GM R x
(a) for outer points = (Behaving as a point mass) g
x2
–GM
(b) for points on surface = (Behaving as a point mass) 1
R2 g∝
(c) for inner points = 0 (As no mass is enclosed within it) –GM x2
R2
8. Due to solid sphere
–GM x
(a) For outer points = (Behaving as a point mass)
x2
g
–GM 1
(b) For points on surface = (Behaving as a point mass) g∝x g∝
R2 –GM x2
–GMx
(c) For inner points = R2
R3
3. INTERACTION ENERGY
This energy exists in a system of particles due to the interaction forces between the particles of
system. Analytically this term is defined as the work done against the interaction of system forces in
assembling the given configuration of particles. To understand this we take a simple example of
interaction energy of two points masses.
Figure (a) shows a system of two point masses m1 and m2 placed at a distance r apart in space.
here if we wish to find the interaction potential energy of the two masses, this must be the work done
in bringing the two masses from infinity (zero interaction state) to this configuration. For this we first
fix m1 at its position and bring m2 slowly from infinity to its location. If in the process m2 is at a distance
x from m1 then force on it is
Gm1m2 ˆ
F=– i
x2
m1 m1 m2
m2 r
r
Fdx
(a) (b)
This force is applied by the gravitational field of m1 to m2. If it is further displaced by a distance dx
towards m1 then work done by the field is
→ → Gm1m2
dx
dW = F .dx = x2
Now in bringing m2 from infinity to a position at a distance r from m1, the total work done by the field is
r r
Gm1m2  1
W = ∫ dW – ∫ dx = – G m m – x 
∞ x2 1 2
 ∞
Gm1m2
W=+
r
Gm1m2
Thus during the process field of system has done amount of work. The work is positive
r
because the displacment of body is in the direction of force.
Initially when the separation between m1 and m2 was very large (at infinity) there was no
interaction between them. We conversely say that as a reference when there is no interaction the
interaction energy of the system is zero and during the process system forces (gravitational forces)
are doing work so system energy will decrease and becomes negative (as initial energy was zero). As
a consequence we can state that in general if system forces are attractive, in assembling a system of
particles work will be done by the system and it will spend energy in assembling itself. Thus finally the
interaction energy of system will be negative. On the other hand if in a given system of particles, the
system forces are repulsive, then in assembling a system some external forces have to be work against

the system forces and in this case some work must be done by external forces on the system hence
finally the interaction energy of the system of particles must be positive.
In above example as work is done by the gravitaional forces of the system of two masses, the
interaction energy of system must be negative and it can be given as
Gm1m2
U12 = – ...(1)
r
As gravitational forces are always attractive, the gravitational potential energy is always taken negative.
3.1 Interaction Energy of a System of Particles
If in a system there are more than two particles then we can find the interaction energy of particle in
pairs using equation (1) and finally sum up all the results to get the total energy of the system. For
example in a system of N particles with masses m1, m2........mn separated from each other by a
distance r12........ where r12 is the separation between m1 and m2 and so on.
In the above case the total interaction energy of system is given as
1 N N Gmm
U=– ∑∑ i j
2 i=1 j=1 rij
1
In this expression the factor is taken because the interaction energy for each possible pair of
2
system is taken twice during summation as for mass m1 and m3
Gm1m3 Gm3m1
U=– = –
r13 r31
Now to understand the applications of interaction energy we take few examples.
Cm
Ex.1 Three particles each of the mass m are placed at the corners
of an equilateral triangle of side d and shown in figure. 60°
Calculate (a) the potential energy of the system, (b) work d
done on this system if the side of the triangle is changed
from d to 2d.
Sol. (a) As in case of two-particle system potential energy is B
given by (–Gm1m2/r), so A
m m
Gmm 3Gm2
U = U12 + U23 + U31 or Ui = –3 = –
d d
(b) When d is changed to 2d,
3Gm2
Uf = –
2d
Thus work done in changing in potential energy is given as
3Gm2
W = Uf – Ui =
2d
Ex.2 Two particles m1 and m2 are initially at rest at infinite distance. Find their relative velocity of
approach due to gravitational atraction when their separation is d.
Sol. Initiallly when the separation was large there was no interaction energy and when they get closer the
system gravitational energy decreases and the kinetic energy increases.
When separation between the two particles is d, then according to energy conservation we have
1 1 Gm1m2
m1v12 + m2 v22 – =0
2 2 d
As no other force is present we have according to momentum conservation
m1v1 = m2v2
From equations written above
1 1 m12 2 Gm1m2 2Gm22 2G

m1v12 + v1 = or v1 = = m2
2 2 m2 d d(m1 + m2 ) d(m1 + m2 )

And on further solving we get
2G
v2 = m1
d(m1 + m2 )
Thus approach velocity is given as
2G(m1 + m2 )
v ap = v1 + v2 =
d
Ex.3 If a particle of mass 'm' is projected from a surface of bigger sphere of mass '16M' and radius
'2a' then find out the minimum velocity of the paticle such that the particle reaches the surface
of the smaller sphere of mass M and radius 'a'. Given that the distance between the centres of
two spheres is 10 a.
Sol. When the particle is at the surface of bigger sphere it is 16M
attracted more by the bigger sphere and less by the smaller M
sphere. As it is projected the force of attraction from bigger a x 2a
sphere decreases and that from smaller sphere increass and m
thus the particle reaches the state of equilibrium at distance x
10a
from the centre smaller sphere
GMm G(16M)m
=
x2 (10a – x)2
M m 16M
(10a – x)2 = 16x2
2a 8a
10a – x = 4x ⇒ x = 2a
After this point the attraction on the particle from the smaller sphere becomes more than that from the
bigger sphere and the particle will automatically move towards the smaller sphere. Hence the minimum
velocity to reach the smaller sphere is the veloicty required to reach the equilibrium state according to
energy conservation, we have,
G(16M)m GMm 1 –G(16M)m GMm
– – + mv2 = –
2a 8a 2 8a 2a
45GM 45GM
v2 = ⇒ v=
4a 4a
4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
The gravitational potential at a point in gravitational field is the gravitional potenial energy per unit
mass placed at that point in gravitational field. Thus at a certain point in gravitational field, a mass m0
has a potential energy U then the gravitational potential at that point is given as
U
V= m
0
or if at a point in gravitational field gravitational potential V is known then the interaction potential
energy of a point mass m0 at that point in the field is given as
U = m0v
Interaction energy of a point mass m0 in a field is defined as work done in bringing that mass from
infinity to that point. In the same fashion we can define gravitational potential at a point in field,
alternatively as "Work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point against gravitational
forces."
→
When a unit mass is brought to a point in a gravitational field, force on the unit mass is g at a point in
the field. Thus the work done in bringing this unit mass from infinity to a point P in gravitational field or
gravitational potential at point P is given as
P → →
VP = –∫ g .dx
∞
Here negative sign shown that VP is the negative of work done by gravitation field or it is the external
required work for the purpose against gravitational forces.

4.1 Gravitational Potential due to a Point Mass

We know that in the surrounding of a point mass it produces its gravitational field. If we wish to find
the gravitational potential at a point P situated at a distance r from it as shown in figure, we place a
test mass m0 at P and we find the interaction energy of m0 with the field of m, which is given as
Gmm0 P
U=–
r
Now the gravitational potential at P due to m can be written as r
U Gm
V= =– m
m0 r
The expression of gravitational potential in equation is a standard result due to a point mass which can
be used as an elemental form to find other complex results, we'll see later.
The same thing can also be obtained by using equation
P → → r
Gm Gm
VP = ∫ g.dx or VP = ∫ 2 dx or VP = –
∞ ∞ x r
4.2 Gravitational potential

a+ l
1. λ ln  
 a 
D u e t o a r o d a t a n a x i a l p o i n t = – G
–GM
2. Due to ring at an axial point =
R 2 + x2
–GM
3. Due to ring at the centre =
R
4. Due to Disc = –Gσ2π[ R 2 + x2 – x] (where σ is mass density per unit area)

5. Due to hollow sphere
–GM R
for outer points =
r
Vg
–GM
For surface points =
R –GM
R
GM
For inner points = –
R
r=R r
6. Due to solid sphere Vg
–GM
For outer points =
r
–GM –3GM
For surface points =
R 2R
–GM
For inner points = (3R 2 – r 2 )
2R 3
–GM2
Potential energy of hollow sphere =
2R
–3GM2
Potential energy of solid sphere =
5R

5. GRAVITATIONAL LINES OF FORCES
Gravitational field can also be represented by lines of force. A

line of force is drawn in such a way that at each point the
direction of field is tangent to line that passes through the
point. Thus tangent to any point on a line of force gives the
direction of gravitational field at that point. By convention
lines of force are drawn in such a way that their density is
proportional to the strength of field. Figure shown shows the
field of a point mass in its surrounding. We can see that the
lines of force are radially inward giving direction of field and as
we go closer to the mass the density of lines is more which
shows that field strength is increasing.
Figure shown shows the configuration of field lines for a system
of two equal masses separated by a given distance.
Here we can see that there is no point where any two lines of
force intersects or meet. The reason is obvious that at one
point in space there can never be two direction of gravitational
fields. It should be noted that a line of force gives the direction
of net gravitational field in the region. Like electric field
gravitational field never exists in closed loops.
→ →
• Gravitational Flux : φ = ∫ g.ds
→ →
• Gravitational Gauss law : ∫ g.ds = –4πGM in
→
Here g is the gravitational field due to all the masses. Min is the mass inside the assumed gaussian
surface.
5.1 Gravitational Field Strength of Earth:
We can consider earth to be a very large sphere of mass Me and radius Re. Gravitational field strength
due to earth is also regarded as acceleration due to gravity or gravitational acceleration. Now we find
values of g at different points due to earth.
A
• Earth behaves as a non conducting solid sphere
Me
gs
5.2 Value of g on Earth's Surface :
If gs be the gravitational field strength at a point A on the Re
surface of earth, then it can be easily obtained by using Earth
the result of a solid sphere. Thus for earth, value of gs can
be given as
GMe P
gs = ...(1)
R 2e g h
5.3 Value of g at a Height h Above the Earth's Surface:
Me
If we wish to find the value of g at a point P as shown in figure
shown at a height h above the Eath's surface. Then the value can
be obtained as Re
GMe gs
gs = =
GMe  
2

2
gs = or 2 h h 
(R e + h)2 R e 1 +  1 + 
 Re   Re 
If point P is very close to Earth's surface then for h << Re we can rewrite the expression in given
equation as
–2
 h   2h 
gh = gs 1 + 
~
– gs 1 –  [Using binomial approximation] ...(2)
 R e   R e 

5.4 Value of g at a Depth h Below the Earth's Surface

If we find the value of g inside the volume of earth at a depth h below the earth's surface at point P as
shown in figure, then we can use the result of g inside a solid sphere as
Me
GMe x h
gin =
R 3e
Re–h Re
Here x, the distance of point from centre of earth is given as
x = Re – h
GMe (R e – h)  h 
Thus we have gh = 3
= gs  1 – 
Re  ...(3)
Re 
From equation (1), (2) and (3) we can say that the value of g at eath's surface is maximum and
as we move above the earth's surface or we go below the surface of earth, the value of g decrease.
5.5 Effect of Earth's Rotation on Value of g

Let us consider a body of mass m placed on Earth's
ωe
surface at a latitude θ as shown in figure. This mass pole
experiences a force mgs towards the centre of earth and
a centrifugal force mwe2 Re sin θ relative to Earth's surface R e sin m
as shown in figure. mω 2Re sin
If we consider geff as the effective value of g on earth mg
surface at a latitude θ then we can write
Re

F
geff = net = geff = (ω2eR e sin θ)2 + g2 + 2ω2eR e sin θ.g cos(90 + θ) equator
m
ωe4 is very very small
So we can write geff = g2 − 2ω2eR e sin2 θg
1/2
 2ω2eR e sin2 θ 
geff = g 1 −  ≈ g – ωe2 R sin2 θ ...(i)
 g 
From equation (1) we can find the value of effective gravity at poles and equatorial points on Earth as
At poles θ = 0 ⇒ gpoles = gs = 9.83 m/s2
π
At equator θ =⇒ gequator = gs – ω2Re = 9.78 m/s2
2
Thus we can see that the body if placed at poles of Earth, it will only have a spin, not circular motion
so there is no reduction in value of g at poles due to rotation of earth. Thus at poles value of g on
Earth surface is maximum and at equator it is minimum. But an average we take 9.8 m/s2, the value of
g everywhere on earth's surface.
5.6 Effect of Shape of Earth on Value of g
Till now we considered that earth is spherical in its shape but this is not actually true. Due to some
geological and astromonical reasons, the shape of earth is not exact spherical. It is ellipsoidal.
As we've discussed that the value of g at a point on earth surface depends on radius of
Earth.It is observed that the approximate difference in earth's radius at different points on equator and
poles is re – rp ~ 21 to 34 km. Due to this the difference in value of g at poles and equatorial points is
–
approximately gp – ge ~ 0.02 to 0.04 m/s2, which is very small. So for numerical calculations, generally,,
–
we ignore this factor while taking the value of g and we assume Earth is spherical in shape.

Ex.4 Calculate the mass and density of the earth. Given that Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10–11
Nm2/kg2, the radius of the earth = 6.37 × 106 m and g = 9.8 m/s2.
Sol. The acceleration due to gravity on earth surface is given as
GMe gsR 2e 9.8 × (6.37 × 106 )2
ge = or Me = = = 6 × 1024 kg
R 2e G 6.67 × 10–11
If ρ be the density of earth, then
4 3 3M 3 × (6 × 1024 )
M = πR × ρ or ρ= = = 5.5 × 103 kg/m3
3 4πR 3 4 × 3.14 × (6.37 × 106 )3
Ex.5 If the radius of the earth were to shrink by one percent, its mass remaining the same, what
would happen to the acceleration due to gravity on the earth's surface?
Sol. Consider the case of body of mass m placed on the earth's surface (mass of the earth M and radius R).
If g is acceleration due to gravity, then we known that
GMe
gs = ...(1)
R 2e
Now, when the radius is reduced by 1%, i.e. radius becomes 0.99 R, let acceleration due to gravity be
g', then
GM
g' = ...(2)
(0.99R)2
From equation (1) and (2), we get
2
g' R2 1  1 
= = or g' = g ×   or g′ = 1.02 g
g (0.99R) (0.99)2  0.99 
Thus, the value of g is increased by 2%.
Ex.6 At what rate should the earth rotate so that the apparent g at the equator becomes zero?
What will be the length of the day in this situation ?
Sol. At earth's equator effective value of gravity is
geq = gs – ω2Re
If geff at equator is zero, we have
gs
gs = ω2Re or ω=
Re
2π Re 6.4 × 106
Thus length of the day will be T = ω = 2π g = 2 × 3.14 = 5074.77 s ~
– 84.57 min.
s 9.8
Ex.7 Calculate the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of Mars if its diameter is 6760 km and
mass is one-tenth that of earth. The diameter of earth is 12742 km and acceleration due to
gravity on earth is 9.8 m/s2.
 GM 
We know that g= 2 
R 
2 2
gM  MM   RE   1   12742  gM
So =   =    ⇒ g = 0.35 or gM = 9.8 × 0.35 = 3.48 m/s2
gE  ME   RM   10   6760  E
Ex.8 Calculate the apparent weight of a body of mass m at a latitude λ when it is moving with speed
v on the surface of the earth from west to east at the same latitude.
Sol. If W be the apparent weight of body at a latitude λ
then from figure shown, we have
W = mg – mω2R cos2λ ...(1)

Re cos λ
When body moves at speed v from west to east
relative to earth, its net angular speed ω can be
given as N
v R e cosλ m λ
ω = ωe + [ω → earth's angular velocity] mω 2Re cos λ
Rcos λ e
Now from equation (1) we have mgs
2
 v  2 λ
W = mg – m  ωe +  R cos λ Re
 R cos λ 
 2 v2 2ωe v  equator
2
or W = mg – m  ωe + 2 2
+
R cos
 R cos λ
 R cos λ λ 
2 2 mv2
= mg – mωeR cos λ – – 2mωe v cos λ
R ωe
 w2R cos2 λ 2ωe v cos λ  mv 2
= mg  1 – e –  [Neglecting as being very small]
 g g  R
6. SATELLITE AND PLANETARY MOTION
6.1 Motion of a Satellite in a Circular Orbit
To understand how a satellite continously moves in its orbit, we consider the projection of a body
horizontally from the top of a high mountain on earth as shown in figure. Here till our discussion ends
we neglect air friction. The distance the projectile travels before hitting the ground depends on the
launching speed. The greater the speed, the greater the distance. The distance the projectile travels
before hitting the ground is also affected by the curvature of earth as shown in figure shown. This
figure was given by newton in his explanantion of laws of gravitation. it shows different trajectories for
diferent launching speeds. As the launching speed is made greater, a speed is reached where by the
projectile's path follow the curvature of the earth. This is the launching speed which places the
projectile in a circular orbit. Thus an object in circular orbit may be regarded as falling, but as it falls its
path is concentric with the earth's spherical surface and the object maintains a fixed distance from the
earth's centre. Since the motion may continue indefinitely, we may say that the orbit is stable.
v
Earth
Fe
m v
Let's find the speed of a satellite of mass m in a circular
orbit around the earth. Consider a satellite revolving around FG
r
the earth in a circular orbit of radius r as shown in figure. Me
If its orbit is stable during its motion, the net gravitational
force on it must be balanced by the centrifugal force on it Re
relative to the rotating frame as
GMem mv2 GMe Earth
= or v=
r2 r r
Expression in above equation gives the speed of a statellite
in a stable circular orbit of radius r.
6.2 Energies of a Satellite in a Circular Orbit
When there is a satellite revolving in a stable circular orbit of radius r around the earth, its speed is
given by above equation. During its motion the kinetic energy of the satellite can be given as
1 1 GMem
K= mv2 = ...(1)
2 2 r

As gravitational force on satellite due to earth is the only force it experiences during motion, it has
gravitational interaction energy in the field of earth, which is given as
GMem
U= – ...(2)
r
Thus the total energy of a satellite in an orbit of radius r can be given as
Total energy E = Kinetic energy K + Potential Energy U
1 GMem GMem 1 GMem
= – or E=– ...(3)
2 r r 2 r
U
From equation (1), (2) and (3) we can see that | k |= =| E |
2
The above relation in magnitude of total, kinetic and potential energies of a satelline is very useful in
numerical problem so it is advised to keep this relation in mind while handing satellite problems related
to energy.
Now to understand satellite and planetary motion in detail, we take few example.
Ex.9 Estimate the mass of the sun, assuming the orbit of the earth round the sun to be a circle. The
distance between the sun and earth is 1.49 × 1011 m and G = 6.66 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2.
Sol. Here the revolving speed of earth can be given as
GM
v= [Orbital speed]
r
Where M is the mass of sun and r is the orbit radius of earth.
We known time period of earth around sun is T = 365 days, thus we have
2πr r 4π2r3 4 × (3.14)2 × (1.49 × 1011 )3

T= or T = 2πr or M = = = 1.972 × 1022 kg
v GM GT 2 (365 × 24 × 3600)2 × (6.66 × 10–11 )
Ex.10 If the earth be one-half of its present distance from the sun, how many days will be in one year ?
Sol. If orbit of earth's radius is R, in previous example we've discussed that time period is given as
r 2π 3 / 2
T = 2πr = r
Gm GM
r
If radius changes or r′ = , new time period becomes
2
2π
T' = r '3 / 2
GM
From above equations, we have
3/2 3/2 3 /2
T r  r' 1 365
=  or T' = T  = 365   = days
T' r' r  2 2 2
Ex.11 A satellite revolving in a circular equatorial orbit of radius r = 2.00 × 104 km from west to east
appear over a certain point at the equator every t = 11.6 hours. Using this data, calculate the
mass of the earth. The gravitational constant is supposed to be known.
Sol. Here the absolute angular velocity of satellite is given by
ω = ωs + ωE
Where ωE is the angular velocity of earth, which is from west to east.
2π 2π
or ω= + [Where t = 11.6 hr. and T = 24 hr.]
t T
GM
From Kepler's III law, we have ω=
r3 / 2

GM 2π 2π
Thus we have = +
r3 / 2 t T
2 2
4π2r3 1 1  4π2 (2 × 107 )3  1 1 
or M=  t + T  = (6.67 × 10–11 )  11.6 × 3600 + 24 × 3600  = 6.0 × 1024 kg
G    
Ex.12 A satellite of mass m is moving in a circular orbit of radius r. Calculate its angular momentum
with respect to the centre of the orbit in terms of the mass of the earth.
The angular momentum of the satellite with respect to the centre of orbit is given by
→ → → →
L = r ×m v v
→
Where r is the position vector of satellite with respect to the
Satellite
centre
→ .m
of orbit and v is its velocity vector of satellite.
→
In case of circular orbit, the angle between → and → is 90°. Hence r
r v M
L = m v r sin 90° = m v r ...(1)
The direction is perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. Earth
We know orbital speed of satellite is
GM
v= ...(2)
r
From equation (1) and (2), we get
GM
L=m ⇒ L = (GMm2 r)1 / 2
r
Now we will understand the concept of double star system through an example.
Ex.13 In a double star, two stars of masses m1 and m2. distance d apart revolve about their common
centre of mass under the influence of their mutual gravitational attraction. Find an expression
for the period T in terms of masses m1, m2 and d. Find the ratio of their angular momenta about
centre of mass and also the ratio of their kinetic energies.
Sol. The centre of mass of double star from mass m1 is given by
m1r1 + m2r2 m × 0 + m2 d m2d
rcm = = 1 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
∴ Distance of centre of mass from m2 is
m2d m1d
r 'cm = d – rcm = d – =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ω m2d m1d
m 1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
Both the stars rotate around centre of mass in their own m1 m2
circular orbits with the same angular speed ω. the
gravitational force acting on each star provides the C
necessary centripetal force. if we consider the rotation of
mass m1, then d
ω
Gm1m2  m2d  2 Gm1m2
m1 (rcm )ω2 = or m1  ω =
d2  m1 + m2  d2
2π  G(m1 + m2 ) 
This gives ω = =  
T  d3 

or Period of revolution
 d3 
T = 2π  
 G(m1 + m 2 ) 
Ratio of Angular Momenta is
2
 m2d 
m1  
J1 Iω I
= 1 = 1 =  m1 + m2  = m2
2
J2 I2 ω I2  m1d  m1
m2  
 m1 + m2 
Ratio of kinetic energies is
1
K1 I1ω2 I m
= 2 = 1 = 2
K2 1 I m1
I2 ω2 2
2
7. MOTION OF A SATELLITE IN ELLIPTICAL PATH
Whenever a satellite is in a circular or elliptical path, these orbits are called bounded orbits as satellite
is moving in an orbit bounded to earth. The bound nature of orbit means that the kinetic energy of
satellite is not enough at any point in the orbit to take the satellite to infinity. In equation shown
negative total energy of a revolving satellite shows its boundness to earth. Even when a body is in
elliptical path around the earth, its total energy must be negative. Lets first discuss how a satellite or
a body can be in elliptical path.
Consider a body (satellite) of mass m in a circular path of radius r around the earth as shown in
figure. we've discussed that in circular path the net gravitational frame on body is exactly balancing
the centrifugal force on it in radial direction relative to a rotating frame with the body.
Fe
m
v
FG
r
Me
Re
C path-I
path-II
If suddenly the velocity of body decreases then the centrifugal force on it becomes less then the
gravitational force acting on it and due to this it can not continue in the circular orbit and will come
inward from the circular orbit due to unbalanced force. Mathematical analysis shown that this path-I
along which the body is now moving is an ellipse. The analytical calculations of the laws for this path is
beyond the scope of this book. But it should be kept in mind that if velocity of a body at a distance r

GMe
from earth's centre tangential to the circular orbit is less than then its path will be elliptical
r
with earth centre at one of the foci of the ellipse.
GMe
Similarly if the speed of body exceeds then it must move out of the circular path due to
r
unbalancing of forces again but this time Fe > Fg. Due to this if speed of body is not increased by such
a value that its kinetic energy can take the particle to infinity then it will follow in a bigger elliptical
orbit as shown in figure in path-II, with earth's at one of the foci of the orbit.
GMe
In above case when speed of body was decreased and its value is lesser than and the
r
speed is decreased to such a value that the elliptical orbit will intersect the earth's surface as shown
in figure, then body will follow an arc of ellipse and will fall back to earth.
GMe
v0 =
r
arc of
r v<v0 ellipse
Me
Re
C
7.2 Satellite Motion and Angular Momentum Conservation

We've discussed that when a body is in bounded orbit around a planet it can be in circular or elliptical
path depending on its kinetic energy at the time of launching. Lets consider a case when a satellite is
launched in an orbit around the earth.
A satellite S is first fired away from earth source in vertical direction to penetrate the earth's
atmosphere. When it reaches point A, it is imparted a velocity in tangential direction to start its
revolution around the earth in its orbit.
θ
v
r Fg
v1>v0
Me
S C
A B
r1 r2
Earth v2

GMe
This velocity is termed as insertion velocity, if the velocity imparted to satellite is v0 = r1 then it
starts following the circular path shown in figure. If velocity imparted is v1 > v0 then it will trace the
elliptical path shown. During this motion the only force acting on satellite is the gravitational force due
to earth which is acting along the line joining satellite and centre of earth.
As the force on satellite always passes through centre of earth during motion, we can say that on
satellite there is no torque acting about centre of earth thus total angular momentum of satellite
during orbital motion remains constant about earth's centre.
As no external force is involved for earth-satellite system, no external work is being done here so we
can also state that total mechanical energy of system also remains conserved.
In the elliptical path of satellite shown in figure if r1 and r2 are the shortest distance (perigee) and
farthest distance (appogee) of satellite from earth and at the points, velocities of satellite are v1 and
v2 then we have according to conservation of angular momentum, the angular momentum of satellite
at a general point is given as
L = mv1r1 = mv2r2 = mvr sin θ
During motion the total mechanical energy of satellite (kinetic + potential) also remains conserved.
Thus the total energy of satellite can be given as
1 GMem 1 GMem 1 GMem

E= mv12 – = mv22 – = mv2 –
2 r1 2 r2 2 r
Using the above relations in equation written above we can find velocities v1 and v2 of satellite at
nearest and farthest locations in terms of r1 and r2.
7.3 Projection of Satellites and Spaceships From Earth A vp

To project a body into space, first it should be taken to a
height where no atmopshere is present then it is projected
h
with some initial speed. The path followed by the body also
depends on the projection speed. Lets discuss the cases
step by step. R
Consider the situation shown in figure. A body of mass m is R
taken to a height h above the surface of earth to a point A
and then projected with an insertion velocity vp as shown
in figure.
If we wish to launch the body as an earth's satellite in
circular path the velocity of projection must be Earth
GMe
vp = ...(1)
Re + h
If h is small compared to radius of earth, we have
GMe
v1 = vp = = gsR e = 7.93 km/s.
Re
This velocity v1 = 7.93 km/s with which, when a body is thrown from earth's surface tangentially so
that after projection it becomes a satellite of earth in a circular orbit around it, is called orbital speed
or first cosmic velocity.
We've already discussed that if projection speed is lesser the orbital speed, body will start following
the inner ellipse and if velocity of projection is increased the body will follow the outer ellipse. If
projection speed of the satellite is further increased, the outer ellipse will also become bigger and at a
particular higher projection speed, it may also be possible that body will go to infinity and will never
come back to earth again.

We have discussed that negative total energy of body shows its boundness. If we write the total
energy of a body projected from point A as shown in figure is
1 GMem
E = mvp2 –
2 Re + h
If after projection body becomes a satellite of earth then it implies it is bounded to earth and its total
energy is negative. If at point A, that much of kinetic energy is imparted to the body so that total
energy of body becomes zero then it implies that the body will reach to infinity and escape from
gravitational field of earth. If vII is such a velocity then we have
1 GMem
mv2II – =0
2 Re + h
2GMe
or vII = = 2v1 .......(2)
Re + h
2GMe
For h << Re, we have vII = = 2gsR e = 11.2 km / s .......(3)
Re
Thus from earth's surface a body is thrown at a speed of 11.2 km/s, it will escape from earth's
gravitation. If the projection speed of body is less than this value total energy of body is negative and
it wil orbit the earth in elliptical orbit. This velocity is referred as the second cosmic velocity or escape
velocity. When a body is thrown with this speed, it follows a parabolic trajectory and will become free
from earth's gravitational attraction.
When body is thrown with speed more then vII then it moves along a hyperbolic trajectory and also
leaves the region where the earth's gravitational attraction acts. Also when it reaches infinity some
kinetic energy will be left in it and it becomes a satellite of sun, that is small artificial planet.
v
v>vII
hyperbolic
trajectory
vII
C v<v1 hyperbolic
trajectory
inner ellipse
v=v1
circle
vI < v < vII

outer ellipse
All the calculations we've performed till now do not take into account the influence of the sun and of
the planets on the motion of the projected body. In other words we have assumed that the reference
frame connected with the earth is an inertial frame and the body moves relative to it. But in reality the
whole system body and the earth is in a non inertial frame which is permanently accelerated relative to
sun.
Lets take some examples to understand some basic concepts related to gravitational energy and
projection.

Ex.14 A spaceship is launched into a circular orbit close to the earth's surface. What additional velocity
has now to be imparted to the spaceship in the orbit of overcome the gravitational pull. (Radius
of the earth = 6400 km and g = 9.8 m/sec.)
GM
Sol. In an orbit close to earth's surface velocity of space ship is v = = gR
R
We know escape velocity is vII = 2gR
Hence additional velocity required to be imparted is ∆v = vII – v = ( 2 – 1) gR
= ( 2 – 1) 9.8 × 6400 × 103 = 3.28 × 103 m/s

Ex.15 A particle is fired vertically upward with a speed of 9.8 km/s. Find the maximum height attained
by the particle. Radius of the earth = 6400 km and g at the surface = 9.8 m/s2. Consider only
earth's gravitation.
Sol. Initial energy of particle on earth's surface is
1 GMm
Er =mu2 –
2 R
If the particle reaches upto a height h above the surface of earth then its final energy will only be the
gravitational potential energy.
GMm
Ef = –
R +h
According to energy conservation, we have
Et = Ef
1 GMm GMm 1 2 gR 2
or mu2 – =– or u – gR = –
2 R R +h 2 R +h
2gR 2 2 × 9.8 × (6400 × 103 )2
or h= 2
–R = – 6400 × 103 = (27300 – 6400) × 103 = 20900 km
2gR – u 2 × 9.8 × 6400 × 103 – (9.8)2
Ex.16 A satellite of mass m is orbiting the earth in a circular orbit of radius r. It starts losing energy
slowly at a constant rate C due to friction. If Me and Re denote the mass and radius of the earth
respectively, show the the satellite falls on the earth in a limit t given by
G mMe  1 1 
t=  – 
2C  R e r 
Sol. Let velocity of satellite in its orbit of radius r be v then we have
GMe
v=
r
When satellite approaches earth's surface, if its velocity becomes v', then it is given as
GMe
v' =
Re
The total initial energy of satellite at a distance r is
1 2 GMem 1 GMem
ETf = K f + Ur = mv – =–
2 Re 2 r
The total final energy of satellite at a distance Re is
1 GMem 1 GMem
ETf = Kf + Ur = mv '2 – =–
2 Re 2 Re
As satellite is loosing energy at rate C, if it takes a time t in reaching earth, we have
1  1 1 GMem  1 1 
Ct = ETi – ETf = GMem  –  ⇒ t=  – 
2 R
 e r  2C  R e r 

Ex.17 An artifical satellite is moving in a circular orbit around the earth with a speed equal to half the
magnitude of escape velocity from the earth.
(i) Determine the height of the satellite above earth's surface.
(ii) If the satellite is stopped suddenly in its orbit and allowed to fall freely onto the earth, find
the speed with which it hits the surface of the earth.
Sol. (i) Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth respectively. If m be the mass of satellite, then
escape velocity from earth vc = 2gR e
gR e
velocity of satellite =
2
Further we know orbital speed of satallite at a height h is
 GMe   R 2e g  R 2g
vs =   =   or v2s =
 r   Re + h  R +h
From equation written above, we get
h = R = 6400 km
(ii) Now total energy at height h = total energy at earth's surface (principle of conservation of energy)
m 1 m
or 0 – G Me = mv2 – GMe
R +h 2 Re
1 GMem GMem
or mv2 = – [As h = R]
2 Re 2R e
Solving we get v= gR e
or 9.8 × 6400 × 103 = 7.919 km/s
8. COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
Communication satellite around the earth are used by Information Technology for spreading information
through out the globe.
Figure shows as to how using satellites an information from an earth station, located at a point on
earth's surface ca be sent throughout the world.
First the information is sent to the nearest satellite in the range of earth station by means of
electromanetic waves then that satellite broadcasts the signal to the region of earth exposed to this
satellite and also send the same signal to other satellite for broadcasting in other parts of the globe.

8.1 Geostationary Satellite and Parking Orbit

There are so many types of communication satellites revolving around the arth in different orbits at
different heights depending on their utility. Some of which are Geostationary satellites, which appears
at rest relative to earth or which have same angular velocity as that of earth's rotation i.e., with a time
peiod of 24 hr. such satellite must be orbiting in an orbit of specific radius. This orbit is called parking
orbit. If a Geostationary satellite is at a height h above the earth's surface then its orbiting speed is
given as
GMe
vgs =
(R e + h)
The time period of its revolution can be given Kepler's third law as
4 π2
T2 = (R e + h)3
GMe
4π2
or T2 = (R e + h)3
gsR 2e
1/3
 g R2 
or h =  s 2e T 2  – Re
 4π 
1/3
 9.8 × [6.4 × 106 ] × [86400]2 
or h=  – 6.4 × 106 = 35954.6 km ~– 36000 km
 4 × (3.14)2 
Thus when a satellite is launched in an orbit at a height of about 36000 km above the quator then it will
appear to be at rest with respect to a point on Earth's surface. A Geostationary satellite must have in
orbit in equatorial plane due to the geographic limitation because of irregular geometry of earth
(ellipsoidal shape.)
In short
• Plane of the satellite should pass through centre of the planet
• For geostationary satallites plane should be equatorial plane
• Time peirod should be 24 hrs & direction should be west to east
• For any point on the earth, geostationary satellite is stationary.
8.2 Broadcasting Region of a Satellite

Now as we known the height of a geostationary satellite we can easily find the area of earth exposed
to the satellite or area of the region in which the comunication can be mode using this satellite.
Figure shown earth and its exposed area to a geostationary satellite. Here the angle θ can be given as
 Re 
θ = cos–1   Axis of rotation
 Re + h  of earth
Now we can find the solid angle Ω which the exposed area Re
subtend on earth's centre as
Ω = 2π (1 – cosθ) θ h
Re
 Re  2πh
= 2π  1 – =
 Re + h  Re + h
Thus the area of earth's surface to geostationary satellite is
Earth
2πhR 2e
S = ΩR 2e =
Re + h
Lets take some examples to understand the concept in detail.

Ex.18 A satellite is revolving around the earth in an orbit of radius double that of the parking orbit and
revolving in same sense. Find the periodic time duration between two instants when this
satallite is closest to a geostationary satellite.
Sol. We know that the time period of revolution of a satellite is given as
4π2 3
T2 =r [Kepler's III law]
GMe
For satellite given in problem and for a geostationary satellite we have
3 3
T1  r1  r 
=  or T1 =  1  × T2 = (2)3 × 24 = 192 hr
T2  r2   r2 
If ∆t be the time between two sucessive instants when the satellite are closed then we must have
θ 2π + θ 2π
∆t == =
ω1 ω2 ω2 – ω1
Where ω1 and ω2 are the angular speeds of the two planets
Ex.19 Find the minimum colatitude which can directly receive a signal from a geostationary satellite.
Sol. The farthest point on earth, which can receive
signals from the parking orbit is the point P
where a length is drawn on earth surface from
λ
satellite as shown in figure.
The colatitude λ of point P can be obtained R h λ
from figure as
Re Parking orbit
1
sin λ = R + h ~–
e 7
We known for a parking orbit h ~– 6R e
AOR
1
Thus we have λ = sin–1  
7
Ex.20 If a satellite is revolving around the earth in a circular orbit in a plane containing earth's axis of
rotation. if the angular speed of satellite is equal to that of earth, find the time it takes to move
from a point above north pole of a point above the equator. orbit
Sol. A satellite which rotates with angular speed equal to earth's rotation N
has an orbit radius 7 Re and the angular speed of revolution is
2π 2π
ω= = = 7.27 × 10–5 rad / s Re
T 86400
When satellite moves from a point above north pole to a point
above equator, it traverses an angle π/2, this time taken is
π /2
t= = 21600 s = 6 hrs. S
ω
AOR
Ex.21 A satellite is orbiting around the earth in an orbit in equatorial plane of radius 2Re where Re is
the radius of earth. Find the area on earth, this satellite covers for communication purpose in
its complete revolution.
Sol. As shown in figure when statelite S revolves, it patch-1
N
covers a complete circular belt on earth's surface
for communication. If the colatitude of the farthest P
point on surface upto which singals can be received θ
(point P) is θ then we have θ 2Re C Re
Re 1 π
sin θ = = or θ =
2R e 2 6
S
patch-2
AOR

During revolution satellite leaves two spherical patches 1 and 2 on earth surface at north and south
poles where no signals can be transmitted due to curvature. The areas of these patches can be
obtained by solid angles.
The solid angle subtended by a patch on earth's centre is
Ω = 2π (1 – cos θ) = π (2 – 3 ) st.
Area of patch 1 and 2 is
A P = ΩRe2 = π(2 – 3 )Re2

Thus total area on earth's surface to which communication can be made is
A C = 4 πRe2 – 2A P = 4 πR2e – 2π(2 – 3 )R2e
= 2πR2e (2 – 2 + 3 ) = 2 3 πR 2e
9. KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

The motions of planet in universe have always been a puzzle. In 17th century Johannes Kepler, after a
life time of study worded out some empirical laws based on the analysis of astronomical measurements
of Tycho Brahe. Kepler formulated his laws, which are kinematical description of planetary motion. Now
we discuss these laws step by step.
9.1 Kepler's First Law [The Law of Orbits]

Kepler's first law is illustrated in the image shown in figure. It states that "All the planets move around
the sun in ellipitcal orbits with sun at one of the focus not at centre of orbit."
It is observed that the orbits of planets around sun are very less ecentric or approximately circular
Planet
Sun Focus
9.2 Kepler's Second Law [The Law of Areas]

Kepler's second Law is basically an alternative statement of law of conservation of momentum. It is
illustrated in the image shown in figure(a). We know from angular momentum conservation, in elliptical
orbit plane will move faster when it is nearer to the sun. Thus when a planet executes elliptical orbit its
angular speed changes continuously as it moves in the orbit. The point of nearest approach of the
planet to the sun is termed perihelion. The point of greatest seperation is termed aphelion. Hence by
angular momentum conservation we can state that the planet moves with maximum speed when it is
near perihelion and moves with slowest speed when it is near aphelion.
v D θ C
v2
π −θ
Sun Sun
dθ E Aphelion
A r1 r r2
B
S
Perihelion v
1
(a) (b)

Kepler's second law states that "The line joining the sun and planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
time or the rate of sweeping area by the position vector of the planet with respect to sun remains
constant. "This is shown in figure (b).
The above statement of Kepler's second law can be verified by the law of conservation of angular
momentum. To verify this consider the moving planet around the sun at a general point C in the orbit at
speed v. Let at this instant the distance of planet from sun is r. If θ be the angle between position
→
vector r of planet and its velocity vector then the angular momentum of planet at this instant is
L = m v r sin θ ...(1)
In an elemental time the planet will cover a small distance CD = dl and will travel to another adjacent
→
point D as shown in figure (a), thus the distance CD = vdt. In this duration dt, the position vector r
sweeps out an area equal to that of triangle SCD, which is calculated as
1
Area of triangle SCD is dA = × r × vdt sin (π – θ)
2
1
= r v sin θ. dt
2
Thus the rate of sweeping area by the position vector →
r is
dA 1
= rv sin θ
dt 2
Now from equation (1)
dA L
= = cons tan t ...(2)
dt 2m
The expression in equation (2) verifies the statement of Kepler' II law of planetary motion.
9.3 Kepler's Third law [The Law of Periods]

Kepler's Third Law is concerned with the time period of revolution of planets. It states that "The time
period of revolution of a planet in its orbit around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of semi-
major axis of the elliptical path around the sun"
If 'T' is the period of revolution and 'a' be the semi-major axis of the path of planet then according to
Kepler's III law, we have
T2 ∝ a 3
For circular orbits, it is a special case of ellipse when its major and minor axis are equal. If a planet is in
a circular orbit of radius r around the sun then its revolution speed must be given as
GMs
v=
r
Where Ms is the mass of sun. Here you can recall that this speed is independent from the mass of
planet. Here the time period of revolution can be given as
2πr
T=
2πr GMs
T = or
v r
Squaring equation written above, we get
4π2 3
T2 = r ...(1)
GMs
Equation (1) verifies the statement of Kepler's third law for circular orbits. Similarly we can also verify
it for elliptical orbits. For this we start from the relation we've derived earlier for rate of sweeping area
by the position vector of planet with respect to sun which is given as
dA L
=
dt 2m

Ex.22 The moon revolves around the earth 13 times per year. If the ratio of the distance of the earth
from the sun to the distance of the moon from the earth is 392, find the ratio of mass of the sun
to the mass of the earth.
Sol. The time period Te of earth around sun of mass Ms is given by
4π2
Te2 = × re3 ...(1)
GMs
Where re is the radius of the earth.
Similarly, time period Tm of moon around earth is given by
4π2
Tm2 = × rm3 ...(2)
GMe
Dividing equation(1) by equation (2), we get
2 3
 Te   Me   re 
  =  
T
 m  Ms   rm 
2 3
 Ms   Tm   re 
or  =  ×  ...(3)
 Me   Te   rm 
Substituting the given values, we get
2
 Ms   (13)  3 5
 =  × (392) = 3.56 × 10
 Me   1 
Ex.23 A satellite revolves around a planet in an elliptical orbit. Its maximum and minimum distances
from the planet are 1.5 × 107 m and 0.5 × 107 m respectively. If the speed of the satellite at the
farthest point be 5 × 103 m/s, calculate the speed at the nearest point.
→
v1
→ →
r2 r1
Appogee
Perigee m
Sol.
→
v2
In case of elliptical orbit, the speed of satellite varies constantly as shown in figure. Thus according to
the law of conservation of angular momentum, the satellite must move faster at a point of closest
approach (Perigee) than at a farthest point (Appogee).
→ → →
We know that L = r ×m v
Hence, at the two points, L = m v1 r1 = m v2 r2
v1 r2
or =
v2 r1
Substituting the given values, we get
5 × 103 0.5 × 107

= ⇒ v2 = 1.5 × 104 m/s
v2 1.5 × 107

Ex.24 Imagine a light planet revolving around a very massive star in a circular orbit of radius r with a
period of revolution T. On what power of r, will the square of time period depend if the
gravitational force of attraction between the planet and the star is proportional to r–5/2.
Sol. As gravitation provides centripetal force
mv2 K K
= 5 /2 , i.e., v2 =
r r mr 3 / 2
2πr mr 3 / 2 4π2m 7 / 2
So that T= = 2πr or T2 = r ; so T2 ∝ r7/2
v K K
Ex.25 A satellite is revolving round the earth in a circular orbit of

radius a with velocity v0. A particle is projected from the v+v0
satellite in forward direction with relative velocity
Me
v = ( 5 / 4 – 1) v 0 . Calculate, during subsequent motion of a
the particle its minimum and maximum distances from earth's Re
centre. C
The corresponding situation is shown in figure.
 GM 
Initial velocity of satellite v0 =  a 
 
When particle is thrown with the velocity v relative to
satellite, the resultant velocity of particle will become r
vR = v0 + v
5  5 GM  v1
=  v0 =  
4 4 a 
As the particle velocity is greater than the velocity required for circular orbit, hence the particle path
deviates from circular path to elliptical path. At position of minimum and maximum distance velocity
vectors are perpendicular to instantaneous radius vector. In this elliptical path the minimum distance of
particle from earth's centre is a and maximum speed in the path is vR and let the maximum distance and
minimum speed in the path is r and v1 respectively.
Now as angular momentum and total energy remain conserved. Applying the law of conservation
of angular momentum, we have
m v1 r = m(v0 + v) a [m = mass of particle]
  1  5 
( v 0 + v)a = a   5 GM     × GMa  
or v1 =   =
r r   4 a   r   4  
Applying the law of conservation of energy
1 GMm 1 GMm
mv12 – = m(v0 + v)2 –
2 r 2 a
1  5 GMa  G Mm 1  5 GM  G M m
m – = m –
2  4 r 2  2  4 a 
or
r a
5 a 1 5 1 1 3
× 2 – = × – =–
8 r r 8 a a 8a
5a
or 3r2 – 8 ar + 5 a2 = 0 or r = a or
3
Thus minimum distance of the particle = a
5a
And maximum distance of the particle =
3

Ex.26 A sky lab of mass 2 × 103 kg is first launched from the surface of earth in a circular orbit of radius
2 R (from the centre of earth) and then it is shifted from this circular orbit to another circular
orbit of radius 3 R. Calculate the minimum energy required (a) to place the lab in the first orbit
(b) to shift the lab from first orbit to the second orbit. Given, R = 6400 km and g = 10 m/s2.
Sol. (a) The energy of the sky lab on the surface of earth
 GMm  GMm
ES = KE + PE = 0 +  – = –
 R  R
And the total energy of the sky lab in an orbit of radius 2 R is
GMm
E1 = –
4R
So the energy required to placed the lab from the surface of earth to the orbit of radius 2R is given as
GMm  GMm  3 GMm

E 1 – Es = – – – =
4R  R  4 R
3m 3  GM 
or ∆E = × gR 2 = mgR  As g = R 2 
4 R 4  
3 3
or ∆E = (2 × 103 × 10 × 6.4 × 106) = (12.8 × 1010) = 9.6 × 1010 J
4 4
(b) As for II orbit of radius 3R the total energy of sky lab is
GMm GMm
E2 = – =–
2(3R) 6R
GMm  GMm  1 GMm

or E2 – E1 = – – – =
6R  4R  12 R
1 1
or ∆E = mgR = (12.8 × 1010 ) = 1.1 × 1010 J
12 12
Ex.27 A satellite is revolving around a planet of mass M in an elliptic orbit of semimajor axis a. Show
that the orbital speed of the satellite when it is at a distance r from the focus will be given by :
2 1
v2 = GM  – 
 r a
Sol. As in case of elliptic orbit with semi major axes a, of a satellite total mechanical energy remains
constant, at any position of satellite in the orbit, given as
GMm
E=–
2a
GMm
or KE + PE = – ...(1)
2a
Now, if at position r, v is the orbital speed of satellite, we have
1 GMm
KE = mv2 and PE = – ...(2)
2 r
So from equation (1) and (2), we have
1 GMm GMm 2 1
mv2 – = – , i.e.,, v2 = GM  – 
2 r 2a  r a

Q.1 At what altitude will the acceleration due to gravity

be 25% of that at the earth’s surface (given radius of
earth is R) ?
(A) R/4 (B) R (C) 3R/8 (D) R/2
Sol.
Q.4 If the radius of the earth be increased by a factor

of 5, by what factor its density be changed to keep
the value of g the same ?
(A) 1/25 (B) 1/5 (C) 1 / 5 (D) 5
Sol.
Q.2 Two masses m1 & m2 are initially at rest and are
separated by a very large distance. If the masses
a pp ro ach ea ch o ther sub sequentl y, d ue to
gravitational attraction between them, their relative
velocity of approach at a separation distance of d is
2Gd (m1 + m 2 ) G
(A) (m + m ) (B)
1 2 2d
1/ 2
 2G 
(C) (m1 + m 2 ) (D) (m1 + m2)1/2 2Gd
 d  Q.5 A man of mass m starts falling towards a planet
Sol. of mass M and radius R. As he reaches near to the
surface, he realizes that he will pass through a small
hole in the planet. As he enters the hole, he sees that
the planet is really made of two pieces a spherical
shell of negligible thickness of mass 2M/3 and a point
mass M/3 at the centre. Change in the force of gravity
experienced by the man is
2 GMm 1 GMm 4 GMm

(A) (B) 0 (C) (D)
3 R2 3 R2 3 R2
Q.3 Let ω be the angular velocity of the earth’s rotation Sol.

about its axis. Assume that the acceleration due to
gravity on the earth’s surface has the same value at
the equator and the poles. An object weighed at the
equator gives the same reading as a reading taken at
a depth d below earth’s surface at a pole (d << R).
The value of d is
ω 2R2 ω 2R2 2ω 2R2 Rg
(A) (B) (C) (D)
g 2g g g
Sol.

Q.6 The mass and diameter of a planet are twice Q.8 A spherical uniform planet is rotating about its
those of earth. What will be the period of oscillation axis. The velocity of a point on its equator is V. Due
of a pendulum on this planet if it is a seconds pendulum to the rotation of planet about its axis the acceleration
on earth ? due to gravity g at equator is 1/2 of g at poles. The
escape velocity of a particle on the pole of planet in
(A) 2 second (B) 2 2 seconds
terms of V.
1 1
(C) second (D) second (A) Ve = 2V (B) Ve = V (C) Ve = V/2 (D) Ve = 3V
2 2 2
Sol. Sol.
Q.9 Two planets A and B have the same material

Q.7 A particle of mass M is at a distance a from surface density. If the radius of A is twice that of B, then the
of a thin spherical shell of equal mass and having radius vA
a. ratio of the escape velocity v is
M B
M (A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 1 / 2 (D) 1/2

Sol.
a
(A) Gravitational field and potential both are zero at

centre of the shell
(B) Gravitational field is zero not only inside the shell
but at a point outside the shell also
(C) Inside the shell, gravitational field alone is zero
(D) Neither gravitational field nor gravitational potential
is zero inside the shell
Sol.

Q.10 The escape velocity for a planet is ve. A tunnel

is dug along a diameter of the planet and a small body
is dropped into it at the surface. When the body
reaches the centre of the planet, its speed will be
ve ve
(A) ve (B) (C) (D) zero
2 2
Sol.
Q.13 A (nonrotating) star collapses onto itself from

an initial radius Ri with its mass remaining unchanged.
Which curve in figure best gives the gravitational
acceleration ag on the surface of the star as a function
of the radius of the star during the collapse ?
ag
b d
a
Q.11 A hollow spherical shell is compressed to half
c
its radius. The gravitational potential at the centre
R
(A) increases (B) decreases Ri
(C) remains same (D) during the compression (A) a (B) b (C) c (D) d
increases then returns at the previous value Sol.
Sol.
Q.14 & 15
Two uniform spherical stars made of same material
have radii R and 2R. Mass of the smaller planet is m.
Q.12 If a tunnel is cut at any orientation through They start moving from rest towards each other from
earth, then a ball released from one end will reach the a large distance under mutual force of gravity. The
other end in time (neglect earth rotation) collision between the stars is inelastic with coefficient
(A) 84.6 minutes (B) 42.3 minutes of restitution 1/2.
(C) 8 minutes (D) depends on orientation Q.14 Kinetic energy of the system just after the
collision is
Sol.
8Gm 2 2Gm2 4Gm 2
(A) (B) (C)
3R 3R 3R
(D) cannot be determined

Sol.
Q.16 A mass is at the center of a square, with four

masses at the corners as shown.
5M 3M 2M 3M
M M
(A) (B)
M 5M M 2M
5M 3M 2M 3M
2M 2M
(C) (D)
M 5M M 2M
Rank the choices according to the magnitude of the

gravitational force on the center mass.
(A) FA = FB < FC = FD (B) FA > FB < FD < FC
(C) FA = FB > FC = FD (D) none
Sol.
Q.15 The maximum separation between their centres

after their first collision
(A) 4R (B) 6R (C) 8R (D) 12R
Sol.

Q.17 A satellite of the earth is revolving in circular

orbit with a uniform velocity V. If the gravitational
force suddenly disappears, the statellite will
(A) continue to move with the same velocity in the
same orbit
(B) move tangentially to the original orbit with velocity V Q.20 Select the correct choice(s) :
(C) fall down with increasing velocity (A) The gravitational field inside a spherical cavity,
(D) come to a stop somewhere in its original orbit within a spherical planet must be non zero and uniform.
Sol. (B) When a body is projected horizontally at an
appreciable large height above the earth, with a
velocity less than for a circular orbit, it will fall to the
earth along a parabolic path
(C) A body of zero total mechanical energy placed in
a gravitational field will escape the field
(D) Earth’s satellite must be in equatorial plane.
Q.18 A satellite revolves in the geostationary orbit Sol.
but in a direction east to west. The time interval
between its successive passing about a point on the
equator is
(A) 48 hrs (B) 24 hrs (C) 12 hrs (D) never
Sol.
Q.21 A satellite of mass m, initially at rest on the

earth, is launched into a circular orbit at a height
equal to the radius of the earth. The minimum energy
Q.19 Tw o po int ma sses o f ma ss 4m and m required is
respectively separated by d distance are revolving 3 1 1 3

(A) mgR (B) mgR (C) mgR (D) mgR
under mutual force of attraction. Ratio of their kinetic 4 2 4 4
energies will be Sol.
(A) 1 : 4 (B) 1 : 5 (C) 1 : 1 (D) 1 : 2

Sol.

Sol.
Q.22 The figure shows the
variation of energy with the A
Energy
orbit radius of a body in circular
planetary motion. Find the C
correct state ment about the B
curves A, B and C
(A) A shows the kinetic energy, B the total energy
and C the potential energy of the system
(B) C shows the total energy, B the kinetic energy
and A the potential energy of the system
(C) C and A are kinetic and potential energies
respectively and B is the total energy of the system
(D) A and B are kinetic and potential energies and C is
the total energy of the system
Sol.
Q.25 A satellite can be in a geostationary orbit

around earth at a distance r from the centre. If the
angular velocity of earth about its axis doubles, a
satellite can now be in a geostationary orbit around
earth if its distance from the center is
Q.23 When a satellite moves around the earth in a
r r r r
certain orbit, the quantity which remains constant is (A) (B) (C) 1/ 3 (D)
2 2 2 (4) (2)1/ 3
(A) angular velocity (B) kinetic energy
Sol.
(C) aerial velocity (D) potential energy
Sol.
Q.24 A satellite of mass 5M orbits the earth in a

circular orbit. At one point in its orbit, the satellite
explodes into two pieces, one of mass M and the Q.26 A planet of mass m is in an elliptical orbit about
other of mass 4M. After the explosion the mass M the sun (m << Msun) with an orbital period T. If A be
ends up travelling in the same circular orbit, but in
the area of orbit, then its angular momentum would
opposite direction. After explosion the mass 4M is in
(A) bound orbit (B) unbound orbit be
(C) partially bound orbit 2mA mA
(D) data is insufficient to determine the nature of the orbit (A) (B) mAT (C) (D) 2mAT
T 2T

Sol.
Q. 27 & 28 Q.30 Figure shows the variation of energy with the

Figure shows the orbit of a planet P round the sun S. orbit radius r of a satellite in a circular motion. Select
AB and CD are the minor and major axes of the ellipse. the correct statement.
energy
A P
D C
X
S
Z
B Y
Q.27 If t1 is the time taken by the planet to travel
along ACB and t2 the time along BDA, then
(A) t1 = t2 (B) t1 > t2 (C) t1 < t2 (A) Z is total energy, Y is kinetic energy and X is
potential energy
(D) nothing can be concluded
(B) X is kinetic energy, Y is total energy and Z is
Sol.
potential energy
(C) X is kinetic energy, Y is potential energy and Z is
total energy
(D) Z is kinetic energy, X is potential energy and Y is
total energy
Sol.
Q.28 If U is the potential energy and K kinetic energy

then |U| > |K| at
(A) Only D (B) Only C (C) both D & C
(D) neither D nor C
Sol. Q.31 Statement - I : Assuming zero potential at
infinity, gravitational potential at a point cannot be
positive.
Statement - 2 : Magnitude of gravitational force
between two particle has inverse square dependence
on distance between two particles.
(A) Statement - 1 is true, statement-2 is true and state-
ment-2 is correct explanation for statement-1
Q.29 Satellites A and B are orbiting around the earth (B) Statement -1 is true, statement-2 is true and
in orbits of ratio R and 4R respectively. The ratio of statement - 2 is NOT the correct explanation for state-
their areal velocities is ment-1
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 1 : 4 (C) 1 : 8 (D) 1 : 16 (C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false.
(D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true.
Sol. Sol.

Exercise - II
1. Assuming the earth to be a sphere of uniform
density the acceleration due to gravity
(A) at a point outside the earth is inversely proportional
to the square of its distance from the center
(B) at a point outside the earth is inversely proportional
to its distance from the centre
(C) at a point inside is zero 3. In side a hollow spherical shell
(D) at a point inside is proportional to its distance (A) everywhere gravitational potential is zero
from the centre (B) everywhere gravitational field is zero
Sol. (C) everywhere gravitational potential is same
(D) everywhere gravitational field is same
Sol.
4. A geostationary satellite is at a height h above the

surface of earth. If earth radius is R
2.Two masses m1 and m2 (m1 < m2) are released from
rest from a finite distance. They start under their R
mutual gravitational attraction R h
(A) acceleration of m1 is more than that of m2
(B) acceleration of m2 is more than that of m1
(C) centre of mass of system will remain at rest in all (A) The minimum colatitude on earth upto which the
the references frame satellite can be used for communication is sin–1 (R/R + h)
(D) total energy of system remains constant (B) The maximum colatitudes on earth upto which the
Sol. satellite can be used for communication is sin–1 (R/R + h)
(C) The area on earth escaped from this satellite is
given as 2πR2(1 + sinθ)
(D) The area on earth escaped from this satellite is
given as 2πR2(1 + cosθ)
Sol.

7. An earth satellite is moved from one stable circular

orbit to another larger and stable circular orbit. The
following quantities increase for the satellite as a result
of this change
(A) gravitational potential energy
(B) angular velocity
(C) linear orbital velocity
(D) centripetal acceleration
Sol.
5. When a satellite in a circular orbit around the earth

enters the atmospheric region, it encounters small air
resistance to its motion. Then
(A) its kinetic energy increases
(B) its kinetic energy decreases
(C) its angular momentum about the earth decreases
(D) its period of revolution around the earth increases
Sol.
8. A satellite S is moving in an elliptical orbit around

the earth. The mass of the satellite is very small
compared to the mass of the earth
(A) the acceleration of S is always directed towards
the centre of the earth
(B) the angular momentum of S about the centre of
the earth changes in direction, but its magnitude
remains constant
(C) the total mechanical energy of S varies periodically
with time
6. A communications Earth satellite (D) the linear momentum of S remains constant in
(A) goes round the earth from east to west magnitude
(B) can be in the equatorial plane only Sol.
(C) can be vertically above any place on the earth
(D) goes round the earth from west to east
Sol.

10. For a satellite to orbit around the earth, which of

9. If a satellite orbits as close to the earth’s surface the following must be true ?
as possible, (A) It must be above the equator at some time
(A) its speed is maximum (B) It cannot pass over the poles at any time
(B) time period of its rotation is minimum (C) Its height above the surface cannot exceed 36,000 km
(C) the total energy of the ‘earth plus satellite’ system (D) Its period of rotation must be > 2π R / g where R
is minimum is radius of earth
(D) the total energy of the ‘earth plus satellite’ system Sol.
is maximum
Sol.


m
Q.3 An object is projected vertically upward from
Q.1 Four masses (each of m) are
the surface of the earth of mass M with a velocity
placed at the vertices of a regular
such that the maximum height reached is eight times
pyramid (triangular base) of side ‘a’.
the radius R of the earth. Calculate :
Find the work done by the system m m
(i) the initial speed of projection
while taking them apart so that they
a (ii) the speed at half the maximum height.
form the pyramid of side ‘2a’.
Sol.
Sol. m
Q.2 A small mass and a thin uniform rod each of

mass ‘m’ are positioned along the same straight line
as shown. Find the force of gravitational attraction
exerted by the rod on the small mass.
2L
L Q.4 A satellite close to the earth is in orbit above the
equator with a period of rotation of 1.5 hours. If it is
m m above a point P on the equator at some time, it will be
above P again after time ___________.
Sol.
Sol.

Q.5 A satellite is moving in a circular orbit around

the earth. The total energy of the satellite is E = –2
×105 J. The amount of energy to be imparted to the
satellite to transfer it to a circular orbit where its
po tential energ y i s U = –2×10 5 J is equal to
___________.
Sol.
Q.7 A point P lies on the axis of a fixed ring of mass M

and radius a, at a distance a from its centre C. A
small particle starts from P and reaches C under
gravitational attraction only. Its speed a C will be
________.
Sol.
Q.6 Find the gravitational field strength and potential

at the centre of arc of linear mass density λ subtending
an angle 2α at the centre.
2α R
Q.8 Calculate the distance from the surface of the
earth at which abo ve and below the sur face
Sol. acceleration due to gravity is the same.
Sol.

Q.9 Consider two satellites A and B of equal mass m, Sol.

moving in the same circular orbit of radius r around
the earth E but in opposite sense of rotation and
therefore on a collision course (see figure).
r B
A
Me
(a)In terms of G, Me, m and r find the total mechanical

energy EA + EB of the two satellite plus earth system
Q.11 A satellite of mass m is orbiting the earth in a
before collision.
circular orbit of radius r. It starts losing energy due to
(b) If the collision is completely inelastic so that
small air resistance at the rate of C J/s. Then the time
wreckage remains as one piece of tangle d material
taken for the satellite to reach the earth is ________.
(mass = 2m), find the total mechanical energy
Sol.
immediately after collision.
(c) Describe the subsequent motion of the wreckage.
Sol.
Q.12 Find the potential energy of a system of eight

particles placed at the vertices of a cube of side L.
Neglect the self energy of the particles.
Sol.
Q.10 A particle is fired vertically from the surface of

the earth with a velocity kυe, where υe is the escape
velocity and k <1. Neglecting air resistance and
assuming earth’s radius as Re. Calculate the height to
which it will rise from the surface of the earth.

Q.13 A hypothetical planet of

mass M has three moons each
of equal mass ‘m’ each revolving
in the same circular orbit of
radius R. The masses are R
equally spaced and thus form m
an equilateral triangle. Find
(i) the total P.E. of the system
(ii) the orbital speed of each moon such that they
maintain this configuration.
Sol.
Q.15 A sphere of radius R has its centre at the origin.

It has a uniform mass density ρ0 except that there is a
spherical hole of radius r = R/2 whose centre is at x =
R/2 as in fig. (a) Find gravitational field at points on
the axis for x > R
O x
Q.14 Two small dense stars rotate about their common

centre of mass as a binary system with the period (ii) Show that the gravitational field inside the hole is
1year for each. One star is of double the mass of the uniform, find its magnitude and direction.
other and the mass of the lighter one is 1/3 of the Sol.
mass of the sun. Find the distance between the stars
if distance between the earth & the sun is R.
Sol.

Q.17 A thin spherical shell of total mass M and radius

R is held fixed. There is a small hole in the shell. A
mass m is released from rest a distance R from the
hole along a line that passes through the hole and
also through the centre of the shell. This mass
subsequently moves under the gravitational force of
the shell. How long does the mass take to travel from
the hole to the point diametrically opposite.
Sol.
Q.16 A body moving radially away from a planet of

mass M, when at distance r from planet, explodes in
such a way that two of its many fragments move in
mutually perpendicular circular orbits around the planet.
What will be
(a) then velocity in circular orbits.
(b) maximum distance between the two fragments
before collision and
(c) magnitude of their relative velocity just before
they collide.
Sol.
Q.18 A remote sensing satellite is revolving in an orbit

of radius x the equator of earth. Find the area on
earth surface in which satellite can not send message.

Q.1 A satellite P is revolving around the earth at a Q.5 A ring of radius R is made from a thin wire of
height h = radius of earth (R) above equator. Another radius r. If ρ is the density of the material of wire then
satellite Q is at a height 2h revolving in opposite what will be the gravitational force exerted by the
direction. At an instant the two are at same vertical ring on the material particle of mass m placed on the
line passing through centre of sphere. Find the least axis of ring at a distance x from its centre. Show that
time of after which again they are in this is situation. the force will be maximum when x = R / 2 and the
ma xi mum va lue of for ce w il l be g iven a s
Earth PQ 4 π 2 Gr 2ρm
Fmax =
M ( 3) 3 / 2 R
Q.6 A man can jump over b = 4m wide trench on

earth. If mean density of an imaginary planet is twice
Q.2 A certain triple-star system consists of two that of the earth, calculate its maximum possible radius
stars, each of mass m, revolving about a central star, so that he may escape from it by jumping. Given radius
mass M, in the same circular orbit. The two stars stay of earth = 6400 km.
at opposite ends of a diameter of the circular orbit, Q.7 A launching pad with a spaceship is moving along
see figure. Derive an expression for the period of a circular orbit of the moon, whose radius R is triple
revolution of the stars; the radius of the orbit is r. that of moon Rm. The ship leaves the launching pad
with a relative velocity equal to the launching pad’s
m
r initial orbital velocity v 0 and the launching pad then

M falls to the moon. Determine the angle θ with the
horizontal at which the launching pad crashes into
the surface if its mass is twice that of the spaceship
m m.
Q.3 Find the gravitational force of interaction
Q.8 A satellite of mass m is in an elliptical orbit around
between the mass m and an infinite rod of varying
the earth of mass M(M >>m). The speed of the satellite
mass density λ such that λ(x) = λ/x, where x is the
distance from mass m. Given that mass m is placed at 6 GM
at its nearest point to the earth (perigee) is
a distance d from the end of the rod on its axis as 5R
shown in figure. x where R = its closest distance to the earth. It is
desired to transfer this satellite into a circular orbit
d
O around the earth of radius equal its largest distance
m λ
λ ( x) = from the earth. Find the increase in its speed to be
x imparted at the apogee (farthest point on the elliptical
orbit).
Q.4 Inside an isolated fixed sphere of radius R and Q.9 A body is launched from the earth’s surface a an
uniform density r, there is a spherical cavity of radius angl e α = 30º to the hor i zo ntal a t a sp eed
R/2 such that the surface of the cavity passes through 15
. GM
v0 = . Neglecting air resistance and earth’s
the centre of the sphere as in figure. A particle of R
mass m is released from rest at centre B of the cavity. rotation, find (a) the height to which the body will
Calculate velocity with which particle strikes the centre rise. (ii) The radius of curvature of trajectory at its
A of the sphere. top point.
Q.10 Assume that a tunnel is dug across the earth
(radius = R) passing through its centre. Find the time
B a particle takes to reach centre of earth if it is
A
R/2 projected into the tunnel from surface of earth with
R speed needed for it to escape the gravitational field
of earth.

Exercise - V (JEE PROBLEMS)

Q.1 If the distance between the earth and the sum
were half its present value, the number of days in a
year would have been [JEE’ 96]
(A) 64.5 (B) 129 (C) 182.5 (C) 730
Sol.
Q.2 Distance between the centres of two stars is

10a. The masses of these starts are M and 16M and
their radii a and 2a respectively. A body of a mass m is
fired at night from the surface of the larger star to-
wards the maller star. What should be its minimum
initial speed to reach the surface of the smaller start?
Obtain the expression in terms of G, M and a. Q.3 An artificial satellite moving in a circular orbit
[JEE’ 96] around the earth has a total (K.E. + P.E.)E0. Its po-
tential energy is [JEE’ 97]
Sol.
(A) –E0 (B) 1.5 E0 (C) 2E0 (D) E0
Sol.

Q.4 A cord of length 64 m is used to connect a 100 Sol.

kg astronaut to spaceship whose mass is much larger
than that of the astronaut. Estimate the value of the
tension in the cord. Assume that the spaceship is
orbiting near earth surafce. Assume that the space-
ship and the astronaut fall on a straight line from the
earth centre. The radius of the earth is 6400 km.
[REE 98]
Sol.
Q.6 A body is projected vertically upwards from the

bottom of a crater of moon of depth R/100 where R is
the radius of moon with a velocity equal to the es-
cape velocity on the surface of moon. Calculate maxi-
mum height attained by the body from the surface of
the moon. [JEE’ 2003]
Sol.
Q In a region of only gravitational field of mass ‘M’

. 5
a particle is shifted from A to B via three different

paths in the figure. The work done in different paths
are W1, W2, W3 respectively then
(3)
B C
M
(2)
(1)
A
[JEE’ (Scr.) 2003]
(A) W1 = W2 = W3 (B) W1 > W2 > W3
(C) W1 = W2 > W3 (D) W1 < W2 < W3

Q.7 A system of binary stars of masses mA and mB are Q.9 STATEMENT-1

moving in circular orbits of radii rA and rB respectively. An astronaut in an orbiting space station above the
If TA and TB are the time periods of masses mA and mB Earth experiences weightlessness. [JEE 2008]
respectively, then [JEE 2006] and
(A) TA > TB (if rA > rB) (B) TA > TB (if mA > mB) STATEMENT-2
2 3 An object moving around the Earth under the influence
 TA   rA 
(C)   =   (D) TA = TB of Earth’s gravitaitonal force is in a state of ‘free-fall’.
 TB   rB  (A) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
Sol. STATEMENT-2 is a correct explanation for STATEMENT-1
(B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
STATEMENT-1
Sol.
Q.8 A spherically symmetric gravitational system of

particles has a mass density [JEE 2008]
ρ for r ≤ R
ρ= 0 Q.10 A thin uniform annular disc (see figure) of mass
 0 for r > R M has outer radius 4 R and inner radius 3R. The work
where ρ0 is a constant. A test mass can undergo cir- required to take a unit mass from point P on its axis to
cular motion under the influence of the gravitational infinity is [JEE 2010]
field of particles. Its speed V as a function of distance
r (0 < r < ∞) from the centre of the system is repre- P
4R
sented by
v v
3R
4R
(A) (B)
R r R r 2GM 2GM
(A) ( 4 2 – 5) (B) – ( 4 2 – 5)
7R 7R
v v
GM 2GM
(C) 4 R (D) 5 R ( 2 − 1)
(C) (D)
Sol.
R r R r
Sol.

Q.11 A binary star consists of two stars A (mass Q.13 A satellite is moving with a constant speed 'V' in
2.2 Ms) and B (mass 11 Ms), where Ms is the mass of a circular orbit about the earth. An object of mass 'm'
the sun. They are separated by distance d and are is ejected from the satellite such that it just escapes
rotating about their centre of mass, which is station- from the gravitational pull of the earth. At the time of
ary. The ratio of the total angular momentum of the its ejection, the kinetic energy of the object is
binary star to the angular momentum of star B about
the centre of mass is. [JEE 2010] 1 3
(A) mV2 (B) mV2 (C) mV2 (D) 2mV2
Sol. 2 2
[JEE 2011]
Sol.
Q.12 Gravitational acceleration on the surface of a
6
planet is g. where g is the gravitational accelera-
11
tion on the surface of the earth. The average mass
2
density of the planet is times that of the earth. If
3 Q.14 Two spherical planets P and Q have the same
the escape speed on the surface of the earth is taken uniform density ρ , masses Mp and MQ, and surface
to be 11 kms–1, the escape speed on the surface of areas A and 4A, respectively. A spherical planet R
the planet in kms–1 will be [JEE 2010] also has uniform density ρ and its mass is (MP + MQ).
The escape velocities from the planets P, Q and R,
are Vp, VQ and VR, respectively. Then [JEE 2012]
(A) VQ > VR > VP (B) VR > VQ > VP

1
(C) VR / VP = 3 (D) VP / VQ =
2

ANSWER EX-I (OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)

1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. B
7. D 8. A 9. A 10. B 11. B 12. B
13. B 14. B 15. A 16. A 17. B 18. C
19. A 20. C 21. D 22. D 23. C 24. B
25. C 26. A 27. B 28. C 29. A 30. C
31. B
ANSWER EX-II (MULTIPLE CHOICE PROBLEMS)
1. A,D 2. A,D 3. B,C,D 4. A,C 5. A,C 6. B,D

7. A 8. A 9. A,B,C 10. A,D
ANSWER EX-III (SUBJECIVE PROBLEMS)
3Gm 2 Gm 2 4 Gm 2 2 Gm
1. – 2. 2 3. (i) , (ii)
a 3L 3 R 3 5R
4. 1.6 hours if is rotating from west to east, 24/17 hours if it is rotating from west to east.
2Gλ 2GM  1  5 –1
5. 1 × 105 J 6. (sin α), (–Gλ 2α) 7. 1 −  8. h = R
R a  2 2
R ek 2 GMm  1 1 –4GM2  3 1 
9. (a) –GmMe/r, (b) –2GmMe/r 10. 11. t = 2C  R – r  12. L
3 + + 
1− k 2  e   2 3
3Gm  m  G m 
13. (i) –  + M , (ii)  + M 14. R
R  3  R 3 
 
 3 
πGρ0R  1 8  2πGρ0R Gm 2GM
15. g = +  2
– 2 i , g= –
 i 16. (a) ; (b) r 2 ; (c)
6 R x 3 r r
  x –  
  2 
 x2 – R2 
 4 πR 2
17. 2 × R3 / GM 18.  1 – x 
 
ANSWER EX-IV (TOUGH SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
2πR3 / 2 (6 6 ) 4 πr 3 / 2 Gmλ 2 3
1. 2. 3. 4. πGρR2 6. 6.4 km 7. cos θ =
GM( 2 2 + 3 3 ) G(4M + m) 2d2
3 10
GM  2 8   7   1  Re
8.  –  9. (a) h =  + 1 R, (b) 1.13 R 10. T = sin –1 
R  3 15   2   3 g
ANSWER EX-V (JEE PROBLEMS)
3 5GM
1. B 2. vmin = 3. C 4. T = 3 × 10–2 N 5. A
2 a
6. h = 99R 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. A 11. 6 12. 3
13. B 14.B, D

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
ELASTICITY & THERMAL EXPANSION

CONTENTS
1. Elasticity ........................................................................................ 2
2. Stress ......................................................................................... 2 – 3
3. Strain .......................................................................................... 3 – 5
4. Young Modulus ............................................................................ 5 – 6
5. Thermal Expansion .................................................................... 6 – 12
6. Exercise - I ................................................................................ 13 – 16
7. Exercise - II ............................................................................... 17 – 18
8. Exercise - III .................................................................................. 19
9. Answer key ................................................................................... 20

Page # 2 ELASTICITY & THERMAL EXPANSION
1. DEFINATION
Elasticity is that property of the material of a body by virtue of which the body opposes any change
in its shape or size when deforming forces are applied to it, and recovers its original state as soon
as the deforming forces are removed.
On the basis of defination bodies may be classified in two types :
(a) Perfectly Elastic (P.E.) : If body regains its original shape ans size completely after removal of force.
Nearest approach P.E. : quartz-fibre
(b) Perfectly Plastic (P.P.) : If body does not have tendency to recover its original shape and size.
Nearest Approach P.P. : Peetty
Limit of Elasticity : The maximum deforming force upto which a body retains its property of elasticity
is called the limit of elasticity of the material of the body.
2. STRESS
When a deforming force is applied to a body, it reacts to the applied force by developing a reaction (or
restoring force which, from Newton's third law, is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied
force. Thereaction force per unit area of the body which is called into play due to the action of the applied
force is called stress. Stress is measured in units of force per unit area, i.e. Nm–2. Thus.
F
Stress =
A
where F is the applied force and A is the area over which it acts.
A
10 N
Stress = 10/A
Unit of stress : N/m2
Dimension of stress : M1L-1T-2
2.1 Types of stress :
Three Types of Stress :
A F
(A) Tensile Stress : Pulling force per unit area. F
It is applied parallel to the length

It causes increase in length or volume
(B) Compressive Stress : Pushing force per unit area.
A F
It is applied parallel to the length F
It causes decrease in length or volume

(C) Tangential Stress : Tangential force per unit area. It causes shearing of bodies.
Note :
1. If the stress is normal to surface called normal stress.
2. Stress is always normal to surface in case of change in length of a wire or volume of body.
3. When external force compresses the body  Nature of atomic force will be repulsive.
4. When external forces expanses the body  Nature of atomic force will be attractive.
Difference between Pressure v/s Stress :
S. No. Pressure Stress

Pressure is always normal to Stress can be normal or
1
the area. tangential
May be compressive or
2 Always compressive in nature
tensile in nature.
3 Scalar Tensor

ELASTICITY & THERMAL EXPANSION Page # 3
Ex.1 A 4.0 m long copper wire of cross sectional area 1.2 cm2 is stretched by a force of 4.8 × 103 N
stress will be -
(A) 4.0 × 107 N/mm2 (B) 4.0 × 107 KN/m2 (C) 4.0 × 107 N/m2 (D) None
Sol. [C]
F 4.8  10 3 N
Stress = = = 4.0 × 107 N/m2
A .  10 4 m 2
12
3. STRAIN
When a deforming force is applied to a body, it may suffer a change is size or shape. Strain is defined as the
ratio of the change in size or shape to the original size or shape of the body. Strain is a number; it has no
units or dimensions.
The ratio of the change in length to the original length is called longitudinal strain. The ratio of the change in
volume to the original volume is called volume strain. The strain resulting from a change in shape is called
shearing strain.
L final length – original length
Strain   =  T,,
L0 original length
Note : Original and final length should be at same temperature.
3.1 Types of strain : F

Three Types of Strain :
(A) Linear Strain : Change in length per unit length is called linear strain
Change in length
Linear Strain =
Original length
L
=
L
(B) Volume Strain : Change in volume per unit volume is called volume strain.
V  V
Volume
sirain
Volume Strain
Change in volume V
= =
Original volume V
(C) Shear Strain : Angle through which a line originally x
normal to fixed surface is turned.
x
 =
L L 
Note : Strain is unitless.
Ex.2 A copper rod 2m long is stretched by 1mm. Strain will be - Shear strain
(A) 10-4, volumetric (B) 5 × 10-4, volumetric
(C) 5 × 10-4, longitudinal (D) 5 × 10-3, volumetric
 1 10 3
Sol. [C] Strain = = = 5 × 10–4, longitudinal
 2

4. THERMAL STRESS
If the ends of a rod are rigidly fixed and its temperature is changed, then compressive stresses are
set up in the rod. These developed stress are called thermal stress.
Thermal Stress = Y  t
Y  modulus of elasticity,   Coefficient of linear expansion
t  change in temperature
5. WORK DONE IN STRETCHING A WIRE
In stretching a wire work is done against internal restoring forces. This work is stored in body as elastic
potential energy or strain energy.
If L = length of wire &
A = Cross-sectional Area.
F/A YA
Y =  F = x
x/L L
work done to increase dx length
YA
dW = Fdx = xdx
L
L YA 1 YA
Total work done = W =  xdx = (L)2
0 L 2 L
2
W 1  L 
Work done per unit volume = = Y   [ V = AL]
V 2  L 
W 1
= Y (strain)2
V 2
W 1 Stress
= x stress x strain [ Y = ]
V 2 Strain
W 1 ( stress)2 W 1 F L
=  = ×
V 2 Y AL 2 A L
1 1
W = F × L = load x elongation
2 2
6. STRESS-STAIN CURVE stress D
C E
If we increase the load gradually on a vertical
suspended metal wire, B
In Region OA : A
Strain is small (< 2%)
Stress  Strain  Hook's law is valid. O strain
Slope of line OA gives Young's modulus Y of the material.
In Region AB : Stress is not proportional to strain, but wire will still regain its original length after
removing of stretching force.
In region BC : Wire yields  strain increases rapidly with small change in stress. This behavior is
shown up to point C known as yield point.
In region CD : Point D correspondes to maximum stress, which is called point of breaking or tensile
strength.
In region DE : The wire literally flows. The maximum stress corresponding to D after which wire begin
to flow.
In this region strain increase even if wire is unloaded and rupture at E.
7. HOOKES' LAW
Hookes' law states that, within the elastic limit, the stress developed in a bodyis proportional to the strain
produced in it. Thus the ratio of stress to strain is a constant. This constant is called the modulus of
elasticity. Thus
stress
Modulus of elasticity =
strain
Since strain has no unit, the unit of the modulus of elasticity is the same as that of stress, namely, Nm–2
8. YOUNG'S MODULUS
Suppose that a rod of length l and a uniform crossectional area a is subjected to a logitudinal pull. In other
words, two equal and opposite forces are applied at its ends.
F
Stress =
A
The stress in the present case is called linear stress, tensile stress, or extensional stress. If the direction of
the force is reversed so that L is negative, we speak of compressional strain and compressional stress. If
the elastic limit is not exceeded, then from Hooke's law
Stress  strain
or Stress = Y × strain
stress F L
or Y  . ...(1)
strain A L
where Y, the constant of proportionality, is called the Young's modulus of the material of the rod and may be
defined as the ratio of the linear stess to linear strain, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. Since strain
has no unit, the unit of Y is Nm–2.
Consider a rod of length  0 which is fixed between to rigid end separated at a distance  0 now if the
temperature of the rod is increased by  then the strain produced in the rod will be :
length of the rod at new temperatrue

– natural length of the rod at new temperature F F
strain =
natural length of the rod at new temperature
0
 0 –  0 (1  ) –  0 
=  0 (1  ) =  0 (1  )
  is very small so
strain = –  (negative sign in the answer represents that the length of the rod is less than the natural
length that means is compressed by the ends.)
stress
We know that   then F = T A
strain
Note :
(A) For Loaded Wire :
FL  FL 2
L = 2  Y  AL & A  r 
r Y  
for rigid body L = 0 so Y =  i.e.
elasticity of rigid body is infinite.
(B) If same stretching force is applied to different wire of same material.
L
L  [As F and Y are const.]
r2
Greater the value L, greater will be elongation.
(C) Elongation of wire by its own weight :
In this case F = Mg acts at CG of the wire so length of wire which is stretched will be L/2
FL (Mg)  L / 2 MgL gL2
    L = = 2 = =
AY r Y 2AY 2Y
[ M = AL]
gL2
L =
2Y
Ex.3 A wire of length 1m and area of cross section 4 x 10-8 m2 increases in length by 0.2 cm when
a force of 16 N is applied. Value of Y for the material of the wire will be
(A) 2 × 106 N/m2 (B) 2 × 1011 kg/m2 (C) 2 × 1011 N/mm2 (D) 2 × 1011 N/m2
Sol. [D] By Hook's law
F/A FL
Y = =
 /L A
16  1
Y = = 2 × 10111 N/m2
( 4  10 8 ) (0.2  10 2 )
7.2 Bulk Modulus :
Volume stress P VP
B = =  B = –
Volume strain V V

V
7.3 Compressibility :
k =
1
= –
1 FG V IJ
B V H P K
7.4 Modulus of Rigidity :
tan gentialstress F/A
 =   = D
tan gentialstrain 
Only solid can have shearing as these have definite shape.
8. POISSION'S RATIO
L
Lateralstrain d/D dL
 = =   =
Linear strain L / L LD
Interatomic force constant = Young Modulus x Interatomic distance. 
9. THERMAL EXPANSION d
Most substances expand when they are heated. Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in
average separation between the constituent atoms of an object. Atoms of an object can be imagined to be
connected to one another by stiff springs as shown in figure. At ordinary temperatures, the atoms in a solid
oscillate about their equilibrium positions with an amplitude of approximately 10–11 m. The average specing
between the atom is about 10–10 m. As the temperature of solid increases, the atoms oscillate with greater
amplitudes, as a result the average separation between them increases, consequently the object expands.
9.1 LINEAR EXPANSION

When the rod is heated, its increase in length L is proportional to its original length L0 and change in
temperture T where T is in °C or K.
L0 L  L 0  L
Before heating After heating

dL =  L0dT  L =  L0T If a T << 1
L
 = L T where  is called the coefficient of linear expansion whose unit is °C–1 or K–1.
0
L = L0(1 +  T) . Where L is the length after heating the rod.

Variation of  with temperatue and distance

(a) If  varies with distance,  = ax + b
Then total expansion =  (ax  b) Tdx x dx

(b) If  varies with temperature,  = f(T)
Then L =  L dT
0
Note :
• Actually thermal expansion is always 3-D expansion. When other two dimensions of object are
negligible with respect to one, then observations are significant only in one dimension and it
is known as linear expansion.
• Avery linear dimenstions of the object changes in the same fashion
d
Ex.4 A rectangular plate has a circular cavity as shown in
the figure. If we increase its temperature then which
c b
dimension will increase in following figure.
Sol. Distance between any two point on an object increases
with increase in temperature. So, all dimensions a,b,c a
and d will increase.
Ex.5 In the given figure, when temperature is increased then

which of the following increases R1
(A) R1 (B) R2 (C) R2 – R1
Ans. All of the above R2
- - - - - - represents expanded Boundary
----------- represents original Boundary
As the intermolecular distance between atoms increases
on heating the inner and outer perimeter increases. Also
if the atomic arrangement in radial direction is observed
then we can say that it also increases hence all A, B, C
are true.
Ex.6 A small ring having small gap is shown in figure on

heating what will happen to size of gap.
Sol. Gap will also increase. The reason is same as in above example.
Note : Original and final length should be at same temperature.
A = Area 0
Ex.7 Find the equillibrium length for the system
A A
after increasing temperature by T.
B B
Sol. here  'A and B' are the natural length of the rod A and B A A
after increase in temperature by T, and  '0 is actual  A  B
length after temperature increase by T.

 'A
 '0 – 'A
So strain in A = 'A
 B' – '0
and in B =  'B
Now force balance
 '0
F ' – '
Now  A 0 A ...(1)
A ' A  B'
2F ' – '
and  B B 0 ....(2) A
A 'B F
(1)  (2)
1  A ['0 –  0 (1   A T)]  0 (1   B T )

2  B  0 (1   A T)[  0 (1   B T) – '0 ]
 0 (  B  2 A )[ 1  (B   A )T)
'0 
2 A (1  B T)   B (1   A T)
9.2 Measurement of length by metallic scale :

case (i)
When object is expanded only
 2  1 {1   0 ( 2 – 1)}
1 = actual length of object at 1°C = measure length of object at 1°C.
 2 = actual length of object at 2°C = measured length of object at 2°C
0 = linear expansion coefficient of object
1 2
, , 0 3
1 2 2
case (ii)
When only measureal instrument is expaneded actual length of object will not change but measured value
(MV) decreases. 1
MV = 1{1 –  s ( 2 – 1)}
s = linear expansion coefficient of measuring instrument.
2
case (iii)
2  C
If both expanded simultaneously
MV = l1{1 + (0 – s) (2 – 1)}
1  C
(i) if 0 > s, then measured value is more than actual value at 1°C 0 1 2 3 4 5
(ii) If 0 < s, then measured value is less than actual value at 1°C
2  C
at 1 °C MV = 3.4, 2 °C MV = 4.1 0 1 2 3 4
9.3 Effect of temperature on the time period of a pendulum :

The time period of a simple pendulum is given by
I
T  2 or T I
g
As the temperature is increased length of the pendulum and hence, time period gets increased or a pendu-
lum clock becomes slow and it loses the time,
T' I' I  l
 
T I l
Here, we put l = l  in place of l T so as to avoid the confusion with change in time period. Thus,
T' I  I  1 
  (1  )1/ 2 or T'  T1   
T l  2 
1
or T = T – T = T  
2
Time lost in time t (by a pendulum clock whose actual time period is T and the changed time period at some
higher temperature T) is
 T 
t   t
 T' 
Similarly, if the temperature is decreased the length and hence, the time period gets decreased. A pendulum
clock in this case runs fast and it gains the time.
T' I' I – I 1  1 
   1 –  or T '  T  1 –   
T I I 2  2 
1
T  T – T '  T  
2
and time gained in time t is the same, i.e.,
 T 
t   t
 T' 
Ex.8 A second's pendulum clock has a steel wire. The clock is calibrated at 20°C. How much time does the
clock lose or gain in one week when the temperature is increased to 30°C? steel = 1.2 × 10–5 (°C)–1.
Sol. The time period of second's pendulum is 2 second. As the temperature increases length and hence, time
period increases. Clock becomes slow and it loss the time. The change in time period is
1  1 –5
T  T   (2) (1.2  10 )(30  – 20) = 1.2 × 10–4 s
2 2
 New time period is ,
T = T + T = (2 + 1.2 × 10–4) = 2.0012 s
 Time lost in one week
 T  (1 .2  10 –4 )
t   t  (7  24  3600 ) = 36.28 s
 T'  ( 2.00012 )
9.4 SUPERFICIAL OR AREAL EXPANSION
When a solid is heated and its area increases, then the thermal expansion is called superficial or areal
expansion. Consider a solid plate of side l0 and linear expansion coefficient s. Then Ai = ab
final Area = l × b = ab(1 + s T)2
= ab(1 + 2 s T) = ab(1 +  T) Ti
length(f)  a (1   s T)
Af = Ai (1 + T) b s
breath(f)  b (1   s T)
 = 2
 = coefficent of Area expansion. a
Isotropic Material
Material having coefficient of linear Expansion is same in all the direction.
An isotropic Material
Material having coefficient of linear Expansion is different for different direction.
Note : • Most of the time we take material as the isotropic material
For an isotropic material
Ti Tf
2 b(1   2 T )
2 b
 1
1
a a(1  1T )
Ai = ab
Af = ab (1 + 1T) (1 + 2 T) = ab (1 + 1 + 2T + 12 T2
= ab (1 + 1 + 2T) = Ai (1 + 1 + 2T)

9.5 VOLUME OR CUBICAL EXPANSION

When a solid is heated and its volume increases, then the expansion is called volume expansion or cubical
expansion.
Note : Now after increase in temp by T
Vf = a bc
= a[1  T ] 3 bc b vi=abc
a
= abc [1 + 3  T]  T << 1 c
vf = vi [1 + 3 T]
So 3 =  = coefficient of volume expansion.
a
Hollow
a
Cubical Container of
Solid cube same material
1. When temperature changes the volume of the container and volume of the cube change in the same
fashion because a changes in the same fashion.
2. In volume expansion of container we use  of the container material.
For Isotroptic
vf = vi (1 + 3T)
For Isotroptic
v f  v i [1  (1   2   3 )T ]
Note :-
(i)  :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3
(ii) And they are dependent of temperature.
9.6 Effect of temperature on density :

If the initial density of the body is i having mass m and volume v then
m
i =
v
If the temperature increases then volume should be changes and the final volume is given by
vf = v (1+ T). So the final density
m m
f = v   f  v(1  T)
f
f = i(1 + T)–1
from binomial theorem
f = i (1 – T)
9.7 Temperature scale 100°C
Relation between different scales. 0°
K = Kelvin
32° F 212°F
C = Centigrade
F = Fahrenheit Freezing Boiling
Point 273.15K 373.15K points
100°C difference = 180° F difference
9
1°C difference = F difference
5
9C
 F – 32
5
K = C + 273.15
Relation between temperature. on two difference scales.
L.F. value = Lower fixed value
U.F. value = Upper fixed value
Temperature on S1 scale – L.F. value of S1 Temp. on S 2 Scale – L.F. value of S 2

U.F value of S1 – L.F. value of S1 = U.F.value of S – L.F. value of S
2 2
Ex.9 A faulty thermometer reads 5° at freezing point and 95° at boiling point then findout original reading
in °C when it reads 50°.
50 – 5 x–0 45 x
Sol. =  =  x = 50 Ah w g
95 – 5 100 90 100
Effect of temperature of Buoyancy Force h
Initially at temperature T
FB = v l g w
on increase temperature at T then 
V(1   B T )  g (1   B T )
FB  = v  g (1   T )
(1    T )  v w g
Ah l g
0
( l   0 )
(a) If B > L & T 
then FB 
(a) If L > B & T  
then FB  and T 
then FB 
v(1   B T) v 0 g  mg
9.8 Barometer
Their is a capaillary tube which have coefficient of linear
expansion c and a liquid of volume v of volume expansion A
coefficient v of volume expansion coefficient of  at
temperature Ti. and given 3 c    . The Area of cross-
section of capillary tube is A.
Now temperature increases to Tf, So volume of liquid rises Ti
in the capillary. Let it rises to height H. So volume rises
in tube = V V c
V = V[1 +  T] – V[1+ 3 c T] = V ( – 3c ) T
And Area of cross section of capillary = A
= A [1 + 2CT]
V VT(   – 3 C )
So height in capillary tube H'  A'  A(1  2 T)
C

Ex.10 What will happen to the water level if the vessel is heated ? 
Sol. (i) if     c then overflow occure and overflow

= AH(1    t ) – AH (1 + c T)
H
(ii) if     c
final volume Vfc = AH (1  C T)
final volume Vf = AH (1   T) c
Now AF = A[1  2 C T]
H[1  y  T ]
So H = final height = [1  2 T ]
c
Note If two strips of equal length but of different metals are placed on each other and riveted, the single strip so
formed is called 'bimetallic strip' [see given fig.]. This strip has the characteristic property of bending on
heating due to unequal linear expansion of the two metals. The strip will bend with metal of greater  on outer
side, i.e., convex side. This strip finds its application in auto-cut or thermostat in electric heating circuits. It
has also been used as thermometer by calibrating its bending.
T1 T2
Fe
Fe
Cu Cu
(T2 > T1)

(A) (B)
Ex.11 When the two rods having expansion cofficient 1, 2 (2 > 1) and width d are heated then the radius
of the rod after expansion.
2
2
T d
dI (2 > 1) 1
 R
1
d
R = (  –  ) T
2 1
Proof :  2  (1   2 t)  (R  d)   1  (1  1t )  R
R  d (1   2 T )
 from binomial theorem
R (1   1T )
d
R = ( –  )T
2 1

EXERCISE-I (OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS)
1. A steel scale is to be prepared such that the millimeter intervals are to be accurate within 6 × 10–5 mm. The
maximum temperature variation from the temperature of calibration during the reading of the millimeter marks
is ( = 12 × 10–6 k–1)
(A) 4.0 ºC (B) 4.5 ºC (C) 5.0 ºC (D) 5.5 ºC
2. A steel rod 25 cm long has a cross-sectional area of 0.8 cm2. Force that would be required to stretch this rod
by the same amount as the expansion produced by heating it through 10ºC is :
(Coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 10–5/ºC and Young’s modulus of steel is 2 × 1010 N/m2.)
(A) 160 N (B) 360 N (C) 106 N (D) 260 N
3. Two rods of different materials having coefficients of thermal expansion 1, 2 and Young’s moduli Y1, Y2
respectively are fixed between two rigid massive walls. The rods are heated such that they undergo the same
increase in temperature. There is no bending of the rods. If 1 : 2 = 2 : 3, the thermal stresses developed in
the two rods are equal provided Y1 : Y2 is equal to
(A) 2 : 3 (B) 1 : 1 (C) 3 : 2 (D) 4 : 9
4. If I is the moment of inertia of a solid body having -coefficient of linear expansion then the change in I
corresponding to a small change in temperature T is
1
(A)  I T (B)  I T (C) 2  I T (D) 3  I T
2
5. A metallic wire of length L is fixed between two rigid supports. If the wire is cooled through a temperature
difference T (Y = young’s modulus,  = density,  = coefficient of linear expansion) then the frequency of
transverse vibration is proportional to :
 Y  
(A) Y
(B) (C) (C)
 Y Y
6. A metal wire is clamped between two vertical walls. At 20°C the unstrained length of the wire is exactly equal
to the separation between walls. If the temperature of the wire is decreased the graph between elastic energy
density (u) and temperature (T) of the wire is
u u u u
(A) (B) (C) (D)

T (in °C) T (in °C) T (in °C) T (in °C)
20 20 20 20
7. A steel tape gives correct measurement at 20°C. A piece of wood is being measured with the steel tape at
0°C. The reading is 25 cm on the tape, the real length of the given piece of wood must be :
(A) 25 cm (B) < 25 cm (C) >25 cm (D) can not say
8. A rod of length 20 cm is made of metal. It expands by 0.075 cm when its temperature is raised from 0°C to
100°C. Another rod of a different metal B having the same length expands by 0.045 cm for the same change
in temperature, a third rod of the same length is composed of two parts one of metal A and the other of metal
B. Thus rod expand by 0.06 cm for the same change in temperature. The portion made of metal A has the
length.
(A) 20 cm (B) 10 cm (C) 15 cm (D) 18 cm
9. A sphere of diameter 7 cm and mass 266.5 gm floats in a bath of a liquid. As the temperature is raised, the
sphere just begins to sink at a temperature 35°C. If the density of a liquid at 0°C is 1.527 gm/cc, then
neglecting the expansion of the sphere, the coefficient of cubical expansion of the liquid is f :
(A) 8.486 × 10–4 per °C (B) 8.486 × 10–5 per °C (C) 8.486 × 10–6 per °C (D) 8.486 × 10–3 per °C

10. The volume of the bulb of a mercury thermometer at 0°C is V0 and cross section of the capillary is A0. The
coefficient of linear expansion of glass is ag per °C and the cubical expansion of mercury m per °C. If the
mercury just fills the bulb at 0°C, what is the length of mercury column in capillary at T°C.
V0 T(  m  3ag ) V0 T(  m – 3ag ) V0 T(  m  2ag ) V0 T(  m – 2a g )
(A) A (1  2a T) (B) A (1  2a T) (C) A (1  3a T) (D) A (1  3a T )
0 g 0 g 0 g 0 g
11. A metallic rod 1 cm long with a square cross-section is heated through 1°C. If Young’s modulus of elasticity
of the metal is E and the mean coefficient of linear expansion is  per degree Celsius, then the compressional
force required to prevent the rod from expanding along its length is : (Neglect the change of cross-sectional area)
(A) EAt (B) EA t/(1 +  t) (C) EA t/(1 – t) (D) E/t
12. The loss in weight of a solid when immersed in a liquid at 0°C is W 0 and at t°C is W. If cubical coefficient of
expansion of the solid and the liquid by s and 1 respectively, then W is equal to :
(A) W 0[1 + (s – 1) t] (B) W 0[1 – (s – 1) t] (C) W 0[ (s – 1) t] (D) W 0t / (s – 1)
13. A thin walled cylindrical metal vessel of linear coefficient of expansion 10–3 °C–1 contains benzenr of volume
expansion coefficient 10–3 °C–1. If the vessel and its contents are now heated by 10°C, the pressure due to the
liquid at the bottom.
(A) increases by 2% (B) decreases by 1% (C) decreases by 2% (D) remains unchanged
14. A rod of length 2m at 0°C and having expansion coefficient  = (3x + 2) × 10–6 °C–1 where x is the distance (in
cm) from one end of rod. The length of rod at 20 °C is :
(A) 2.124 m (B) 3.24 m (C) 2.0120 m (D) 3.124 m
15. A copper ring has a diameter of exactly 25 mm at its temperature of 0°C. An aluminium sphere has a
diameter of exactly 25.05 mm at its temperature of 100°C. The sphere is placed on top of the ring and two are
allowed to come to thermal equilibrium, no heat being lost to the surrounding. The sphere just passes
through the ring at the equilibrium temperature. The ratio of the mass of the sphere & ring is :
(given : Cu = 17 × 10–6/°C, Al = 2.3 × 10–5/°C, specific heat of Cu = 0.0923 Cal/g°C and specific heat of
Al = 0.215 cal/g°C)
(A) 1/5 (B) 23/108 (C) 23/54 y (D) 216/23
16. A cuboid ABCDEFGH is anisotropic with x = 1 × 10–5/°C, A B

y = 2 × 10–5/°C, z = 3 × 10–5/°C. Coefficient of superficial C
D
expansion of faces can be F G
x
(A) ABCD = 5 × 10–5 /°C (B) BCGH = 4 × 10–5 /°C E
H
(C) CDEH = 3 × 10–5/°C (D) EFGH = 2 × 10–5/°C
z
17. An open vessel is filled completely with oil which has same coefficient of volume expansion as that of the
vessel. On heating both oil and vessel,
(A) the vessel can contain more volume and more mass of oil
(B) the vessel can contain same volume and same mass of oil
(C) the vessel can contain same volume but more mass of oil
(D) the vessel can contain more volume but same mass of oil
18. A metal ball immersed in Alcohol weights W 1 at 0°C and W 2 at 50°C. The coefficient of cubical expansion of
the metal ()m is less than that of alcohol ()Al. Assuming that density of metal is large compared to that of
alcohol, it can be shown that
(A) W 1 > W 2 (B) W 1 = W 2 (C) W 1 < W 2 (D) any of (A), (B) or (C)
19. A solid ball is completely immersed in a liquid. The coefficients of volume expansion of the ball and liquid are
3 × 10–6 and 8 × 10–6 per °C respectively. The percentage change in upthrust when the temperature is
increased by 100°C is
(A) 0.5 % (B) 0.11 % (C) 1.1% (D) 0.05 %
20. A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 1% when heated from temperature T1 to T2. What is the
percentage change in area when a thin copper plate having dimensions 2L × L is heated from T1 to T2 ?
(A) 1% (B) 2% (C) 3% (D) 4%
21. If two rods of length L and 2L having coefficients of linear expansion  and 2 respectively are connected so
that total length becomes 3L, the average coefficient of linear expansion of the composition rod equals :
3 5 5
(A)  (B)  (C)  (D) none of these
2 2 3
22. The bulk modulus of copper is 1.4 × 1011 Pa and the coefficient of linear expansion is 1.7 × 10–5 (C°)–1. What
hydrostatic pressure is necessary to prevent a copper block from expanding when its temperature is increased
from 20°C to 30°C ?
(A) 6.0 × 105 Pa (B) 7.1 × 107 Pa (C) 5.2 × 106 Pa (D) 40 atm
23. The coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and a metal X are respectively 12 × 10–6 and 2 × 10–6 per °C, At
40°C, the side of a cube of metal X was measured using a steel vernier callipers. The reading was 100 mm.
Assuming that the calibration of the vernier was done at 0°C, then the actual length of the side of the cube at
0°C will be
(A) > 100 mm (B) < 100 mm (C) = 100 mm (D) data insufficient to conclude
24. A glass flask contains some mercury at room temperature. It is found that at different temperature the volume
of air inside the flask remains the same. If the volume of mercury in the flask is 300 cm3, then volume of the
flask is (given that coefficient of volume expansion of mercury and coefficient of linear expansion of glass are
1.8 × 10–4(°C)–1 and 9 × 10–6(°C)–1 respectively)
(A) 4500 cm3 (B) 450 cm3 (C) 2000 cm3 (D) 6000 cm3
Question No. 25 to 29 (5 question)

Solids and liquids both expand on heating. The density of substance decreases on expanding according to
the relation
1
2 = 1  ( T – T )
2 1
where, 1  density at T1
2  density at T2
  coeff. of volume expansion of substances
when a solid is submerged in a liquid, liquid exerts an upward force on solid which is equal to the weight of
liquid displaced by submerged part of solid.
Solid will float or sink depends on relative densities of solid and liquid.
A cubical block of solid floats in a liquid with half of its volume
submerged in liquid as shown in figure (at temperature T)
s  coeff. of linear expansion of solid
L  coeff. of volume expansion of liquid
s  density of solid at temp. T
L  density of liquid at temp. T
25. The relation between densities of solid and liquid at temperature T is
(A) S = 2L (B) S = (1/2) L (C) S = L (D) S = (1/4) L
26. If temperature of system increases, then fraction of solid submerged in liquid

(A) increases (B) decreases (C) remains the same (D)inadequate information
27. Imagine fraction submerged does not change on increasing temperature the relation between L and S is
(A) L = 3S (B) L = 2S (C) L = 4S (D) L = (3/2)S
28. Imagine the depth of the block submerged in the liquid does not change on increasing temperature then
(A) L = 2 (B) L = 3 (C) L = (3/2) (D) L = (4/3)

29. Assume block does not expand on heating. The temperature at which the block just begins to sink in liquid is
(A) T + 1/L (B) T + 1/(2L) (C) T + 2/L (D) T + L/2
30. The coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid in a copper vessel is C and in a silver vessel is S. The
coefficient of volume expansion of copper is C. What is the coefficient of linear expansion of silver?
C   c  S) C –  c  S) C   c – S) C –  c – S)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 3 3 3
31. An aluminium container of mass 100 gm contains 200 gm of ice at –20°C. Heat is added to the system at the
rate of 100 cal/s. The temperature of the system after 4 minutes will be (specific heat of ice = 0.5 and L = 80 cal/
gm, specific heat of Al = 0.2 cal/gm/°C)
(A) 40.5°C (B) 25.5°C (C) 30.3°C (D) 35.0°C
32. Two vertical glass tubes filled with a liquid are connected by a
capillary tube as shown in the figure. The tube on the left is put in
an ice bath at 0°C while the tube on the right is kept at 30° C in a
water bath. The differenece in the levels of the liquid in the two 4 cm Water
tubes is 4 cm while the height of the liquid column at 0° C is 120
cm. The coefficient of volume expansion of liquid is (Ignore 120cm
expansion of glass tube)
(A) 22 × 10–4/°C (B) 1.1 × 10–4/°C 30°C
(C) 11 × 10 /°C
–4
(D) 2.2 × 10–4 /°C 0°C
33. A difference of temperature of 25ºC is equivalent to a difference of :

(A) 45º F (B) 72º F (C) 32º F (D) 25º F
34. Two thermometers x and y have fundamental intervals of 80º and 120º. When immersed in ice, they show the
reading of 20º and 30º. If y measures the temperature of a body as 120º, the reading of x is :
(A) 59º (B) 65º (C) 75º (D) 80º
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
35. When an enclosed perfect gas is subjected to an adiabatic process :

(A) Its total internal energy does not change
(B) Its temperature does not change
(C) Its pressure varies inversely as a certain power of its volume
(D) The product of its pressure and volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
36. Four rods A, B, C, D of same length and material but of different radii r, r 2 , r 3 and 2r respectively are
held between two rigid walls. The temperature of all rods is increased by same amount. If the rods donot
bend, then
(A) the stress in the rods are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4
(B) the force on the rod exerted by the wall are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4
(C) the energy stored in the rods due to elasticity are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4
(D) the strains produced in the rods are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4
37. A body of mass M is attached to the lower end of a metal wire, whose upper end is fixed. The elongation of
the wire is l.
(A) Loss in gravitational potential energy of M is Mgl
(B) The elastic potential energy stored in the wire is Mgl
(C) The elastic potential energy stored in the wire is 1/2 Mgl
(D) Heat produced is 1/2 Mgl
38. When the temperature of a copper coin is raised by 80ºC, its diameter increases by 0.2%.
(A) Percentage rise in the area of a face is 0.4%
(B) Percentage rise in the thickness is 0.4%
(C) Percentage rise in the volume is 0.6%
(D) Coefficient of linear expansion of copper is 0.25 × 10–4Cº–1.

EXERCISE-II (SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS)

1. We have a hollow sphere and a solid sphere of equal radii and of the same material. They are heated to raise
their temperature by equal amounts. How will the change in their volumes, due to volume expansions, be
related ? Consider two cases (i) hollow sphere is filled with air, (ii) there is vaccum inside the hollow sphere.
2. The time represented by the clock hands of a pendulum clock depends on the number of oscillation performed
by pendulum every time it reach to its extreme position the second hand of the clock advances by one
second that means second hand move by two second when one oscillation in complete
(a) How many number of oscillations completed by pendulum of clock in 15 minutes at calibrated temperature
20°C
(b) How many number of oscillations are completed by a pendulum of clock in 15 minute at temperature of
40°C if  = 2 × 10–5c
(c) What time is represented by the pendulum clock at 40°C after 15 minutes if the initial time shown by the
clock is 12: 00 pm ?
(d) If the clock gains two second in 15 minutes then find - (i) Number of extra oscillation (ii) New time period
(iii) change in temperature.
3. Consider a cylindrical container of cross section area ‘A’, length ‘h’ having
coefficient of linear expansion c. The container is filled by liquid of real
expansion coefficient L up to height h1. When temperature of the system h
is increased by  then h1
(a) Find out new height, area and volume of cyclindrical container and new
volume of liquid.
(b) Find the height of liquid level when expansion of container is neglected.
(c) Find the relation between L and c for which volume of container above the liquid level.
(i) increases (ii) decreases (iii) remains constant.
(d) If y  > 3 C and h = h1 then calculate, the volume of liquid overflow
(e) What is the relation between   and  c for which volume of empty space becomes independent of
change of temp.
(f) If the surface of a cylindrical container is marked with numbers for the measurement of liquid level of
liquid filled inside it. If we increase the temperature of the system be  then
(i) Find height of liquid level as shown by the scale on the vessel. Neglect expansion of liquid
(ii) Find height of liquid level as shown by the scale on the vessel. Neglect expansion of container
(iii) Find relation between L and c so that height of liquid level with respect to ground
(1) increases (2) decreases (3)remains constant.
4. A loaded glass bulb weighs 156.25 g in air. When the bulb is immersed in a liquid at temperature 15ºC, it
weighs 56.25 g. On heating the liquid, for a temperature upto 52ºC the apparent weight of the bulb becomes
66.25 g. Find the coefficient of real expansion of the liquid. (Given coefficient of linear expansion of glass
= 9 × 10–6/ºC).
5. A body is completely submerged inside the liquid. It is in equilibrium and in rest condition at certain temperature.
It L volumetric expansion coefficient of liquid s = linear expansion coefficient by of body. It we increases
temperature by  amount than find
(a) New thrust force if initial volume of body is V0 and density of liquid is d0.
(b) Relation between s and L so body will (i) move upward (ii) down ward (iii) remains are rest

6. A clock pendulum made of invar has a period of 0.5 sec at 20°C. If the clock is used in a climate where
average temperature is 30° C, aporoximately. How much fast or slow will the clock run in 106 sec.
(invar = 1 × 10–6/°C)
7. An iron bar (Young’s modulus = 1011 N/m2,  = 10–6/°C) 1 m long and 10–3 m2 in area is heated from 0°C to
100°C without being allowed to bend or expand. Find the compressive force developed inside the bar.
8. Three aluminium rods of equal length form an equilateral triangle ABC. Taking O (mid point of rod BC) as the
origin.Find the increase in Y-coordinate of center of mass per unit change in temperature of the system.
Assume the length of the each rod is
2m, and al = 4 3 × 10–6/ °C
A
B O C
9. If two rods of length L and 2L having coefficients of linear expansion  and 2 respectively are connected so
that total length becomes 3L, determine the average coefficient of linear expansion of the composite rod.
10. A thermostatted chamber at small height h above earth’s surface maintained at 30°C has a clock fitted in it
with an uncompensated pendulum. The clock designer correctly designs it for height h, but for temperature
of 20°C. If this chamber is taken to earth’s surface, the clock in it would click correct time. Find the coefficient
of linear expansion of material of pendulum.(earth’s radius is R)
11. The coefficient of volume expansion of mercury is 20 times the coefficient of linear expansion of glass Find
the volume of mercury that must be poured into a glass vessel of volume V so that the volume above mercury
may remain constant at all temperature.
12. A metal rod A of 25 cm lengths expands by 0.050 cm. When its temperature is raised from 0°C to 100°C.
Another rod B of a different metal of length 40cm expands by 0.040 cm for the same rise in temperature. A
third rod C of 50 cm length is made up of pieces of rods A and B placed end to end expands by 0.03 cm on
heating from 0° C to 50°C. Find the lengths of each portion of the composite rod.
13. The figure shows three temperature scales with the freezing and boiling points of water indicated.
70ºx 120ºW 90ºY Bolling Point
–20ºx 30ºW 0ºY Freezing Point
(a) Rank the size of a degree on these scales, greatest first.

(b) Rank the following temperatures, highest first 50ºX, 50ºW and 50ºY.
14. What is the temperature at which we get the same reading on both the centigrade and Fahrenheit scales ?

EXERCISE-III (JEE PROBLEMS)
1. The apparatus shown in the figure consists of four glass columns connected by horizontal sections. The
height of two central columns B & C are 49 cm each. The two outer columns A & D are open to the
atmosphere. A & C are maintained at a temperature of 95° C while the columns B & d are maintained at 5°C.
The height of the liquid in A & D measured from the base line are 52.8 cm & 51 cm respectively. Determine
the coefficient of thermal expansion of the liquid. [JEE ‘97]
A B C
D
95° 5° 95°
5°
2. A bimetallic strip is formed out of two identical strips one of copper and the other of brass. The coefficient of
linear expansion of the two metals are C and B. On heating, the temperature of the strip goes up by T and
the strip bends to form an arc of radius of curvature R. Then R is : [JEE ‘99]
(A) proportional at T (B) inversely proportional to T
(C) proportional to |B – C| (D) inversely proportional to |B – C|
3. Two rods one of aluminium of length l1 having coefficient of linear expansion a, and other steel of length l2
having coefficient of linear expansion S are joined end to end. The expansion in both the rods is same on
l1
variation of temperature. Then the value of l  l is [JEE’ (Scr) 2003]
1 2
s s a  s
(A*)    (B)  –  (C) s (D) None of these
a s a s
4. A cube of coefficient of linear expansion s is floating in a bath containing a liquid of coefficient of volume
expansion l. When the temperature is raised by T, the depth upto which the cube is submerged in the
liquid remains the same. Find the relation between s and l, showing all the steps. [JEE 2004]
5. A 0.1 kg mass is suspended from a wire of negligible mass The length of the wire is 1 m and its cross-
sectional area is 4.9 × 10–7 m2. If the mass is pulled a little in the vertically downward direction and released,
it performs simple harmonic motion of angular frequency 140 red s–1. If the Young's modulus of the material
of the wire is n × 109 Nm–2, the value of n is [JEE 2010]

: : ANSWER KEY : :
ANSWER EX-I (OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. B
7. B 8. B 9. A 10. B 11. B 12. A
13. C 14. C 15. C 16. C 17. D 18. C
19. D 20. B 21. C 22. B 23. A 24. C
25. B 26. A 27. A 28. A 29. A 30. C
31. B 32. C 33. A 34. D 35. C,D 36. B,C
37. A,C,D 38. A,C,D
ANSWER EX-II (SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
1. (i) hollow sphere > solid sphere, (ii) hollow sphere = solid sphere
900 1
2. (a) 450 (b) 449 (c) 12 : 14 : 59 (d) (i) 1 (ii) s (iii) s
451 450  10 –5
3. (a) h1 = h {1 + c }, A1 = A {1 + 2s }, v1 = Ah {1 + 3s }
volume of liquid Vw = Ah1(1 + L )
(b) h1 = h {1 + L } (c) (i) L < 3c (ii) L > 3c (iii) L = 3c.
(d) V = Ah (L – 3c )  (e) 3hc = h1L
(f) (i) h1 (1 – 3c), (ii) h1(1 + L ), (iii) (1) L > 2c (2) L < 2c (3) L = 2c .
1 –6   1  3 s  
4. YR =   27  37  10  /  C 5. (a) V0d0g  1     (b) (i) L < 3s (ii) L > 3s (iii) L = 3s.
9  L 
6. 5 sec slow 7. 10000 N 8. 4 × 10–6 m/°C 9. 5 /3 10. h/5R 11. 3V/20 12.10 cm, 40 cm
13. (a) All tie (b) 50°X, 50°Y, 50°W. 14. –40°C or –40°F
ANSWER EX-III (JEE PROBLEMS )
1. 2 × 10–4 C 2. B,D 3. A 4. l = 2s 5. 4

FLUID
CONTENTS
1. Fluid .......................................................................................................... 3
2. Pressure in a fluid ................................................................................ 3 – 9
3. Pascal's Principle ............................................................................... 9 – 10
4. Archimede's Principle ....................................................................... 10 – 16
5. Equation of Continuity ....................................................................... 16 – 17
6. Bernoullis Equation ........................................................................... 17 – 21
14. Exercise - 1 ........................................................................................ 22 – 39
15. Exercise - 2 ........................................................................................ 40 – 42
16. Exercise - 3 ........................................................................................ 43 – 48
17. Exercise - 4 ........................................................................................ 49 – 51
18. Exercise - 5 ........................................................................................ 52 – 58
19. Answer key ......................................................................................... 59 – 60

Page # 2 FLUID
IIT-JEE Syllabus :
FLUID
Pressure in a fluid; Pascal's law; Byoyancy, Streamline flow, Equation of continuity Bernoulli's
theorem and its applications.

FLUID Page # 3
1. FLUID:
Fluid mechanics deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion. A fluid is a substance that
deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) stress no matter how small the
shear stress may be.
Thus, fluids comprise the liquid and gas (or vapor) phase of the physical forms in which matter exists.
Density () : Mass of unit volume, Called density
Density at a point of liquid described by
m dm
  Lim 
V  0 V dV
density is a positive scalar quantity.
SI unit = Kg/m3
CGS unit = gm/cm3
Dimension = [ML–3]
Relative Density : It is the ratio of density of given liquid to the density of pure water at 4°C
Density of given liquid
R.D. 
Density of pure water at 4C
Relative density or specific gravity is unit less, dimensionless. It is a positive scalar physical Quantity
Value of R.D. is same in SI and CGS system due to dimensionless/unitless
Specific Gravity : It is the ratio of weight of given liquid to the weight of pure water at 4°C
Weight of given liquid   g 
Specific Gravity = =   g   = Relative density of
Weight of pure water at 4C(9.81 kN / m3 ) w w
liquid
i.e. than specfic gravity of a liquid is approximately equal to the relative density. For calculation they
can be interchange
2. PRESSURE IN A FLUID
When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it exerts a force pependicular to any surface in contact
with it, such as a container wall or a body immersed in the fluid.
While the fluid as a whole is at rest, the molecules that makes up the fluid are in motion, the force
exerted by the fluid is due to molecules colliding with their surroundings.
If we think of an imaginary surface within the fluid, the fluid on the two sides of the surface exerts
equal and opposite forces on the surface, otherwise the surface would acceleratate and the fluid would
not remain at rest.
Consider a small surface of area dA centered on a point on the fluid, the normal force exerted by the
fluid on each side is dF . The pressure P is defined at that point as the normal force per unit area, i.e.,,
dF
P
dA
If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A, then
F
P
A
where F is the normal force on one side of the surface. The SI unit of pressure is pascal, where
1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1.0 N/m2
One unit used principally in meterology is the Bar which is equal to 105 Pa.
1 Bar = 105 Pa

Page # 4 FLUID
2.1 Atmospheric Pressure (P0)

It is pressure of the earth's atmosphere. This changes with weather and elevation. Normal atmospheric
pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1.013 × 105 Pa. Thus
1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa
Note : Fluid pressure acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid no matter how that surface is
oriented. Hence, pressure has no intrinsic direction of its own, its a scalar. By contrast, force is a
vector with a definite direction.
2.2 Variation in Pressure with depth

If the weight of the fluid can be neglected, the pressure in a fluid is the same throughout its volume.
But often the fluid's weight is not negligible and under such condition pressure increases with increasing
depth below the surface.
Let us now derive a general relation between the presure P at any point in a fluid at rest and the
elevation y of that point. We will assume that the density  and the acceleration due to gravity g are
the same throughout the fluid. If the fluid is in equilibrium, every volume element is in equilibrium.
dW dy
dy
y
PA
Consider a thin element of fluid with height dy. The bottom and top surfaces each have area A, and
they are at elevations y and y + dy above some reference level where y = 0. The weight of the fluid
element is
dW = (volume) (density) (g) = (A dy) () (g)
or dW = g A dy
What are the other forces in y-direction of this fluid element ? Call the pressure at the bottom surface
P, the total y component of upward force is PA. The pressure at the top surface is P + dP and the
total y-component of downward force on the top surface is (P + dP) A. The fluid element is in
equilibrium, so the total y-component of force including the weight and the forces at the bottom and
top surfaces must be zero.
Fy = 0
 PA – (P + dP) A – gAdy = 0
dP
or  – g ...(i)
dy
This equation shows that when y increases, P decreases, i.e., as
we move upward in the fluid, pressure decreases.
If P1 and P2 be the pressures at elevations y1 and y2 and if  and g P2
are constant, then integrating Eq.(i) , we get y2
P2 P1 y1
y2
 dP  – g  dy
y1
P1
or P2 – P1 = – g (y2 – y1) ...(ii)

FLUID Page # 5
It's often convenient to express Eq. (ii) in terms of the depth below the surface of a fluid. Take point
1 at depth h below the surface of fluid and let P represents pressure at this point. Take point 2 at the
surface of the fluid, where the pressure is P0 (subscript zero for zero depth). The depth of point 1
below the surface is,
h = y2 – y 1
and Eq. (ii) becomes
P0 – P = – g (y2 – y1) = –  gh
 P = P0 + gh ...(iii)
Thus, pressure increases linearly with dpeth, if  and g are uniform, A graph between P and h is
shown below.
P P0 P0
h
P  P0  gh A B
P0
h
PA  PB  P0  gh
Further, the pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in the fluid. The shape of the
container does not matter.
2.3. Barometer
It is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure. Vacuum
(P = 0)
In principle, any liquid can be used to fill the barometer, but
h
mercury is the substance of choice because its great density
1
makes possible an instrument of reasonable size.
P1 = P 2 2
Here, P1 = atompsheric pressure (P0)
and P2 = 0 + gh =  gh
Here,  = density of mercury
P0 = gh
Thus, the mercury barometer reads the atmosphereic pressure (P0) directly from the height of the mercury
column.
For example if the height of mercury in a barometer is 760 mm, then atmospheric pressure will be,
P0 = gh = (13.6 × 103) (9.8) (0.760)= 1.01 × 105 N/m2
2.4 Force on Side Wall of Vessel

Force on the side wall of the vesel can not be directly
determined as at different depths pressures are different.
To find this we cosider a strip of width dx at a depth x from x dx
the surface of the liquid as shown in figure, and on this
dF
strip the force due to the liquid is given as :
h
dF = xg × bdx
This force is acting in the direction normal to the side wall. b
Net force can be evaluated by integrating equation a
h
F  dF  gbh2
  xgbdx
0
F
2
...(2.4)

Page # 6 FLUID
2.5 Average Pressure on Side Wall

The absolute pressure on the side wall cannot be evaluated because at different depths on this wall
pressure is different. The average pressure on the wall can be given as :
F 1 gbh 2 1
 p  av  =  gh ...(2.5)
bh 2 bh 2
Equation (2.5) shows that the average pressure on side vertical wall is half of the net pressure at the
bottom of the vessel.
2.6 Torque on the Side Wall due to Fluid Pressure

As shown in figure, due to the force dF, the side wall experiences a torque about the bottom edge of
the side which is given as
d  dF  (h – x) = xgb dx (h – x)
h
This net torque is   d  gb(hx – x2 )dx

 
0
 h3 h3  1
 gb –   gbh 3
 2 3  6
2.7 Manometer
It is a device used to measure the pressure of a gas inside a container.
The U-shaped tube often contains mercury.
P1 = P 2
Here, P1 = pressure of the gas in the container (P)
P0
and P2 = atmospheric pressure (P0) + gh
h
 P = P0+ hg
This can also be written as 1 2
P – P0 = gauge pressure = hg
Here,  is the density of the liquid used in U - tube
Thus by measuring h we can find absolute (or gauge) pressure in the vessel.
Ex.1 Two liquid which do not react chemically are placed in a bent tube as shown in figure. Find out
the displacement of the liquid in equillibrium position.
2 
 

Sol. The pressure at the interface must be same, calculated via either tube. Since both tube all open to
the atmosphere, we must have.
x x
 
2g( – x) = g( + x)  x = /3

FLUID Page # 7
Ex.2 Three liquid which do not react chemically are placed in a bent tube as shown in figure (initially)
then fluid out the displacement of the liquid in equillibrium position.
 3
 
2
Sol. Let us assume that level of liquid having density 3 displaced below by x as shown in figure below.
x
x

– x
g + 2gx = 3( – x)g

x = 2/5
2.8 Pressure Distribution in an Accelerated Frame
We've already discussed that when a liquid is filled in a container, generally its free surface remains
horizontal as shown in figure (a) as for its equilibrium its free surface must be normal to gravity i.e.
horizontal. Due to the same reason we said that pressure at every point of a liquid layer parallel to its
free surface remains constant. Similar situation exist when liquid is in an accelerated frame as shown in
figure (b). Due to acceleration of container, liquid filled in it experiences a pseudo force relative to
container and due to this the free surface of liquid which normal to the gravity now is filled as
 a
  tan –1   ...(2.22)
 g
A a
a
 
geff
g
(a) (b)
Now from equilibrium of liquid we can state that pressure at every point in a liquid layer parallel to the
free surface (which is not horizontal), remains same for example if we find pressure at a point A in the
acceleratd container as shown in figure (a) is given as
PA = P0 + h a2  g2 ...(2.23)
Where h is the depth of the point A below the free surface of liquid along effective gravity and P0 is the
atmopheric pressure acting on free surface of the liquid.
a a
l1 
h h 
 l2 
A
(c) (d)

Page # 8 FLUID
The pressure at point A can also obtained in an another way as shown in figure (b). If l1 and l2 are the
vertical and horizontal distances of point A from the surface of liquid then pressure at point A can also
be given as
PA = P0 + l1 g = P0 + l2 a (2.24)
Here l1 g is the pressure at A due to the vertical height of liquid above A and according to Pascal's Law
pressure at A is given as
PA = P0 + l1 g ...(2.25)
h a 2  g2
Here we can write l1 as l1  h sec  
g
or from equation (2.25) PA  P0  h a 2  g2
Similarly if we consider the horizotnal distance of point A from free surface of liquid, which is l2 then
due to pseudo acceleration of container the pressure at point A is given as
P A = P 0 + l2  a ...(2.26)
h g2  a 2
Here l2 is given as l2  h cos ec 
a
From equation (2.24), we have PA  P0  h g2  a 2
Here students should note that while evaluating pressure at point A from vertical direction we haven't
mentioned any thing about pseudo acceleration as along vertical length l1, due to pseudo acceleration
at every point pressure must be constant similarly in horizontal direction at every point due to gravity
pressure reamins constant.
Ex.3 Figure shows a tube in which liquid is filled at the level. It is now rotated at an angular frequency
w about an axis passing through arm A find out pressure difference at the liquid interfaces.
 B
A

Sol. To solve the problem we take a small mass dm from the B
axis at ‘a’ distance x in displaced condition.
Net inward force = (P + dP) A – PA P + dP
= AdP dm  Adx x0
P
This force is balanced by centripetal force in equilibrium
xw

2 dx
 A dP = dm 2x = Adx 2x   dP    xdx
x0
x

 – x0
P = 2  xdx = x0g

x0

FLUID Page # 9

Ex.4 A liquid of density  is in a bucket that spins with angular
velocity  as shown in figure. Show that the pressure
at a radial distance r from the axis is
2 r 2
P  P0 
2
where P0 is the atmospheric pressure.
Sol. Consider a fluid particle P of mass m at coordinates

(x, y). From a non-inertial rotating frame of reference two y
forces are acting on it,
(i) pseudo force (mx 2)
(ii) weight (mg) P
in the directions shown in figure. x
Net force on it should be perpendicular to the free
surface (in equilibrium). Hence.
mx 2 x 2 dy x2
tan    or 
mg g dx g P  ( x, y )
y x x2
  dy   .dx
0 0 g
x 2 2 P
 y mx2
2g

This is the equation of the free surface
of the liquid, which is a parabola.  mg Fnet
r 22
At x = r, y
2g P0
yP(r)
 P(r) = P0 + gy
x=r
 2r 2
or P(r) = P0 +
2
3. PASCAL'S PRINCIPLE
Some times while dealing with the problems of fluid it is desirable to know the pressure at one point is
pressure at any other point in a fluid is known. For such types of calculations Pascal's Law is used
extensively in dealing of static fluids. It is stated as
"The pressure applied at one point in an enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly to every part of the
fluid and to the walls of the container."
One more example can be considered better to explain the concept of Pascal's Principle. Consider the
situation shown in figure, a tube having two different cross section S1 and S2, with pistons of same
cross sections fitted at the two ends.
2
1
F1
F2

Page # 10 FLUID
If an external force F1 is applied to the piston 1, it creates a pressure p1 = F1/S1 on the liquid enclosed.
As the whole liquid is at the same level, everywhere the pressure in the liquid is increased by p1. The
force applied by the liquid on the piston 2 can be given as F2 =p2 × S2, and as the two pistons are at
same level p2 = p1. Thus
F2 = p2 × S2
F1
F2 = S  S2 ....(2.21)
1
Equation (2.21) shows that by using such a system the force can be amplified by an amount equal to
the ratio of the cross section of the two pistons. This is the principle of hydraulic press, we'll encoun-
ter in next few pages.
3.1 The Hydraulic Lift

Figure shows how Pascal's principle can be made the basis for a hydraulic lift. In operation, let an
external force of magnitude F1 be exerted downward on the left input piston, whose area is S1. It result
a force F2 which will act on piston 2 by the incompressible liquid in the device.
Here F2 = p2 × S2
And p2 = pB –  gh
F1
S1
S2
F2
h
Where pB is the pressure on the bottom of the device which can be given as :
pB = p1 +  gh
Thus p2 = p1 and F2 = p1 S2
S2
or F2 = F1 × S
1
If S2 >> S1  F2 >> F1
4. ARCHIMEDE'S PRINCIPLE
If a heavy object is immersed in water, it seems to weight less than when it is in air. This is because
the water exerts an upward force called buoyant force. It is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body.
A body wholly or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the displaced fluid.
This result is known as Archimedes' principle.
Thus, the magnitude of buoyant force (F) is given by,
F  Vi L g
Here, Vi = immersed volume of solid L = density of liquid
and g = acceleration due to gravity
Note : Point of Application of buoyant force is centre of liquied displaced

FLUID Page # 11
Proof Consider an arbitraily shaped body of volume V placed in a container

filled with a fluid of density L. The body is shown completely
immersed, but complete immersion is not essential to the proof.
To begin with, imagine the situation before the body was immersed.
The region now occupied by the body was filled with fluid, whose
weight was VL g . Because the fluid as a whole was in hydrostatic
V
equilibrium, the net upwards force (due to difference in pressure
at different depths) on the fluid in that region was equal to the
weight of the fluid occuping that region.
Now, consider what happens when the body has displaced the fluid. The pressure at every point on
the surface of the body is unchanged from the value at the same location when the body was not
present. This is because the pressure at any point depends only on the depth of that point below the
fluid surface. Hence, the net force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the body is exactly the same
as the exerted on the region before the body was present. But we know the latter to be VL g , the
weight of the displaced fluid. Hence, this must also be the buoyant force exerted on the body.
Archimedes' principle is thus, proved.
Ex.5 Beaker cicular cross-section of radius 4 cm is filled with mercury upto a height of 10 cm. Find
the force exerted by the mercury on the bottom of the beaker. The atmopheric pressure = 105
N/m2. Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3. Take g = 10 m/s2
Sol. The pressure at the surface = atmospheric pressure = 105 N/m2.
The pressure at the bottom = 105 N/m2 + hg
 kg   m
= 105 N/m2 + (0.1 m)  13600 3   10 2 
m  s 
= 105 N/m2 + 13600 N/m2 = 1.136 × 105 N/m2

The force exerted by the mercury on the bottom
= (1.136 × 105 N/m2) × (3.14 × 0.04 m × 004 m) = 571 N
Ex.6 A cubical block of iron 5 cm on each side is floating on mercury in a vessel.

(i) What is the height of the block above mercury level ?
(ii) What is poured in the vessel until it just covers the iron block. What is the height of water
column.
Density of mercury = 13.6 gm/cm3
Density of iron 7.2 gm/cm3
Sol. Case-I : Suppose h be the height of cubical block of iron above mercury.
Volume of iron block = 5 ×5 × 5 = 125 cm3
Mass of iron block = 125 × 7.2 = 900 gm
Volume of mercury displaced by the block = 5 × 5 × (5 – h) cm3
Mass of mercury displaced = 5 × 5 (5 – h) × 13.6 gm
By the law floatation,
weight of mercury displaced = weight of iron block
5 × 5 (5 – h) × 13.6 = 900
900
or (5 – h) = = 2.65  h = 5 – 2.65 = 2.35 cm
25  13.6

Page # 12 FLUID
Case - II : Suppose in this case height of iron block in water be x. The height of iron block in mercury will
be (5 – x) cm.
Water
Mercury Mercury
(a) (b)
Mass of the water displaced = 5 × 5 × (x) × 1
Mass of mercury displaced = 5 × 5 × (5 – x) × 13.6
So, weight of water displaced + weight of mercury displaced = weight of iron block
or 5 × 5 × x × 1 + 5 × 5 × (5 – x) × 13.6 = 900
or x = (5 – x) × 13.6 = 36
x = 2.54 cm
Ex.7 A tank contianing water is placed on spring balanced. A stone of weight w is hung and lowered
into the water without touching the sides and the bottom of the tank. Explain how the reading
will change.
Sol. The situation is shown in figure. Make free-body diagrams of the
bodies separately and consider their equilibrium. Like all other forces,
buoyancy is also exerted equally on the two bodies in contact.
Hence it the water exerts a buoyant force, say, B on the stone
upward, the stone exerts the same force on the water downward.
The forces acting on the 'water + container' system are : W,
weight of the system downward, B, buoyant force of the stone
downard, and the force R of the spring in the upward direction.
For equilibrium
R=W+B
Thus the reading of the spring scale will increase by an amount
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced, that is, by an amount
equal to the buoyant force.
Ex.8 A cylindrical vessel containing a liquid is closed by a smooth piston

of mass m as shown in figure. The area of cross-section of the piston
is A. If the atmopheric pressure is P0, find the pressure of the liquid
just below the prism.
Sol. Let the pressure of the liquid just below the piston be P.
The forces acting on the piston are
(a) its weight, mg (downward)
(b) force due to the air above it, P0A(downward)
(c) force due to the liquid below it, PA (upward)
If the piston is in equilibrium
mg
PA = P0A + mg or P = P0 +
A

FLUID Page # 13
Ex.9 A rubber ball of mass m and radius r is submerged in water to a depth h released. What height
will the ball jump up to above the surface of the water ? Neglect the resistance of water and
air.
Sol. Let the ball go up by x above the level of water.
Let us now consider energy conservation between the initial and final positions. In both the positions
kinetic energy of the body is zero. The potential energy in the first position with reference to the water
4 3 
level is – mgh plus the work done by an external agent against the buoyant force which is  r g h,
3
where  is the density of the water
4 3  ( 4 / 3)r 3  – m
or –mgh +  r g h = mgx  x h
3 m
Ex.10 A cube of wood supporting a 200 g mass just floats in water. When the mass is removed, the
cube rises by 2 cm. What is the size of the cube ?
Sol. If, l = side of cube, h = height of cube above water and  = density of wood.
Mass of the cube = l3 
Volume of cube in water = l2 (l – h)
Volume of the displaced water = l 2 ( l – h)
As the tube is floating

weight of cube + weight of wood = weight of liquid displaced
or l3 + 200 = l2 (l – h) ...(2.10)
After the removal of 200 gm mass, the cube rises 2 cm.
= l2 × {l – (h + 2)}
Volume of cube in water
or l2 × {l – (h + 2)} = l3  ...(2.11)
Substituting the value of l  from equation (2.11) in equation (2.10), we get
3
l2 × {l – (h + 2)} + 200 = l2 (l – h)
or l3 – l2h – 2l2 + 200 = l3 – l2
2l2 = 200  l = 10 cm
Ex.11 A boat floating in water tank is carrying a number of large stones. If the stones were unloaded
into water, what will happen to water level ? Given the reason in brief.
Sol. Suppose W and w be the weights of the boat and stones respectively.
First, we consider that the boat is floating. It will displaced (W + w) × 1 cm3 of water.
Thus displaced water = (W + w) cm3 [As density of water = 1 gm/cm3]
Secondly, we consider that the stones are unloaded into water.
Now the boat displaces only W × 1 cm3 of water. If  be the density of stones, the volume of water
displaced by stones
= w/ cm3
As  > 1, hence w/ < w, thus we have
Now (W + w/) < (W + w)
This shows that the volume of water displaced in the second case is less than the volume of water
displaced in the first case. Hence the level of water will come down.

Page # 14 FLUID
Ex.12 Two solid uniform spheres each of radius 5 cm are connected by a light string and totally im-
mersed in a tank of water. If the specific gravities of the sphere are 0.5 and 2, find the tension
in the string and the contact force between the bottom of tank and the heavier sphere.
Let the volume of each sphere be V m3 and
density of water be  kg/m3.
Upward thrust on heavier sphere = v  g
Weight of the heavier sphere = V × 2 × g
For heavier sphere,
T
T+R+Vg=V×2×g ...(2.12)
where R is the reaction at the bottom.
Similarly for lighter sphere
T + V × 0.5 ×  g = V  g ..(2.13) R
Subtracting equation (2.13) from equation (2.12), we have
R + 0.5 V  g = V  g ...(2.14)
or R = 0.5 V  g ...(2.15)
From equation (2.13) T = 0.5 V  g
4 
 0.5    3.14  5 3  10 6  × 1000 × 9.8 = 2.565 N
3 
R = 2.565 N
Similarly
A rod of length 6 m has a mass of 12 kg. If it is hinged at one end at a distance of 3 m below a water
surface,
(i) What weight must be attached to other end of the rod so that 5 m of the rod is submerged ?
(ii) Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the hinge on the rod. The specific gravity
of the material of the rod is 0.5.
Sol. Let AC be the submerged part of the rod AB hinged at A FB B
as shown in figure. G is the centre of gravity of the rod
and G is the centre of buoyancy through which force of Water Surface C
buoyancy FB acts vertically upwards. G
R w x
Since the rod is uniform,
G'
5 A
The weight of part AC will be  12  10kg [Because AB = 6 m and W
AC = 5 m]
6
The buoyance force on rod at G is Hinge
10
FB  = 20 kg weight
0.5
(i) Let x be weight attached at the end B. Balancing torques about A, we get
W × AG + x × AB = FB × AG
12 + 3 + x × 6 = 20 × (5/2) [As AG = 5/2]
Solving we get x = 2.33 kg
(ii) Suppose R be the upward reaction on the hinge, then in equilibrium position, we have
W + x = FB + R
or R = W + x – FB
= 12 + 2.33 – 20 = – 5.67 kg. wt.
Negative sign shows that the reaction at the hinge is acting in the downward direction. The magnitude
of the reaction is 5.67 kg. wt.

FLUID Page # 15
Ex.13 A cylinder of area 300 cm2 and length 10 cm made of material of speicifc gravity 0.8 is floated in
water with its axis vertical. It is then pushed downward, so as to be just immersed. Calculate
the work done by the agent who pushes the cylinder into the water.
Sol. Weight of the cylinder = (300 × 10–4) × (10 × 10–2) × 800 kgf = 2.4 kgf
Let x be the length of the cylinder inside the water. Then by the law of floatation
2.4 g = (300 × 10–4 x) × 1000 g
or x = 0.08 m
When completely immersed,
Fb(buoyant force) = (300 × 10–4 × 0.1) × 1000 × g = 3 g N
Thus to immerse the cylinder inside the water the external agent has to push it by 0.02 m against
average upward thrust.
Increase in upward thrust = 3g – 2.4 g = 0.6 g N
Since this increase in upthrust takes place gradually from 0 to 0.6 g, we may take the average upthrust
against which work is done as 0.3 g N.
work done = 0.3 g × 0.02 = 0.0588 J
Ex.14 A piece of an alloy of mass 96 gm is composed of two metals whose specific gravities are 11.4
and 7.4. If the weight of the alloy is 86 gm in water, find the mass of each metal in the alloy.
Sol. Suppose the mass of the metal of specific gravity 11.4 be m and the mass of the second metal of
specific gravity 7.4 will be (96–m)
m
Volume of first metal = cm 3
114
.
96 – m
Volume of second metal = cm 3
7.4
m 96 – m
Total volume = 
114
. 7.4
 m 96 – m 
Buoyancy force in water    gm weight
 114
. 7.4 
 m  (96 – m) 
Apparent wt. in water = 96 –  114  
 .  7.4 
According to the given problem,
 m  ( 96 – m) 
96 –     86
. 
 114 7.4 
m ( 96 – m)
or   10
114
. 7.4
Solving we get, m = 62.7 gm

Thus mass of second metal is = 96 – 62.7 = 33.3 gm

Page # 16 FLUID
NOTE :ASSUMPTIONS OF IDEAL FLUID

(1) Fluid is incompressible : density of fluid remain constant through out the fluid.
(2) Fluid is non-viscous : fluid friction is absent
(3) Doesn't show rotational effect : If we release any body in the flowing section there it will not
rotate about its C.O.M.
(4) Stream line flow : velocity of fluid at any particular point remains constant with time It may vary
with position.
5. EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
A2
This equation defines the steady flow of fluid in a tube. It states v2
that if flow of a fluid is a steady then the mass of fluid entering per
second at one end is equal to the mass of fluid leaving per second
at the other end.
A1
Figure shown a section of a tube in which at the ends, the cross
sectional area are A1 and A2 and the velocity of the fluid are V1
and v2 respectivley.
According to the equation of continuity, if flow is steady mass of
fluid entering at end A1 per second = mass of fluid leaving the end A2
per second.
dV
 A1v1
dt
Hence mass entering per second at A1 is = A1 v1 
Similarly mass leaving per second at A2 is = A2 v2 
According to the definition of steady flow
A1 v1  = A2 v2  or A1v1 = A2v2
Equation above in known as equation of continuity, which gives that in steady flow the product of
cross-section and the speed of fluid everywhere remains constant.
5.1 Freely Falling Liquid
When liquid falls freely under gravity, the area of cross section of
the stream continuously decreases, as the velocity inreases.
For example, we consider water coming out from a tap, as shown in
figure. Let its speed near the mouth of tap is v0 and at a depth h it
is v, then we have
v 2  v 20  2gh
If cross section of tap is A then according to the equation of continuity,
the cross section at point M (say a) can be given as
v0 A
a
v 0 A  a v 20  2gh or
v 20  2gh

FLUID Page # 17
6. BERNOULLIS EQUATION
It relates the variables describing the steady laminer of liquid. It is based on energy conservation.
Assumptions
The fluid is incompressible, non-viscous, non rotational and streamline flow.
dm
A2
T
T A2 P2
V2 at time t + dt dx2
P2
at time t = 0
A1 h2
S
A1
P1
S
V1 dx1
P1
h1
Mass of the fluid entering from side S
dm1 =  A1 dx1 =  dv1
The work done in this displacement dx1 at point S is
WP = F1dx1 = P1A1dx1
1
WP = P1dV1 { A1dx1 = dV1}

1
At the same time the amount of fluid moves out of the tube at point T is
dm2 = dV2
dm1 dm 2
According to equation of coutniuity  dV1 = dV2 = dv
dt dt
The work done in the displacement of dm2 mass at point T
WP = P2dV2
2
Now applying work energy theorem.
1 2  1 2 
WP + WP = (Kf + Uf) – (Ki + Ui)  P1dV – P2dV =  dV  2  dVgh 2  –  dV 1  dVgh 1 
1 2 2  2 
1 1
P1 – P 2 = V22 + gh2 – V12 + gh1
2 2
1 1 1
P1 + gh1 + V12 = P2 + gh2 + V2  P + gh + V2 = constant
2 2 2
P 1 v2
h = constant
g 2 g
P
where = pressure head
g
h = Gravitational head
1 v2
= volume head
2 g

Page # 18 FLUID
6.1 APPLICATION OF BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE

Magnus effect : When a spinning ball is thrown, it deviates from its usual path in flight. This effect is
called Magnus effect and plays an important role in tennis, cricket and soccer, etc., as by applying
appropriate spin the moving ball can be made to curve in any desired direction.
If a ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
direction of motion as shown in figure, then relative to the ball air will be moving from right to left.
V+r
V Vertical plane
O
Curved path
v Usual
path
V
A0 A 1
(A) (B) (C)
The resultant velocity of air above the ball will be (V+r) while below it (V –r) (shown figure). So in
accordance with Bernoulli's principle pressure above the ball will be less than below it. Due to this
difference of pressure an upward force will act on the ball and hence the ball will deviate from its
usual path OA0 and will hit the ground at A1 following the path OA1 (figure shown) i.e., if a ball is
thrown with back spin, the pitch will curve less sharply prolonging the flight.
Similarly if the spin is clockwise, i.e., the ball is thrown with top-spin, the force due to pressure
difference will act in the direction of gravity and so the pitch will curve more sharply shortening the
flight.
A1
A0
A0
Horizontal plane A2
Furthermore, if the ball is spinning about a vertical axis, the curving will be sideays as shown in figure.
producing the so called out swing or in swing.
Action of Atomiser : The action of aspirator, carburettor, paint-gun, scent-spray or insect-sprayer is

based on Bernoulli's principle. In all these by means of motion of a piston P in a cylinder C high speed
air is passed over a tube T dipped in liquid L to be sprayed. High speed air creates low pressure over
the tube due to which liquid (paint, scent, insecticide or petrol) rises in it and is then blown off in very
small droplets with expelled air.
p T
c

FLUID Page # 19
Working of Aeroplane : This is also based on Bernouilli's principle. The wings of the aeroplane are
having tapering as shown in figure. Due to this specific shape of wings when the aeroplane runs, air
passes at higher speed over it as compared to its lower surface. This difference of air speeds above
and below the wings, in accordance with Bernoulli's principle, creates a pressure difference, due to
which an upward force called ' dynamic lift' ( = pressure difference × area of wing) acts on the plane.
If this force becomes greater than the weight of the plane, the plane will rise up.
v large, p small
v small, p large
Ex.15 If pressure and velocity at point A is P1 and V1 respectively A

& at point B is P2, V2 is the figure as shown. Comment on
P1 and P2. V1 B
Sol. From equation of continuity A1V1 = A2V2 P1 V2
here A1 > A2
 V1 < V2 ....(1)
from Bernoulli's equation. We can write
1
P1 + V12 = P2 + 1/2 V22 =
2
after using equation (1) P1 > P2
A P0
• TORRICIELLI'S LAW OF EFFLUX (VELOCITY OF EFFLUX)
Crossectional Area of hole at A is greater than B If water is
come in tank with velocity vA and going out side with velocity h
vB then A1 vA = A2vB v
 A1 > A2  vB >> vA H
B
H–h
on applying bernoulli theorem at A and B

1 2 1
PA  ghA  v A  PB  ghB  vB2
2 2
PA = P B = P 0
and hA – hB = h
1 2 2
 gh = (vB – v A ) [vB >> vA]
2
1
gh =  v2 [vB2 – vA2 = v2]
2
v= 2 gh

Page # 20 FLUID
Range (R)
Let us find the range R on the ground.
Considering the vertical motion of the liquid.
1 2 2(H – h)
(H – h) = gt or t
2 g
Now, considering the horizontal motion,
 2(H – h) 
R = vt or R  ( 2gh )
 
g  or R  2 h(H – h)
 
From the expression of R, following conclusions can be drawn,
(i) Rh = R H – h
as R h  2 h(H – h) and R H – h  2 (H – h)h H–h h v
This can be shown as in Figure
H O
H
(ii) R is maximum at h  and Rmax = H.
2 h H–h
Proof : R2 = 4 (Hh – h2)
dR 2
For R to be maximum. 0
dh
or H – 2h = 0 or h = H/2
That is, R is maximum at h=H/2
H H
and R max  2
H –   H Proved
2 2
Ex.16 A cylindrical dark 1 m in radius rests on a platform 5 m high. Initially the tank is filled with water
up to a height of 5 m. A plug whose area is 10–4 m2 is removed from an orifice on the side of the
tank at the bottom Calculate (a) initial speed with which the water flows from the orifice (b)
initial speed with which the water strikes the ground and (c) time taken to empty the tank to
half its original volume (d) Does the time to be emptied the tank depend upon the height of
stand.
(a) As speed of flow is given by
A
vH = ( 2gh)
or = 2  10  5 ~
– 10 m/s 5m
A0
(b) As initial vertical velocity of water is zero,
so its vertical velocity when it hits the ground
~ 5m
v V  2gh = 2  10  5 – 10 m/s
So the initial speed with which water strikes the ground.
v  vH2  v 2V = 10 2 = 14.1 m/s
(c) When the height of water level above the hole is y, velocity of flow will be v  2gy and so rate of flow
dV
 A 0 v  A 0 2gy or –Ady = ( 2gy ) A0 dt [As dV = – A dy]
dt
Which on integration improper limits gives
0 t
Ady A 2   12 2
   A 0 dt  t 
[ H – H'] So t  [ 5 – (5 / 2)] = 9.2 × 103s ~ 2.5 h
H
2gy 0 A0 g 10 –4 10 –
(d) No, as expression of t is independent of height of stand.

FLUID Page # 21
6.1 Venturimeter
Figure shows a venturimeter used to measure flow speed in a pipe of non - uniform cross-section. We
apply Bernoulli's equation to the wide (point 1) and narrow (point 2) parts of the pipe, with h1 = h2
1 1 P0 P0
P1  v 12  P2  v 22
2 2
A 1v 1 h
From the continuity equation v2 = A
2
Substituting and rearranging, we get A v2
v1
A 2 H A2
1 
P1 – P2   v 12  12 – 1
2  A2 
Because A1 is greater than A2, v2 is greater than v1 and hence the pressure P2 is less than P1. A net
force to the right acceleration the fluid as it enters the narrow part of the tube (called throat) and a
net force to the left slows as it leaves. The pressure difference is also equal to  gh, where h is the
difference in liquid level in the two tubes. Substituting in Eq. (i), we get
2gh
v1  2
 A1 
  – 1
 A2 
6.2 Pitot Tube
It is a device used to measure flow velocity of fluid. It is a U shaped tube
which can be inserted in a tube or in the fluid flowing space as shown in
figure shown. In the U tube a liquid which is immiscible with the fluid is filled vg
upto a level C and the short opening M is placed in the fluid flowing space
against the flow so that few of the fluid particles entered into the tube and A B
exert a pressure on the liquid in limb A of U tube. Due to this the liquid level h
changes as shown in figure shown.
At end B fluid is freely flowing, which exert approximately negligible pressure on this liquid. The pressure
difference at ends A and B can be given by measuring the liquid level difference h as
It is a gas, then PA – PB = hg
It if the a liquid of density , then
PA – PB = h( – g)g
Now if we apply Bernoulli's equation at ends A and B we'l have
1 2 1 2
0 + 0 + PA = v g + 0 + PB or v g  PA – PB  hg
2 2
Now by using equations, we can evaluate the velocity v, with which the fluid is flowing.
Note : Pitot tube is also used to measure velocity of aeroplanes with respect to wind. It can be
mounted at the top surface of the plain and hence the velocity of wind can be measured with respect
to plane.
6.3 SIPHON : Q
It is a pipe used to drain liquid at a lower height but the
h2
pipe initially rises and then comes down P
let velocity of outflow is v & the pipe is of uniform h=0
cross-section A. Applying bernoulli's equation between P h1

R
(top of tank) & R (opening of pipe) we get
V
1 1 1 2
(P + gh + v2)P = (P + gh + v2)R  P + 0 + 0 = P0 – gh1 + v
2 2 2
here velocity is considered zero at P since area of tank is very large compared to area of pipe
 v  2gh
Naturally for siphon to work h1 > 0
Now as area of pipe is constant so by equation of continuity
as Av = constant so velcoity of flow inside siphon is also constant between Q & R
(P + gh + 1/2 v2)Q = (P + gh + 1/2 v2)R  PQ + gh2 = P0 – gh1 (v is same)
 PQ = P0 – g (h1 + h2) as PQ = 0  P0  g (h1 + h2)
means (h1 + h2) should not be more than P/g for siphon to work

Page # 22 FLUID

1. STATIC FLUID 7. The pressure at the bottom of a tank of water is
1. A bucket contains water filled upto a height = 15 cm. 3P where P is the atmospheric pressure. If the water
The bucket is tied to a rope which is passed over a is drawn out till the level of water is lowered by one
frictionless light pulley and the other end of the rope is fifth., the pressure at the bottom of the tank will now
tied to a weight of mass which is half of that of the be
(bucket + water). The water pressure above (A) 2P (B) (13/5) P (C) (8/5) P (D) (4/5) P
atmosphere pressure at the bottom is
(A) 0.5 kPa (B) 1 kPa (C) 5 kPa (D) None 8. An open-ended U-tube of uniform cross-sectional
area contains water (density 1.0 gram/centimeter3)
2. Some liquid is filled in a cylindrical vessel of radius standing initially 20 centimeters from the bottom in
R. Let F1 be the force applied by the liquid on the each arm. An immiscible liquid of density 4.0 grams/
bottom of the cylinder. Now the same liquid is poured centimeter 3 is added to one arm until a layer 5
into a vessel of uniform square cross-section of side centimeters high forms, as shown in the figure above.
R. Let F2 be the force applied by the liquid on the What is the ratio h2/h1 of the heights of the liquid in
bottom of this new vessel. Then : the two arms ?
F2
(A) F1 = F2 (B) F1 = (C) F1 = F2 (D) F1 = F2
 5cm
3. A liquid of mass 1 kg is filled
in a flask as shown in figure. h2
h1
The force exerted by the flask
on the liquid is (g = 10 m/s2)
[Neglect atmospheric pressure]
(A) 10 N (B) greater than 10 N (A) 3/1 (B) 5/2 (C) 2/1 (D) 3/2
(C) less than 10 N (D) zero 9. The vertical limbs of a U shaped tube are filled with
a liquid of density  upto a height h on each side. The
4. A U-tube having horizontal arm of length 20 cm,
horizontal portion of the U tube having length 2h
has uniform cross-sectional area = 1 cm2. It is filled
contains a liquid of density 2. The U tube is moved
with water of volume 60 cc. What volume of a liquid
horizontally with an accelerator g/2 parallel to the
of density 4 g/cc should be poured from one side into
the U-tube so that no water is left in the horizontal horizontal arm. The difference in heights in liquid levels
arm of the tube? in the two vertical limbs, at steady state will be
(A) 2h/7 (B) 8h/7 (C) 4h/7 (D) None
(A) 60 cc (B) 45 cc (C) 50 cc (D) 35 cc
10. The area of cross-section of the wider tube shown
5 . In the figure shown, the heavy cylinder (radius R)
in figure is 800 cm2. If a mass of 12 kg is placed on
resting on a smooth surface separates two liquids of
densities 2 and 3. The height ‘h’ for the equilibrium the massless piston, the difference in heights h in the
of cylinder must be level of water in the two tubes is :
R 3
12kg
h 2 R h
3
(A) 3R/2 (B) R (C) R 2 (D) None
2 (A) 10 cm (B) 6 cm (C) 15 cm (D) 2 cm
6. A light semi cylindrical gate of radius R is piovted at
2. ACCELERATED FLUID
its mid point O, of the diameter as shown in the figure
holding liquid of density . The force F required to 11. A fluid container is containing a liquid of density 
prevent the rotation of the gate is equal t is is accelerating upward with acceleration a along
the inclined place of inclination  as shwon. Then the
angle of inclination  of free surface is :
O a
R

F

(A) 2R3g (B) 2gR3l
2R2 lg 
3

FLUID Page # 23
are connected by weightless wire and placed in a

 g  –1  a  g sin  
–1
(A) tan   (B) tan   large tank of water. Under equilibrium the lighter cube
 g cos    g cos   will project above the water surface to a height of
(A) 50 cm (B) 25 cm (C) 10 cm (D) zero
–1  a – g sin   –1  a – g sin  
17. A cuboidal piece of wood has dimensions a, b and
(C) tan   (D) tan   c. Its relative density is d. It is floating in a larger
 g(1  cos )   g(1 – cos )  body of water such that side a is vertical. It is pushed
12. Figure shows a three arm tube in which a liquid down a bit and released. The time period of SHM
is filled upto levels of height l. It is now rotated at an executed by it is :
angular frequency  about an axis passing through
abc g bc da
arm B. The angular frequency  at which level of liquid (A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) 2
of arm B becomes zero. g da dg g
18. A slender homogeneous rod of length 2L floats

A B C partly immersed in water, being supported by a string
 fastened to one of its ends, as shown. The specific
gravity of the rod is 0.75. The length of rod that
l l extends out of water is
l l
2g g 3g 3g
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3l l l 2l 2L
13. An open cubical tank was initially fully filled with

water. When the tank was accelerated on a horizontal 1 1
(A) L (B) L (C) L (D) 3 L
plane along one of its side it was found that one third 2 4
of volume of water spilled out. The acceleration was 19. A dumbbell is placed in water of density . It is
(A) g/3 (B) 2g/3 (C) 3g/2 (D) None observed that by attaching a mass m to the rod, the
3. PASCAL'S LAW & ARCHIMEDE'S PRINCIPLE dumbbell floats with the rod horizontal on the surface
14. A cone of radius R and height H, is hanging inside of water and each sphere exactly half submerged as
a liquid of density  by means of a string as shown in shown in the figure. The volume of the mass m is
the figure. The force, due to the liquid acting on the negligible. The value of length l is
slant surface of the cone is (neglect atmospheric l
pressure)
M,V m 2M,V
Water
H d
R
d(V  3M) d(V  2M)

4 2 (A) 2(V  2M) (B) 2(V  3M)
(A)gHR2 (B) HR2 (C) gHR2 (D) gHR2  
3 3
15. A heavy hollow cone of radius R and height h is d(V  2M) d(V  2M)
placed on a horizontal table surface, with its flat base (C) 2(V  3M) (D) 2(V  3M)
 
on the table. The whole volume inside the cone is
20. Two bodies having volumes V and 2V are suspended
filled with water of density . The circular rim of the
from the two arms of a common balance and they are
cone’s base has a watertight seal with the table’s
found to balance each other. If larger body is immersed
surface and the top apex of the cone has a small
in oil (density d1 = 0.9 gm/cm3) and the smaller body
hole. Neglecting atmospheric pressure find the total
is immersed in an unknown liquid, then the balance
upward force exerted by water on the cone is
remain in equilibrium. The density of unknown liquid is
(A) (2/3)R2 hg (B) (1/3)R2 hg (C) R2 hg (D) None
given by :
16. Two cubes of size 1.0 m sides, one of relative (A) 2.4 gm/cm3 (B) 1.8 gm/cm3
density 0.60 and another of relative density = 1.15 (C) 0.45 gm/cm 3
(D) 2.7 gm/cm3

Page # 24 FLUID
21. A container of large surface area is filled with 4

liquid of density . A cubical block of side edge a and R 3w g  Mg 2
3 3
(A) (B) R wg  Mg
mass M is floating in it with four-fifth of its volume 2 3
submerged. If a coin of mass m is placed gently on
4 3
the top surface of the block is just submerged. M is R w g  Mg 4 3
(A) 4m/5 (B) m/5 (C) 4m (D) 5m (C) 3 (D) R w g  Mg
2 3
22. A boy carries a fish in one hand and a bucket (not
29. A metal ball of density 7800 kg/m3 is suspected
full) of water in the other hand. If the places the fish
to have a large number of cavities. It weighs 9.8 kg
in the bucket, the weight now carried by him (assume
when weighed directly on a balance and 1.5 kg less
that water does not spill) : when immersed in water. The fraction by volume of
(A) is less than before (B) is more than before
the cavities in the metal ball is approximately :
(C) is the same as before (D) depends upon his speed
(A) 20% (B) 30% (C) 16% (D) 11%
23. A cork of density 0.5 gcm–3 floats on a calm
30. A sphere of radius R and made of material of
swimming pool. The fraction of the cork’s volume which
relative density  has a concentric cavity of radius r.
is under water is It just floats when placed in a tank full of water. The
(A) 0% (B) 25% (C) 10% (D) 50% value of the ratio R/r will be
24. Two cyllinders of same cross-section and length L 1/3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
but made of two material of densities d1 and d2 are       1    1    1
(A)   (B)   (C)   (D)  
cemented together to form a cylinder of length 2L.   1          1
The combination floats in a liquid of density d with a
length L/2 above the surface of the liquid. If d1 > d2 31. A body having volume V and density  is attached
then : to the bottom of a container as shown. Density of the
3 d d liquid is d(>). Container has a constant upward
(A) d1  d (B)  d1 (C)  d1 (D) d < d1 acceleration a. Tension in the string is
4 2 4
25. A piece of steel has a weight W in air, W1 when
completely immersed in water and W2 when completely
a
immersed in an unknown liquid. The relative density
(specific gravity) of liquid is :
W  W1 W  W2 W1  W2 W1  W2
(A) W  W (B) W  W (C) W  W (D) W  W (A) V[Dg – (g + a)] (B) V (g + a) (d – )
2 1 1 2
(C) V (d – ) g (D) none
26. A ball of relative density 0.8 falls into water from 32. A hollow cone floats with its axis vertical upto
a height of 2m. The depth to which the ball will sink is one-third of its height in a liquid of relative density
(neglect viscous forces) : 0.8 and with its vertex submerged. When another liquid
(A) 8m (B) 2m (C) 6m (D) 4m of relative density  is filled in it upto one-third of its
27. A small wooden ball of density  is immersed in height, the cone floats upto half its vertical height.
water of density  to depth h and then released. The The height of the cone is 0.10 m and radius of the
height H above the surface of water up to which the circular base is 0.05 m. The specific gravity  is given
ball will jump out of water is by
(A) 1.0 (B) 1.5 (C) 2.1 (D) 1.9
h  
(A) (B)   1  h (C) h (D) zero 33. A beaker containing water is placed on the
   platform of a spring balance. The balance reads 1.5
28. A hollow sphere of mass M and radius r is immersed kg. A stone of mass 0.5 kg and density 500 kg/m3 is
in a tank of water (density w). The sphere would immersed in water without touching the walls of beaker.
float if it were set free. The sphere is tied to the What will be the balance reading now ?
bottom of the tank by two wires which makes angle (A) 2 kg (B) 2.5 kg (C) 1 kg (D) 3 kg
45º with the horizontal as shown in the figure. The 34. There is a metal cube inside a
tension T1 in the wire is : block of ice which is floating on
the surface of water. The ice
melts completely and metal falls
R
in the water. Water level in the
M
container
T1 (A) Rises (B) Falls (C) Remains same
45º 45º (D) Nothing can be concluded

FLUID Page # 25
35. A uniform solid cylinder of density 0.8 g/cm3 floats

in equilibrium in a combination of two non-mixing liquid P P
A and B with its axis vertical. The densities of liquid A
(C) (D)
and B are 0.7 g/cm3 and 1.2 gm/cm3. The height of
liquid A is hA = 1.2 cm and the length of the part of x x
cylinder immersed in liquid B is hB = 0.8 cm. Then the 41. A cylindrical tank of height 1 m and cross section
length of the cylinder in air is area A = 4000 cm2 is initially empty when it is kept
(A) 0.21 m (B) 0.25 cm (C) 0.35 cm (D) 0.4 cm under a tap of cross sectional area 1 cm2. Water starts
36. A cylindrical block of area of cross-section A and flowing from the tap at t = 0, with a speed = 2 m/s.
of material of density  is placed in a liquid of density There is a small hole in the base of the tank of cross-
one-third of density of block. The block compresses a sectional area 0.5 cm2. The variation of height of water
spring and compression in the spring is one-third of in tank (in meters) with time t is best depicted by
the length of the block. If acceleration due to gravity
h h
is g, the spring constant of the spring is
1 0.8
(A) (B)
O t O t
h h
(A) Ag (B) 2Ag (C) 2Ag/3 (D) Ag/3 0.8 1

37. A body of density ’ is dropped from rest at a (C) (D)
height h into a lake of density , where  > . Neglecting
O t O t
all disipative froces, calculate the maximum depth to
which the body sinks before returning of float on the 42. A cubical box of wine has a small spout located in
surface. one of the bottom corners. When the box is full and
h h' h' h placed on a level surface, opening the spout results in
(A)  – ' (B)  (C)  – ' (D)  – ' a flow of wine with a initial speed of v0 (see figure).
4. FLUID FLOW & BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE When the box is half empty, someone tilts it at 45º so
38. A rectangular tank is placed on a horizontal ground that the spout is at the lowest point (see figure).
and is filled with water to a height H above the base. When the spout is opened the wine will flow out with
A small hole is made on one vertical side at a depth D a speed of
below the level of the water in the tank. The distance
x from the bottom of the tank at which the water jet
from the tank will hit the ground is
1 V0
(A) 2 D(H  D) (B) 2 DH (C) 2 D (H  D ) (D) DH
2
39.A jet of water with cross section of 6 cm2 strikes a
wall at an angle of 60º to the normal and rebounds
elastically from the wall without losing energy. If the
velocity of the water in the jet is 12 m/s, the force (A) v0 (B) v0/2 (C) v 0 / 2 (D) v 0 / 4 2
acting on the wall is
(A) 0.864 Nt (B) 86.4 Nt (C) 72 Nt (D) 7.2 Nt 43. Water is flowing steadily through a horizontal tube
40. The cross sectional area of a horizontal tube of non uniform cross-section. If the pressure of water
increases along its length linearly, as we move in the is 4 × 104 N/m2 at a point where cross-section is 0.02
direction of flow. The variation of pressure, as we m2 and velocity of flow is 2 m/s, what is pressure at a
move along its length in the direction of flow (x- point where cross-section reduces to 0.01 m2
direction), is best depicted by which of the following (A) 1.4 × 104 N/m2 (B) 3.4 × 104 N/m2
graphs (C) 2.4 × 10–4 N/m2 (D) none of these
44. A vertical cylindrical container of base area A and
P P
upper cross-section area A1 making an angle 30° with
(A) (B) the horizontal is placed in an open rainy field as shown
near another cylindrical container having same base
x x area A. The ratio of rates of collection of water in the

Page # 26 FLUID
two containers will be.

A1
p p
60º 60º
30º
(C) (D)
A A
(A) 2 / 3 (B) 4 / 3 (C) 2 (D) None x x

50. A cylindrical vessel filled with water upto the
45. A tube is attached as shown in closed vessel
height H becomes empty in time t0 due to a small hole
containing water. The velocity of water coming out
at the bottom of the vessel. If water is filled to a
from a small hole is :
height 4H it will flow out in time
(A) t0 (B) 4t0 (C) 8t0 (D) 2t0
51. A cylindrical vessel open at the open at the top
is 20 cm high and 10 cm in diameter. A circular hole
20cm whose cross-sectional area 1 cm2 is cut at the centre
of the bottom of the vessel. Water flows from a tube
above it into the vessel at the rate 100 cm3s–1. The
(A) 2m / s (B) 2 m/s
height of water in the vessel under state is (Take g =
(C) depends on pressure of air inside vessel 1000 cms–2)
(D) None of these (A) 20 cm (B) 15 cm (C) 10 cm (D) 5 cm
46. A large tank is filled with water to a height H. A 52. A fire hydrant delivers water of density  at a
small hole is made at the base of the tank. It takes T1 volume rate L. The water travels vertically upward
time to decrease the height of water to H/, ( > 1) through the hydrant and then does 90° turn to emerge
and it takes T2 time to take out the rest of water. If horizontally at speed V. The pipe and nozzle have
T1 = T2, then the value of  is : uniform cross-section throughout. The force exerted
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 2 2 by the water on the corner of the hydrant is :
47. In the case of a fluid, Bernoulli’s theorem v
expresses the application of the principle of
conservation of v
(A) linear momentum (B) energy
(C) mass (D) angular momentum
(A) VL (B) zero (C) 2VL (D) 2 VL
48. Fountains usually seen in gardens are generated
by a wide pipe with an enclosure at one end having 53. A vertical tank, open at the top, is filled with a
many small holes. Consider one such fountain which is liquid and rests on a smooth horizontal surface. A
produced by a pipe of internal diameter 2 cm in which small hole is opened at the centre of one side of the
water flows at a rate 3ms–1. The enclosure has 100 tank. The area of cross-section of the tank is N
holes each of diameter 0.05 cm. The velocity of water times the area of the hole, where N is a large number.
coming out of the holes is (in ms–1) : Neglect mass of the tank itself. The initial acceleration
(A) 0.48 (B) 96 (C) 24 (D) 48 of the tank is
g g g g
49. Water flows through a frictionless duct with a (A) (B) (C) (D)
cross-section varying as shown in figure. Pressure p 2N 2 N N 2 N
at points along the axis is represented by 54. Two water pipes P and Q having diameters 2 ×
10–2 m and 4×10–2 m, respectively, are joined in series
with the main supply line of water. The velocity of
water flowing in pipe P is
(A) 4 times that of Q (B) 2 times that of Q
(C) 1/2 times of that of Q (D) 1/4 times that of Q
p p
55. Water flows into a cylindrical vessel of large cross-
sectional area at a rate of 10–4m3/s. It flows out from
a hole of area 10–4 m2, which has been punched through
(A) (B) the base. How high does the water rise in the vessel ?
(A) 0.075 m (B) 0.051 m (C) 0.031 m (D) 0.025 m
x x
56. A tank is filled up to a height 2H with a liquid and
is placedon a platform of height H from the ground.

FLUID Page # 27
The distance x from the ground where a small hole is 20 m/s. The force on the pipe bend due to the turning
punched to get the maximum range R is : of water is :
(A) H (B) 1.25 H (C) 1.5 H (D) 2 H (A) 565.7 N (B) 400 N (C) 20 N (D) 282.8 N
57. In a cylindrical vessel containing liquid of density 63. A jet of water having velocity = 10 m/s and stream
, there are two holes in the side walls at heights of h1 cross-section = 2 cm2 hits a flat plate perpendicularly,
and h2 respectively such that the range of efflux at with the water splashing out parallel to plate. The
the bottom of the vessel is same. The height of a plate experiences a force of
hole, for which the range of efflux would be maximum (A) 40 N (B) 20 N (C) 8 N (D) 10 N
will be.
64. Equal volumes of two immiscible liquids of
densities  and 2 are filled in a vessel as shown in
figure. Two small holes are punched at depth h/2 and
3h/2 from the surface of lighter liquid. If v1 and v2 are
the velocities of a flux at these two holes, then v1/v2
is :
h2 – h1 h2  h1
(A) h2 – h1 (B) h2 + h1 (C) (D) h v1
2 2
58. A large tank is filled with water (density = 103 kg/
h 2 v2
m3). A small hole is made at a depth 10m below water
surface. The range of water issuing out of the hole is
Ron ground. What extra pressure must be applied on
the water surface so that the range becomes 2R (take 1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
1 atm = 105 Pa and g = 10 m/s2) : 2 2 2 4 2
65. A horizontal pipe line carries water in a streamline
10m flow. At a point along the tube where the cross-
sectional area is 10–2m2, the water velocity is 2 ms–1
and the pressure is 8000 Pa. The pressure of water at
another point where the cross-sectional area is 0.5 ×
10–2 m2 is :
R
(A) 4000 Pa (B) 1000 Pa (C) 2000 Pa (D) 3000 Pa
(A) 9 atm (B) 4 atm (C) 5 atm (D) 3 atm
66. Water is pumped from a depth of 10 m and
59. A water barrel stands on a table of height h. If a delivered through a pipe of cross section 10–2m2. If it
small hole is punched in the side of the barrel at its is needed to deliver a volume of 10–1m3 per second
base, it is found that the resultant stream of water the power required will be :
strikes the ground at a horizontal distance R from the (A) 10 kW (B) 9.8 kW (C) 15 kW (D) 4.9 kW
barrel. The depth of water in the barrel is
67. The three water filled tanks shown have the
(A) R/2 (B) R2/4h (C) R2/h (D) h/2
same volume and height. If small identical holes are
60. A cyclindrical vessel of cross-sectional area 1000 punched near this bottom, which one will be the first
cm2, is fitted with a frictionless piston of mass 10 kg, to get empty.
and filled with water completely. A small hole of cross-
sectional area 10 mm2 is opened at a point 50 cm
deep from the lower surface of the piston. The velocity
of efflux from the hole will be
(A) 10.5 m/s (B) 3.4 m/s (C) 0.8 m/s (D) 0.2 m/s (i) (ii) (iii)
61. A laminar stream is flowing vertically down from (A) (i) (B) (ii) (C) (iii)
a tap of cross-section area 1 cm2. At a distane 10 cm (D) All will take same time
below the tap, the cross-section area of the stream 68. A cylindrical vessel filled with water upto height
has reduced to 1/2 cm2. The volumetric flow rate of of H stands on a horizontal plane. The side wall of the
water from the tap must be about vessel has a plugged circular hole touching the bottom.
(A) 2.2 litre/min (B) 4.9 litre/min The coefficient of friction between the bottom of vessel
(C) 0.5 litre/min (D) 7.6 litre/min and plane is  and total mass of water plus vessel is
62. A horizontal right angle pipe bend has cross-sectional M. What should be minimum diameter of hole so that
area = 10 cm2 and water flows through it at speed = the vessel begins to move on the floor if plug is
removed (here density of water is )

Page # 28 FLUID
73. Statement -1 : A partly filled test tube is floating

2M M M in a liquid as shown. The tube will remain as atmospheric
(A) H (B) 2H (C) H (D) none
pressure changes.
Statement - 2 : The buoyant force on a submerged
69. Which of the following is not an assumption for object is independent of atmospheric pressure
an ideal fluid flow for which Bernoulli’s principle is valid
(A) Steady flow (B) Incompressible
(C) Viscous (D) Irrotational
ASSERTION - REASON
70. Statement - 1 : A helium filled balloon does not
rise indefinitely in air but halts after a certain height.
Statement - 2 : Viscosity opposes the motion of
balloon
Choose any one of the following four responses : (A) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
(A) If both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1
explanation of (A) (B) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
(B) If both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not correct statement - 2 is NOT the correct explanation for
explanation of (A) statement - 1
(C) If both (A) if true but (R) is false (C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false.
(D) If (A) is false and (R) is true (D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true.
71. Statement - 1 : When a body floats such that 74. Statement -1 : Submarine sailors are advised
it's parts are immersed into two immiscible liquids force that they should not allow it to rest on floor of the
exerted by liquid - 1 is of magnitude 1v1g. occen
Statement - 2 : Total Buogyant force = 1v1g + 2 v2 g Statement - 2 : The force exerted by a liquid on a
submerged body may be downwards.
(A) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1
(B) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
v1 statement - 2 is NOT the correct explanation for
statement - 1
v2 (C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false.
75. Statement - 1 : The free surface of a liquid at
rest with respect to stationary container is always

normal to the geff
statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1 Statement - 2 : Liquids at rest cannot have shear
(B) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and stress.
statement - 2 is NOT the correct explanation for (A) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
statement - 1 statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1
(C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false. (B) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
(D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true. statement - 2 is NOT the correct explanation for
statement - 1
72. Statement - 1 : When temperature rises the (C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false.
coefficient of viscosity of gases decreases. (D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true.
Statement - 2 : Gases behave more like ideal gases
at higher temperature
statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1
(B) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is true and
statement - 2 is NOT the correct explanation for
statement - 1
(C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false.

FLUID Page # 29
Exercise - II
1. STATIC FLUID 4. The spring balance A reads 2
1. The vessel shown in the figure has two sections. kg with a block m suspended from
The lower part is a rectangular vessel with area of

it. A balance B reads 5 kg when a A
beaker with liquid is put on the
cross-section A and height h. The upper part is a
pan of the balance. The two
conical vessel of height h with base area ‘A’ and top
balances are now so arranged that
area ‘a’ and the walls of the vessel are inclined at an
the hanging mass is inside the m
angle 30° with the vertical. A liquid of density  fills
liquid in the beaker as shown in
both the sections upto a height 2h. Neglecting atmo- B
the figure in this situation :
spheric pressure. (A) the balance A will read more than 2 kg
a (B) the balance B will read more than 5 kg
30° h (C) the balance A will read less than 2 kg and B will
read more than 5 kg
(D) the balances A and B will read 2 kg and 5 kg
h
respectively
A 4. FLUID FLOW & BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE

(A) The force F exerted by the liquid on the base of 5. Figure shows a siphon. Choose the wrong state-
( A  a) ment :
the vessel is 2hg
2
h1
A
(B) the pressure P at the base of the vessel is 2hg h=0 2
2 h2
(C) the weight of the liquid W is greater than the h3
force exerted by the liquid on the base 3
(D) the walls of the vessel exert a downward force
(A) Siphon works when h3 > 0
(F–W) on the liquid.
(B) Pressure at point 2 is P2 = P0 – gh3
2. ACCELERATED FLUID (C) Pressure at point 3 is P0
2. A beaker is filled in with water is accelerated a m/s2 (D) None of the above
in +x direction. The surface of water shall make on (P0 = atmospheric pressure)
angle
6. A tank is filled upto
(A) tan–1(a/g) backwards (B) tan–1(a/g) forwards a height h with a liq-
(C) cot–1(g/a) backwards (D) cot–1(g/a) forwards uid and is placed on a
3. PASCAL'S LAW & ARCHIMEDE'S PRINCIPLE platform of height h
3. The weight of an empty balloon on a spring bal- from the ground. To
ance is w1. The weight becomes w2 when the balloon get maximum range xm
is filled with air. Let the weight of the air itself be w. a small hole is y
h
Neglect the thickness of the balloon when it is filled punched at a distance
of y from the free sur-
with air. Also neglect the difference in the densities of
face of the liquid. h
air inside & outside the balloon. Then :
Then
(A) w2 = w1 (B) w2 = w1 + w xm
(C) w2 < w1 + w (D) w2 > w1
(A) x m= 2h (B) xm=1.5 h (C) y = h (D) y = 0.75 h

Page # 30 FLUID
7. Water coming out of a horizontal tube at a speed 

9. A steady flow of water passes along a horizontal
strikes normally a vertically wall close to the mouth of
tube from a wide section X to the narrower section Y,
the tube and falls down vertically after impact. When
see figure. Manometers are placed at P and Q at the
the speed of water is increased to 2.
sections. Which of the statements A, B, C, D, E is
(A) the thrust exerted by the water on the wall will be
most correct ?
doubled
(B) the thrust exerted by the water on the wall will be
four times X Y
(C) the energy lost per second by water strikeup the
P Q
wall will also be four times
(D) the energy lost per second by water striking the
wall be increased eight times (A) water velocity at X is greater than at Y
8. A cylindrical vessel is filled with a liquid up to height (B) the manometer at P shows lower pressure than at Q
H. A small hole is made in the vessel at a distance y (C) kinetic energy per m3 of water at X = kinetic en-
below the liquid surface as shown in figure. The liquid ergy per m3 at Y
emerging from the hole strike the ground at distance x (D) the manometer at P shows greater pressure than
at Y
y
H
x
(A) if y is increased from zero to H, x will decrease
and then increase
(B) x is maximum for y = H/2
(C) the maximum value of x is H/2
(D) the maximum value of x increases with the in-
creases in density of the liquid

FLUID Page # 31

1. STATIC FLUID 3. PASCAL'S LAW & ARCHIMEDE'S PRINCIPLE
1. A piston of mass M = 3 kg and radius R = 4 cm has 7. A solid ball of density half that of water falls freely
a hole into which a thin pipe of radius r = 1 cm is under gravity from a height of 19.6 m and then enter
inserted. The piston can enter a cylinder tightly and water. Upto what depth will the ball go ? How much
without friction, and initially it is at the bottom of the time will it take to come again to the water surface ?
cylinder. 750 gm of water is now poured into the pipe Neglect air resistance & velocity effects in water.
so that the piston & pipe are lifted up as shown. Find 8. Place a glass beaker, partially filled with water, in a
the height H of water in the cylinder and height h of sink. The beaker has a mass 390 gm and an interior
water in the pipe. (Neglect width of piston) volume of 500 cm3. You now start to fill the sink with
water and you find, by experiment, that if the beaker
is less than half full, it will float; but if it is more than
h half full, it remains on the bottom of the sink as the
water rises to its rim. What is the density of the material
of which the beaker is made?
H
9. Two spherical balls A and B made up of same material
having masses 2m and m are released from rest. Ball B
lies at a distance h below the water surface while A is
at a height of 2h above water surface in the same
2. Compute the work which must be performed to slowly vertical line at the instant they are released.
pump the water out of a hemispherical reservoir of (a) Obtain the position where they collide.
radius R = 0.6 m. (b) If the bodies stick together due to collision, to
what maximum height above water surface does the
3. A vertical uniform U tube open at both ends contains
combined mass rise?
mercury. Water is poured in one limb until the level of Specific gravity of the material of the balls is 2/3.
mercury is depressed 2cm in that limb. What is the Neglect viscosity and loss due to splash.
length of water column when this happens.
10. For the system shown in the figure, the cylinder
2. ACCELERATED FLUID on the left at L has a mass of 600kg and a cross
4. A spherical tank of 1.2m radius is half filled with oil sectional area of 800 cm2. The piston on the right, at
of relative density 0.8. If the tank is given a horizontal S, has cross sectional area 25cm2 and negligible weight.
acceleration of 10 m/s2. Calculate the inclination of If the apparatus is filled with oil. ( = 0.75 gm/cm3)
the oil surface to horizontal and maximum pressure on Find the force F required to hold the system in
equilibrium.
the tank.
F
s
5. An open cubical tank completely filled with water is
kept on a horizontal surface. Its acceleration is then 8m
slowly increased to 2m/s2 as shown in the fig. The L
600kg
side of the tank is 1m. Find the mass of water that
would spill out of the tank.
11. A test tube of thin walls floats vertically in water,

1m 2m/s
2
sinking by a length l0 = 10 cm. A liquid of density less
than that of water, is poured into the tube till the
levels inside and outside the tube are even. If the
1m tube now sinks to a length l0 = 40 cm, the specific
gravity of the liquid is ______.
6. Find the speed of rotation of 1 m diameter tank,
initially full of water such that water surface makes 12. In air an object weighs 15N, when immersed
an angle of 45° with the horizontal at a radius of 30 completely in water the same object weighs 12N. When
cm. What is the slope of the surface at the wall of immersed in another liquid completely, it weighs 13N.
the tank. Find
(a) the specific gravity of the object and
(b) the specific gravity of the other liquid.
Page # 32 FLUID
17. A siphon has a

13. Block A in figure hangs by
D uniform circular base of
a cord from spring balance D
1.8m A
and is submerged in a liquid C diameter 8 /  cm with
contained in a beaker B. The B its crest A 1.8 m above
mass of the beaker is 1kg & A 3.6m
water level as in
the mass of the liquid is 1.5 C figure.
kg. The balance D reads 2.5
kg & balance E reads 7.5 kg. E Find
The volume of block A is 0.003 m3. (a) velocity of flow
(i) What is the density of block & the liquid. (b) discharge rate of the flow in m3/sec.
(ii) What will each balance read if block is pulled out (c) absolute pressure at the crest level A.
of the liquid. [Use P0 = 105 N/m2 & g = 10 m/s2]
14. A solid cube, with faces either vertical or horizontal, 18. A large tank is filled with two liquids of specific
is floating in a liquid of density 6 g/cc. It has two third gravities 2 and . Two holes are made on the wall of
of its volume submerged. If enough water is added the tank as shown. Find the ratio of the distances
from the top so as to completely cover the cube, from O of the points on the ground where the jets
what fraction of its volume will remain immersed in the from holes A & B strike.
liquid?
h/4 A
15. A uniform cylindrical block of length l density d1 h/2 
and area of cross section A floats in a liquid of desity
A
d2 contained in a vessel (d2>d1). The bottom of the h/2 2
h/4
cylinder just rests on a spring of constant k. The O
other end of the spring is fixed to the bottom of the
vessel. The weight that may be placed on top of the 19. Calculate the rate of flow of glycerine of density
cylinder such that the cylinder is just submerged in 1.25 × 103 kg/m3 through the conical section of a
the liquid is ____ pipe if the radii of its ends are 0.1 m & 0.04 m and the
A pressure drop across its length is 10 N/m2
l 20. The tank in fig discharges water at constant
d1
rate for all water levels above the air inlet R. The
height above datum to which water would rise in the
manometer tubes M and N respectively are _________
& ___________ .
4. FLUID FLOW & BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE
16. Two very large open tanks A and F both contain Open to atmosphere
the same liquid. A horizontal pipe BCD, having a M

N
constriction at C leads out of the bottom of tank A, 40cm
20cm R
and a vertical pipe E opens into the constriction at C
Datum
and dips into the liquid in tank F. Assume streamline
flow and no viscosity. If the cross section at C is one
half that at D and if D is at a distance h1 below the
level of liquid in A, to what height h2 (in terms of h1)
will liquid rise in pipe E ? (above G & upto C there is
air in the pipe)
h1
A B C D
G
h2 E

FLUID Page # 33

1. A solid block of volume V = 10–3 m3 and density 5. A ship sailing from sea into a river sinks X mm and
d = 800 kg/m3 is tied to one end of a string, the other on discharging the cargo rises Y mm. On proceeding
end of which is tied to the bottom of the vessel. The again into sea the ship rises by Z mm. Assuming ship
vessel contains 2 immiscible liquids of density sides to be vertical at water line, find the specific
1 = 1000 kg/m3 and 2 = 1500 kg/m3. The solid block gravity of sea water.
is immersed with 2/5 th of its volume in the liquid
6. A conical vessel without a bottom stands on a table.
higher density & 3/5th in the liquid of lower density.
A liquid is poured with the vessel & as soon as level
The vessel is placed in an elevator which is moving up
reaches h, the pressure of the liquid raises the vessel.
with an acceleration of a = g/2. Find the tension in
The radius of the base of vessel is R and half angle of
the string. [g = 10 m/s2]
the cone is  and the weight of the vessel is W.
2. An open rectangular tank 5m a What is the density of the liquid?
× 4m × 3m high containing 3m A
water upto a height of 2m is water 2m
accelerated horizontally along
the longer side. 5m h
(a) Determine the maximum acceleration that can be
given without spilling the water.
2R
(b) Calculate the percentage of water split over, if 7. As the arrangement shown
this acceleration is increased by 20% in the fig is released the rod of
(c) If initially, the tank is closed at the top and is mass M moves down into the
accelerated horizontally by 9m/s2, find the gauge water. Friction is negligible and
pressure at the bottom of the front and rear walls of the string is inextensible
the tank. (a) Find the acceleration of L M m
3. A level controller is shown in the figure. It consists the system w.r.t the distance
of a thin circular plug of diameter 10cm and a cylindrical moved by each mass.
float of diameter 20 cm tied together with a light rigid (b) Find the time required to completely immerse the
rod of length 10 cm. The plug fits in snugly in a drain rod into water
hole at the bottom of the tank which opens into m  –  water
atmosphere. As water fills up and the level reaches if M   .
height h, the plug opens. Find h. Determine the level  = density of rod ; water = desity of water
of water in the tank when the plug closes again. The
float has a mass 3kg and the plug may be assumed 8. The interface of two liquids of densities  and 2
as massless. respectively lies at the point A in a U tube at rest.
The height of liquid column above A is 8a/3 where AB
= a. The cross sectional area of the tube is S. With
Float
what angular velocity the tube must be whirled about
h a vertical axis at a distance ‘a’ such that the interface
10cm
Plug
of the liquids shifts towards B by 2a/3.
4. A closed tube in the form of an equilateral triangle

of side l contains equal volumes of three liquids which
 8a/3
do not mix and is placed vertically with its lowest side
horizontal. Find x in the figure if the densities of the 2
A B
liquids are in A.P. A
a a
9. A closed cylindrical tank 2m high & 1 m in diameter

+ contains 1.5 m of water. When the angular velocity is
+
x + constant at 20.0 rad/s, how much of the bottom of
+
+
+++ + C the tank is uncovered ? (The cylinder is rotated about
B x vertical axis of symmetry passing through its length.)

Page # 34 FLUID
10. A cylinder of height H is filled with water to a (b) Compute the work to be performed to submerge
height h0 (h0<H), & is placed on a horizontal floor. Two completely the float into the water.
small holes are punched at time t = 0 on the vertical
15. A 10 cm side cube weighing 5N is immersed in a
line along the length of the cylinder, one at a height
liquid of relative density 0.8 contained in a rectangular
h1 from the bottom & the other a depth h2 below the
tank of cross sectional area 15cm × 15cm. If the tank
level of water in the cylinder. Find the relation between
contained liquid to a height of 8 cm before the
h 1 & h 2 such that the instantaneous water jets
immersion, determine the levels of the bottom of the
emerging
cube and the liquid surface.
h2 16. A jug contains 15 glasses of orange juice. When

h0 you open the tap at the bottom it takes 12 sec to fill
a glass with juice. If you leave the tap open. how
h1 long will it take to fill the remaining 14 glasses and
thus empty the jug?
11. A cylindrical tank with a height of h = 1 m is
filled with water upto its rim. What time is required to 17. An interstellar explorer discovers a remarkable
empty the tank through an orifice in its bottom? The planet made entirely of a uniform incompressible fluid
cross sectional area of the orifice is (1/400)th of the on density . The radius of the planet is R and the
tank. Find the time required for the same amount of acceleration of gravity at its surface is g. What is the
water to flow out of the tank if the water level in the pressure at the center of the planet.
tank is maintained constant at a height of h = 1 m 18. A cylindrical rod of length l = 2m & density /2
from the orifice. floats vertically in a liquid of density  as shown in
fig.(a)
12. For the arrangement B
shown in the figure. Find the B
time interval after which the 0.81m A
water jet ceases to cross the A
wall. 0.5m
(a) (b)
Area of the tank = 0.5 m2
1m (a) Show that it performs SHM when pulled slightly up &
Area of the orifice = 1 cm2 released & find its time period. Neglect change in liquid
13. A cylindrical tank having level.
cross-sectional area A = 0.5 m2 (b) Find the time taken by the rod to completely
is filled with two liquids of immerse when released from position shown in (b).
densities 1 = 900 kgm –3 & Assume that it remains vertical throughout its motion.
2 = 600 kgm–3, to a height (take g = 2 m/s2)
h = 60 cm as shown in the h
figure. A small hole having area
19. A uniform rod of length b capable of tuning about
a = 5 cm2 is made in right h
vertical wall at a height y = 20 y its end which is out of water, rests inclined to the

cm from the bottom. Calculate F vertical. If its specific gravity is 5/9, find the length
(i) velocity of efflux. immersed in water.
(ii) horizontal force F to keep the cylinder in static
equilibrium, it it is placed on a smooth horizontal plane.  b
(iii) minimum and maximum value of F to keep the
cylinder at rest. The coefficient of friction between
cylinder and the plane is  = 0.01.
(iv) velocity of the top most layer of the liquid column
and also the velocity of the boundary separating the 20. A container of large uniform cross-sectional area
two liquids.
A resting on a horizontal surface, holds two immiscible,
14. A cylindrical wooden float whose base area s = non-viscous & incompressible liquids of densities d &
4000 cm2 & the altitude H = 50 cm drifts on the water 2d, each of height H/2 as shown in figure. The lower
surface. Specific weight of wood d = 0.8 gf/cm3. density liquid is open to the atmosphere having
(a) What work must be performed to take the float pressure P0.
out of the water ?

FLUID Page # 35
through the hole at t = 0, calculate

(i) the acceleration of the container and
H/2
(ii) its velocity when 75% of the liquid has drained
H/2 out. [JEE ‘97,5]
h
x 23. A nonviscous liquid of constant density 1000

 H kg/m3 flows in a streamline motion along a tube of
(a) A homogeneous solid cylinder of length L  L  
2 variable cross section. The tube is kept inclined in the
cross-sectional area vertical plane as shown in the figure. The area of
A/5 is immersed such that it floats with its axis vertical cross section of the tube at two points P and Q at
at the liquid-liquid interface with the length L/4 in the heights of 2 meters and 5 meters are respectively 4 ×
denser liquid. Determine : 10–3 m2 and 8 × 10–3 m3. The velocity of the liquid at
(i) The density D of the solid & point P is 1 m/s. Find the work done per unit volume
(ii) The total pressure at the bottom of the container. by the pressure and the gravity forces as the fluid
(b) The cylinder is removed and the original flows from point P to Q. [JEE ,97]
arrangement is restored. A tiny hole of area s(s<<A)
Q
is punched on the vertical side of the container at a
 H
height h h   . Determine : P
 2 5m
(i) The initial speed of efflux of the liquid at the hole ; 2m
(ii) The horizontal distance x travelled by the liquid
initially &
24. A wooden stick of length l, and radius R and
(iii) The height hm at which the hold should be punched
density  has a small metal piece of mass m (of
so that the liquid travels the maximum distance xm
negligible volume) attached to its one end. Find the
initially. Also calculate xm. [Neglect the air resistance
minimum value for the mass m (in terms of given
in these calculations]. [JEE 95, 10]
parameters that would make the stick float vertically
21. A thin rod of length L & area of cross-section S is in equilibrium in a liquid of density  (> ). [JEE ‘99,10]
pivoted at its lowest point P inside a stationary,
homogeneous & non-viscous liquid (Figure). The rod
is free to rotate in a vertical plane about a horizontal
axis passing through P. The density d1 of the material
of the rod is smaller than the entity d2 of the liquid.
The rod is displaced by a small angle  from its
equilibrium position and then released. Show that the
motion of the rod is simple harmonic and determine
its angular frequency in terms of the given parameters.
[JEE’ 95,5]
d1
d2
P
22. A large open top container of negligible mass &

uniform cross-sectional area A has a small hole of
cross-sectional area A/100 in its side wall near the
bottom. The container is kept on a smooth horizontal
floor and contains a liquid of density  and mass m0.
Assuming that the liquid starts flowing out horizontally

Page # 36 FLUID

1. A large open tank has two holes in the wall. One is cylinder immediately after it is released. [JEE 2002]
a square hole of side L at a depth y from the top and 5. Consider a horizontally oriented syringe containing
the other is a circular hole of radius R at a depth 4y water located at a height of 1.25 m above the ground.
from the top. When the tank is completely filled with The diameter of the plunger is 8 mm and the diameter
water, the quantities of water flowing out per second of the nozzle is 2mm. The plunger is pushed with a
from both holes are the same. Then, R is equal to : constant speed of 0.25 m/s. Find the horizontal range
[JEE 2000 (Scr.)] of water stream on the ground.
L L Take g = 10 m/s2. [JEE 2004]
(A) (B) 2  L (C) L (D) 2
2
D=8mm d=2mm
2. A hemispherical portion of radius R is removed from
the bottom of a cylinder of radius R. The volume of 1.25m
the remaining cylinder is V and its mass is M. It is Ground
suspended by a string in a liquid of density  where it
stays vertical. The upper surface of the cylinder is at 6. A solid sphere of radius R is floating in a liquid of
a depth h below the liquid surface. The force on the density  with half of its volume submerged. If the
bottom of the cylinder by the liquid is [JEE 2001 (Scr.)] sphere is slightly pushed and released, it starts
performing simple harmonic motion. Find the frequency
of these oscillations. [JEE 2004]
h 7. Water is filled in a container upto height 3m. A
 small hole of area ‘a’ is punched in the wall of the
2R container at a height 52.5 cm from the bottom. The
a
cross sectional area of the container is A. If  0.1
(A) Mg (B) Mg – v  g A
(C) Mg +  R2 h  g (D) g (V + R2h) then v2 is (where v is the velocity of water coming
out of the hole) [JEE 2005 (Scr.)]
3. A wooden block, with a coin Coin
(A) 48 (B) 51 (C) 50 (D) 51.5
placed on its top, floats in
water as shown in figure. The 8. A U tube is rotated about one of it’s limbs with an
distances l and h are shown angular velocity . Find the difference in height H of
l
there. After some time the coin h
the liquid (density ) level, where diameter of the tube
falls into the water. Then d << L.. [JEE 2005]

(A) l decreases and h increases
(B) l increases and h decreases
(C) both l and h increase
(D) both l and h decrease [JEE 2002 (Scr.)] H
3
4. A uniform solid cylinder of density 0.8 gm/cm floats
in equilibrium in a combination of two non mixing liquids
A and b with its axis vertical. The densities of the
liquids A and B are 0.7gm/cm 3, and 1.2 g/cm 3
respectively. The height of liquid A is hA = 1.2 cm. The
L
length of the part of the cylinder immersed in liquid B
Comprehension (9 - 11)
is hB = 0.8 cm.
A wooden cylinder of diameter 4r, height h and density
air h /3 is kept on a hole of diameter 2r of a tank, filled
with water of density  as shown in the figure. The
hA height of the base of cylinder from the base of tank is
A H.
hB /3
B h1 4r
(a) Find the total force exerted by liquid A on the h2 h
cylinder.
(b) Find h, the length of the part of the cylinder in air. 
(c) The cylinder is depressed in such a way that its H
top surface is just below the upper surface of liquid A 2r
and is then released. Find the acceleration of the

FLUID Page # 37
9. If level of liquid starts decreasing slowly when the Paragraph for Qeustion No. 14 to 16
level of liquid is at a height h1 above the cylinder, the 5

block just starts moving up. Then, value of h1 is A small spherical monoatomic ideal gas double    
 3
[JEE 2006]
is trapped inside a liquid of density , (see figure).
2h 5h 5h 5h Assume that the bubble does not exchange any heat
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 4 3 2 with the liquid. The bubble contains n moles of gas.
10. Let the cylinder is prevented from moving up, by The temperature of the gas when the bubble is at the
applying a force and water level is further decreased. bottom is T0, the height of the liquid is H and the
Then, height of water level (h2 in figure) for which the atmospheric pressure is P0 (Neglect surface tension).
cylinder remains in original position without application Figure : [JEE 2008]
of force is [JEE 2006]
h 4h 2h
(A) (B) (C) (D) h
3 9 3
11. If height h2 of water level is further decreased,
then [JEE 2006]
(A) cylinder will not move up and remains at its original 14. As the bubble moves upwards, besides the
position buoyancy force the following forces are acting on it
(B) for h2 = h/3, cylinder again starts moving up (A) Only the force of gravity
(C) for h2 = h/4, cylinder again starts moving up (B) The force due to gravity and the force due to
(D) for h2 = h/5, cylinder again starts moving up the pressure of the liquid
12. STATEMENT - 1 (C) The force due to gravity, the force due to the
The stream of water flowing at high speed from a pressure of the liquid and the force due to viscosity
garden hose pipe tends to spread like a fountain when of the liquid
held vertically up, but tends to narrow down when (D) The force due to gravity and the force due to
held vertically down. viscosity of the liquid
and 15. When the gas bubble is at a height y from the
STATEMENT - 2 bottom, its temperature is
In any steady flow of an incompressible fluid, the volume 2/ 5 2/ 5
flow rate of the fluid remains constant.  P0    gH   P0    g(H – y) 
(A) T0   (B) T0  
(A) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;  P0    gy   P0    gH 
STATEMENT-2 is a correct expalantion for STATEMENT-1
(B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True; 3/5 3/5
 P0    gH   P0    g(H – y) 
STATEMENT-2 is NOT, a correct explanation for (C) T0   (D) T0  
STATEMENT-1  P0    gy   P0    gH 
(D) STATEMENT-1 is False, STATEMENT-2 is True 16. The buoyancy force acting on the gas bubble is
[JEE 2008] (Assume R is the universal gas constant)
(P0   gH)2 / 5
13. A glass tube of uniform internal radius (r) has a (A) nRgT0
valve separating the two identical ends. Initially, the (P0   gy)7 / 5
valve is in a tightly closed position. End I has a  nRgT0
(B)
hemispherical soap bubble of radius r. End 2 has sub- (P0   gH)2 / 5 [P0   g(H – y )]3 / 5
hemispherical soap bubble as shown in figure. Just
after opening the valve. (P0    gH)3 / 5
(C)   nRgT0
(P0    gy )8 / 5
 nRgT0
3/5
y)] 2/ 5
(D)
(P0    gH) [P0    g(H –
Figure. 17. A cylindrical vessel of height 500 mm has an

(A) air from end 1 flows towards end 2. No change in orifice (small hole) at its bottom. The orifice is initially
the volume of the soap bubbles closed and water is filled in it up to height H. Now the
(B) air from end 1 flows towards end 2. Volume of the top is completely sealed with a cap and the orifice at
soap bubble at end 1 decreases the bottom is opened. Some water comes out from
(C) no changes occurs the orifice and the water level in the vessel becomes
(D) air from end 2 flows towards end 1. Volume of the steady with height of water column being 200 mm.
soap bubble at end 1 increases [JEE 2008] Find the fall in height (in mm) of water level due to

Page # 38 FLUID
opening of the orifice. [Take atmospheric pressure = goes over the pulley and is fixed at point P of
1.0 × 10 5 Nm–2 , density of water = 1000 kg m–3 and the table. The whole system is kept in a lift
g = 10 ms–2 . Neglect any effect of surface tension.] that is going down with a constant velocity.
(Take temperature to be constant) [JEE 2009]
18. Column II shows five systems in which two
objects are labbled as X and Y. Also in each
case a point P is shown. Column I gives some
statements about X and / or Y Match these
statements to the appropriate system(s) from
Column II.
[JEE 2009]
Column I
Column II
(A) The force exerted by X on Y

(P) Block Y of mass M left on a fixed inlcined (S) A sphere Y of mass M is put is a
plane X, nonviscous liquid X kept in a container
has a magnitude Mg. at rest. The sphere is released and it
slides on it with a constant velocity
moves down in the liquid.
(T) A sphere Y of mass M is falling with its

(B) The gravitational potential energy terminal velocity in a viscous liquid X kept in
(Q) Two ring magnets Y and Z, each of mass a container.
M, are kept in
of X is continuously increasing.
frictionless vertical plastic stand so that they
repel each
other. y rests on the base X and Z

hangs in air in
equilibrium. P is the topmost point of [JEE 2009]

the stand on the
common axis of the two rings. The whole 19. Two solid spheres A and B of equal volumes
system is in a but of different densities dA and dB are con-
nected by a string. They are fully immersed in
lift that is going up with a constant a fluid of density dF. They get arranged into an
velocity. equilibrium state as shown in the figure with a
tension in the string. The arrangement is pos-
sible only if [JEE 2011]
(C) Mechanical energy of the system

B
(R) A pulley Y of mass m0 is fixed to a table
through a clamp
X + Y is continuously decreasing
X. A block of mass M hangs from a (A) dA < dF (B) dB > dF
string that (C) dA > dF (D) dA + dB = 2 dF

Page # 40 FLUID
: : ANSWER KEY : :
EXERCISE - I
1. B 2. D 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. D 7. B
8. C 9. B 10. C 11. B 12. C 13. B 14. D
15. A 16. B 17. D 18. A 19. B 20. B 21. C
22. C 23. D 24. A 25. B 26. A 27. B 28. A
29. C 30. A 31. B 32. D 33. B 34. B 35. B
36. B 37. C 38. A 39. B 40. A 41. C 42. D
43. B 44. C 45. B 46. C 47. B 48. D 49. A
50. D 51. D 52. D 53. C 54. A 55. B 56. C
57. D 58. D 59. B 60. B 61. B 62. A 63. B
64. D 65. C 66. C 67. A 68. A 69. C 70. B
71. D 72. D 73. D 74. A 75 A
EXERCISE - II
1. D 2. A,C 3. A,C 4. B,C 5. D 6. A,C

7. B,D 8. B 9. D
EXERCISE - III
2m 11
1. h ,H m 2. 101.8 Kgf–m 3. 54.4 cm 4. 45°, 9600 2 (gauge) N/m2
 32
10
5. 100 kg 6.  = rad / s , tan = 5 7. 19.6 m, 4 sec 8. 2.79 gm/cc
3 3
9. at the water surface, h/2 10. 37.5 N 11. 0.75 12. (a) 5, (b) 2/3
5000  k 
13.(i) 2500 kg/m3, kg / m 3 (ii) RD = 7.5 kg, RE = 2.5 kg 14. 3/5 15. ( d2 – d1)  Ag
3  d2 
16. h2 = 3 h 1 17. (a) 6 2 m / s , (b) 9.6 2 × 10–3 M3 /sec, (c) 4.6 × 104 N/m2 18. 3: 2
19. 6.43 × 10–4 m3/s 20. 20 cm, 60 cm

FLUID Page # 41
EXERCISE - IV
2( 3   ) 3
1. 6N 2. 4m/s2, 10%, 0, 45 kPa 3. h1 = = 0.26 ; h2 =  0.195 4. x = 1/3
15  10 
Y W  M – m (M – m)gx  L  M  m
5. 6.  = 7. (a)  g – (b) t   
y– x z  1  M  m (M  m)L 2 g  M – m
h 2 g tan   R – h tan  
 3 
18g  2
8. 9. m 10. h1 = h2 11. 80 5 sec, 40 5 sec 12. 431 sec
19a 80
13. (i) 4m/s, (ii) F = 7.2 N, (iii) Fmin = 0, Fmax = 52.2 N, (iv) both 4 × 10–3 m/s
d2H2 S 1 2 2 163 388

14. (a) = 32 Kg f – m, (b) SH (1 – d) = 2 Kg f – m 15. cm, cm
2g 2 36 36
12 14 gR
16. t  17. 18. 2 sec, 1 sec 19. b/3
15 – 14 2
5 1 g 3
20. (a) (i) D = d , (ii) p = P0 + (6H + L) dg ; (b) (i) v  (3H – 4h) , (ii) x = h( 3H – 4h) (iii) xmax = H
4 4 2 4
3g  d2 – d1  m0
21. w =   22. (i) 0.2 m/s2, (ii) 2g
2L  d1  A
23. +29625 J/m3, – 30000 J/m3
24. mmin  r 2l(    ); if tilted then it’s axis should become vertical C.M. should be lower than centre of
bouyancy.
EXERCISE - V
1. A 2. D 3. D 4. (a) 0, (b) h = 0.25 cm, (c) a = g/6 (upward)
1 3g L2  2
5. x = 2m 6. f  7. C 8. H 
2 2R 2g
9. C 10. B 11. A
12. A 13. B 14. D 15. B 16. B
17. 6 18. A  P, T, B  Q, S, T, C  P, R, T, DQ 19. A,B,D

SURFACE TENSION & VISCOSITY
CONTENTS
1. Cohesive & Adhesive Force ..................................................... 3
2. Surface Tension ................................................................. 3 – 6
3. Contact Angle and Shape of liquid Surface ................................ 7
4. Capillary Rise .................................................................... 7 – 11
5. Viscosity and Newtons' law of viscous force .......................... 11 – 12
6. Stokes law .......................................................................... 12
7. Terminal Velocity (VT) ............................................................ 13
8. Exercise - 1 ...................................................................... 14 – 18
9. Exercise - 2 ...................................................................... 19 - 22
10. Exercise - 3 .................................................................... 23 – 24
11. Answer key ....................................................................... 24

Page # 2 SURFACE TENSION & VICOSITY
Syllabus :
Surface energy and surface tension, capillary rise; Viscosity
(Poiseuille’s equation excluded), Stoke’s law; Terminal velocity

IVRS No : 0744-2439051, 52, 53, www.motioniitjee.com, info@motioniitjee.com
SURFACE TENSION & VICOSITY Page # 3
1.(a) COHESIVE FORCE

The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force
In case of solids, the force of cohesin is very large and due to this solids have definite shape and
size. On the other hand, the force of cohesion in case of liquids is weaker than that of solids. Hence
liquids do not have definite shape but have definite volume. The foce of cohesion is negligible in
case of gases. Because of this fact, gases have neither fixed shape nor volume.
Example.
(i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact because of the
cohesive force.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass wetted with water because a large force
has to be applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of water.
(iii) It is very difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive
force between mercury molecules.
1.(b) ADHESIVE FORCE
The force at attraction between molecules of different substances is called adhesive force
Examples.
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board with a chalk.
(ii) Adhesive force helps us to write on the paper with ink.
(iii) Large force of adhesion between cement and bricks helps us in constrution work.
(v) Fevicol and gum are used in gluing two surfaces together because of adhesive force.
2. SURFACE TENSION
The property of a liquid at rest due to which its free surface tries to have minimum surface area and
behaves as if it were under tension somewhat like a stretched elastic membrane is called surface
tension.
The molecules of the liquid exert attractive forces on each other. There is zero net force on a
molecule inside the volume of the liquid.
But a surface molecules is drawn into the volume. Thus, the

liquid tends to minimize its surface area, just as a stretched
membrane does.
Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per
unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free F F
surface of liquid, the direction of this force being pependicular
to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid. So if F is
the force acting on one side of imaginary line of length L. then
T = (F/L)
Regarding surface tension it is worth noting that :
(1) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of surface or length of
line considered.
(2) It is a scalar as it has a unique direction which is not to be specified.
(3) It has dimension [ML–2] and SI units N/m while CGS unit dyne/cm, so that one MKS unit of
surface tension = 103 dyne/cm
(4) Surface tension of a liquid decreases with rise in temperature
(5) The surface tension of a liquid is very sensitive to impurities on the surface (called contami-
nation) and decreases with contamination of surface.
(6) In case of soluble impurities surface tension may increase or decrease depending on the
nature of impurity. Usually highly soluble salt such as sodium chloride increases surface
tension while sparingly soluble salt such as soap decreases surface tension.

2.1 SURFACE ENERGY

When the surface area of a liquid is increased, the molecules
from the interior rise to the surface. This requires work
against force of attraction of the molecules just below the dx
surface. This work is stored in the form of potential energy.
Thus, the molecules in the surface have some additional
energy due to their positio. This additional energy per unit F
area of the surface is called ‘surface energy’. The surface 2Tl
energy is related to the surface tension as discussed below
:
Let a liquid flim be formed on a wire frame and a straight wire of length l can slide on this wire
frame as shown in figure. The film has two surface and both the surface are in contact with
the sliding wire and hence, exert forces of surface tension on it. If T be the surface tension
of the solution, each surface will pull the wire parallel to itself with a force Tl. Thus, net force
on the wire due to both the surface is 2Tl. One has to apply an external force F equal and
opposite to it to keep the wire in equilibrium. Thus,
F = 2Tl
Now, suppose the wire is moved through a small distance dx, the work done by the force is,
dW = F dx = (2Tl) dx
But (2l) (dx) is the total increase in area of both the surface of the film. Let is be dA. Then,
dW = T dA
dW
or T 
dA
Thus, the surface tension T can also be defined as the work done in increasing the surface
area by unity.
Ex.1 Calculate the energy released when 1000 small water drops each of same radius 10–7
m coalesce to form one large drop. The surface tension of water is 7.0 × 10–2 N/m.
Sol. Let r be the radius of smaller drops and R of bigger one. Equating the initial and final volumes,
we have
4 4 
R 3  (1000)  r 3 
3 3 
–7
or R = 10 r = (10)(10 ) m or R = 10–6 m
Further, the water drops have only one free surface. Therefore,
A  4R2  (1000)(4 r 2 )
 4 [(106 )2  (103 )(107 )2 ]   36 (10 12 ) m2

Here, negative sign implies that surface area is decreasing. Hence, energy released in the
process.
U  T| A |  (7  102 )(36   1012 ) J  7.9  10 12 J Ans.
Ex.2 A mercury drop of radius 1 cm is sprayed into 106 droplets of equal size. Calculates the
energy expanded if surface tension of mercury is 35 × 10–3 N/m.
Sol. If drop of radius R is sprayed into n droplets of equal radius r, then as a drop has only surface,
the initial surface area will be 4R2 while final area is n (4r2). So the increase in area
S = n(4r2) – 4R2
So energy expended in the process,
W = TS = 4T [nr2 – R2] ...(1)
Now since the total volume of n droplets is the same as that of initial drop, i.e.,
4 R
R 3  n[( 4 / 3 )r 3 ] or r  1/ 3 ...(2)
3 n
Putting the value of r from equation (2) in (1)
W  4R 2 T((n)1/ 3 – 1)

2.2 Excess Pressure Insider a liquid drop :

Consider a liquid drop of radius 'R' and surface tension
'T' A liquid drop has only one surface film, hence the
surface tension force is T(2R) Pin
2
Force due to inside pressure (Pin) is Pin × area i.e. Pin R Pin
similarly force due to outiside pressure (P0) is P0R2 since P0
P0
each half of the liquid drop is in equilibrium lower half shows
P0R2 + T (2R) = Pin (R2) in figure
2T
Pin – P0 = = Excess Pressure
R
2.3 Excess pressure inside a bubble

Consider a bubble of radius 'R' and surface tension 'T'. A bubble consists of two spherical surface
films with a thin layer of liquid between them.
The total surface tension force for each surface inner and outer T (2R) for a total of (2T) (2R)
Force due to inside pressure (Pin) is Pin R2 and due to outside pressure (P0) is P0R2
Pin
Pin
P0
P0
Since each half of bubble is in equilibrium (lower half shown in figure)
P0 R2 + 2T(2R) = Pin R2
4T
Pin – P0 = = Excess pressure
R
Note : (1) If we have an air bubble inside a liquid, a single surface is
formed. There is air on the concave side and liquid on the
convex side. The pressure in the concave side (that is in the
P2
air) is greater than the pressure in the convex side (that is in P1
the liquid) by an
2T
amount .
R
2T
 P2  P1 
R
The above expression has been written by assuming P1 to be constat from all sides of the bubble.
For small size bubbles this can be assumed.
(2) From the above discussion, we can make a general statement. The pressure on the concave
2T
side of a spherical liquid surface is greater than the convex side by .
R
 1 1 
3. For any curved surface excess pressure on the concave side = T  R  R  where R1 & R2 are radius
 1 2 
of curvature of the surface in two perpendicular direction of instead of liquid surface, liquid film is
given then above exression will be
 1 1 
P  2T    For spherical curved surface R1, R2
 R1 R 2 

Ex.3 What should be the pressure inside a small air bubble of 0.1 mm radius situated just below
the water surface. Surface tension of water  7.2  102 N/m and atmospheric pressure
 1.013  105 N/m2 .
Sol. Surface tension of water T  7.2  10 2 N / m
Radius of air bubble R = 0.1 mm = 10–4 m
The excess pressure inside the air bubble is given by,
2T
P2  P1 
R
2T
 Pressure insde the air bubble, P2  P1 
R
Substiting the values, we have
2  7.2  10–2
Pr = (1.013 × 105) + = 1.027 × 103 N/m2
10–4
Ex.4 A minute spherical air bubble is rising slowly through a column of mercury contained in a
deep jar. If the radius of the bubble at a depth of 100 cm is 0.1 mm, calculate its depth where
its radius is 0.126 mm, given that the surface tension of mercury is 567 dyne/cm. Assume
that the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm of mercury.
Sol. The total pressure inside the bubble at depth h1 is (P is atmospheric pressure)
2T
 (P  h1g)   P1
r1
2T
and the total pressure inside the bubble at depth h2 is = (P + h2 g) + r = P2
2
Now, according to Boyle's Law

4 3 4
P1V1 = P2V2 where V1   r1 , and V2   r23
3 3
 2T  4 3  2T  4 3
Hence we get (P  h1g)  r  3 r1  (P  h2g)  r  3 r2
 1   2 
 2T  3  2T  3
or, (P  h1g)   r1  (P  h2 g)   r2
 r1   r2 
Given that : h1 = 100 cm, r1 = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm, r2 = 0.126 mm = 0.0126 cm, T = 567 dyne/cm, P
= 76 cm of mercury. Substituting all the values, we get
h2 = 9.48 cm
2.4 Pressure inside a charged bubble

Consider a charged bubble of radius 'R', surface tension 'T' and surface charge density 
The total surface tension force for each surface (inner and outer) is T (2R) for a total of 2T (2R)
Force due to inside pressure (Pin) is Pin R2 and due to outside pressure (P0) is P0  R2
2
2 T (2  R) + P0 R2 = Pin R2 + R 2
20
4T 2
Pin  P0  –
R 20

3. CONTACT ANGLE AND SHAPE OF LIQUID SURFACE

The surface of a liquid when meets a solid, such as the wall of a container, it usually curves up or
down near the solid surface. The angle which the tangent to the is called the contact angle. The
curved liquid surface at the pt. of surface of the liquid is called meniscus. The shape of the
meniscus contact of liquid surface with (convex or concave) is determined by the relative strengths
of solid cohesive and adhesive forces surface with the solid surface inside the liquid.
Glass
Q
R Water
When the adhesive force (P) between solid and liquid molecules is more than the cohesive force
(Q) between liquid-liquid molecules (as with water and glass), shape of the meniscus is concave
and the angle of contact  is less than 90º. In this case the liquid wets or adheres to the solid
surface. The resultant (R) of P and Q passes through the solid.
Glass
P
Q
R
Mercury
On the other hand when P < Q (as with glass and mercury), shape of the meniscus is convex and
the angle of contact  > 90º. The resultant (R) of P and Q in this case passes through the liquid.
Let us now see why the liquid surface bends near the contact with a solid. A liquid in equilibrium
can not sustain trangential stress. The resultant force on any small part of the surface layer must
be perpendicular to the surface at that point. Basically three forces are acting on a small part of
the liquid surface near its contact with solid. These forces are,
(i) P, attraction due to the molecule of the solid surface near it i.e. adhesive force which acts
outwards at right angle to the wall of tube.
(ii) Q, attraction due to liquid molecules near this part and i.e. cohesive force which acts at an
angle of 45º to the vertical.
We have considered very small part, so weight of that part can be ignored for better understanding.
As we have seen in the last figures, to make the resultant (R) of P and Q perpendicular to the liquid
surface the surface becomes curved (convex or concave).
Note : The angle of contact between water and clean glass is zero.
4. CAPILLARY RISE
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the liquid in the
capillary either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called
capillarily.
In order to calculate the height to which a liquid will rise in a capaillary, consider a glass capillary of
radius R dipped in water as shown in Fig. shown. As the meniscus is concave and nearly spherical,
the pressure below the meniscus will be [p0 – (2T/r)] with p0 as atmospheric pressure and r as radius
of meniscus. Now as liquid flows from higher to lower pressure and at same level in a liquid pressure
must be same (this is because a liquid cannot sustain tangential stress), so the liquid will ascends in
the capillary till hydrostatic pressure of the liquid compensates for the decrease in pressure. i.e.,

r

R
h
p0 p0 p0
p0
2T
p0 
t
 2T  2T
p0  p0 –  hg or h ...(1)
 r  rg
But from figure shown it is clear that radius of meniscus r is related to the radius of capillary through
the relation
(R/r) = cos , i.e., r = R/cos  ...(2)
where  is the anlge of contact. *So substituting the value of from Eqn. (2) in (1), we get
2T 2T cos 
h  ...(3)
rg Rg
• Alternate Method
T
As it can be seen from figure that T sin  cancels out : T
The force due to T cos  balances the weight of liquid (mg =  vg)
vol. of the curve is negligible 
 vol. of liquid in r2h h
2T cos 
T cos  = 2r = r2hg  h =
rg
This is the desired result and from this it is clear that :

(1) The capillarity depends on the nature of liquid and solid both, i.e., on T, ,  and R. If  > 90°, i.e.,
meniscus is convex, h will be negative, i.e., the liquid will descends in the capillary as actually
happens in case of mercury in a
Hg
(A) (B) (C)
 90;h   ve   90;h  0   90;h  – ve

glass tube. However, if  = 90°, i.e., meniscus is plane, h = 0 and so no capillarity.

(2) For a given liquid and solid at a given place as , T,  and g are constant, (figure shown)
hr = constant
 lesser the radius of capillary greater will be the rise and vice-versa. (figure shown)
(3) Here it is important to note that in equilibrium the height h is independent of the shape of capillary
if the radius of meniscus remains the same. This is why the vertical height h of a liquid column in
capillaries of different shapes and sizes will be same if the radius of meniscus remains the same and
also the vertical height of the liquid in a capillary does not change, when it is inclined to the vertical.
(figure shown)

h
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
4. Capillarity has large number of applications in our daily life, e.g.,

(a) The oil in the wick of a lamp rise due to capillary action of threads in the wick.
(b) Action of towel in soaking up moisture from the body is due to capillary action of cotton in the
towel.
(c) Water is retained in a piece of sponge on account of capillarity.
(d) A blotting paper soaks ink by capillary action of the pores in the blotting paper.
(e) The root-hairs of plants drawn water from the soil through capillary action.
5. In Case of glass and water  = 0 T T

here force due to surface tension balances the weight r
of the liquid ( × v × g)
r
2 3
volume of the liquid = r2h + r3 – r
3
2 h
where r3 – r3 is the volume of the curve which is
3
not negligible in this case
2 3
 T.2r =  (r2h + r3 –  r )g
3
T 
1
2T = rh g + r2 g
3
6. If two parallel plates with the spacing 'd' are

placed in water reservoir, then height or rise. h
2T
2T = hdg  h d
dg
7. If two concentric tubes of radius 'r1' and 'r2' (inner one is solid) are placed in water reservoir, then
height of rise?
 T[2r1  2r2 ]  [r22h – r12h] g
2T
h
(r2 – r1 ) g

r1 r2
h
r2
T cos  T cos 
 
T sin  T sin 
r
8. If weight of the liquid in the meniscus is to be consider :
1
T cos  × 2r = [r2h + r2 × r]  g
3 h
 r  2T cos 
h  3   rg
 
9. When capillary tube (radius, 'r') is in vertical position, the upper meniscus is concave and pressure
2T
due to surface tension is directed vertically upward and is given by p1 = R
1
where R1 = radius of curvature of upper meniscus.
The hydrostatic pressure p2 = h  g is always directed downwards.
If p1 > p2 i.e. resulting pressure is directed upward. For equilibrium, the
pressure due to lower meniscus should be downward. This makes lower
meniscus concave downward (fig a). The radius of
2T
lower meniscus R2 can be given by R  (p1 – p 2 )
2
(a) (b) (c)
If p1 < p2 i.e. resulting pressure is directed downward for equilibrium, the pressure due to lower
meniscus should be upward. This makes lower meniscus convex upward (fig. b)
2T
The radius of lower meniscus can be given by R  p 2 – p1
2
2T
If p1 = p2, then is no resulting pressure. then, p1 – p2 = R = 0 or, R2 =  i.e. lower surface will be FLAT
T
2
(fig c)
Ex.5 A drop of water volume 0.05 cm3 is pressed between two glass-plates, as a consequence of
which, it spreads and occupies an area of 40 cm2. If the surface tension of water is 70 dyne/
cm, find the normal force required to seperate out the two glass plates in newton.
Sol. Pressure inside the film is less than outside by an amount,
1 1 
P  T    , where r and r are the radii of curvature of
 r1 r2  1 2
t
the meniscus. Here r1 =
2
and r2 = , then the force required r1= t/2
to separate the two glass plates, between which a liquid film t
2AT
is enclosed (figure) is, F = P × A = , where t is the thickness
t
of the film, A = area of film.
2A2 T 2A2 T 2  (40  10–4 )2  (70  10–3 )
F   = 45 N
At V 0.05  10–6

4.1 CAPILLARY RISE IN A TUBE OF INSUFFICIENT HEIGHT
O
 C
R'
'
 
h
h
We know, the height through which a liquid rises in the capillary tube of radius r is given by
2T 2T
 h or h R = = constant
R g g
When the capillary tube is cut an its length is less then h (i.e. h'), then the liquid rises upto the top
of the tube and spreads in such a way that the radius (R') of the liquid meniscus increases and it
becomes more flat so that hR = h' R' = Constant. Hence the liquid does not overflow.
r r
If h' < h then R' > R or 
cos  ' cos 
 cos  < cos   ' > 
5. VISCOSITY AND NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOUS FORCE

In case of steady flow of a fluid when a layer of fluid
slips or tends to slip on adjacent layer in contact, the
two layers exert tangential force on each other which
tries to destroy the relative motion between them. The
Y
property of a fluid due to which it opposes the relative
motion between its different layers is called viscosity v
(or fluid friction or internal friction) and the force between
the layers opposing the relative motion viscous force. A F
briskly strirred fluid comes to rest after a short while A v
because of viscosity.
As a result of large number of experiments Newton found
that viscous force F acting on any layer of a fluid is dy
directly proportional to its area A and to the velocity
gradient (dv/dy)* at the layer i.e., X
dv dv
FA or F  – A ...(1)
dy dy
when  is a constant called coefficient of viscosity or simply viscosity of the fluid. The negative sign
shows that viscous force on a liquid layer acts in a direction opposite to the relative velocity of flow
of fluid. The Eq. (1) is known as Newton's law of viscous force. Here y is taken from the layer of
which velocity is zero.
Regarding viscosity of fluid it is worth noting that :
(1) It depends only on the nature of fluid and is independent of area considered or velocity
gradient.
(2) Its dimensions are [ML–1 T–1] and SI unit poiseuille (PI) while CGS unit dyne-s/cm2 called
poise (P) with
1 Pl = 10 poise
(3) Viscosity of liquids is much greater (say about 100 times more) than that of gases
i.e., L > G

Ex.6 A boat of area 10 m2 floating on the surface of a river is made to move horizontally with a speed
of 2 m/s by applying a tangential force. If the river is 1 m deep and the water in contact with
the bed is stationary, find the tangential water in contact with the bed is stationary, find the
tangential force needed to keep the boat moving with same velocity. Viscosity of water is 0.01
poise.
Sol. As velocity changes from 2 m/s at the surface to zero at the bed which is at a depth of 1 m.
dv 2–0
Velocity gradient = = = 2 s–1
dy 1
Now from Newton's law of viscous force,
dv
|F| =  A = (10–2 × 10–1) × 10 × 2 = 0.02 N
dy
Ex.7 The velocity of water in a river is 18 km/hr at the surface. If the river is 5 m deep, find the
shearing stress between the horizontal layers of water. The viscosity of water is 10–3 poiseuuille.
Sol. As velocity at the bottom of the river will be zero, velocity gradient
dv 18  10 3
  1s –1
dy 60  60  5
Now as the viscous force F  A(dv / dy ) is tangential to the area,
F11 dv
Shear stress =  = 10–3 × 1 = 1 × 10–3 N/m2
A dy
Ex.8 A cylinder of mass radius r1 and length  is kept inside another cylinder of radius r2 and length .
The space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity . The inner cylinder starts rotating
with angular velocity  while the other cyclinder is at rest. Find time when inner cylinder stops.
dv
Sol. Viscous force F = –  A 
dy
r12 r12
= –  2 r1  = – 2  
r2 – r1 r2 – r1
   r13
 | F  r1 | Fr1 sin 90  Fr1  –2 ...(1) R1
r2 – r1
Mr12 d r13
  I   –2
2 dt r2 – r1
from eq. (1)
a4r1 t 0
d
 dt  –
M(r2 – r1 ) 0 

a4r1
t   n
M(r2 – r1 )

6. STOKES LAW
When a body moves through a fluid, the flui in contact with the body is dragged with it. This estab-
lishes relative motion in fluid layers near the body, due to which viscous force starts operating. The
fluid exerts viscous force on the body to oppose its motion. The magnitude of the viscous force
depends on the shape and size of the body, its speed and the viscosity of the fluid. Stokes established
that if a sphere of radius r moves with velocity v through a fluid of viscosity , the viscous force
opposing the motion of the sphere is
F = 6   rv
7. TERMINAL VELCOITY (VT)
Consider a small sphere falling from rest through a large column of viscous fluid. The forces acting on
the shere are,
(i) Weight W of the sphere acting vertically downwards
(ii) Upthrust Ft acting vertically upwards Ft + Fv
(iii) Viscous force Fv acting vertically upwards, i.e., in a direction opposite to
velocity of the sphere.
Initially, Fv = 0 v
and W > Ft
and the sphere accelerates downwards. As the velocity of the sphere increases, Fv W
increases, Eventually a stage is reached when
W = Ft + Fv
After this net force on the sphere is zero and it moves downwards with a constant velocity called
terminal velocity (vT).
Substituting proper values in Eq. (i) we have,
4 3 4 v
r g  r 3 g  6 rv T
3 3
Here,  = density of sphere,  = density of fluid
vT
and  = coefficient of viscosity of fluid
2 r 2 (  ) g
From Eq. (ii), we get vT  t
9  O
Figure shows the variation of the velocity v of the sphere with time.
Note : From the above expression we can see that terminal velocity of a spherical body is directly
proportional to the difference in the densities of the body and the fluid ( – ). If the density of fluid is
greater than that of body (i.e.,  > ), the terminal velocity is negative. This means that the body
instead of falling, moves upward. This is why air bubbles rise up in water.
Ex.9 Two spherical radindrops of equal size are falling vertically through air with a terminal velocity
of 1 m/s. What would be the terminal speed if these two drops were to coalesce to form a large
spherical drop ?
Sol. vT  r 2
Let r be the radius of small rain drops and R the radius of large drop.
Equating the volumes, we have
4 4 
R 2  2 r 3 
3 3 
R
 R = (2)1/3. r or  ( 2)1 / 3
r
2
vT   R 
     ( 2) 2 / 3
vT  r 
 v T   (2) 2 / 3 v T  ( 2) 2 / 3 (1.0) m / s = 1.587 m/sAns.

Exercise - I (only one option is correct)

ratio of excess pressure in the drop to the excess
1. There is a horizontal film of soap solution. On it a
pres sure inside the bubble is.
thread is placed in the form of a loop. The film is
pierced inside the loop and the thread becomes a
d
circular loop of radius R. If the surface tension of
the loop be T, then what will be the tension in the R
thread? R>>d
(A) R2/T (B) R2T (C) 2RT (D) 2RT
1 1 1
 R 3  R 3  R 3
2. A container, whose bottom has round holes with (A)   (B)   (C)   (D) None
diameter 0.1 mm is filled with water. The maximum  3d   6d   24d 
height in cm upto which water can be filled without
leakage will be what? 7. A long capillary tyube of radius ‘r’ is initially just
Surface tension = 75 × 10–3 N/m and g = 10 m/s2 : vertically completely imerged inside a liquid of angle
of contact 0°. If the tube is slowly raised then relation
(A) 20 cm (B) 40 cm (C) 30 cm (D) 60 cm
between radius of curvature of miniscus inside the
3. If two soap bubbles of different radii are connected capillary tube and displacement (h) of tube can be
by a tube : represented by
(A) air flows from the bigger bubble to the smaller
bubble till the sizes become equal R
R
(B) air flows from bigger bubble to the smaller bubble (A) (B) r
till the sizes are interchanged h h
(C) air flows from the smaller bubble to the bigger
(D) there is no flow of air.
R r
4. Two soap bubbles with radii r and (r1 > r2) come in (C) (D) R
contact. Their common surface has radius of curvature
h h
r.
r1  r2 r1r2 8. A Newtonian fluid fills the clearance between a

(A) r = (B) r  r – r
2 1 2 shaft and a sleeve. When a force of 800N is applied to
the shaft, parallel to the sleeve, the shaft attains a
r1r2 speed of 1.5 cm/sec. If a force of 2.4 kN is applied
(C) r  r  r (D) r  r1r2
1 2 instead, the shaft would move with a speed of
(A) 1.5 cm/sec (B) 13.5 cm/sec
5. A liquid is filled in a spherical container of radius R (C) 4.5 cm/sec (D) None
till a height h. At this positions the liquid surface at
9. A solid metallic sphere of radius r is allowed to fall
the edges is also horizontal. The contact angle is
freely through air. If the frictional resistance due to
air is proportional to the cross-sectional area and to
the square of the velocity, then the terminal velocity
of the sphere is proportional to which of the following?
h (A) r2 (B) r (C) r3/2 (D) r1/2
10. Two drops of same radius are falling through air

1  R  h 
(A) 0 (B) cos   with steady velocity of v cm/s. If the two drops
 R  coalesce, what would be the terminal velocity?
(A) 4 v (B) (4)1/3v (C) 2 v (D) 64 v
1  h – R  1  R – h 
(C) cos   (D) sin  
 R   R  11. A cubical block of side ‘a’ and density ‘’ slides
over a fixed inclined plane with constant velocity ‘v’.
There is a thin film of viscous fluid of thickness ‘t’
6. A soap bubble has radius R and thickness d(<< R)
between the plane and the block. Then the coefficient
as shown. It colapses into a spherical drop. The

of viscosity of the thin film will be:

15. A ball of mass m and radius r is gently released in
a viscous liquid. The mass of the liquid displaced by it
is m’ such that m>m’. The terminal velocity is
proportional to
m – m' m  m' (m  m ')
(A) (B) (C) (D) (m – m)r2
r r r2
=37°
16. Which of the following is the incorrect graph for a
3 a g t 4 a g t  agt sphere falling in a viscous liquid?
(A) (B) (C) (Given at t = 0, velocity v = 0 and displacement x = 0.)
5v 5v v
(D) none of these v v
12. Which of the following graphs best represents the

motion of a raindrop? (A) (B)
v v
t t
(A) (B) a x
t t
v v
(C) (D)
v t
(C) (D)
t t 17. The displacement of a ball falling from rest in a

13. A spherical ball of density  and viscous medium is platted against time. Choose a
radius 0.003m is dropped into a tube possible option.
containing a viscous fluid filled up to
the 0 cm mark as shown in the figure. 0 cm
Viscosity of the fluid = 1.260 N.m–2 s s
and its density L = /2 = 1260 kg.m–3. 10 cm (A) (B)
Assume the ball reaches a terminal
20 cm t t
speed by the 10 cm mark. The time
taken by the ball to traverse the
distance between the 10 cm and 20
cm mark is. s s
(A) 500 s (B) 50 ms (C) (D)
(C) 0.5 s (D) 5 s t t
(g = acceleration due to gravity = 10 ms–2)
18. There is a 1 mm thick layer of glycerine between
14. A sphere is dropped under gravity through a fluid
a flat plate of area 100 cm2 & a big fixed plate. If the
of viscosity . If the average acceleration is half of
coefficient of viscosity of glycerine is 1.0 kg/m-s then
the initial acceleration, the time to attain the terminal
how much force is required to move the plate with a
velocity is ( = density of sphere, r = radius)
velocity of 7 cm/s?
4r2 9r2 4r 9r (A) 3.5 N (B) 0.7 N (C) 1.4 N (D) None
(A) (B) (C) (D)
9 4 9 4

Exercise - II (SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)

9. A glass capillary sealed at the upper end is of length
1. A film of water is formed between two straight
0.11 m and internal diameter 2 × 10–5 m. The tube is
parallel wires each 10 cm long and at separattion 0.5
immersed vertically into a liquid of surface tension
cm. Calculate the work required to increase 1 mm
5.06 × 10–2 Nm–1. To what length the capillary has to
distance between wires. Surface tension of water =
be immersed so that the liquid level inside and outside
72 × 10–3 Nm–1
and capillary becomes the same ? What will happen to
2. Water rises in a capillary upto a certain height such liquid level inside the capillary if the seal is now broken
that the upward force of surface tension balances ? Atmopsheric pressure is 1.012 × 105 Nm–2.
the force of 75 × 10–4 N due to weight of the liquid. If
10. A ball is given velocity v0 (greater than the terminal
the surface tension of water is 6 × 10–2 Nm–1, what
velocity vT) in downward direction inside a highly
must be the internal circumfernece of the capillary ?
viscous liquid placed inside a large container. The height
of liquid in the container is H. The ball attains the
3. A ring cut from a platinum tube, 8.5 cm internal
terminal velocity just before striking at the bottom of
diameter and 8.7 cm exernal diameter, is supported
the container. Draw graph between velocity of the
horizonally from the pair of a balance so that it comes
ball and distance moved by the ball before getting
in contact with the water in a vessel. If an extra
terminal velocity.
weight of 3.97 g is required to pull it away from water,
calculate the surface tension of water.
4. There is a soap bubble of radius 2.4 × 10–4 m in air

cylinder which is originally at the pressure of 105 Nm–2.
The air in the cylinder is now compressed isothermally
until the radius of the bubble is halved. Calculate now
the pressure of air in the cylinder. The surface tension 11. Two arms of a U-tube have unequal diameters d1
of the soap solution is 0.08 Nm–1 = 1.0 mm and d2 = 1.0 cm. If water (surface tension
7 × 10–2N/m) is poured into the tube held in the vertical
5. Two separate air bubbles (radii 0.002 m and 0.004 m) position, find the difference of level of water in the U-
formed of the same liquid (surface tension 0.07 N/m) tube. Assume the angle of contact to be zero.
come together to form a double bubble . Find the
radius and the sense of curvature of the internal film 12. A spherical ball of radius 1 × 10–4 m and density
surface common to both the bubbles. 104 kg/m3 falls freely under gravity through a distance
h before entering a tank of water. If after entering
6. Two soap bubbles of radii a and b combine to form the water the velocity of the ball does not change,
a single bubble of radius c. If the external pressure is find h. The viscosity of water is 9.8 × 10–6 N-s/m2.
P, then the surface tension of soap solution is
13. An expansible balloon filled with air floats on the
7. A long capillary tube of radius 2 mm open at both surface of a lake with 2/3 of its volume submerged.
ends is filled with water and placed vertically. What How deep must it be sunk in the water so that it is
will be the height of the column of water left in the just in equilibrium neither sinking further nor rising ? It
capillary ? The thickness of the capillary walls is is assumed that the temperature of the water is
negligible. Surface tension of water 73.5 × 10–3 Nm–1 constant & that the height of the water barometer is
9 meters.
8. The limbs of a manometer consist of uniform capillary
tubes of radii 1.44 × 10–3 m and 7.2 × 10–4 m. Find
out the correct pressure difference if the level of the
liquid (density 103 kgm–3, surface tension 72 × 10–3
Nm–1) in the narrower tube stands 0.2 m above that in
the broader tube.

(JEE PROBLEMS)
Exercise - III JEE PROBLEMS
Paragraph for questions 4 to 6
1. When an air bubble rises from the bottom of a deep When liquid medicine of density  is to be put in the
lake to a point just below the water surface, the pres- eye, it is done with the help of a dropper. As the bulb
sure of air inside the bubble on the top of the dropper is pressed, a drop forms at
(A) is greater than the pressure outside it the opening of the dropper. We wish to estimate the
(B) is less than the pressure outside it size of the drop. We first assume that the drop formed
(C) increases as the bubble moves up at the opening is spherical because that requires a
(D) decreases as the bubble moves up minimum increase in its surface energy. To determine
the size, we calculate the net vertical force due to
2. Assertion : A helium filled balloon does not rise
the surface tension T when the radius of the drop is
indefinately in air but halts after a certain height.
R. When this force becomes smaller than the weight
Reason : Viscosity opposes the motion of balloon.
of the drop, the drop gets detached from the dropper.
Choose any one of the following four responses :
[JEE 2010]
(A) if both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
4. If the radius of the opening of the dropper is r, the
explanation of (A)
vertical force due to the surface tension on the drop
(B) if both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not correct
of radius R (assuming r << R) is
explanation of (A)
(C) if (A) is true but (R) is false 2r 2 T 2R 2 T
(A) 2  r T (B) 2  R T (C) (D)
(D) if (A) is false and (R) is true R r
3. A tiny spherical oil drop carrying a net charge q is 5. If r = 5 × 10–4m,  = 103 kgm–3, g = 10 ms–2, T =
balanced in still air with a vertical uniform electric 0.11 Nm–1, the radius of the drop when it detaches
81 from the dropper is approximately.
field of strength  10 5 Vm 1 . When the field is (A) 1.4 × 10–3 m (B) 3.3 × 10–3 m
7
–3
(C) 2.0 × 10 m (D) 4.1 × 10–3 m
switched off, the drop is observed to fall with termi-
nal velocity 2 × 10 –3 ms–1 Given g = 9.8 ms–2, vis- 6. After the drop detaches, its surface energy is :
cosity of the air = 1.8 × 10–5 Ns m–2 and the den- (A) 1.4 × 10–6 J (B) 2.7 × 10–6 J
sity of oil = 900 kg m–5, the magnitude of q is : –6
(C) 5.4 × 10 J (D) 8.1 × 10–6 J
(A) 1.6 × 10–19C (B) 3.2 × 10–19C
–19
(C) 4.8 × 10 C (D) 8.0 × 10–19C
[JEE 2010]

:: ANSWER KEY : :
Exercise-I
1. D 2. C 3. C 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. B
8. C 9. D 10. B 11. A 12. C 13. D 14. A
15. A 16. C 17. D 18. B
Exercise-II
1. 1.44 × 10–5 J 2. 1.25 × 10–2 m 3. 7.2 × 10–2 Nm–1 4. 8.08 × 105 Nm–2
5. 0.004 m (common film will be concave towards the centre of the smaller bubble)
P(c3  a3  b3 )
6.  7. h = 1.5 cm 8. 1860 Nm–2 9.  = 1 cm
4(a2  b2  c2 )
Velocity v0
10. v1 11. 2.5 cm 12. 20.4 m 13. 4.5 m
Dist. moved H
Exercise-III
1. A,D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. B

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

CONTENTS
1. Periodic, Oscillatory Motion ................................................................................ 3
2. Analysis of Motion in Linear SHM .................................................................... 3 – 4
3. Characteristics of SHM .................................................................................... 4 – 5
4. Equation of SHM .............................................................................................. 6 – 8
5. Graphical Representation ................................................................................ 8 – 10
6. SHM as a projection of uniform circular Motion .............................................. 11 – 15
7. Energy of SHM .............................................................................................. 15 – 17
8. Method to determine time period. .................................................................. 17 – 24
9. Combination of springs .................................................................................. 24 – 26
10. Angular SHM ................................................................................................ 27 – 32
11. Combination of two SHMs ............................................................................ 32 – 35

12. Exercise - 1 ................................................................................................. 36 – 41
13. Exercise - 2 ................................................................................................. 42 – 44
14. Exercise - 3 .................................................................................................. 45 - 47
15. Exercise - 4 ..................................................................................................... 48
16. Exercise - 5 ................................................................................................. 49 – 52
17. Answer key .................................................................................................. 53 – 54
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
IVRS No:0744-2439051,0744-2439052,0744-2439053,www.motioniitjee.com,info@motioniitjee.com Nurturing potential through education
Page # 2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Many motions in this universe are periodic i.e., they repeat themselves at regular intervals.
Simple harmonic motion is one of the simplest periodic motion in which an object oscillates
between two spatial positions for an indefinite period of time with no loss of mechanical energy.
In this lesson we will learn about simple harmonic motion in detail. We will calculate
time period of simple harmonic motions in various cases. We will also discuss combination of
simple harmonic motions.
IIT - JEE Syllabus :
Linear and angular simple harmonic motions.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Page # 3
1. PERIODIC MOTION :
When a body or a moving particle repeats its motion along a definite path after regular
intervals of time its motion is said to be Periodic Motion and interval of time is called time
period (T). The path of periodic motion may be linear, circular, elliptical or any other curve.
For example rotation of earth around the sun.
2. OSCILLATORY MOTION :
To and fro type of motion is called Oscillatory Motion. A particle has oscillatory motion when
it moves about stable equilibrium position. It need not be periodic and need not have fixed
extreme positions.
The oscillatory motions in which energy is conserved are also periodic.For example motion of
pendulum of a wall clock.
The force / torque (directed towards equillibrium point) acting in oscillatory motion is called
restoring force/torque Damped Oscillations are those in which energy consumed due to
some resistive forces and hence total mechanical energy decreases and after some time
oscillation will stop.
Oscillatory Equation : Consider a particle free to move on x-axis is being acted upon by a
force given by
F = – kxn
Above equation is called oscillatory equation. Here k is a positive constant and x is the
displacement from mean position
Now following cases are possible depending on the value of n.
(i) If n is an even interger (0, 2, 4......... etc)n force is always along negative x-axis whether x is
positive or negative Hence, the motion of the particle is not oscillatory. If the particle is
released from any position on the x-axis (except x = 0) a force in – ve direction of x-axis acts
on it and it moves rectilinearly along – ve x axis.
(ii) If n is an odd integer (1, 3, 5 ........... etc), force is along – ve x-axis for x > 0 and along +ve
x-axis for x < 0 and zero for x = 0. Thus the particle will oscillate about stable equillibrium
position x = 0. The force in this case is called the restoring force.
If n = 1 i.e., F = – kx the motion is said to be SHM (Simple Harmonic Motion)
If the restoring force / torque acting on the body in oscillatory motion is directly proportional
to the displacement of body / particle w.r.t. mean position and is always directed towards
equillibrium position then the motion is called Simple Harmonic motion. It is the simplest form
of oscillatory motion.
3. TYPES OF SHM :
(a) Linear SHM : When a particle moves to and fro about an equilibrium point, along a
straight line here A and B are extreme positions and M is mean position so AM = MB =
Amplitude.
M
A B
(b) Angular SHM : When body/particle is free to rotate about a given axis and executing
angular oscillations.
4. ANALYSIS OF MOTION IN LINEAR SHM :

When the particle is moved away from the mean position or equillibrium position and released,
a force (–kx) comes into play to pull it back towards mean position. By the time it gets at
mean position it has picked up some kinetic energy and so it overshoots, stopping some
where on the other side and it is again pulled back towards the mean position.
It is necessary to study the change in speed and acceleration of particle during SHM. Let us

consider a particle whose position is x = 0 at t = 0 and v = v0. Then we divide the motion of
particle in one time period in four parts.
extreme Mean Extreme
position Position position
v=v0
A B
v=0 v=0
C
Amplitude
x=0 t=0
x
(A) from A to B (B) from B to A (C) from A to C (D) from C to A
NOTE :In the figure shown, path of the particle is a straight line.
(1) Motion of a particle from A to B :
Initially the particle is at A (mean position) and is moving towards +ve x direction with speed
v0. As the particle is moving towards B, force acting on it towards A is increasing. Consequently
its acceleration towards A is increasing in magnitude while its speed decreases and finally it
comes to rest momentarily at B.
(2) Motion of a particle from B to A :

Now the particle starts moving towards A with initial speed v = 0. As the particle is moving
towards A, force is acting on it towards A and decreasing as it approaches A. Consequently
its acceleration towards A is decreasing in magnitude while its speed increases and finally it
comes to A with same speed v = v0.
(3) Motion of a particle from A to C :

The motion of a particle from A to C is qualitatively same as motion of a particle from A to B.
(4) Motion of a particle from C to A :

It is qualitatively same as motion of a particle from B to A.
Summary :
Motion from Velocity (Direction/Magnitude) Acceleration (Direction/
Magnitude)
AB V a
BA V a
AC V a
CA V a
5. CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM :
(1) Mean Position : It is the position where net force on the particle is zero.
(2) Extreme Point : Point where speed of the particle is zero.
(3) Displacement : It is defined as the distance of the particle from the mean position at that
instant.
(4) Amplitude : It is the maximum value of displacement of the particle from its mean position.

Extreme position – Mean position = Amplitude.

It depends upon the energy of the system.
(5) Frequency : The frequency of SHM is equal to the number of complete oscillations per unit
time.
1 
f  sec –1 or Hz.
T 2
(6) Time Period : Smallest time interval after which the oscillatory motion gets repeated is called
time period.
2
T=

Ex.1 Describe the motion of a particle acted upon by a force.

(A) F = 3x + 3 (B) F = – 3x – 3 (C) F = – 3x + 3 (D) F
= 3x – 3
Sol. (a) Given F = 3x + 3 ...(i)
We find the mean position at which net force on the particle is zero.
 3x + 3 = 0  x=–1
If we put x = 0 in eq. (i) then
M.P.
F = 3N (away from M.P.) ...(a)
x = –1
Now put x = –2 in eq. (i)
F=– 3N (away from M.P.) ...(b)
From (a) and (b) we conclude that particle doesn't perform S.H.M.
(b) Given F = – 3x – 3 ...(i)
at M.P. F = 0
 x = –1
Now put x = 0 in eq. (i)
 F = – 3N (towards M.P.)
If x = – 2 ; F = 3N (towards M.P.)
We conclude from the above calculation that in every case (whether the particle is left from
M.P. or right from M.P.) force acts towards M.P. so the particle performs S.H.M.
(c) Given F = – 3x + 3
when F=0
x = 1 (M.P.)
Now put x = 0
Then F = 3N (towards M.P.)
If x = 2 F=–3 (towards M.P.)
i.e. particle performs S.H.M.
(D) Given F = 3x – 3
Mean position at x = 1.
When x = 0 ; F = – 3N (away from M.P.)
x = 2 ; F = 3N (away from M.P.)
Particle doesn't perform S.H.M.

6. EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION :
The necessary and sufficient condition for SHM is

F = – kx
we can write above equation in the following way:
ma = – kx
d2 x
m  –kx
dt 2
d2 x k
2
 x0 ...(1)
dt m
Equation (1) is Double Differential Equation of SHM.
d2 x
Now  2 x  0
dt 2
It's solution is x = A sin(t  )
k
where  = angular frequency =
m
x = displacement from mean position
k = SHM constant.
The equality (t + ) is called the phase angle or simply the phase of the SHM and  is the
initial phase i.e., the phase at t = 0 and depends on initial position and direction of velocity at
t = 0.
To understand the role of  in SHM, we take two particles performing SHM in the following
condition:
v0 A
x x
–A M.P. –A M.P. A
figure I figure II
Suppose we choose t = 0 at an instant when the particle is passing through its mean position
towards right (i.e.positive direction) as shown in figure Ist then
In figure I at t=0 x=0
i.e., x = A sin t
 The particle is at its mean position.
In figure II at t=0 x = A and the particle is moving towards the mean position.
i.e., x = A sin (t + /2)
Here /2 is the only phase possible.

Ex.2 A particle starts from mean position and moves towards positive extreme as shown
below. Find the equation of the SHM. Amplitude of SHM is A.
t=0
–A O A
Sol. General equation of SHM can be written as x = A sin (t + )
At t = 0, x = 0
 0 = A sin 
  = 0,    [0, 2)
Also; at t = 0, v = + ve
 A  cos  = + ve or, =0
Hence, if the particle is at mean position at t = 0 and is moving towards +ve extreme, then
the equation of SHM is given by x = A sin t.
Similarly
for particle moving towards –ve extreme then
t=0
–A +A
=
 equation of SHM is x = A sin (t + )
or, x = – A sin t
Ex.3 Write the equation of SHM for the situation shown below :
t=0
–A O A/2 A
Sol. General equation of SHM can be written as
x = A sin (t + )
At t = 0, x = A/2
A
 = A sin 
2
  = 30° , 150°
Also at t = 0, v = – ve
A cos  = – ve   = 150°
7. VELOCITY :
It is the rate of change of particle displacement with respect to time at that instant.
Let the displacement from mean position is given
by x = A sin (t + )
dx
velocity v  A cos(t  )
dt
v = A cos (t + )
v =  A 2 – x2
At mean position (x = 0), velocity is maximum.
Vmax =  A
At extreme position (x = A), velocity is minimum.
vmin = zero.

7.1 Graph of Velocity (v) V/S Displacement (x) : Velocity (v)

2 2 2 2
v   A 2 – x2 v   (A – x ) A
v2 x2
v 2   2 x 2  2 A 2  1
2 A 2 A2
Graph would be a half ellipse. A
–A x
8. ACCELERATION :
It is the rate of change of particle's velocity w.r.t. time at that instant.
dv d
Acceleration, a  = [ A cos( t  )]
dt dt
a = – 2A sin (t + )
a = – 2 x
Note : Negative sign shows that acceleration is always directed towards the mean position. At mean
position (x =0), acceleration is minimum.
amin = zero
At extreme position (x = A), acceleration is maximum.
|amax | = 2A
8.1 Graph of Acceleration (A) v/s Displacement (x):
a
2 A
A
x
a=–x 2 –A
– 2 A
9. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION IN SHM:
Displacement, x = A sin t

Velocity, v = A  cos t = A  sin ( t  )
2
or v   A 2 – x2
Acceleration, a = – 2A sin t = 2A sin (t + )
or a = – 2 x
Note :
• v   A 2 – x2
a = – 2x
These relations are true for any equation of x.
tim e , t 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T

displa ce m e nt, x 0 A 0 –A 0
Ve locity, v A 0 –A  0 A
a cce le ra tion, a 0 – 2 A 0 2 A 0
x T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2
t
–A
v
A
t
–A
a
2 A
t
2
– A
1. All the three quantities displacement, velocity and acceleration vary harmonically
with time, having same period.
2. The maximum velocity is  times the amplitude (Vmax = A).
3. The acceleration is 2 times the displacement amplitude (amax = 2A).

4. In SHM, the velocity is ahead of displacement by a phase angle of .
2

5. In SHM, the acceleration is ahead of velocity by a phase angle of .
2
 –1 
Ex.4 The equation of particle executing simple harmonic motion is x  (5m)sin(s )t   .
 3
Write down the amplitude, time period and maximum speed. Also find the velocity at
t = 1 s.
Sol. Comparing with equation x = A sin (t + ), we see that the amplitude = 5m,
2 2
and time period = =  2s
  s –1
The maximum speed = A  = 5 m ×  s–1 = 5  m/s
dx
The veloity at time t  = A  cos (t + )
dt
At t = 1 s,
  5
v = (5 m) ( s–1) cos    = – m/s
 3 2

Ex.5 A particle executing simple harmonic motion has angular frequency 6.28 s–1 and
amplitude 10 cm. Find (a) the time period, (b) the maximum speed, (c) the maximum
acceleration, (d) the speed when the displacement is 6 cm from the mean position,
(e) the speed at t = 1/6 s assuming that the motion starts from rest at t = 0.
2 2
Sol. (a) Time period = = s = 1 s.
 6.28
(b) Maximum speed = A = (0.1m) (6.28 s–1)
(c) Maximum acceleration = A2
= (0.1m) (6.28 s–1)2
= 4 m/s2
(d) v   A 2 – x 2 = (6.28 s–1) (10cm)2 – (6cm)2 = 50.2 cm/s.

(e) At t = 0, the velocity is zero i.e., the particle is at an extreme. The equation for
displacement may be written as
x = A cos t.
The velocity is v = – A  sin t.
1  6.28 
At t  s, v = – (0.1 m) (6.28 s–1) sin 
6  6 

= (–0.628 m/s) sin
= – 54.4 cm/s. (towards mean position)
3
Note : If mean position is not at the origin, then we can replace x by x – x0 and the eqn.
becomes
x – x0 = – A sin t, where x0 is the position co-ordinate of the mean position.
Ex.6 A particle of mass 2 kg is moving on a straight line under the action force F = (8 – 2x)
N. It is released at rest from x = 6m.
(A) Is the particle moving simple harmonically?
(B) Find the equilibrium position of the particle.
(C) Write the equation of motion of the particle.
(D) Find the time period of SHM.
Sol. F = 8 – 2x
or F = –2(x – 4)
for equilibrium position F = 0
 x = 4m is equilibrium position.
Hence the motion of particle is SHM with force constant 2 and equilibrium position x =4.
(a) Yes, motion is SHM.

(b) Equilibrium position is x = 4m.
(c) At x = 6 m, particle at rest i.e. it is one of the extreme position. Hence amplitude is A = 2
m and initially particle at the extreme position.
 Equation of SHM can be written as
k 2
x – 4 = 2 cos t, where     1 (sec)–1
m 2
i.e. x = 4 + 2 cos t
(d) Time period, T  2  2 sec .



10. SHM AS A PROJECTION OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION.
Consider a particle Q, moving on a circle of radius )

A with constant angular velocity . The projection  t =0
of Q on a diameter BC is P. It is clear from the 0
(at t)
A Q t t=
figure that as Q moves around the circle the
 (a
projection P excecutes a simple harmonic motion t Q t
on the x-axis between B and C. The angle that B
O P0 Pt C
the radius OQ makes with the +ve vertical in
x(t)
clockwise direction in at t = 0 is equal to phase
constant ().
Let the radius OQ0 makes an angle t with the OQt
at time t. Then
x(t) = A sin (t + )
In the above discussion the foot of projection is –A (0,0) +A
x-axis so it is called horizontal phasor. Similarly M.P.
the foot of perpendicular on y axis will also
x(t)
executes SHM of amplitude A and angular
frequency  [y(t) = Acost]. This is called vertical
phasor. The phaser of the two SHM differ by /2.
Problem solving strategy in horizontal phasor:
(1) First assume circle of radius equal to amplitude of S.H.M.
(2) Assume a particle rotating in a circular path moving with constant  same as that of S.H.M in
clockwise direction.
(3) Angle made by the particle at t = 0 with the upper vertical is equal to phase constant.
(4) Horizontal component of velocity of particle gives you the velocity of particle performing
S.H.M. for example
0)
t=

(a
t t)
0 (at t=
Q Qt
 v(t)
t ( t   )
v  A
–A A
from figure
v(t) = A  cos (t + ) Q0
(5) Component of acceleration of particle in horizontal t  
a(t) Qt  
direction is equal to the acceleration of particle   – (t  )
t 2 
performing S.H.M. The acceleration of a particle 2 A
in uniform circular motion is only centripetal and
has a magnitude a = 2 A.
From figure
a(t) = – 2A sin (t + )

Ex.7 A particle starts from A/2 and moves towards positive extreme as shown below. Find
the equation of the SHM. Given amplitude of SHM is A. T
R
O t = 0
–A +A A v(t)
A/2
Sol. We will solve the above problem with the help of
horizontal phasor. O' A/2 Q
Step 1. Draw a perpendicular line in upward direction from
point P on the circle which cuts it at point R & S S
v(t)
Step 2. Horizontal compoment of v(t) at R gives
O P
the direction P to A while at S gives P to O. So at
–A (0,0) A/2 A
t = 0 particle is at R M.P.(at t=0)
Step 3. In  O' RQ T R
A/2
cos  =  60   = 30° A
A
So equation of the SHM 

is x = A sin (t + 30°) Q
O' A/2
– 3
Ex.8 A particle starts from point x  A and move towards negative extreme as shown
2
t=0
O
–A – 3 +A
A
2
(a) Find the equation of the SHM.
(b) Find the time taken by the particle to go directly from its initial position to negative
extreme.
(c) Find the time taken by the particle to reach at mean position.
Sol. Figure shows the solution of the problem with the help of phasor R
Horizontal component of velcoity at Q gives the
required direction of velocity at t = 0. 

3 / 2A 3  S ( 3 / 2) A O
In  OSQ cos      
A 2 6 
3  8 4 A
Now  –  
2 6 6 3
Q
So equation of SHM is
 4 
x  A sin t   –A – 3 / 2 A (0,0) A
 3 
(b) Now to reach the particle at left extreme point it will travel angle  along the circle. So
time taken.
  T
t   t sec
 6 12
  2
(c) To reach the particle at mean position it will travel an angle  =  
2 6 3
 T
So, time taken = = sec
 3

Ex.9 Two particles undergoes SHM along parallel lines with the same time period (T) and
equal amplitudes. At a particular instant, one particle is at its extreme position while
the other is at its mean position. They move in the same direction. They will cross
each other after a further time.
B O A
B’ O’ A’
(A) T/8 (B) 3T/8 (C) T/6 (D) 4T/3

Sol. This problem is easy to solve with the help of phasor diagram.
First we draw the initial position of both the particle on the phasor as shown in figure.
P

B' II I A' at t = 0
–A A
From above figure phase difference between both the particles is /2.
They will cross each other when their projection from the circle on the horizontal diameter
meet at one point.
Let after time t both will reach at P'Q' point having phase difference /2 as shown in figure.
v(t)
Q'
A
45º P
45º 

v(t) A
Q
P'
B' I A' after t = t

R
–A II O +A
–A / 2
Both will meet at – A/ 2

When they meet angular displacement of P is
 = /2 + /4 = 3/4
So they will meet after time t  3 

4
3 3T
t T  sec
4  2 8

Ex.10 Two particles execute SHM of same amplitude of 20 cm with same period along the
same line about the same equilibrium position. If phase difference is /3 then find out
the maximum distance between these two.
Sol. Let us assume that one particle starts from mean position and another starts at a distance x
having  = /3. This condition is shown in figure.
P

Q
3
/
A/2 A/2
A 3 A
A /3
2 /6
Q P
–A x A A
40cm A
Fig ii
Fig(i)
Above figure shows the situation of maximum distance between them.
So maximum distance = A = 10 cm. (as 2A = 20 cm)
Ex.11 Two particles execute SHM of same time period but different amplitudes along the
same line. One starts from mean position having amplitude A and other starts from
extreme position having amplitude 2A. Find out the time when they both will meet?
Sol. We solve the above problem with the help of phasor diagram.
First we draw the initial position of both the particle on the phasor.
(t=0)
A 
A
B (t=0)
2A

–A O A
–2A O 2A
From figure phase difference between both the particle is /2.

They will meet each other when their projection from the circle on the horizontal diameter
meet at one point.

Now from figure:

EF = A cos  = 2A sin 
 A'(t)
1 
tan  = A E F
2 90  
 1
  tan 1   2A
2 B'(t)
So time taken by the particle to cross each other
angle travelled by A /2  P Q

t  t –A A
  –2A 2A
P' Q'
Ex.12 Two particles have time periods T and 5T/4. They start SHM at the same time from the
mean postion. After how many oscillations of the particle having smaller time period,
they will be again in the same phase ?
Sol. They will be again at m.p. and moving in same direction when the particle having smaller time
period makes n1 oscillations and the other one makes n2 oscillations.
5T
 n1T =  n2
4
n1 5

n 2 4  n1 = 5, n2 = 4
11. ENERGY OF SHM :

, 11.1 Kinetic Energy (KE):
1 1
K.E. = v2 = mA22 cos2( t + )
mv
2 2
1 k
= m 2 (A2 – x2)  2 =
2 m
1
 K.E = K( A 2 – x 2 )
2
1 2
K.Emax = KA (at x = 0)
2
1 1 2
K.Emin = 0 (at x = A) ; KE
kA2 = ; KE 0– A
 kA
4 0–T 3
Frequency of KE = 2 × (frequency of SHM)
11.2 Potential Energy (PE):
Simple harmonic motion is defined by the equation
F = – kx
The work done by the force F during a displacement from x to x + dx is
dW = Fdx = – kx dx
The work done in a displacement from x = 0 to x is
x
1
W  ( kx ) dx   kx 2
 2
0
kx
M.P. x
dx

Let U(x) be the potential energy of the system when the displacement is x. As the change in
potential energy corresponding to a conservative force is the negative of the work done by
that force.
1 2
U(x) – UM.P. = – W = kx
2
Let us choose the potential energy to be zero when the particle is at the mean position
oscillation x = 0.
1 2
Then UM.P. = 0 and U( x )  kx
2
 k = m2
1
 U( x )  m 2 x 2
2
1
U= m2 A 2 sin2 ( t  )
2
But x = A sin (t + )
Kinetic energy of the particle at any instant is
1 1 1
K mv 2  mA 2 2 cos 2 (t  )  m2 ( A 2  x 2 )
2 2 2
So the total mechanical energy at time ‘t’ is
1
E=U+K  E m 2 A 2
2
Note : Umin = UM.P. (which is not always = 0)
1 1
m2 A 2  kA 2  E
2 2
Energy
2
U = Umaxcos t
(i) 2
K = Kmaxsin t
O t
Potential, Kinetic and total energy plotted as function of time
Energy
22
E = 1/2m A = Constant
1
U( x)  m2 x 2
2
K(x)
(ii) U(x)
1
K( x )  m2 ( A 2  x 2 )
x= –A x=0 x=A 2
x
Potential, Kinetic and total energy are plotted as a function of displacement from the mean
position.
Ex.13 A particle of mass 0.50 kg executes a simple harmonic motion under a force F = – (50
N/m)x. If it crosses the centre of oscillation with a speed of 10 m/s, find the amplitude
of the motion.

Sol. The kinetic energy of the particle when it is at the centre of oscillation is
1 1
E mv 2 = (0.50kg) (10 m / s)2 = 2.5 J.
2 2
The potential energy is zero here. At the maximum displacement x = A, the speed is zero and
1 2
hence the kinetic energy is zero. The potential energy here is kA . As there is no loss of
2
energy,
1 2
kA  2.5 J
2
The force on the particle is given by
F = – (50 N/m) x.
Thus the spring constant is k = 50 N/m.
Equation (i) gives
1 1
(50 N / m)A 2  2.5J or, A= m.
2 10
12. METHOD TO DETERMINE TIME PERIOD AND ANGULAR FREQUENCY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION :
To understand the steps which are usually followed to find out the time period we will take
one example.
Ex.14 A mass m is attached to the free

end of a massless spring of spring
constant k with its other end fixed
to a rigid support as shown in
figure. Find out the time period of
the mass, if it is displaced slightly
by an amount x downward.
m
Sol. The following steps are usually followed in this method:
Step 1. Find the stable equillibrium position which is usually known as the mean position. Net force or
torque on the particle at this position is zero. Potential energy is minimum.
In our example initial position is the mean position.
n.
x0
Natural Length M.P.

x0
kx0 x k(x+x0)
m m
Mean Position
mg mg

Step 2. Write down the mean position force relation. In above figure at mean position
kx0 = mg ...(1)
Step 3. Now displace the particle from its mean position by a small displacement x (in linear SHM) or
angle  (in case of an angular SHM) as shown in figure.
Step 4. Write down the net force on the particle in the displaced position.
From the above figure.
Fnet = mg – k (x + x0) ...(2)
Step 5. Now try to reduce this net force equation in the form of F = – kx (in linear S.H.M.) or  = –
k (in angular SHM) using mean position force relation in step 2 or binomial theorem.
from eq. (2) Fnet = mg – kx – kx0
Using eq (i) in above equation
Fnet = – kx ...(3)
Equation (3) shows that the net force acting towards mean position and is proportional to x,
but in this S.H.M. constant KS.H.M. is replaced by spring constant k. So
m m
T  2  2
K S.H.M. k
Note : If we apply constant force on the string then time period T is always same T  2 m
K S.H.M.
k
k
m
m F0

 m 
In above both cases T =  2 k 

 
Ex.15 The string, the spring and the pulley shown in figure are light.
Find the time period of the mass m.
m
Sol. Let in equilibrium position of the block, extension in spring is x0. k
 kx0 = mg ...(1)
Natural length
x0
m Equilibrium position
k x
m
Now if we displace the block by x in the downward direction, net force on the block towards
mean position is
F = k (x + x0) – mg = kx using (1)
Hence the net force is acting towards mean position and is also proportional to x. So, the
particle will perform S.H.M. and its time period would be
m
T  2
k
Ex.16 Figure shows a system consisting of a massless pulley, a spring of force constant k
and ablock of mass m. If the block is slightly displaced vertically down from its
equillibrium position and then released, find the period of its vertical oscillation in
cases (a) & (b).
k
k
m
m
(a) (b)
Sol. Let us assume that in equillibrium condition spring is x0 elongate from its natural length
n.
kx 0 x kx 0
x0  x0
2
x/2
T0
T0
m
x T
Case (a) T
mg m
mg
When equillibrium When displaced block by 'x'

In equilibrium T0 = mg
and kx0 = 2T0
 kx0 = 2mg ...(1)
If the mass m moves down a distance x from its equilibrium position then pulley will move
x kx
down by . So the extra force in spring will be . From figure
2 2
k x
Fnet = mg – T = mg –  x0  
2 2
kx 0 kx
Fnet = mg – –
2 4
from eq. (1)
–kx
Fnet = ...(3)
4
Now compare eq. (3) with F = – KS.H.M x
K
then KS.H.M =
4
m 4m
 T  2 2
K S.H.M = K

Case (b) :
In this situation if the mass m moves down distance x from its equilibrium position, then pulley
will also move by x and so the spring will stretch by 2x.
T0 mg
At equilibrium kx0 = =
2 2
When block is displaced
Fnet = mg – T
= mg – 2k (x0 + 2x) x0 x0+2x
= – 4 kx
2x
Now F = – KSHM x then
T0
KSHM = 4 K
m
x T
m mg m
So time period T  2
4k
mg
Ex.17 The left block in figure collides inelastically with the right block and sticks to it. Find
the amplitude of the resulting simple harmonic motion.
v
m m k
Sol. The collision is for a small interval only, we can apply the principal of conservation of momentum.
2
v 1 v 1
The common velocity after the collision is . The kinetic energy  (2m)   mv2. This is
2 2 2
  4
also the total energy of vibration as the spring is unstretched at this moment. If the amplitude
1 2
is A, the total energy can also be written as kA . Thus,
2
1 2 1 m
kA  mv 2 , giving A  v
2 4 2k
Ex.18 The system is in equilibrium and at rest. Now mass m1 is removed from m2. Find the
time period and amplitude of resultant motion. (Given : spring constant is K.)
Sol. Initial extension in the spring
(m1  m2 )g
x
k
Now, if we remove m1. equillibrium position (E.P.)
m2 g
of m2 will be below natural length of spring. N.L m 2g
K
(m1  m2 )g K
At the initial position, since velocity is zero i.e. E.P
K m1g
it is the extreme position. m1 K
m1g m2 m2
Hence Amplitude =
K
m2
Time period = 2
K

Ex.19 Block of mass m2 is in equilibrium and at rest. The mass m1 moving with velocity u
vertically downwards collides with m2 and sticks to it. Find the energy of oscillation.
N.L.
Sol.
x0 m1 u
v
m2 m1 +m2
At equilibrium position m2g = kx0
m2g
 x0 =
K
After collision m2 sticks to m1.  By momentum conservation.
m1u = (m1 + m2) v
m1u
v = m m
1 2
Now both the blocks are executing S.H.M. which can be interpreted as follows:
N.L. v
m.p.
m2 g m1g
K K
Now, we know that v2 = 2(A2 – x2) ...(1)
k
2 = m  m
1 2
m1g
 x=
k
Put the values of v, 2 & x in eq. (1)
2 2
 m1u   k   2  m1g 
  =   A –   

 m1  m 2   m1  m 2   k  
 m 2 u 2
1
  m 1g  2 
 
 kA =  m  m
2
  k  
 
  1 2  
 m 2 u 2   m 2 g2 
1 2 1  1  1 
 Energy of oscillation = kA =   k 
2 2 m
 1  m 2   

Ex.20 A body of mass m falls from a height h on to the pan of a spring balance. The masses
of the pan and spring are negligible. The spring constant of the spring is k. Having
stuck to the pan the body starts performing harmonic oscillations in the vertical di-
rection. Find the amplitude and energy of oscillation.
Sol. Suppose by falling down through a height h, the mass m compresses the spring balance by a
length x.
mg k
x= ,=
k m
velocity at Q v = 2gh
 v =  A2  x2
2
k  mg  mg 2 kh
2gh  A2     A 1
m  k  k mg
2 2
1 2 1  mg   2kh   mgh  (mg)
Energy of oscillation  kA  k   1   2k
2 2  k   mg 
2m
Ex.21 A body of mass 2m is connected to another
body of mass m as shown in figure. The mass
2m performs vertical S.H.M. Then find out the
maximum amplitude of 2m such that mass m
doesn't lift up from the ground.
m
Sol. In the given situation 2m mass is in equilibrium condition.
Let assume spring is compressed x0 distance from its natural length.
 kx0 = 2mg
2mg
 x0  N.L.
k
The lower block will be lift up, only in the case x0
when the spring force on it will be greater than 2m M.P.
equal to mg and in upward direction kx0
mg
 kx' = mg  x' 
k
Above situation arises when 2m block moves
upward mg/k from natural length as shown in figure
kx0
A
2m m
x'=mg/k
N.L.
kx'
2mg
k
M.P.
kx'
m
Block m doesn't lift up if the maximum amplitude of the 2m block is

2mg mg 3mg
  
k k k

Ex.22 A block of mass m is at rest on the another m

block of same mass as shown in figure. Lower m
block is attached to the spring then determine
the maximum amplitude of motion so that
K
both the block will remain in
contact.
Sol.
N.L of spring
2mg
 x0
m k
m eq. position (M.P.)
Kx0
The blocks will remain in contact till the blocks do not go above the natural length of the
spring, because after this condition the deceleration of lower block becomes more then upper
block due to spring force. So they will get seprated.
2mg
So maximum possible amplitude = x0 =
k
12.1 Two Block Systems:
Ex.23 Two blocks of mass m1 and m2 are connected with a spring of natural length  and
spring constant k. The system is lying on a smooth horizontal surface. Initially spring
is compressed by x0 as shown in figure.
Show that the two blocks will perform SHM about their equilibrium position. Also (a)
find the time period, (b) find amplitude of each block and (c) length of spring as a
function of time.
  x0
k
m1 m2
Sol. (a) Here both the blocks will be in equilibrium at the same time when spring is in its natural
length. Let EP1 and EP2 be equilibrium positions of block A and B as shown in figure.
EP1 EP2

k
m1 m2
Let at any time during oscillations, blocks are at a distance of x1 and x2 from their equilibrium
positions.

EP1 EP2
x1 x2
k
m1 m2
As no external force is acting on the spring block system

 (m1 + m2)xcm = m1x1 – m2x2 = 0 or m1x1 = m2x2
For 1st particle, force equation can be written as
d2 x 1  m 
k(x1 + x2) = – m1 or, k  x 1  1 x 1   –m1a1
dt 2
 m2 
k(m1  m 2 ) k(m1  m 2 )
or, a1  – x1  2 
m1m 2 m1m 2
m1m 2  m1m 2
Hence, T = 2 k(m  m ) = 2 where   (m  m ) which is known as reduced mass
1 2 K 1 2
(b) Let the amplitude of blocks be A1 and A2.

m1A1 = m2A2
By energy conservation ;
1 1
k( A 1  A 2 ) 2  kx 20 or, A1 + A2 = x0
2 2
m1
or, A1 + A 2 = x 0 or, A1  A 1  x0
m2
m 2 x0 m1x 0
or, A1  Similarly, A2 = m  m
m1  m 2 1 2
(c) Let equilibrium position of 1st particle be origin, i.e., x = 0. EP1 EP2
x co-ordinate of particles can be written as 
x1 = A1 cost and x2 =  – A2cost
Hence, length of spring can be written as : m1 m2
length = x2 – x1
x=0
=  – (A1 + A2)cost
13. COMBINATION OF SPRINGS :
13.1 Series Combination :

Total displacement x = x1 + x2
k1 k2
Tension in both springs = k1x1 = k2x2
m
 Equivalent constant in series combination Keq is given by :
m
1/keq = 1/k1 + 1/k2  T  2
k eq
In series combination, tension is same in all the springs & extension will be different. (If k is
same then deformation is also same)

13.2 Parallel combination :
Extension is same for both springs but force acting will be different.
Force acting on the system = F
k1
 F = – (k1x + k2x)  F = – (k1 + k2) x  F = – keqx
k2 m
m
 keq = k1 + k2  T  2 k
eq
Ex.24 Find the time period of the oscilltion of mass m in figure a and b. What is the equivalent
spring constant of the spring in each case. ?
k1 k2 k1 k2
k3 m m
m
(a) (b)
Sol. In figure (a)
k 1k 2
k1 k2 k1  k 2

Which gives
k 1k 2
k1  k 2
k1k 2
+ k3
 k1  k 2
k3
k 1k 2 k 1k 2  k 2k 3  k 1k 3
keq = k  k  k 3 = k1  k 2
1 2
Now m m(k 1  k 2 )
T  2  2
k eq k 1k 2  k 2k 3  k 1k 3
Case (b)
If the block is displaced slightly by an amount x then both the spring are displaced by x from
their natural length so it is parallel combination of springs.
which gives
keq = k1 + k2
m m
T  2 2
k eq = k1  k 2

Note :
• In series combination, extension of springs will be reciprocal of its spring constant.
 k  1/
 k11 = k22 = k33
• If a spring is cut in 'n' equal pieces then spring constant of one piece will be nk.
Ex.25 The friction coefficient between the two blocks

shown in figure is  and the horizontal plane
is smooth. (a) If the system is slightly
m
displaced and released, find the time period. k
(b) Find the magnitude of the frictional force M
between the blocks when the displacement
from the mean position is x. (c) What can be
the maximum amplitude if the upper block
does not slip relative to the lower block?
Sol. (a) For small amplitude, the two blocks oscillate together.
The angular frequency is
k Mm
 and so the time period T  2
Mm k
(b) The acceleration of the blocks at displacement x from the mean position is
 – kx 
a  – 2 x   
Mm
 – mkx 
The resultant force on the upper block is, therefore, ma =  
 Mm 
This force is provided by the friction of the lower block. Hence, the magnitude of the
 mk | x | 
frictional force is  
 Mm 
(c) Maximum force of friction required for simple harmonic motion of the upper block is
mkA
at the extreme positions. But the maximum frictional force can only be  mg.
Mm
Hence
mkA (M  m)g

 mg or, A
Mm k
14. ENERGY METHOD :
Another method of finding time period of SHM is energy method. To understand this method
we will consider the following example.
Ex.26 Figure shows a system consisting of pulley

having radius R, a spring of force constant k
and a block of mass m. Find the period of its
vertical oscillation. K
m

Sol. The following steps are usually followed in this

method:
Step 1. Find the mean position. In following figure point A shows mean position.
Step 2. Write down the mean position force relation from figure.
T=mg
mg = kx0 T=kx0
Step 3. Assume that particle is performing SHM with
T
amplitude A. Then displace the particle from its T
mean position. x0 A
m M.P.
N.L.
Step 4. Find the total mechanical energy (E) in the
displaced position since, mechanical energy in SHM mg
dE
remains constant 0
dt
1 1 1
* E= mv 2  I2  k( x  x 0 )2 – mgx
2 2 2
1 1 v2 1
E= mv 2  I 2  k( x  x 0 )2 – mgx
2 2 R 2
dE 2mv dv 2Iv dv 2k( x  x 0 ) dx dx
   – mg ...(1)
dt 2 dt 2R 2 dt 2 dt dt
dx dv d 2 x
Put  v and  2
dt dt dt
in eq. (1) put
dE d2 x I v d2 x
0  mv   kxv  kx0 v  mgv  0
dt dt 2 R2 dt 2 v

R
 I  d2 x
which gives  m  2  2  kx  0
 R  dt
d2 x k
 x0 x+x0
dt 2  I  G.P.E=0
m  2  ...(2)
 R  x
n.
m v
compare eq. (2) with S.H.M eq. the
k (m  I / R2 )
2   T  2
 I  k
m  2 
 R 
15. ANGULAR S.H.M. :

If the restoring torque acting on the body in oscillatory motion is directly proportional to the
angular displacement of body from its equillibrium position i.e.,
=–k
k = S.H.M. constant
 = angular displacement from M.P.
S.H.M. equation is given by
d2 K
 2   0 Here 
dt 2 I
Here I is moment of inertia of the body/particle about a given axis.
16. SIMPLE PENDULUM :
If a heavy point-mass is suspended by a weightless, inextensible and perfectly flexible string

from a rigid support, then this arrangement is called a simple penduluml.
Time period of a simple pendulum T  2  . O

g  
(some times we can take g = 2 for making calculation simple)

m n   mgcos
si mg
mg
Proof :
Now taking moment of forces acting on the bob about point O.
 = T + mg
T = 0
  = –(mg sin )
if  is very small then sin  ~– 

  = – mg   ...(1)
Now compare eq. (1) with
net = – KS.H.M 
which gives KS.H.M = mg 
I m 2 
 T  2 = 2 = 2 g
K S.H.M mg
Note :
• Time period of second pendulum is 2 seconds.
• Simple pendulum performs angular S.H.M. but due to small angular displacement, it is
considered as linear S.H.M.
• If time period of clock based upon simple pendulum increases then clock will become
slow but if time period decreases then clock will become fast.
17. TIME PERIOD OF SIMPLE PENDULUM IN ACCELERATING REFERENCE FRAME :

T  2
geff . where
 
geff = Effective acceleration due to gravity in reference system = | g – a |

a = acceleration of the point of suspension w.r.t. ground.
 
Condition for applying this formula : | g – a | = constant
 
If the acceleration a is upwards, then | g eff | g  a and T  2

ga
Time lost or gained in time t is given by
T
T'  .t
T

Ex.27 If T = 2 sec Tnew = 3 sec. then T = 1 sec.

Since time lost by clock in 3 sec is = 1 sec
1
then time lost by clock in 1 sec = sec
3
1
 Time lost by the clock in an hour =  3600 = 1200 sec.
3
Ex.28 A simple pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a car which is accelerating
uniformly on a horizontal road. The acceleration of car is a0 and the length of the
pendulum is 1. Then find the time period of small oscillations of pendulum about the
mean position.
Sol. We shall work in the car frame. As it is accelerated with respect to the road, we shall have to
apply a psuedo force ma0 on the bob of mass m.
For mean position, the acceleration of the bob with respect to the car should be zero. If 0 be
the angle made by the string with the vertical, the tension, weight and the peusdo force will
add to zero in this position.
Hence, resultant of mg and ma0 (say F = m g2  a 02 ) has to be along the string.
ma 0 a 0
 tan  0  
mg g
Now, suppose the string is further deflected by an angle  as

shown in figure.
Now, restoring torque about point O can be given by   I O
(F sin )  = – m   2 
 
0
Substituting F and using sin  = , for small . ma0

( m g2  a 02 )   = – m2  F mg
g2  a 20 g 2  a 02
or, –  so ; 2 
 
This is an equation of simple harmonic motion with time period.
2 
T = 2 2
 ( g  a 02 )1/ 4
18. COMPOUND PENDULUM / PHYSICAL PENDULUM :
s s
× ×
When a rigid body is suspended from an axis and


made to oscillate about that then it is called 
c
compound pendulum. c
C = Position of centre of mass mg sin 
S = Point of suspension
mg mg cos 
 = Distance between point of suspension and centre of mass

(it remains constant during motion for small angular displacement "" from mean position
The restoring torque is given by
 = – mg  sin 
 = – mg    for small , sin  = 
or, I = – mg   where, I = Moment of inertia about point of suspension.
mg  mg 
or, a= –  or, 2 
I I
I
Time period, T  2
mg 
Ex. 29 A ring is suspended at a point on its rim and it behaves as a second's pendulum when
it oscillates such that its centre move in its own plane. The radius of the ring would be
( g = 2)
Sol. Time period of second pendulum T = 2 cm.
×
I
T  2 R
Mgd
M
Moment of inertia with respect to axis O C.O.M
I = MR2 + MR2 = 2MR2
the distance between centre of mass and the axis O
d=R
2MR 2
2  2  R = 0.5 m
MgR
Ex.30 A circular disc has a tiny hole in it, at a distance z from its center. Its mass is M and
radius R(R > 2). Horizontal shaft is passed through the hole and held fixed so that the
disc can freely swing in the vertical plane. For small distrubance, the disc performs
SHM whose time period is minimum for z . Find the value of z.
I
Sol. The time period w.r.t the axis T  2 Mgd ×O
z
where I = moment of inertia w.r.t the axis O M
R C.O.M
d = distance between C.O.M and O
MR 2
 I=  Mz 2
2
d=z
MR 2
 Mz 2
2 R2 z
 T  2  2 
Mgz 2gz g
R2
the time period will be minimum when  z = minimum
2z
R2
Let say f  z
2z
df
f will be minimum when 0
dz

R2 R
 – 2
1 0  z 
2z 2
Ex.31 Find out the angular frequency of small oscillation about axis O
m l
k k
m l

(1) l
(2)
Sol. mg
k k
(k l ) (k l )
l
The compression in spring (1) = l 
and the extension in spring (2) = l 
l
Net torque opposite to the mean position = – (2 kl  ) l – mg sin  = net
2
 is small  sin   
l
net = – I 2  = – (2 kl  ) l – mg sin  = net
2
ml 2
I=
3
3 ( 4kl  mg )
 =
2 ml
19. TORSIONAL PENDULUM :
In torsional pendulum, an extended object is suspended at the centre by a light torsion wire.
A torsion wire is essentially inextensible, but is free to twist about its axis. When the lower
end of the wire is rotated by a slight amount, the wire applies a restoring torque causing the
body to oscillate rotationally when released.
The restoring torque produced is given by
A

C A C
X X
 = – C where, C = Torsional constant
or, I = – C where, I = Moment of inertia about the vertical axis.
C I
or, = –   Time Period, T  2
I C

: The above concept of torsional pendulum is used in inertia table to calculate the moment of
inertia of unknown body.
Ex.32 A uniform disc of radius 5.0 cm and mass 200 g is fixed at its centre to a metal wire,
the other end of which is fixed to a ceiling. The hanging disc is rotated about the wire
through an angle and is released. If the disc makes torsional oscillations with time
period 0.20 s, find the torsional constant of the wire.
Sol. The situation is shown in figure. The moment of inertia of the disc about the wire is
mr 2 (0.200kg)(5.0  10 –2 m)2
I  = 2.5 × 10–4 kg-m2.
2 2
The time period is given by
I 4 2I
T  2 or, C
C T2
4 2 ( 2.5  10 –4 kg  m 2 ) kg  m 2
= 2 = 0.25
(0.20 s) s2
20. VECTOR METHOD OF COMBINING TWO OR MORE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTIONS:

A simple harmonic motion is produced when a force (called restoring force) proportional to
the displacement acts on a particle. If a particle is acted upon by two such forces the
resultant motion of the particle is a combination of two simple harmonic motions.
20.1 In Same direction :

(a) Having same Frequencies:
Suppose the two individual motions are represented by,
x1 = A1 sin t and x2 = A2 sin (t + )
Both the simple harmonic motions have same angular frequency .
x = x1 + x2 = A1 sin t + A2 sin (t + ) 
= A sin (t + ) A2 
A
Here, A  A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos  A 2 sin

A 2 sin  
and tan  = A  A cos 
1 2
 A 2 cos 
A1
Thus, we can see that this is similar to the vector addition. The same method of vector
addition can be applied to the combination of more than two simple harmonic motions.
Important points to remember before solving the questions:

1. Convert all the trignometric ratios into sine form and ensure that t term is with +ve sign.
2. Make the sign between two term +ve.
3. A1 is the amplitude of that S.H.M whose phase is small.
4. Then resultant x = Anet sin (phase of A1 + )

Where Anet is the vector sum of A1 & A2 with angle between them is the phase difference
between two S.H.M.
Ex.33 x1 = 3 sin t ; x2 = 4 cos t

Find (i) amplitude of resultant SHM. (ii) equation of the resultant SHM.
Sol. First right all SHM's in terms of sine functions with positive amplitude. Keep "t" with positive
sign.
 x1 = 3 sin t
x2 = 4 sin (t + /2)

A  3 2  4 2  2  3  4 cos = 9  16 = 25 = 5
2

4 sin
2 4
tan   
 3
 = 53°
3  4 cos
2
equation x = 5 sin (t + 53°)
10
Ex.34 x1 = 5 sin (t + 30°) ; x2 = 10 cos (t)
Find amplitude of resultant SHM.
Sol. x1 = 5 sin (t + 30°) 60°
 5
x2 = 10 sin (t + ) Phasor Diagram
2
A  5 2  10 2  2  5  10 cos 60  = 25  100  50  175 = 5 7

Ex.35 A particle is subjected to two simple harmonic motions
x1 = A1 sin t
and x2 = A2 sin (t + /3)
Find (a) the displacment at t = 0, (b) the maximum speed of the particle and (c) the
maximum acceleration of the particle.
Sol. (a) At t = 0, x1 = A1 sin t = 0
A2 3
and x2 = A2 sin (t + /3) = A2 sin (/3) =
2
Thus, the resultant displacement at t = 0 is
3
x = x1 + x2 = A 2
2
(b) The resultant of the two motion is a simple harmonic motion of the same angular
frequency . The amplitude of the resultant motion is
A  A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos(  / 3) = A 12  A 22  A 1A 2
The maximum speed is
umax = A  =  A 12  A 22  A 1A 2
(c) The maximum acceleration is
amax = A 2 = 2 A 12  A 22  A 1A 2
(b) Having different frequencies

x1 = A1 sin t

x2 = A2 sin 2t
then resultant displacement x = x1 + x2 = A1 sin 1t + A2 sin 2t This resultant motion is not
SHM.
20.2 In two perpendicular directions
x = A1 sin t ...(1)
y = A2 sin (t + ) ...(2)
The Amplitudes A1 and A2 may be different and Phase difference  and  is same.
So equation of the path may be obtained by eliminating t from (1) & (2)
x
sin  t = A ...(3)
1
x2
cos t = 1– 2 ...(4)
A1
On rearranging we get
x2 y2 2xy cos 
2
 2
  sin2  ...(5)
A 1 A2 A 1A 2
(general eq. of ellipse)

special case :
(1) If  = 0
x2 y2 2xy
 2
 2
 0
A 1 A2 A 1A 2
A2
 y = A .x (eq. of straight line)
1
(2) If  = 90° A2
x2 y2
 2
 1 (Eq. of ellipse) A1
A 1
A 22
(3) If  = 90° & A1 = A2 = A
then x2 + y2 = A2 (Eq. of circle.) A
The above figures are called Lissajous figures.

MIND MAP
1. Equation of S.H.M
(i) Linear : a = –2x
(ii) Angular :  = – 2
2. Linear SHM 3. Angular S.H.M

(i) Displacement of particle :
x = A sin (t + ) (i) Displacement :
(ii) Velocity  = 0 sin(t + )
dx
= A cos(t + ) (ii) Angular velocity
dt
d
=  A 2 – x2 = 0 cos(t + )
dt
(iii) Acceleration :
(iii) Acceleration
2
d x d2 
= – A2 sin(t + )   0  2 sin(t  )   2 
dt 2 dt 2
= – 2x (iv) Phase : t + 
(iv) Phase : t + 
(v) Phase constant :  (v) Phase constant : 
5. Time Period :
4. Energy in S.H.M Pendulums :
1 (a) Simple pendulum :
(i) K = m 2 ( A 2 – x 2 )
2 l
T  2
SHM g
1 (b) Physical pendulum :
(ii) U = m2x2
2 I
T  2
1 mg l
(iii) E = K + U = m2 A2 (c) Torsional pendulum :
2
= constant I
T  2
C
6. Mass-spring system Combination of springs : 7. Composition of 2 SHMs :

x1 = A1 sin t
(a) T  2 m 1 1 1
k (a) series :   x2 = A2 sin (t + )
K eff K 1 K 2
(b) Two bodies system : x = x1 + x2
(b) parallel : Keff = K1 + K2 x = A sin (t + )

T  2 ; (c) Spring cut into two
k where, A  A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos 
parts m : n
m1 m 2 (m  n)K (m  n)K A 2 sin 
where   m  m K1  ,K 2  and tan  
1 2 m n A 1  A 2 cos 

Exercise - I (SINGLE CHOICE QUESTIONS)
LINEAR S.H.M 8. The maximum acceleration of a particle in SHM

1. For a particle executing simple harmonic motion, is made two times keeping the maximum speed to
the acceleration is proportional to. be constant. It is possible when
(A) displacement from the mean position (A) amplitude of oscillation is doubled while fre-
(B) distance from the mean position quency remains constant
(C) distance travelled since t = 0 (B) amplitude is doubled while frequency is halved
(D) speed (C) frequency is doubled while amplitude is halved
(D) frequency is doubled while amplitude remains
2. The distance moved by a particle in simple constant.
harmonic motion in one time period is
(A) A (B) 2A (C) 4A (D) zero 9. A small mass executes linear SHM about O
with amplitude a and period T. Its displacement
3. The time period of a particle in simple harmonic from O at time T/8 after passing through O is :
motion is equal to the time between consecutive (A) a/8 (B) a/2 2
appearance of the particle at a particular point in
(C) a/2 (D) a / 2
its motion. This point is
(A) the mean position
(B) an extreme position 10. The time period of a particle in simple harmonic
(C) between the mean position and the positive motion is equal to the smallest time between the

extreme. particle acquiring a particular velocity v . The
(D) between the mean position and the negative value of v is
extreme. (A) vmax (B) 0
(C) between 0 and vmax
4. Equations y = 2 A cos2t and y = A(sin t + (D) between 0 and –vmax
3 cost) represent the motion of two particles.
11. The average acceleration in one time period
(A) Only one of these is S.H.M
in a simple harmonic motion is
(B) Ratio of maximum speeds is 2 : 1
(A) A 2 (B) A 2/2
(C) Ratio of maximum speeds is 1 : 1
(D) Ratio of maximum accelerations is 1 : 4 (C) A 2/ 2 (D) zero
5. The displacement of a body executing SHM is 12. A mass m is performing linear simple harmonic
given by x = A sin(2t + /3). The first time from motion, then correct graph for acceleration a and
t = 0 when the velocity is maximum is corresponding linear velocity v is
(A) 0.33 sec (B) 0.16 sec
(C) 0.25 sec (D) 0.5 sec
v2 v2
6. A simple harmonic motion having an amplitude
(A) (B)
A and time period T is represented by the equa-
tion : a2 a2
y = 5 sin(t + 4) m
Then the values of A (in m) and T (in sec) are :
(A) A = 5; T = 2 (B) A = 10 ; T = 1 v2 v2
(C) A = 5 ; T = 1 (D) A = 10 ; T = 2
(C) (D)
7. Two particles are in SHM on same straight line a2 a2
with amplitude A and 2A and with same angular
frequency . It is observed that when first par- 13. The time taken by a particle performing SHM
ticle is at a distance A / 2 from origin and going to pass from point A to B where its velocities are
toward mean position, other particle is at ex- same is 2 seconds. After another 2 seconds it
treme position on other side of mean position. returns to B. The time period of oscillation is (in
Find phase difference between the two particles. seconds)
(A) 45° (B) 90° (A) 2 (B) 8
(C) 135° (D) 180° (C) 6 (D) 4

14. Two particles undergo SHM along parallel lines 19. Two particles are in SHM in a straight line
with the same time period (T) and equal ampli- about same equilibrium position. Amplitude A and
tudes. At a particular instant, one particle is at time period T of both the particles are equal. At
its extreme position while the other is at its mean time t = 0, one particle is at displacement y1 =
position. They move in the same direction. They +A and the other at y2 = – A/2, and they are
will cross each other after a further time approaching towards each other. After what time
B O A they cross each other ?
(A) T/3 (B) T/4
B’ O’ A’ (C) 5T/6 (D) T/6
(A) T/8 (B) 3T/8
20. Two particles execute SHM of same ampli-
(C) T/6 (D) 4T/3
tude of 20 cm with same period along the same
line about the same equilibrium position. The maxi-
15. A particle performing SHM is found at its equi-
librium at t = 1 sec. and it is found to have a mum distance between the two is 20 cm. Their
speed of 0.25 m/s at t = 2 sec. If the period of phase difference in radians is
oscillation is 6 sec. Calculate amplitude of oscil- 2 
lation (A) (B)
3 2
3 3
(A) m (B) m  
2 4 (C) (D)
3 4
6 3
(C) m (D)
 8 21. A particle of mass 1 kg is undergoing S.H.M.,
for which graph between force and displacement
16. A particle executes SHM with time period T (from mean position) as shown. Its time period,
and amplitude A. The maximum possible average in seconds, is. F(N)
T
velocity in time
4
is 13.5
1.5
2A 4A –1.5 xm
(A) (B)
T T –13.5
8A 4 2A
(C) (D)
T T
(A) /3 (B) 2/3
17. Time period of a particle executing SHM is 8 (C) /6 (D) 3/
sec. At t = 0 it is at the mean position. The ratio
of the distance covered by the particle in the 1 22. A point particle of mass 0.1 kg is executing
st second to the 2nd second is S.H.M of amplitude of 0.1 m. When the particle
passes through the mean position, its kinetic
1
energy is 8 × 10–3 J. The equation of motion of
(A)
2 1
(B) 2
this particle when the initial phase of oscillation
1 is 45° can be given by
(C)
2
(D) 2 +1    
(A) 0.1cos 4 t   (B) 0.1sin 4 t  
 4  4
18. The angular frequency of motion whose equa-
 
d2 y (C) 0.4 sin t    (D) 0.2 sin  2 t
tion is 4 + 9y = 0 is (y = displacement and t  4 2 
dt 2
= time)
23. A particle executes SHM of period 1.2 sec.
9 4 and amplitude 8 cm. Find the time it takes to
(A) (B)
4 9 travel 3 cm from the positive extremely of its
3 2 oscillation.
(C) (D) (A) 0.28 sec. (B) 0.32 sec.
2 3
(C) 0.17 sec. (D) 0.42 sec.

24. Two particles P and Q describe simple har- with the two spring in series is T, then
monic motions of same period, same amplitude, (A) T = t1 + t2 (B) T 2 = t12 + t22
along the same line about the same equilibrium 1 1 1
1 1 1
position O. When P and Q are on opposite sides (C) T  t  t 2
 
t12 t 22
(D)
of O at the same distance from O they have the 1 2 T
same speed of 1.2 m/s in the same direction,
when their displacements are the same they have 30. A particle moves along the x-axis according
the same speed of 1.6 m/s in opposite directions. to : x = A. [1 + sin t]. What distance does it
The maximum velocity in m/s of either particle is travel between t = 0 and t = 2.5/?
(A) 2.8 (B) 2.5 (A) 4A (B) 6A
(C) 2.4 (D) 2 (C) 5A (D) none
25. A particle performs SHM with a period T and Question No. 31 to 33 (3 questions)
amplitude a. The mean velocity of the particle The graph in figure show that a quantity y varies
over the time interval during which it travels a with displacement d in a system undergoing simple
distance a/2 from the extreme position is harmonic motion.
(A) a/T (B) 2a/T
(C) 3a/T (D) a/2T y y
26. A body performs simple harmonic oscillations

along the straight line ABCDE with C as the mid-
point of AE. Its kinetic energies at B (I) (II)
and D are each one fourth of its maximum value.
If AE = 2R, the distance between B and D is O d O d
A B C D E y y
3R R
(A) (B)
2 2
(C) 3 R (D) 2 R (III) (IV)
27. A toy car of mass m is having two similar O d O d

rubber ribbons attached to it as shown in the
Which graphs best represents the relationship
figure. The force constant of each rubber ribbon
obtained when y is
is k and surface is frictionless. The car is displaced
31. The total energy of the system
from mean position by x cm and released. At the
(A) I (B) II
mean position the ribbons are underformed.
(C) III (D) IV
Vibration period is
32. The time
(A) I (B) II
(C) III (D) IV
33. The unbalanced force acting on the system.

(A) I (B) II
m( 2k ) 1 m( 2k )
(A) 2  2 (B) (C) III (D) None
k 2 k2
34. A particle executes SHM on a straight line
m m path. The amplitude of oscillation is 2 cm. When
(C) 2 (D) 2
k k k the displacement of the particle from the mean
position is 1 cm, the numerical value of magni-
28. A spring mass system oscillates with a tude of acceleration is equal to the numerical
frequency . If it is taken in an elevator slowly value of magnitude of velocity. The frequency of
accelerating upward, the frequency will SHM (in second–1) is
(A) increase (B) decrease 2
(C) remain same (D) become zero (A) 2 3 (B)
3
29. A body at the end of a spring executes S.H.M.
with a period t1, while the corresponding period 3 1
(C) (D)
for another spring is t2. If the period of oscillation 2 2 3
35. The potential energy of a simple harmonic ticle at the time T/12 is : (T = time period)
oscillator of mass 2 kg in its mean position is 5 J. (A) 2 : 1 (B) 3 : 1
If its total energy is 9J and its amplitude is 0.01 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
m, its time period would be
  41. In the figure, the block of mass m, attached
(A) sec (B) sec to the spring of stiffness k is in contact with the
10 20
completely elastic wall, and the compression in
  the spring is ‘e’. The spring is compressed further
(C) sec (D) sec
50 100 by ‘e’ by displacing the blocktowards left and is
then released. If the collision between the block
36. Find the ratio of time periods of two identical and the wall is completely elastic then the time
springs if they are first joined in series & then in period of oscillations of the block will be :
parallel & a mass m is suspended from them
(A) 4 (B) 2 Wall
(C) 1 (D) 3
37. Two bodies P & Q of equal mass are sus-

pended from two separate massless springs of
force constants k1 & k2 respectively. If the maxi- m
mum velocity of them are equal during their mo-
tion, the ratio of amplitude of P to Q is :
k1 k2 2 m m
(A) k (B) (A) (B) 2
2 k1 3 k k
k2 k1  m  m
(C) (D)
(C) k (D) k2 3 k 6 k
1
42. A spring mass system performs S.H.M. If the

38. Vertical displacement of a plank with a body mass is doubled keeping amplitude same, then
of mass ‘m’ on it is varying according to law y = the total energy of S.H.M. will become :
sin t + 3 cos t. The minimum value of  for (A) double (B) half
which the mass just breaks off the plank and the (C) unchanged (D) 4 times
moment it occurs first after t = 0 are given by (y
is positive vertically upwards) 43. A mass at the end of a spring executes har-
monic motion about an equilibrium position with
g 2  g 2 
(A) , (B) , an amplitude A. Its speed as it passes through
2 6 g 2 3 g the equilibrium position is V. If extended 2A and
released, the speed of the mass passing through
the equilibrium position will be
g  2 2 (A) 2V (B) 4V
(C) ,
g
(D) 2g , 3g
2 3 V V
(C) (D)
2 4
39. Two particles A and B perform SHM along the
same straight line with the same amplitude ‘a’, 44. A 2 Kg block moving with 10 m/s strikes a
same frequency ‘f’ and same equilibrium position spring of constant 2N/m attached to 2 Kg block
‘O’. The greatest distance between them is found at rest kept on a smooth floor. The time for
to be 3a/2. At some instant of time they have which rear moving block remain in contact with
the same displacement from mean position. What spring will be
is the displacement? 10m/s
2kg 2kg
(A) a / 2 (B) a 7 / 4
(C) 3a/2 (D) 3 a /4
1
(A) 2 sec (B)
2
sec
40. A particle starts oscillating simple harmoni-
cally from its equilibrium position then, the ratio 1
(C) 1 sec (D) sec
of kinetic energy and potential energy of the par- 2

45. In the above question, the velocity of the

(A) 2 m / k + 4 2E / mg 2
rear 2 kg block after it separates from the spring
will be : (B) 2 m / k
(A) 0 m/s (B) 5 m/s
(C) 10 m/s (D) 7.5 m/s (C)  m / k + 2 2E / mg2
46. A particle is subjected to two mutually per-
(D) 2 2E / mg2
pendicular simple harmonic motions such that its
x and y coordinates are given by x = 2 sin t ; y
  51. A particle of mass 4 kg moves between two
= 2 sin  t   points A and B on a smooth horizontal surface
4
under the action of two forces such that when it
The path of the particle will be :  
(A) an ellipse (B) a straight line is at a point P, the forces are 2PA N and 2PB N.
(C) a parabola (D) a circle If the particle is released from rest at A, find the
time it takes to travel a quarter of the way from
47. The amplitude of the vibrating particle due A to B.
   
to superposition of two SHMs, y1 = sin  t   (A)
2
s (B)
3
s
3
and y2 = sin t is : 
(C) s (D) s
4
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 2 52. In an elevator, a spring clock of time period
TS (mass attached to a spring) and a pendulum
48. Two simple harmonic motions y1 = A sin t clock of time period TP are kept. If the elevator
accelerates upwards
and y2 = A cos t are superimposed on a particle
(A) TS well as TP increases
of mass m. The total mechanical energy of the
(B) TS remain same, TP increases
particle is :
(C) TS remains same, TP decreases
1 (D) TS as well as TP decreases
(A) m2A2 (B) m2A2
2
53. A man is swinging on a swing made of 2
1 ropes of equal length L and in direction perpen-
(C) m2A2 (D) zero
4 dicular to the plane of paper. The time period of
the small oscillations about the mean position is
49. The springs in fig. A and B are identical but
length in A is three times each of that in B. The
ratio of period TA/TB is
L
A B
L L
M
m m
(A) 3 (B) 1/3 L 3L
(A) 2 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 1/3 2g 2g
50. A particle of mass m moves in the potential L L
energy U shown above. The period of the motion (C) 2 (D) 
when the particle has total energy E is
2 3g g
U(x) 54. A ring of diameter 2m oscillates as a com-

pound pendulum about a horizontal axis passing
through a point at its rim. It oscillates such that
its centre move in a plane which is perpendicular
1
U = 2 kx2, x < 0 U = mgx, x > 0 to the plane of the ring. The equivalent length of
the simple pendulum is
(A) 2m (B) 4m
x (C) 1.5 m (D) 3m

55. Two pendulums have time periods T and 5T/

4. They start SHM at the same time from the 2l 2 2l
(A) 2 (B) 2
mean position. After how many oscillations of the 3g 3g
smaller pendulum they will be again in the same
phase 2l l
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 2 3g (D) 3 3g
(C) 11 (D) 9
60. In the figure shown, the spring are connected
56. A small bob attached to a light inextensible
to the rod at one end and at the midpoint. The
thread of length l has a periodic time T when
rod is hinged at its lower end. Rotational SHM of
allowed to vibrate as a simple pendulum. The the rod (Mass m, length L) will occur only if
thread is now suspended from a fixed end O of a
3 k
vertical rigid rod of length (as in figure). If
4
now the pendulum performs periodic oscillations
in this arrangement, the periodic time will be k
g
O
3l (A) k > mg / 3L (B) k > 2mg/3L

4 l (C) k > 2mg/5L (D) k > 0
61. What is the angular frequency of oscillations

of the rod in the above problem if k = mg/L ?
A (A) (3/2).[k/m]1/2 (B) (3/4).[k/m]1/2
(C) [2k/5m]1/2 (D) None
62. A ring is suspended at a point on its rim and

3T T it behaves as a second’s pendulum when it oscil-
(A) (B)
4 2 lates such that its centre move in its own plane.
(C) T (D) 2T The radius of the ring would be (g = 2)
(A) 0.5 m (B) 1.0 m
57. A simple pendulum is oscillating in a lift. If (C) 0.67 m (D) 1.5 m
the lift is going down with constant velocity, the
time period of the simple pendulum is T1. If the 63. A rod whose ends are A & B of length 25 cm
lift is going down with some retardation its time is hanged in vertical plane. When hanged from
period is T2, then point A and point B the time periods calculated
(A) T1 > T2 (B) T1 < T2 (C) T1 = T2 are 3 sec & 4 sec respectively. Given the mo-
(D) depends upon the mass of the pendulum bob ment of inertia of rod about axis perpendicular to
the rod is in ratio 9 : 4 at points A and B. Find the
58. A simple pendulum with length  and bob of distance of the centre of mass from point A.
mass m executes SHM of small amplitude A. The (A) 9 cm (B) 5 cm
maximum tension in the string will be
(C) 25 cm (D) 20 cm
(A) mg (1 + A/) (B) mg (1 + A/)2
(C) mg [1 + (A/)2] (D) 2 mg
59. A system of two identical rods (L-shaped) of
mass m and length l are resting on a peg P as
shown in the figure. If the system is displaced in
its plane by a small angle , find the period of
oscillations.
P
l l


1. A spring has natural length 40 cm and spring 2
constant 500 N/m. A block of mass 1 kg is at- difference. At, t = . They are in same phase.
3
tached at one end of the spring and other end of
the spring is attached to ceiling. The block re- Their initial phase difference is :
leased from the position, where the spring has  2 4
length 45 cm. (A) (B) (C) (D) 
3 3 3
(A) the block will perform SHM of amplitude 5 cm.
(B) the block will have maximum velocity 30 5 5. Two particles are in SHM with same angular
cm/sec. frequency and amplitudes A and 2A respectively
(C) the block will have maximum acceleration 15 along same straight line with same mean posi-
m/s2. tion. They cross each other at position A/2 dis-
(D) the minimum potential energy of the spring tance from mean position in opposite direction.
will be zero. The phase between them is :
5  1   1
2. A particle executing a simple harmonic motion (A) – sin–1   (B) – sin–1  
6 4 6 4
of period 2s. When it is at its extreme displace-
ment from its mean position, it receives an addi-
5  1   1
tional energy equal to what it had in its mean (C) – cos–1   (D) – cos –1  
6 4 6  4
position. Due to this, in its subsequent motion,
(A) its amplitude will change and become equal
to 2 times its previous amplitude 6. The equation of motion for an oscillating par-
(B) its periodic time will become doubled i.e. 4s ticle is given by x = 3sin (4t) + 4 cos(4t),
(C) its potential energy will be decreased where x is in mm and t is in second
(D) it will continue to execute simple harmonic (A) The motion is simple harmonic
motion of the same amplitude and period as be- (B) The period of oscillation is 0.5 s
fore receiving the additional energy. (C) The amplitude of oscillation is 5 mm
(D) The particle starts its motion from the equi-
3. Part of a simple harmonic motion is graphed in librium
the figure, where y is the displacement from the
mean position. The correct equation describing 7. A particle is executing SHM of amplitude A,
this S.H.M is about the mean position X = 0. Which of the
following cannot be a possible phase difference
between the positions of the particle at x = + A/
2
2 and x = – A/ 2 .
(A) 75° (B) 165°
(0.6) t(s) (C) 135° (D) 195°
O (0.3)
8. Speed v of a particle moving along a straight
line, when it is at a distance x from a fixed point
–2
on the line is given by v2 = 108 – 9x2 (all quanti-
ties in S.I. unit). Then
(A) The motion is uniformly accelerated along the
straight line
 10  (B) The magnitude of the acceleration at a dis-
(A) y = 4 cos (0.6t) (B) y = 2 sin  t–  tance 3 cm from the fixed point is 0.27 m/s2.
3 2
12
(C) The motion is simple harmonic about x =
 10   10 
(C) y = 4 sin  t  (D) y = 2 cos  t  m.
3 2 3 2 (D) The maximum displacement from the fixed
point is 4 cm.
4. Two particles execute SHM with amplitude A 9. A block is placed on a horizontal plank. The
and 2A and angular frequency  and 2 respec- plank is performing SHM along a vertical line with
tively. At t = 0 they starts with some initial phase amplitude of 40 cm. The block just loses contact
with the plank when the plank is momentarily at
rest. Then
(A) the period of its oscillations is 2/5 sec. 15. A particle moves in xy plane according to the
(B) the block weights on the plank double its law x = a sin t and y = a(1 – cos t) where a
weight, when the plank is at one of the positions and  are constants. The particle traces
of momentary rest. (A) a parabola
(C) the block weights 1.5 times its weight on the (B) a straight line equallyinclined to x and y axes
plank halfway down from the mean position. (C) a circle
(D) the block weights its true weight on the plank, (D) a distance proportional to time
when velocity of the plank is maximum.
16. For a particle executing S.H.M., x = displace-
10. The potential energy of a particle of mass ment from equilibrium position, v = velocity at
0.1 kg, moving along x-axis, is given by U = 5x (x any instant and a = acceleration at any instant,
– 4) J where x is in metres. It can be concluded then
that (A) v-x graph is a circle
(A) the particle is acted upon by a constant force (B) v-x graph is an ellipse
(B) the speed of the particle is maximum at x = 2 (C) a-x graph is a straight line
m (D) a-v graph is an ellipse
(C) the particle executes simple harmonic motion
(D) the period of oscillation of the particle is /5 s 17. The figure shows a graph between velocity
11. A particle is executing SHM with amplitude A, and displacement (from mean position) of a par-
time period T, maximum acceleration a0 and maxi- ticle performing SHM
mum velocity v0. Its starts from mean position at v(in cm/s)
t = 0 and at time t, it has the displacement A/2,
acceleration a and velocity v then 10
2.5
(A) t = T/12 (B) a = a0/2
x
(C) v = v0/2 (D) t = T/8 (in cm)
12. The amplitude of a particle executing SHM
about O is 10 cm. Then
(A) When the K.E. is 0.64 of its max. K.E. its (A) the time period of the particle is 1.57 s
displacement is 6cm from O. (B) the maximum acceleration will be 40cm/s2
(B) When the displacement is 5 cm from O its (C) the velocity of particle is 2 21 cm/s when it
K.E. is 0.75 of its max. P.E. is at a distance 1 cm from the mean position.
(C) Its total energy at any point is equal to its (D) none of these
maximum K.E.
(D) Its velocity is half the maximum velocity when 18. Two blocks of masses 3 kg and 6 kg rest on a
its displacement is half the maximum displace- horizontal smooth surface. The 3 kg block is at-
ment. tached to a spring with a force constant k = 900
13. The displacement of a particle varies ac- Nm–1 which is compressed 2 m from beyond the
cording to the relation x = 3 sin 100t + 8 cos2 equilibrium position. The 6 kg mass is at rest at
50t. Which of the following is/are correct about 1m from mean position. 3kg mass strikes the 6 kg
this motion. mass and the two stick together.
(A) the motion of the particle is not S.H.M.
1m
(B) theamplitude of the S.H.M. of the particle is
5 units
2m
(C) the amplitude of the resultant S.H.M. is 73 3kg 6kg
units
(D) the maximum displacement of the particle from equilibrium
the origin is 9 units. position
(A) velocity of the combined masses immediately

14. In SHM, acceleration versus displacement after the collision is 10 ms–1
(from mean position) graph : (B) velocity of the combined masses immediately
(A) is always a straight line passing through ori- after thecollision is 5 ms–1
gin and slope –m2 (C) amplitude of the resulting oscillation is 2 m
(B) is always a straight line passing through ori- (D) amplitude of the resulting oscillation is 5/2 m
gin and slope +m2
(C) is a straight line not necessarily passing through 19. A particle starts from a point P at a distance
origin of A/2 from the mean position O & travels towards
(D) none of the above left as shown in the figure. If the time period of

SHM, executed about O is T and amplitude A 23. A particle of mass m performs SHM along a
then the equation of motion of particle is : straight line with frequency f and amplitude A.
(A) The average kinetic energy of the particle is
A/2
zero.
P (B) The average potential energy is m 2 f2 A2.
O
(C) The frequency of ocillation of kinetic energy
A
is 2f.
(D) Velocity function leads acceleration by /2.
 2   2 5 
(A) x = A sin  t   (B) x = A sin  t 
T 6  T 6  24. A linear harmonic oscillator of force constant
2 × 106Nm–1 and amplitude 0.01 m has a total
 2   2  mechanical energy of 160 J. Its
(C) x = A cos  t   (D) x = A cos  t  (A) maximum potential energy is 100 J
T 6  T 3
(B) maximum kinetic energy is 100J
20. The angular frequency of a spring block sys- (C) maximum potential energy is 160 J
tem is 0. This system is suspended from the (D) minimum potential energy is zero.
ceiling of an elevator moving downwards with a
constant speed v0. The block is at rest relative 25. The graph plotted between phase angle ()
to the elevator. Lift is suddenly stopped. Assum- and displacement of a particle from equilibrium
position (y) is a sinusoidal curve as shown below.
ing the downwards as a positive direction, choose
Then the best matching is
the wrong statement.
v0 y
(A) The amplitude of the block is 
0
(B) The initial phase of the block is .
3 /2 2
v0
(C) The equation of motion for the block is  O /2 P t
0
sin 0t.
(D) The maximum speed of the block is v0. Column A Column B
(A)K. E. versus
21. A disc of mass 3m and a disc of mass m are
connected by a massless spring of stiffness k.
The heavier disc is placed on the ground with the
phase angle curve (i)
spring vertical and lighter disc on top. From its
equilibrium position, the upper disc is pushed down
by a distance  and released. Then (B) P.E. versus phase
(A) if  > 3mg/k, the lower disc will bounce up
(B) if  = 2mg/k, maximum normal reaction from
ground on lower disc = 6 mg. angle curve (ii)
(C) if  = 2mg/k, maximum normal reaction from
ground on lower disc = 4 mg. (C) T.e. versus phase
(D) if  > 4 mg/k, the lower disc will bounce up
angle curve (iii)
22. A system is oscillating with undamped simple
harmonic motion. Then the
(D) Velocity versus
(A) average total energy per cycle of the motion
is its maximum kinetic energy.
(B) average total energy per cycle of the motion
1 phase angle curve (iv)
is times its maximum kinetic energy..
2
1
(C) root mean square velocity is times its (A) (a) - (i), (b) - (ii), (c) - (iii) & (d) - (iv)
2
maximum velocity (B) (a) - (ii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iii) & (d) - (iv)
(D) mean velocity is 1/2 of maximum velocity. (C) (a) - (ii), (b) - (i), (c) - (iv) & (d) - (iii)
(D) (a) - (ii), (b) - (iii), (c) - (iv) & (d) - (i)


LINEAR S.H.M 8. A block of mass 0.9 kg attached to a spring of
force constant k is lying on a frictionless floor.
1. The equation of a particle executing SHM is 2 cm and the block
The spring is compressed to
 
x  (5m) sin( s –1 )t   . Write down the amplitude, is at a distance 1/ 2 cm from the wall as shown
 6
phase constant, time period and maximum speed. in the figure. When the block is released, it make
elastic collision with the wall and its period of
2. A particle having mass 10 g oscillates according motion is 0.2 sec. Find the approximate value of k.
to the equation x = (2.0 cm) sin [100 s–1] t +
 Wall
]. Find (a) the amplitude, the time period and
6
the force constant (b) the position, the velocity
and the acceleration at t = 0.
3. The equation of motion of a particle started at

m
t = 0 is given by x = 5 sin (20 t + /3) where x is
in centimetre and t in second. When does the 1/ 2 cm
particle. 2 cm
(a) first come to rest ?
(b) first have zero acceleration ? 9. A force f = –10x + 2 acts on a particle of mass
(c) first have maximum speed ? 0.1 kg, where ‘k’ is in m and F in newton. If it is
released from rest at x = –2 m, find :
4. A body is in SHM with period T when oscillated
(A) Amplitude (b) Time period
from a freely suspended spring. If this spring is
cut in two parts of length ratio 1 : 3 & again (c) Equation of motion
oscillated from the two parts separately, then
the periods are T1 & T2 then find T1/T2. 10. Potential energy (U) of a body of unit mass
moving in a one-dimension conservative force fileld
5. The system shown in the figure can move on a is given by, U = (x2 – 4x + 3). All units are in S.I.
smooth surface. The spring is initially compressed (i) Find the equilibrium position of the body.
by 6 cm and then released. Find
(ii) Show that oscillations of the body about this
k = 800 N/m
equilibrium position is simple harmonic motion &
3 kg 6 kg
find its timeperiod.
(iii) Find the amplitude of oscillations if speed of
(a) Time period (b) Amplitude of 3 kg block
(c) Maximum momentum of 6 kg block the body at equilibrium position is 2 6 m/s.
6. A body undergoing SHM about the origin has

11. The resulting amplitude A and the phase of
its equation is given by x = 0.2 cos 5t. Find its
average speed from t = 0 to t = 0.7 sec. A  
the vibrations  S = A cos (t) + cos  t  
2 2
7. The acceleration-displacement (a – x) graph
A A  3 
cos  t 
of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is  = A cos (t
+ cos (t + ) +
4 8 2
shown in the figure. Find the frequency of oscil-
lation. + ) are ....... and ......... respectively.
a
12. A body is executing SHM under the action of

force whose maximum magnitude is 50N. Find the
magnitude of force acting on the particle at the
– O x
time when its energy is half kinetic and half po-
–
tential.

13. A 1kg block is executing simple harmonic x

motion of amplitude 0.1 m on a smooth horizontal
surface under the restoring force of a spring of 10
spring constant 100 N/m. A block of mass 3 kg is mm
5
gently placed on it at the instant it passes through
the mean position. Assuming that the two blocks 0
t(s)
move together, find the frequency and the
amplitude of the motion.
17. Two particles A and B execute SHM along
the same line with the same amplitude a, same
3kg frequency and same equilibrium position O. If the
phase difference between them is  = 2 sin–1
1kg (0.9), then find the maximum distance between
the two.
18. Two blocks A (5kg) and B(2kg) attached to

14. The springs shown in the figure are all the ends of a spring constant 1120 N/m are placed
unstretched in the beginning when a man starts on a smooth horizontal plane with the spring
pulling the block. The man exerts a constant force undeformed. Simultaneously velocities of 3m/s and
F on the block. Find the amplitude and the 10m/s along the line of the spring in the same
frequency of the motion of the block. direction are imparted to A and B then
3m/s 10m/s
k1 M
A 5 2 B
k2 k3 F (a) Find the maximum extension of the spring.

(b) When does the first maximum compression
occurs after start.
19. The motion of a particle is described by x =

15. Two identical springs are attached to a small
30 sin (t + /6), where x is in cm and t in sec.
block P. The other ends of the springs are fixed
Potential energy of the particle is twice of kinetic
at A and B. When P is in equilibrium the extension
energy for the first time after t = 0 when the
of top spring is 20 cm and extension of bottom
particle is at position ............. after .......... time.
spring is 10 cm. Find the period of small vertical
oscillations of P about its equilibrium position. (use
20. A particle is performing SHM with accleration
g = 9.8 m/s2)
a = 8 2 – 4 2 x where x is coordinate of the
particle w.r.t. the origin. The parameters are in
A S.I. units. The particle is at rest at x = –2 at t =
0. Find coordinate of the particle w.r.t. origin at
any time.
P
21. (a) Find the time period of oscillations of a
torsional pendulum, if the torsional constant of
B the wire is K = 102J/rad. The moment of inertia
of rigid body is 10 kg m2 about the axis of rota-
16. The figure shows the displacement - time tion.
graph of a particle executing SHM. If the time (b) A simple pendulum of length l = 0.5 m is hanging
period of oscillation is 2s, then the equation of from ceiling of a car. The car is kept on a hori-
motion is given by x = ................. . zontal plane. The car starts accelerating on the
horizontal road with acceleration of 5 m/s2. Find
the time period of oscillations of the pendulum
for small amplitudes about the mean position.

22. An object of mass 0.2 kg executes SHM along (ii) What must be the acceleration of the lift for
the x-axis with frequency of (25/) Hz. At the the period of oscillation of the pendulum to be
point x = 0.04m the object has KE 0.5 J and PE T0
?
0.4 J. The amplitude of oscillation is 2
_____________.
29. A simple pendulum of length  is suspended
23. A body of mass 1 kg is suspended from a through the ceiling of an elevator. Find the time
weightless spring having force constant 600 N/ period of small oscillations if the elevator (a) is
m. Another body of mass 0.5 kg moving vertically going up with an acceleration a0 (b) is going down
upwards hits the suspended body with a velocity with an acceleration a0 and (c) is moving with a
of 3.0 m/s and get embedded in it. Find the fre- uniform velocity.
quency of oscillations and amplitude of motion.
24. A block is kept on a horizontal table. The 30. A simple pendulum fixed in a car has a time
table is undergoing simple harmonic motion of fre- period of 4 seconds when the car is moving
quency 3 Hz in a horizontal plane. The coeffi- uniformly on a horizontal road. When the
cient of static friction between block and the accelerator is pressed, the time period changes
table surface is 0.72. Find the maximum ampli- to 3.99 seconds. Making an approximate analysis,
tude of the table at which the block does not slip find the acceleration of the car.
on the surface.
31. Two identical rods each of mass m and length
25. A particle of mass m moves in a one-dimen- L, are rigidly joined and then suspended in a ver-
sional potential energy U(x) = –ax2 + bx4, where tical plane so as to oscillate freely about an axis
‘a’ and ‘b’ are positive constants. Then what is normal to the plane of paper passing through ‘S’
the angular frequency of small oscillations about (point of supension). Find the time period of such
the minima of the potential energy. small oscillations.
26. A pendulum having time period equal to two

S
seconds is called a seconds pendulum. Those used
in pendulum clocks are of this type. Find the length
of a seconds pendulum at a place where g = 2
m/s2
27. The angle made by the string of a simple

pendulum with the vertical depends on time as  32. A simple pendulum has a time period T = 2
 sec when it swings freely. The pendulum is hung
= sin[s–1)t]. Find the length of the pendulum
90 as shown in figure. so that only one-fourth of its
if g = 2 m/s2. total length is free to swing to the left of ob-
stacle. It is displaced to position A and released.
How long does it take to swing to extreme dis-
28. A pendulum is suspended in a lift and its period
placement B and return to A? Assume that dis-
of oscillation is T0 when the lift is stationary.
placement angle is always small.
(i) What will the period T of oscillation of pendulum
be, if the lift begins to accelerate downwards
le
3g
ac
?
st
with an acceleration equal to

4
ob
B A

Exercise - IV (TOUGH SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS )
1. A point particle of mass 0.1 kg is executing  =/6 radian with respect to diameter PQ of the
SHM with amplitude of 0.1 m. When the particle circle and released from rest
passes through the mean position, its K.E. is 8 ×
10–3J. Obtain the equation of motion of this par-
ticle if the initial phase of oscillation is 45°.
2. The particle executing SHM in a straight line

has velocities 8 m/s, 7 m/s, 4 m/s at three points
distant one metre from each other. What will be
the maximum velocity of the particle? (a) Calculate the frequency of oscillation of the
ball B.
3. One end of an ideal spring is fixed to a wall at (b) What is the total energy of the system.
origin O and the axis of spring is parallel to a x- (c) Find the speed of the ball A when A and B are
axis. A block of mass m = 1 kg is attached to free at the two ends of the diameter PQ.
end of the spring and it is performing SHM. Equa-
tion of position of block in coordinate system 6. An ideal gas is enclosed in a vertical cylinderical
shown is x = 10 + 3 sin10t, t is in second and x in container and supports a freely moving piston of
cm. Another block of mass M = 3kg, moving to- mass m. The piston and the cylinder have equal
wards the origin with velocity 30 cm/s collides cross-sectional area A, atmospheric pressure is
with the block performing SHM at t = 0 and gets P0 and when the piston is in equilibrium position.
struck to it, calculate : Show that the piston executes SHM and find
(i) new amplitude of oscillations. the frequency of oscillation (system is completely
(ii) new equation for position of the combined isolated from the surrounding).  = Cp/Cv. Height
body. of the gas in equilibrium position is h.
(iii) loss of energy during collision. Neglect fric-
tion. 7. A massless rod is hinged at O. A string carry-
1kg 3kg ing a mass m at one end is attached to point A
on the rod so that OA = a. At another point B
(OB = b) of the rod, a horizontal spring of force
constant k is attached as shown. Find the period
4. A mass M is in static equilibrium on a massless of small vertical oscilla tions of mass m around its
vertical spring as shown in the figure. A ball of equilibrium position.
mass m dropped from certain height sticks to the
mass M after colliding with it. The oscillations k B
they perform reach to height ‘a’ above the origi-
nal level of scales & depth ‘b’ below it. A
(a) Find the force constant of the spring.;
m
O
M a
8. Two blocks A (2kg) and B(3kg) rest up on a
b
smooth horizontal surface are connected by a
spring of stiffness 120 N/m. Initially the spring is
underformed. A is imparted a velocity of 2m/s
along the line of the spring away from B. Find the
displacement of A t second later.
(b) Find the oscillation frequency.
(c) What is the height above the initial level from 3kg 2kg 2m/s
which the mass m was droped ? B A
5. Two identical balls A and B each of mass 0.1 9. Consider a fixed ring shaped uniform body of
kg are attached to two identical massless springs. linear mass density  and radius R. A particle at
The spring mass system is constrained to move the centre of ring is displaced along the axis by a
inside a rigid smooth pipe in the form of a circle small distance, show that the particle will ex-
as in fig. The pipe is fixed in a horizontal plane. ecute SHM under gravitation of ring & find its
The centres of the ball can move in a circle of time period neglecting other forces.
radius 0.06 m. Each spring has a natural length
0.06 m and force constant 0.1 N/m. Initially both
the balls are displaced by an angle of

1. A particle of mass m is executing oscillations 6. A particle executes simple harmonic motion be-
about the origin on the x-axis. Its potential en- tween x = –A and x = +A. The time taken for it to
ergy is V(x) = k|x|3 where k is a positive con- go from 0 to A/2 is T1 and to go from A/2 to A is
stant. If the amplitude of oscillations is a, then T2. Then
its time period T is [JEE (Scr)’ 2001]
(A) proportional to 1/ a (A) T1 < T2 (B) T1 > T2
(B) independent of a (C) T1 = T2 (D) T1 = 2T2
(C) proportional to a 7. A diatomic molecule has atoms of masses m1
(D) proportional to a3/2 [JEE’ 98] and m2. The potential energy of the molecule for
the interatomic separation r is given by V(r) = –A
2. A particle free to move along the x-axis has + B(r –r0)2, where r0 is the equilibrium separation,
potential energy given by U(x) = k[1 - exp(-x2)] and A and B are positive constants. The atoms
for –< x < +, where k is a positive constant of are compressed towards each other from their
appropriate dimensions. Then equilibrium positions released. What is the vibra-
(A) at point away from the origin, the particle is tional frquency of the molecule?
in unstable equilibrium. [REE’ 2001]
(B) for any finite nonzero value of x, there is a
force directed away from the origin. 8. A particle is executing SHM according to y = a
(C) if its total mechanical energy is k/2, it has its cos t. Then which of the graphs represents varia-
minimum kinetic energy at the origin. tions of potential energy :
(D) for small displacements from x = 0, the mo- [JEE (Scr)’ 2003]
tion is simple harmonic. [JEE’ 99]
P.E.
I II
3. Three simple harmonic motions in the same
direction having the same amplitude a and same
period are superposed. If each differs in phase
from the next by 45°, then
(A) the resultant amplitude is (1+ 2 )a
(B) the phase of the resultant motion relative to t
the first is 90°.
(C) the energy associated with the resulting mo- P.E.
tion is (3 + 2 2 ) times the energy associated III IV
with any single motion.
(D) the resulting motion is not simple harmonic.
[JEE’ 99]
x
4. The period of oscillation of simple pendulum of (A) (I) & (III) (B) (II) & (IV)
length L suspended from the roof of a vehicle (C) (I) & (IV) (D) (II) & (III)
which moves without friction down an inclined
plane of inclination  is given by 9. Two masses m1 and m2 connected by a light
[JEE’ 2000] spring of natural length l0 is compressed com-
pletely and tied by a string. This system while
L L moving with a velocity v0 along +ve x-axis pass
(A) 2 (B) 2
gcos  gsin through the origin at t = 0. At this position the
string snaps. Position of mass m1 at time is given
L L by the equation.x1(t) = v0 t – A (1 – cos t)
(C) 2 (D) 2
g gtan Calculate :
(a) Position of the particle m2 as a function of
time.
5. A bob of mass M is attached to the lower end
(b) l0 is terms of A.
of a vertical string of length L and cross sec-
[JEE’ 2003]
tional area A. The Young’s modulus of the mate-
rial of the string is Y. If the bob executes SHM in
10. A block P of mass m is placed on a friction-
the vertical direcion, find the frequency of these
less horizontal surface. Another block Q of same
oscillations. [REE’ 2000]

mass is kept on P and connected to the wall with 14. A student performs an experiment for deter-
the help of a spring of spring constant k as shown
 4 2l 
in the figure. s is the coefficient of friction be-  
mination of g   l  1 m and he commits an
tween P and Q. The blocks move together per-  T 2 
forming SHM of amplitude A. The maximum value
error of l.
of the friction force between P and Q is
For The takes the time of n oscillations with the
stop watch of least count T and he commits a
Q s human error of 0.1 sec. For which of the follow-
k
ing data, the measurement of g will be most ac-
P smooth curate?
l T nAmplitude of oscillation
kA (A)5 mm 0.2 sec 10 5 mm
(A) kA (B)
2 (B) 5 mm 0.2 sec 20 5 mm
(C) zero (D) smg [JEE’ 2004] (C) 5 mm 0.1 sec 20 1 mm
(D) 1 mm 0.1 sec 50 1 mm
11. A simple pendulum has time period T1. When [JEE’ 2006]
the point of suspension moves vertically up ac-
cording to the equation y = kt2 where k = 1 m/s2 15. Column I describes some situations in which
and ‘t’ is time then the time period of the pendu- a small objact moves. Column II describes some
2
characteristics of these motions. Match the situ-
 T1  ations in Column I with the characteristics in
lum is T2 then   is
 T2  Column II and indicate your answer by darken-
ing appropriate bubbles in the 4 × 4 matrix given
5 11 in the ORS.
(A) (B) Column I Column II
6 10
(A) The object moves (P) The object
6 5 on the x-axis under a executes a SHM
(C) (D)
5 4 conservative force
[JEE’ 2005(Scr)] in such a way that
its “speed” and “po
12. A small body attached to one end of a sition” satisfy v =
vertically hanging spring is performing SHM about
it’s mean position with angular frequency  and c1 c 2  x 2 , where
amplitude a. If at a height y* from the mean c1 and c2 are positive
position the body gets detached from the spring, constants.
calculate the value of y* so that the height H (B) The object moves (Q) The object does
attained by the mass is maximum. The body does on the x-axis in such a not change its
not interact with the spring during it’s subsequent way that its velocity and direction
motion after detachment. (aw2>g). its displacement from the
origin satisfyv = –kx,
where k is a positive
constant.
(C) The object is attached (R) The kinetic en
to one end of a massless ergy of the object
y0 spring of a given spring keeps on decreasing
constant. The other end
m
of the spring is attached
13. Function x = A sin2 t + B cos2 t + C sin t to the ceiling of an elevator.
cos t represents SHM Initially everything is at rest.
[JEE’ 2006] The elevator starts going
(A) for any value of A, B and C (except C = 0) upwards with a constant
acceleration a. The motion
(B) if A = – B ; C = 2B, amplitude = |B 2 |
of the object is observed
(C) if A = B; C = 0
from the elevator during the
(D) if A = B; C = 2B, amplitude = |B|
period it maintains this
acceleration.

(D) The object is projected (S) The object

from the earth’s surface can change its
vertically upwards with direction only once
K1 K2
a speed 2 GM e / R e , where M
P
Me is the mass of the earth
and Re is the radius of the k2A k2A
earth. Neglect forces from (A) k (B) k
2 2
objects other than the earth.
[JEE’ 2007] k 1A k 2A
(C) k  k (D) k  k
1 2 1 2
16. A block (B) is attached to two unstretched
springs S1 and S2 with spring constants k and 19. A uniform rod of length L and mass M is pivoted
4k, respectively (see figure I). The other ends at the centre. Its two ends are attached to two
are attached to identical supports M1 and M2 springs of equal spring constants k. The springs
not attached to the walls. The springs and are fixed to rigid supports as shown in the figure,
supports have negligible mass. There is no friction and the rod is free to oscillate in the horizontal
anywhere. The block B is displaced towards wall plane. The rod is gently pushed through a small
1 by a small distance x (figure II) and released. angle  in one direction and released. The
The block returns and moves a maximum distance frequency of oscillation is
y towards wall 2. Displacement x and y are
measured with respect to the equilibrium position
y
of the block B. The ratio in Figure
x
1 2k 1 k
(A) (B)
2 M 2 M
1 6k 1 24k
[JEE’2008] (C) (D)
2 M 2 M
(A) 4 (B) 2
20. A metal rod of length 'L' and mass 'm' is piv-
1 1 oted at one end. A thin disk of mass 'M' and
(C) (D)
2 4 radius 'R' (<L) is attached at its center to the
free end of the rod. Consider two ways the disc
17. The x–t graph of particle undergoing simple is attached : (case A) The disc is not free to
harmonic motion is shown below. The accelera- rotate about its center and (case B) the disc is
tion of the particle at t = 4 / 3 s is free to rotate about its center. The rod-disc sys-
tem performs SHM in vertical plane after being
released from the same displaced position. which
of the following statement(s) is (are) true?
3 2 – 2
(A)  cm / s 2 (B) cm / s 2 (A) Restoring torque in case A = Restoring torque
32 32
in case B
2 3 2 (B) Restoring torque in case A < Restoring torque
(C) cm / s 2 (D) –  cm / s 2 in case B
32 32
(C) Angular frequency for case A > Angular fre-
18. The mass M shown in the figure oscillates in quency for case B
simple harmonic motion with amplitude A. The (D) Angular frequency for case A < Angular fre-
amplitude of the point P is quency for case B
Paragraph for Question Nos. 21 to 23 22. The phase space diagram for simple harmonic
Phase space diagrams are useful tools in analyzing motion is a circle centered at the origin. In the
all kinds of dynamical problems. They are figure, the two circles represent the same
especially useful in studying the changes in motion oscillator but for different initial conditions, and
as initial position and momentum are changed. E1 and E2 are the total mechanical energies
Here we consider some simple dynamical systems respectively. Then
in one-dimension. For such systems, phase space
Momentum
is a plane in which position is plotted along
horizontal axis and momentum is plotted along
vertical axis. The phase space diagram is x(t) vs. E1
E2
p(t) curve in this plane. The arrow on the curve
2a
idicates the time flow. For example, the phase
space diagram for a particle moving with constant a position
velocity is a straight line as shown in the figure.

We use the sign convention in which position of
momentum upwards (or to right) is positive and
downwards (or to left) is negative.
(A) E1 = 2 E2 (B) E1 =2E2
(C) E1 = 4E2 (D) E1 = 15E2
23. Consider the spring-mass system, with the

Momentum
mass submerged in water, as shown in the figure.

The phase space diagram for one cycle of this
system is
Position
21. The phase space diagram for a ball thrown
vertically up from ground is
Momentum Momentum
Momentum
Momentum
(A) (B)
Position Position
(A) Position
(B)
Position
Momentum
Momentum Momentum Momentum
(C) (D) (C) (D) Position

Position Position
Position

Exercise-I
LINEAR S.H.M
1. A 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. A 7. C
8. C 9. D 10. A 11. D 12. B 13. B 14. B
15. A 16. D 17. D 18. C 19. D 20. C 21. B
22. B 23. C 24. D 25. C 26. C 27. C 28. C
29. B 30. C 31. A 32. D 33. D 34. C 35. D
36. B 37. B 38. A 39. B 40. B 41. A 42. C
43. A 44. C 45. A 46. A 47. C 48. B 49. C
50. C 51. B
ANGULAR S.H.M
52. C 53. B 54. C 55. A 56. A 57. A

58. C 59. B 60. C 61. A 62. A
63. D
Exercise-II
1. B,C,D 2. A 3. B 4. B,C 5. A 6. A,B,C

7. C 8. B 9. A,B,C,D 10. B,C,D 11. A,B
12. A,B,C 13. B,D 14. A 15. C,D 16. B,C,D 17. A,B,C 18. A,C
19. B,D 20. B 21. B,D 22. A,C 23. B,C 24. B,C
25. B
Exercise-III
LINEAR S.H.M
1. Amplitude = 5 m
Initial Phase = /6
Maximum speed = 5m/sec
2. (a) 2.0 cm, /50 sec, 100 N/m
(b) 1 cm, 3 m / sec , 100 m/sec–1
   1 
3. (a) sec. , (b) sec. (c) sec. 4. 5. (a) sec , (b) 4 cm, (c) 2.40 kg m/sec
120 30 30 3 10
1  11  11
6. 2m/sec 7. 8. 100 Nm–2 9. (a) m (b) sec (c) x = 0.2 – cos t
2  5 5 5
3 5 –1  1 
10. (i) x0 = 2m (ii) T = 2 sec (iii) 2 3 11. A , tan   12. 25 2 N
8 2
5 F(K 2  K 3 ) 1 K 1K 2  K 2K 3  K 3K 1 
13. Hz , 5 cm 14. K K  K K  K K , 2 15.
2 1 2 2 3 3 1 M (K 2  K 3 ) 7

3
16. X = 10 sin (t + /6 ) 17. 1.8 a 18. (a) 25 cm, (b) seconds
56
1 2 1 2
19. 10 6 cm , sin –1 – sec 20. 2 – 4 cos 2t 21. (a) 2 sec. (b) T = sec.
 3 6 5 1/ 4
10 5 37 a
22. 0.06 m 23. Hz , cm 24. 2 cm 25. 2
 6 m
ANGULAR S.H.M
  
26 1m 27. 1m 28. (i) 2T0 , (ii) 3 g up wards 29. (a) 2 a  g , (b) 2 g – a , (c) 2
0 0 g
g 17L 3
30. 31. 2 18 g 32. sec
10 2
Exercise-IV
1. y = 0.1 sin (4t +/4) 2. 65 m / s 3. 3cm, x = 10 – 3 sin 5t; E = 0.135 J
2mg  M  m  ab 1 2mg 1
4. (a) K = ; (c)   , 5. f= ; E = 42 × 10–5 J; v =2 × 10–2 m/s
b–a m  b – a 2 (b – a)(M  m) 
1 (P0  mg / A )A 2R2
6. f 7. (2a/b)(m/k)1/2 8. 0.8t + 0.12 sin 10t 9.
2 mh Gp
Exercise-V
1 YA
1. A 2. D 3. A, C 4. A 5. 6. A
2 ML
1 m1 m 2 m1  m1 
7. = 2 2B(m1  m 2 ) 8. A 9. (a) x2 = v0t + A (1 – cos t), (b) l0 =  m  1 A
f m2  2 
mg g
10. B 11. C 12. y* =
 2 <a 13. A,B,D 14. D
k 
15. (A) P; (B) Q, R ; (C) P ; (D) Q, R or (A) P ; (B) Q, R ; (C) P ; (D) R
16. C 17. D 18. D 19. C 20. A,D 21. D 22. C 23. B

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
WAVES
CONTENTS
1. Waves ........................................................................................ 3 – 8
2. Particle Velocity and Acceleration................................................. 8
3. Different forms of Wave function ............................................... 8 – 9
4. Linear Wave equation .............................................................. 10 – 13
5. Speed of wave on a string ....................................................... 13 – 15
6. Energy calculation in waves .................................................... 15 – 18
7. Superposition ........................................................................... 19 – 24
8. Reflection and transmission .................................................... 24 – 27
9. Standing waves ........................................................................ 27 – 32
10. Stationary waves in string ...................................................... 32 – 34
11. Exercise - I ............................................................................. 35 – 43
12. Exercise - II ............................................................................ 44 – 49
13. Exercise - III ............................................................................50 - 58
14. Exercise - IV............................................................................... 59
15. Exercise - V............................................................................ 60 – 66
16. Answer key............................................................................. 67 – 68

Page # 2 WAVES
Syllabus ::
Wave motion (plane waves only), longitudinal and transverse waves, Superposition
of waves; progressive and stationary waves.

WAVES Page # 3
1. WAVES :
Waves is distributed energy or distributed "disturbance (force)"
• Following points regarding waves :

1. The disturbance (force) is transmitted from one point to another.
2. The energy is transmitted from one point to another.
3. The energy or distrubance passes in the form of wave without any net displacement of
medium.
4. The oscillatory motion of preceding particle is imparted to the adjacent particle following it.
5. We need to keep creating disturbance in order to propagate wave (energy or disturbance)
continuously.
(a) Waves classification

The waves are classified under two high level headings :
1. Mechanical waves : The motion of the particle constituting the medium follows mechanical
laws i.e. Newton's laws of motion. Mechanical waves originate from a distrubance in the
medium (such as a stone dropping in a pond) and the disturbance propagates through the
medium. The force between the atoms in the medium are responsible for the propagation of
mechanical waves. Each atom exerts a force on the atoms near it, and through this force the
motion of the atom is transmitted to the others. The atoms in the medium do not experience
any net displacement.
Mechanical waves is further classified in two categories such that
1. Transverse waves (waves on a string)
2. Longitudnal waves (sound waves)
2. Non Mechanical waves : These are electro magnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves do
not require a medium for propagation. Its speed in vacuum is a universal constant. The
motion of the electromagnetic waves in a medium depends on the electromagnetic properties
of the medium.
2.1 Transverse waves

If the disturbance travels in the x direction but the particles move in a direction, perpendicular
to the x axis as the wave passes it is called a transverse waves.
v
y T
T
2T sin
y x
V
T T
O x
figure - I

Page # 4 WAVES
Consider a sinusoidal harmonic wave travelling through a string and the motion of a particle
as shown in the figure Ist (only one unit of wave shown for illustration purpose). Since the
particle is displaced from its natural (mean) position, the tension in the string arising from
the deformation tends to restore the position of the particle. On the other hand, velocity of
the particle (kinetic energy) move the particle farther is zero. Therefore, the particle is pulled
down due to tension towards mean position. In the process, it acquires kinetic energy (greater
speed) and overshoots the mean position in the downward direction. The cycle of restoration
of position continues as vibration (oscillation) of particle takes place.
2.2 Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves are characterized by the direction of vibration (disturbance) and wave
motion. They are along the same direction. It is clear that vibration in the same direction
needs to be associated with a "restoring" mechanism in the longitudinal direction.
(b) Mathematical description of waves

We shall attempt here to evolve a mathematical model of a travelling transverse wave. For
this, we choose a specific set up of string and associated transverse wave travelling through
it. The string is tied to a fixed end, while disturbance is imparted at the free end by up and
down motion. For our purpose, we consider that pulse is small in dimension; the string is
light, elastic and homogeneous. The assumptions are required as we visualize a small travelling
pulse which remains undiminished when it moves through the strings. We also assume that
the string is long enough so that our observation is not subjected to pulse reflected at the
fixed end.
For understanding purpose, we first consider a single pulse as shown in the figure (irrespective
of whether we can realize such pulse in practice or not). Our objective here is to determine
the nature of a mathematical description which will enable us to determine displacement
(disturbance) of string as pulse passes through it. We visualize two snap shots of the travelling
pulse at two close time instants "t" and "t + t". The single pulse is moving towards right in
the positive x-direction.
Y 12 3
t=t
O x
t  t  t
O x
The vibration and wave motion are at right angle to each other.
Three position along x-axis named "1", "2" and "3" are marked with three vertical dotted
lines. At either of two instants as shown, the positions of string particles have different
displacements from the undisturbed position on horizontal x-axis. We can conclude from this
observation that displacement in y-direction is a function of positions of particle in x-direction.
As such, the displacement of a particle constituting the string is a function of "x".
Let us now observe the positions of a given particle, say "1". It has certain positive displacement
at time t = t, At the next snapshot at t = t + t, the displacement has reduced to zero. The
particle at "2" has maximum displacement at t = t, but the same has reduced at t = t + t.
The third particle at "3' has certain positive displacement at t = t, At t = t + t, it acquires
additional positive displacement and reaches the position of maximum displacement. From
these observation, we conclude that displacement of a particle at any position along the
string is a function of "t".

WAVES Page # 5
Combining two observations, we conclude that displacment of a particle is a function of both

position of the particle along the string and time.
y = f (x, t)
We can further specify the nature of the mathematical function by association the speed of
the wave in our consideration. Let "v" be the constant speed with which wave travels from
the left end to the right end. We notice that wave function at a given position of the string is
a function of time only as we are considering displacement at a particular value of "x". Let us
consider left hand end of the string as the origin of reference (x = 0 and t = 0). The displacement
in y-direction (disturbance) at x = 0 is a function of time, "t" only :
y = f(t) = A sin t
The disturbance travels to the right at constant speed "v'. Let it reaches a point specified as
x = x after time "t". If we visualize to describe the origin of this disturbance at x = 0, then
time elapsed for the distrubance to move from the origin (x = 0) to the point (x = x) is "x/v".
Therefore, if we want to use the function of displacement at x = 0 as given above, then we
need to subtract the time elapsed and set the equation is :
 x  x
y  f  t –   A sin   t – 
 v  v
This can also be expressed as
 vt – x   x – vt 
f  –f 
  v    v 
y(x, t) = g(x – vt)

using any fixed value of t (i.e. at any instant), this shows shape of the string.
If the wave is travelling in –x direction, the wave equation is written as
x
y (x, t) = f ( t  )
v
The quantity x – vt is called phase of the wave function. As phase of the pulse has fixed value
x – vt = const.
dx
Taking the derivative w.r.t. time v
dt
where v is the phase velocity although often called wave velocity. It is the velocity at which
a particular phase of the distrubance travels through space.
In order for the function to represent a wave travelling at speed v, the quantities x, v and t
must appear in the combination (x + vt) or (x – vt). Thus (x – vt)2 is acceptable but x2 – v2
t2 is not.
(c) Describing Waves :

Two kinds of graph may be drawn displacement - distance and displacement-time.
A displacement-distance graph for a transverse mechanical waves shows the displacement y
of the vibrating particles of the transmitting medium at different distance x from the source
at a certain instant i.e. it is like a photograph showing shape of the wave at that particular
instant.
The maximum displacement of each particle from its undisturbed position is the amplutude
of the wave.
In the figure 1, it OA or OB.

Page # 6 WAVES
One wavelength

A
Displacement
O
Distance x
Crest Trough Crest Trough

The wavelength  of a wave is generally taken as the distance between two successive crests
or two successive trough. To be more specific, it is the distance between two consecutive
points on the wave which have same phase.
A displacement-time graph may also be drawn for a wave motion, showing how the
displacement of one particle at a particular distance from the source varies with time. If this
is simple harmonic variation then the graph is a sine curve.
• Wave Length, Frequency, Speed

If the source of a wave makes f vibrations per second, so they will the particles of the
transmitting medium. That is, the frequency of the waves equals frequency of the source.
When the source makes one complete vibration, one wave is generated and the disturbance
spreads out a distance  from the source. If the source continues to vibrate with constant
frequency f, then f waves will be produced per second and the wave advances a distance f 
in one second. If v is the wave speed then
v=f
This relationship holds for all wave motions.
Frequency depends on source (not on medium), v depends on medium (not on source

frequency), but wavelength depend on both medium and source.
(d) Initial Phase :

At x = 0 and t = 0, the sine function evaluates to zero and as such y-displacement is zero.
However, a wave form can be such that y-displacement is not zero at x =0 and t = 0. In such
case, we need to account for the displacement by introducting an angle like :
y(x,t) = Asin (kx – t + )
where "" is initial phase. At x = 0 and t = 0.
y(0, 0) = A sin ()
The measurement of angle determines following two aspects of wave form at x = 0, t = 0 :
(i) whether the displacement is positive or negative and (ii) whether wave form has positive
or negative slope.
For a harmonic wave represented by sine function, there are two values of initial
phase angle for which displacement at reference origin (x = 0, t = 0) is positive and has
equal magnitude. We know that the sine values of angles in first and second quadrants are
positive. A pair of initial phase angles, say  = /3 and 2/3, correspond to equal positive
sine values are :
sin = sin ( – )
   2  1
= sin  –  = sin  =

sin
3 3 3 2
WAVES Page # 7
2
To choose the initial phase in between the two values /3 & . We can look at a wavee
3
motion in yet another way. A wave form at an instant is displaced by a distance x in very
small time interval t then then speed to the particle at t = 0 & x = 0 is in upward +ve
direction in further time t
v
(0,0)
Ex.1 Find out the expression of wave equation which is moving is +ve x direction and at x = 0,
A
t=0y=
2
Sol. Let y = A sin (t – kx + )
at t = 0 and x = 0
A 1
 A sin   sin =
2 2
 3
= ,
4 4
To choose the correct phase angle  we displaced to wave. Slightly in +ve x direction such
that
A
In above figure Paticle at a is move downward towards point b i.e. particle at x = 0 & y =
2
have negative velocity which gives
y
 A cos( – kx  ) at
t
t = 0, x = 0
is cos = – ve (from figure) ...(2)
from above discussion 3/4 gives sin + ve and cos negative i.e.
3

4

Page # 8 WAVES
Note : Equation of wave which is moving –ve x direction.

v
x
y  A sin  t  

at time t  v
y  A sin t
x
y = A sin ( t + kx + )
Ex.2 If ( t) & (kx) terms have same sign then the wave move toward –ve x direction and
vice versa and with diffierent initial phase.
y = A sin (t – kx) Wave move toward +ve x direction
y = A sin (–kx + t)
y = A sin (–kx –  t) Wave move toward –ve x direction.

= A sin (kx + t + )
y = A sin (kx + t)
2. PARTICLE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION :
Particle velocity at a given position x = x is obtained by differentiating wave function with

respect to time "t". We need to differentiate equation by treating "x" as constant. The partial
differentiation yields particle velocity as :
 
y( x, t) = A sin(kx – t) = –A cos (kx – t)
t t
vp =
We can use the property of cosine function to find the maximum velocity. We obtain maximum
speed when cosine function evaluates to "–1" :
 vpmax = A
The acceleration of the particle is obtained by differentiating expression of velocity partially
with respect to time :
 
 ap = vp = {– A cos(kx – t)} = –2 A sin (kx – t) = –2y
t t
Again the maximum value of the acceleration can be obtained using property of sine function
:
 apmax = 2A
3. DIFFERENT FORMS OF WAVE FUNCTION :

Different forms give rise to bit of confusion about the form of wave function. The forms used
for describing wave are :
y (x, t) = A sin (kx – t)
y(x, t) = A sin (t – kx + )
Which of the two forms is correct ? In fact, both are correct so long we are in a position to
accurately interpret the equation. Starting with the first equation and using trigonometric
identity :
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WAVES Page # 9
We have,
 A sin (kx – t) = A sin ( – kx + t) = A sin (t – kx + )
 
Thus we see that two forms represent waves along at the same speed  v   . They differ,,
k
however, in phase. There is phase difference of "". This has implication on the waveform
and the manner particle oscillates at any given time instant and position. Let us consider two
waveforms at x = 0, t = 0. The slopes of the waveforms are :

y( x, t)  kA cos(kx – t) = kA = a positive number
x

and y( x, t)  –kA cos(t – kx) = –kA = a negative number
x
Forms of wave functions

y
v
y  A sin[kx – t]
x
O
vp
y  A sin[ t – kx]
vp
x
O
Exchange of terms in the argument of sine function results in a phase difference of .
In the first case, the slope is positive and hence particle velocity is negative. It means
particle is moving from reference origin or mean position to negative extreme position. In
the second case, the slope is negative and hence particle velocity is positive. It means
particle is moving from positive extreme position to reference origin or mean position. Thus
two forms represent waves which differ in direction in which particle is moving at a given
position.
Once we select the appropriate wave form, we can write wave equation in other forms as
given here :
 t  2
y(x, t) = A sin (kx – t) = A sin k  x –  = A sin ( x – vt)
 k  
Further, substituting for "k" and "" in wave equation, we have :
 2 2  x t
y (x, t) = A sin  x– t  A sin 2  – 
 T    T
If we want to represent waveform moving in negative "x" direction, then we need to replace
"t" by "–t".

Page # 10 WAVES
4. THE LINEAR WAVE EQUATION :

By using wave function y = A sin (t – kx + ), we can describe the motion of any point on
the string. Any point on the string moves only vertically, and so its x coordinate remains
constant. The transverse velocity vy of the point and its transverse acceleration ay are therefore.
 dy  y
vy    
 dt  x cons tan t t = A cos (t – kx + ) ...(1)
 dv y  v y 2y
ay    
 dt  x cons tan t t =  t 2 = – A sin (t – kx + )..(2)
2
and hence
vy. max
= A
ay.max = 2A
The transverse velocity and transverse acceleration of any point on the string do not reach
their maximum value simultaneously. Infact, the transverse velocity reaches its maximum
value (A) when the displacement y = 0, whereas the transverse acceleration reaches its
maximum magnitudes (2A) when y = ± A
further
 dy  y
 dx   = – kA cos (wt – kx + ) ...(3)
  t  cons tan t x
2 y
= – k2A sin (t – kx + )
x 2
= ...(4)
y  y
From (1) and (3)
t
–
k x y
 vp = – vw × slope A
B
i.e. if the slope at any point is negative, particle
velocity and vice-versa, for a wave moving along positive x
x1 x2
x axis i.e. vw is positive.
For example, consider two points A and B on the y-curve
for a wave, as shown. The wave is moving along positive
x-axis.
Slope at A is positive therefore at the given moment, its velocity is negative. That means it
is coming downward. Reverse is the situation for particle at point B.
Now using equation (2) and (4)
2 y k 2 2 y 2 y 1 2 y
 
x 2  2 t 2

x 2 v 2 t 2
This is known as the linear wave equation or diffential equation representation of the travelling
wave model. We have developed the linear wave equation from a sinusoidal mechanical
wave travelling through a medium. But it is much more general. The linear wave equation
successfully describes waves on strings, sound waves and also electromagnetic waves.
Thus, the above equation can be written as,
2 y 2 y
2
 v2
x 2
...(i)
t
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WAVES Page # 11
The general solution of this equation is of the form

y(x, t) = f (ax ± bt) ...(ii)
Thus, any function of x and t which satisfies Eq. (i) or which can be written as Eq. (ii)
represents a wave. The only condition is that it should be finite everywhere and at all times.
Further, if these conditions are satisfied, then speed of wave (v) is given by,
coefficient of t b
v 
coefficient of x a
Thus plus (+) sign between ax and bt implies that the wave is travelling along negative x-
direction and minus (–) sign shows that it is travelling along positive x-direction.
Ex.3 Verify that wave function

2
y
( x – 3t ) 2  1
is a solution to the linear wave equation x and y are in cm.
Sol. By taking partial derivatives of this function w.r.t x and to t.
2 y 12( x – 3 t) 2 – 4

x2 [( x – 3 t) 2  1] 3
, and
2 y 108( x – 3 t ) 2 – 36

 t2 [( x – 3 t) 2  1] 3
2y 1 2x
2

or
x 9  t2
Comparing with linear wave equation, we see that the wave function is a solution to the
linear wave equation if the speed at which the pulse moves is 3 cm/s. It is apparent from
wave function therefore it is a solution to the linear wave equation.
Ex 4. A wave pulse is travelling on a string at 2 m/s. displacement y of the particle at x =

0 at any time t is given by
2
y 2
t 1
Find
(i) Expression of the function y = (x, t) i.e., displacement of a particle position x
and time t.
(ii) Shape of the pulse at t = 0 and t = 1s.
 x
(i) By replacing t by  t –  , we can get the desired wave function i.e.,,
v
Sol.
2
y 2
x
t –  1

 2 
(ii) We can use wave function at a particular instant, say t = 0, to find shape of the wave
pulse using different values of x.

Page # 12 WAVES
2
y 2
Y
x 2
at t=0 1
4
at x=0 y=2
x=2 y=1 1
x=–2 y=1
x=4 y = 0.4
x = –4 y = 0.4 –2 0 –2 –4
–4
Using these value, shape is drawn.
Similarly for t = 1s, shape can drawn. What do you conclude about direction of motion of the
wave from the graphs? Also check how much the pulse has move in 1s time interval. This is
equal to wave speed. Here is the procedure.
2
y 2
x
1 –  1
 at t = 1s
 2
at x=2 y = 2(maximum value)
at x=0 y=1
at x=4 y=1
Y
2
t=1
t=0
1
x
0
–2 2 4 6
The pulse has moved to the right by 2 units in 1 s interval.

x
Also as t – = constt.
2
Differentiating w.r.t time
1 dx dx
1– . 0  2
2 dt dt
Ex.5 A sinusoidal wave travelling in the positive x direction has an amplitude of 15 cm,
wavelength 40 cm and frequency 8 Hz. The vertical displacement of the medium at t
=0 and x = 0 is also 15 cm, as shown
y(cm)
40
15
x(cm)
(a) Find the angular wave number, period angular frquency and speed of the wave.
(b) Determine the phase constant , and write a general expression for the wave function.

WAVES Page # 13
2  2rad 
Sol. (a) k    40cm  20 rad / cm
1 1
T  s  = 2 f = 16 s–1
f 8
v = f  = 320 cm/s
(b) It is given that A = 15 cm
and also y = 15 cm at x = 0 and t = 0
then using y = A sin (t – kx + )
15 = 15 sin   sin  = 1
Therefore, the wave function is
   rad  
  (15 cm) sin(16 s – ) t –  . x  
y = A sin (t – kx +
2
)
  20 cm  2
5. SPEED OF A TRANSVERSE WAVE ON A STRING

Consider a pulse travelling along a string with a speed v to the right. If the amplitude of the
pulse is small compared to the length of the string, the tension T will be approximately
constant along the string. In the reference frame moving with speed v to the right, the pulse
in stationary and the string moves with a speed v to the left. Figure shows a small segment
of the string of length l. This segment forms part of a circular arc of radius R. Instantaneously
the segment is moving with speed v in a circular path, so it has centripetal acceleration v2/R.
The forces acting on the segment are the tension T at each end. The horizontal component of
these forces are equal and opposite and thus cancel. The vertical component of these forces
point radially inward towards the centre of the circular. arc. These radial forces provide
centripetal acceleration. Let the angle substended by the segment at centre be 2. The net
radial force acting on the segment is
v
v2
l ar  l
R v
 
R T T
R  
O
v O
(b)
(a)
Fig. (a) To obtain the speed v of a wave on a stretched string. It is convenient to describe the
motion of a small segment of the string in a moving frame of reference.
Fig. (b) In the moving frame of reference, the small segment of length l moves to the left
with speed v. The net force on the segment is in the radial direction because the
horizontal components of the tension force cancel.
F r  2T sin  2T
Where we have used the approximation sin    for small .
If  is the mass per unit length of the string, the mass of the segment of length l is
m =  l = 2R (as  l = 2R)
mv 2
From Newton's second law  Fr = ma =
R
 v2  T
or 2T = (2R)  R   v
  

Page # 14 WAVES
Ex.6 Find speed of the wave generated in the

string as in the situation shown. Assume that
the tension in not
affected by the mass of the cord. 500 gm/m
Sol. T = 20 × 10 = 200 N
200
v  20m / s 20 kg
0.5
Ex.7 A taut string having tension 100 N and linear mass density
0.25 kg/m is used inside a cart to generate a wave pulse
starting at the left end, as shown. What should be the
velocity of the cart so that pulse remains stationary w.r.t
ground.
T
Sol. Velocity of pulse =  20m / s

vPG = vPC  v CG
  
Now
0 = 20 i + v CG


VCG  –20î m/ s
Ex.8 One end of 12.0 m long rubber tube with a total mass of 0.9 kg is fastened to a fixed
support. A cord attached to the other and passes over a pulley and supports an
object with a mass of 5.0 kg. The tube is struck a transverse blow at one end. Find
the time required for the pulse to reach the other end (g = 9.8 m/s2)
Sol. Tension in the rubber tube AB, T = mg
T = (5.0) (9.8) = 49 N
or
Mass per unit length of rubber tube,
0.9
= = 0.075 kg/m
12
B
m
 Speed of wave on the tube,
A
T 49
v   25.56 m / s
 0.075
 The required time is,
AB 12
t   0.47 s
v 25.56
Ex.9 A uniform rope of mass 0.1 kg and length 2.45 m hangs from a ceiling
(a) Find the speed of transverse wave in the rope at a point 0.5 m distant from the
lower end.
(b) Calculate the time taken by a transverse wave to travel the full length of the
rope.
Sol. (a) As the string has mass and it is suspended vertically, tension in it will be different at
different points. For a point at a distance x from the free end, tension will be due to the
weight of the string below it. So, if m is the mass of string of length l, the mass of length x

WAVES Page # 15
 m
of the string will be,   x.
l
 m m 
 T    xg  xg   
 l  l 
T
  xg

T
v  xg

or ...(i)
 x
At x = 0.5 m, v  0.5  9.8 = 2.21 m/s
(b) From Eq. (i) we see that velocity of the wave is different at different points. So, if at point
x the wave travels a distance dx in time dt, then
dx dx
dt  
v gx
t l
dx
 dt   gx

0 0
l 2.45
t2 2
g 9.8
or = 1.0 s Ans.
6. ENERGY CALCULATION IN WAVES :

,
(a) Kinetic energy per unit length

The velocity of string element in transverse direction is greatest at mean position and zero at
the extreme positions of waveform. We can find expression of transverse velocity by differ-
entiating displacement with respect to time. Now, the y-displacement is given by :
y = A sin (kx – t)
Differentiating partially with respect to time, the expression of particle velocity is :
y
vp  = – A cos (kx – t)
t
In order to calculate kinetic energy, we consider a small string element of length "dx" having
mass per unit length "". The kinetic energy of the element is given by :
1 1
dK  dmv p2  dx 2 A 2 cos 2 (kx – t )
2 2
This is the kinetic energy associated with the element in motion. Since it involves squared of
cosine function, its value is greatest for a phase of zero (mean position) and zero for a phase

of (maximum displacement).
2
Now, we get kinetic energy per unit length, "KL", by dividing this expression with the length
of small string considered :
dK 1
KL    2 A 2 cos 2 (kx – t)
dx 2

Page # 16 WAVES
• Rate of transmission of kinetic energy

The rate, at which kinetic energy is transmitted, is obtained by dividing expression of kinetic
energy by small time element, "dt" :
dK 1 dx 2 2
   A cos 2 (kx – t)
dt 2 dt
dx
But, wave or phase speed, v, is time rate of position i.e. . Hence,
dt
dK 1
 v 2 A 2 cos 2 (kx – t)
dt 2
Here kinetic energy is a periodic function. We can obtain average rate of transmission of
kinetic energy by integrating the expression for integral wavelengths. Since only cos2(kx –
t) is the varying entity, we need to find average of this quantity only. Its integration over
1
intergal wavelengths give a value of " " . Hence, average rate of transmission of kinetic
2
energy is :
dK 1 1 1
|avg   v 2 A 2  v 2 A 2
dt 2 2 4
(b) Elastic potential energy

The elastic potential energy of the string element results as string element is stretched
during its oscillation. The extension or stretching is maximum at mean position. We can see
in the figure that the length of string element of equal x-length "dx" is greater at mean
position than at the extreme. As a matter of fact, the elongation depends on the slope of the
curve. Greater the slope, greater is the elongation. The string has the least length when
slope is zero. For illustration purpose, the curve is purposely drawn in such a manner that the
elongation of string element at mean position is highlighted.
y
V
t=t
x
O
t  t  t
vp
x
O
fig : The string element stretched most at equilibrium position
Greater extension of string element corresponds to greater elastic energy. As such, it is

greatest at mean position and zero at extreme position. This deduction in contrary to the
case of SHM in which potential energy is greatest at extreme position and zero at mean
position.

WAVES Page # 17
• Potential energy per unit length

When the string segment is stretched from the length dx
ds
to the length ds an amount of work = T (ds – dx) is dy
done. This is equal to the potential energy stored in the
stretched string segment. So the potential energy in this
case is :
U = T (ds – dx)
Now ds  (dx2  dy 2 )
x x + dx
  dy  2 
 dx 1    
  dx  
from the binomial expansion
2
1  dy 
  dx
2  dx 
so ds  dx +
2
1   y
U = T (ds – dx)  T   dx
2   x
or the potential energy density
2
dU 1   y 
 T  ...(i)
dx 2   x 
dy
= kAcos (kx – t)
dx
and T = v2 
Put above value in equation (i) then we get
dU 1
  2 A 2 cos 2 (kx – t)
dx 2
• Rate of transmission of elastic potential energy

The rate, at which elastic potential energy is transmitted, is obtained by dividing expression
of kinetic energy by small time element, "dt". This expression is same as that for kinetic
enegy.
dU 1
 v 2 A 2 cos 2 (kx – t)
dt 2
and average rate of transmission of elastic potential energy is :
dU 1 1 1
|avg   v 2 A 2  v 2 A 2
dt 2 2 4
(c) Mechanical energy per unit length

Since the expression elastic potential energy is same as that of kinetic energy, we get me-
chanical energy expression by multiplying expression of kinetic energy by "2". The mechani-
cal energy associated with small string element, "dx", is :
1 2
dE = 2xdK = 2x dmv p = dx2A2cos2 (kx – t)
2
Similarly, the mechanical energy per unit length is :
dE 1
EL   2x 2 A 2 cos 2 (kx – t ) = 2 A2 cos2 (kx – t)
dx 2

Page # 18 WAVES
(d) Average power transmitted

The average power transmitted by wave is equal to time rate of transmission of mechanical
energy over integral wavelengths. It is equal to :
dE 1 1
Pavg  |avg  2  v 2 A 2  v 2 A 2
dt 4 2
If mass of the string is given in terms of mass per unit volume, "", then we make appropri-
ate change in the derivation. We exchange "" by "s" where "s" is the cross section of the
string :
1
Pavg  sv 2 A 2
2
(e) Energy density
Since there is no loss of energy involved, it is expected that energy per unit length is uniform
throughout the string. As much energy enters that much energy goes out for a given length
of string. This average value along unit length of the string length is equal to the average
rate at which energy is being transferred.
The average mechanical energy per unit length is equal to integration of expression
over integral wavelength
1 1 2 2
EL|avg = 2xv2 A2 = v A
4 2
We have derived this expression for harmonic wave along a string. The concept, however,
can be extended to two or three dimensional transverse waves. In the case of three dimen-
sional transverse waves, we consider small volumetric element. We, then, use density, , in
place of mass per unit length, . The corresponding average energy per unit volume is
referred as energy density (u) :
1
u vw 2 A 2
2
(f) Intensity
Intensity of wave (I) is defined as power transmitted per unit cross section area of the
medium :
A2 1
I   sv  2   vw 2 A 2
2s 2
Intensity of wave (I) is a very useful concept for three dimensional waves radiating in all
direction from the source. This quantity is usually referred in the context of light waves,
which is transverse harmonic wave in three dimensions. Intensity is defined as the power
transmitted per unit cross sectional area. Since light spreads uniformly all around, intensity
is equal to power transmitted, divided by spherical surface drawn at that point with source at
its center.
Phase difference between two particles in the same wave :

The general expression for a sinusoidal wave travelling in the positive x direction is
y(x, t) = A sin (t – kx)
n
Eq of Particle at x1 is given by y1 = A sin (t – kx1)
Eqn of particle which is at x2 from the origin
y2 = Asin (t – kx2)
Phase difference between particles is k(x2 – x1) = 

Kx =  x 
k

WAVES Page # 19
7. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION :
This principle defines the displacement of a medium particle when it is oscillating under the
influence of two or more than two waves. The principle of superposition is stated as :
"When two or more waves superpose on a medium particle than the resultant
displacement of that medium particle is given by the vector sum of the individual displacements
produced by the component waves at that medium particle independently."
  
Let y 1, y 2 ,....... y N are the displacements produced by N independent waves at a
medium particle in absence of others then the displacemnt of that medium, when all the
waves are superposed at that point, is given as
    
y  y 1  y 2  y 3  .......  y N
If all the waves are producing oscillations at that point are collinear then the displacement of
the medium particle where superposition is taking place can be simply given by the algebric
sum of the individual displacement. Thus we have
y = y1 + y2 + ..............+yN
The above equation is valid only if all individual displacements y1, y2 ........... yN are along
same straight line.
A simple example of superposition can be understood by figure shown. Suppose two wave
pulses are travelling simultaneously in opposite directions as shown. When they overlap
each other the displacement of particle on string is the algebric sum of the two displacement
as the displacements of the two pulses are in same direction. Figure shown (b) also shows
the similar situation when the wave pulses are in opposite side.
y
v
y
v
y2
v y2
y1 y2
y1 y1 x
x
v
y
y v
v
y2
v y2
y1 y2
y1 y1 x
x
v
y1 + y2
v v
v
(a) Applications of Principle of Superposition of Waves
There are several different phenomenon which takes place during superposition of two or
more wave depending on the wave characteristics which are being superposed. We'll discuss
some standard phenomenons, and these are :
(1) Interference of Wave
(2) Stationary Waves
(3) Beats
(4) Lissajou's Figures (Not discussed here in detail.)
Lets discuss these in detail.

Page # 20 WAVES
(b) Interference of Waves

Suppose two sinusoidal waves of same wavelength and amplitude travel in same direction
along the same straight line (may be on a stretched string) then superposition principle can
be used to define the resultant displacement of every medium particle. The resultant wave in
the medium depends on the extent to which the waves are in phase with respect to each
other, that is, how much one wave form is shifted from the other waveform. If the two waves
are exactly in same phase, that is the shape of one wave exactly fits on to the other wave
then they combine to double the displacement of every medium particle as shown in figure
(a). This phenomenon we call as constructive interference. If the superposing waves are
exactly out of phase or in opposite phase then they combine to cancel all the displacements
at every medium particle and medium remains in the form of a straight line as shown in
figure (b)
y y
A A
Wave I
x x
–A –A
y y
A +A
Wave II
x x
–A
y
y
2A
Resultant
Wave x
x
–2A (a)
(b)
This phenomenon we call destructive interference. Thus we can state that when waves meet,
they interfere constructively if they meet in same phase and destructively if they meet in
opposite phase. In either case the wave patterns do not shift relative to each other as they
propagates. Such superposing waves which have same form and wavelength and have a
fixed phase relation to each other, are called coherent waves. Sources of coherent waves are
called coherent source. Two indepedent sources can never be coherent in nature due to
practical limitations of manufacturing process. Generally all coherent sources are made either
by spliting of the wave forms of a single source or the different sources are fed by a single
main energy source.

WAVES Page # 21
In simple words interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two coherent

waves travelling in same direction.
We've discussed that the resultant displacement of a medium particle when two
coherent waves interfere at that point, as sum or difference of the individual displacements
by the two waves if they are in same phase (phase difference = 0, 2, .....) or opposite phase
(phase difference = , 3,.....) respectively. But the two waves can also meet at a medium
particle with phase difference other then 0 or 2, say if phase difference  is such that 0 < 
< 2, then how is the displacement of the point of superposition given ? Now we discuss the
interference of waves in details analytically.
(c) Analytical Treatment of Interference of Waves

S1
x1
A1 sin(t  kx) y1  A1 sin(t  kx1 )
y 2  A 2 sin(t  kx2 )
x2
S2
A 2 sin(t  kx)
Interference implies super position of waves. Whenever two or more than two waves
superimpose each other they give sum of their individual diplacement.
Let the two waves coming from sources S1 & S2 be
y1 = A1 sin ( t + kx1 )
y2 = A2 sin (t + kx2) respectively.
Due to superposition
ynet = y1 + y2
ynet = A1 sin ( t + kx1) + A2 sin (t + kx2)
Phase difference between y1 & y2 = k(x2 – x1)
i.e.,  = k(x2 – x1)
2
As  = x (where x = path difference &  = phase difference)

Anet = A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos 
2
 A net  A 12  A 22  2 A 1A 2 cos 
 Inet = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos  (as I  A2)

When the two displacements are in phase, then the resultant amplitude will be sum of the
two amplitude & Inet will be maximum, this is known of constructive interference.
For Inet to be maximum
cos = 1   = 2n where n = {0,1,2,3,4,5...........}
2
x  2n  x = n

For constructive interference
Inet = ( I1  I2 )2
When I1 = I2 = I
Inet = 4 I
Anet = A1 + A2

Page # 22 WAVES
When superposing waves are in opposite phase, the resultant amplitude is the difference of
two amplitudes & Inet is minimum; this is known as destructive interference.
For Inet to be minimum,
cos  = – 1
 = (2n + 1)  where n = {0,1,2,3,4,5...........}
2 λ
x = (2n + 1)  x = (2n  1)
 2
For destructive interfence
Inet = ( I1 – I2 ) 2
If I1 = I2
Inet = 0
Anet = A1 – A2
( I1  I2 ) 2
( I1 – I2 ) 2
Ratio of Imax & Imin =
Generally,
Inet = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos 
If I1 = I2 = I
Inet = 2I + 2Icos

Inet = 2I(1 + cos ) = 4Icos2
2
Ex.10 Wave from two source, each of same frequency and travelling in same direction,
but with intensity in the ratio 4 : 1 interfere. Find ratio of maximum to minimum
intensity.
2
 I1 
  1
2
 I2 2
 2  1
Imax  I1  I2  

 I1 – 1
   
 2 – 1
Sol. = = =9:1
Imin  I1 – I2 
   I 
 2 
Ex.11 A triangular pulse moving at 2 cm/s on a rope approaches an end at which it is free
to slide on a vertical pole.
2 cm/s
1 cm
2 cm 1cm 1cm
1
(a) Draw the pulse at s interval until it is completely reflected.
2
(b) What is the particle speed on the trailing edge at the instant depicted ?

WAVES Page # 23
Sol. (a) Reflection of a pulse from a free boundary is really the superposition of two identical
waves travelling in opposite direction. This can be shown as under.
1cm 1cm 1cm

+ =
2cm 1cm 1cm 2cm 2cm 1cm
At t = ½ S
(a) (b) (c)
2cm
1cm 1cm 1cm
+ =
2cm 1cm 1cm 2cm 2cm 1cm
At t = 1 s
(d) (e) (f)
0.5cm 1cm
0.5cm 1cm 1cm

+ =
1cm 1cm 1cm 1cm 1cm 1cm 2cm
At t = ½ s
(g) (h) (i)
1cm 1cm
1cm
2cm 1cm
+ =
1cm 2cm 1cm 2cm
At t = 2s
(j) (k) (i)
1
In every s , each pulse (one real moving towards right and one imaginary moving towards
2
left travels a distance of 1 cm, as the wave speed is 2 cm/s.)
(b) Particle speed, vp = |– v (slope)|
1
Here, v = wave speed = 2 cm/s and slope =
2
 Particle speed = 1 cm/s Ans.

Page # 24 WAVES
Ex.12 Figure shows a rectanglar pulse and triangular pulse approaching each other. The
pulse speed is 0.5 cm/s. Sketch the resultant pulse at t = 2 s
2cm
–2 –1 0 1 2 3
x(cm)
Sol. In 2 s each pulse will travel a distance of 1 cm.

The two pulses overlap between 0 and 1 cm as shown in figure. So, A1 and A2 can be added
as shown in figure (c).
(a) A1 2cm
–1 0 1
+ (c) 2cm
A1
(b)
2cm 2cm
A2 A2
0 1 2 –1 0 1 2
Resultant pluse
at t = 2s
8. REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION IN WAVES :
1. When a pulse travelling along a string reaches the end, it is reflected. If the end is fixed as
shown in figure (a), the pulse returns inverted. This is bacause as the leading edge reaches
the wall, the string pulls up the wall. According to Newton's third law, the wall will exert an
equal and opposite force on the string as all instants. This force is therefore, directed first
down and then up. It produces a pulse that is inverted but otherwise identical to the original.
The motion of free end can be studied by letting a ring at the end of string sliding smoothly
on the rod. The ring and rod maintain the tension but exert no transverse force.

WAVES Page # 25
(a) (b)
Reflection of wave pulse (a) at a fixed end

of a string and (b) at a free end. Time
increases from top to bottom in each
figure.
When a wave arrives at this free end, the ring slides the rod. The ring reaches a maximum
displacement. At this position the ring and string come momentarily to rest as in the fourth
drawing from the top in figure (b). But the string is stretched in this position, giving in-
creased tension, so the free end of the string is pulled back down, and again a reflected pulse
is produced, but now the direction of the displacement is the same as for the initial pulse.
2. The formation of the reflected pulse is similar to the overlap of two pulses travelling in
opposite directions. The net displacement at any point is given by the principle of superpo-
sition.

Page # 26 WAVES
(a) (b)
Fig (a) : shows two pulses with the same shape, one inverted with respect to the other,
travelling in opposite directions. Because these two pulses have the same shape the net
displacement of the point where the string is attached to the wall is zero at all times.
Fig (b) : shows two pulses with the same shape, travelling in oppoiste directions but not
inverted relative to each other. Note that at one instant, the displacement of the free end is
double the pulse height.
9. REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION BETWEEN TWO STRING :
Here we are dealing with the case where the end point is neither completely fixed nor
completely free to move As we consider an example where a light string is attached to a
heavy string as shown is figure a.
If a wave pulse is produced on a light string moving towards the friction a part of the wave is
reflected and a part is transmitted on the heavier string the reflected wave is inverted with
respect to the original one.
T
v1  v2
1
T y  At sin(t – k 2 x)
v2 
2 At
(v 2 ,  2 ) v1> v2
( v1, 1 ) Ar
v1 y  Ar sin(t  k 1x  )
y  A i sin(t – k 1x)
figure (a)
On the other hand if the wave is produced on the heavier string which moves toward the
junction a part will the reflected and a part transmitted, no inversion in waves shape will take
place.
The wave velocity is smaller for the heavier string lighter string
v1
y  Ai sin( t – k 1x)
v2
P
1 2
WAVES Page # 27
v2
v1
Ar At
P
y  Ar sin(t  k1x) y  At sin(t – k 2 x)

figure : (b)
Now to find the relation between Ai, Ar, At we consider the figure (b)
Incident Power = Reflected Power + Transmitted Power
Pi = Pr + Pt
2 2 2
2 2 f 2 A i 1v 1  2 2 f 2 A r 1v 1  2 2 f 2 A t  2 v 2 ...(i)
T T
v 12 v2 2
Put 1 = and 2 =
in equation (i) their

2 2 2
Ai A A
 r  t
v1 v1 v2
2 2 v1 2
Ai  Ar  At
v2 .......(ii)
Maximum displacement of joint particle P (as shown in figure) due to left string
= Ai + A r
Maximum displacement of joint particle due to right string = At
At the boundary (at point P) the wave must be continuous, that is there are no kinks in it.
Then we must have Ai + Ar = At ...(iii)
from equation (ii) & (iii)
v1
Ai – Ar = v A t ...(iv)
2
from eq. (iii) & (iv)
 2v 2 
At =  v  v  A i
 1 2
 v 2 – v1 
Ar =  v  v  A i
 1 2
10. STANDING WAVES :

In previous section we've discussed that when two coherent waves superpose on a medium
particle, phenomenon of interference takes place. Similarly when two coherent waves travelling
in opposite direction superpose then simultaneous interference if all the medium particles
takes place. These waves interfere to produce a pattern of all the medium particles what we
call, a stationary wave. If the two interfering waves which travel in opposite direction carry
equal energies then no net flow of energy takes place in the region of superposition. Within
this region redistribution of energy takes place between medium particles. There are some
medium particles where constructive interference takes place and hence energy increases
and on the other hand there are some medium particles where destructive interference takes
place and energy decreases. Now we'll discuss the stationary waves analytically.

Page # 28 WAVES
Let two waves of equal amplitude are travelling in opposite direction along x-axis.
The wave equation of the two waves can be given as
y1 = A sin (t – kx) [Wave travelling in +x direction] ...(1)
and y2 = A sin (t + kx) [Wave travelling in –x direction] ...(2)
When the two waves superpose on medium particles, the resultant displacement of the
medium particles can be given as
y = y1 + y2
or y = A sin (t – kx) + A sin (t + kx)
or y = A [sint cos kx – cos t sin kx + sin t cos kx + cos t sin kx]
or y = 2A cos kx sin  t ...(3)
Equation (3) can be rewritten as
y = R sin t ...(4)
Where R = 2 A cos kx ...(5)
Here equation (4) is an equation of SHM. It implies that after superposition of the two waves
the medium particles executes SHM with same frequency  and amplitude R which is given
by equation (5) Here we can see that the oscillation amplitude of medium particles depends
on x i.e. the position of medium particles. Thus on superposition of two coherent waves
travelling in opposite direction the resulting interference pattern, we call stationary waves,
the oscillation amplitude of the medium particle at different positions is different.
At some point of medium the resultant amplitude is maximum which are given as
R is maximum when cos kx = ± 1
2
or x  N [N  I]

N
or x=
2
 3
or x = 0, , , .....
2 2
and the maximum value of R is given as
Rmax= ± 2 A ...(6)
 3
Thus in the medium at position x = 0, , , , ........... the waves interfere constructively
2 2
and the amplitude of oscillations becomes 2A. Similarly at some points of the medium, the
waves interfere destructively, the oscillation amplitude become minimum i.e. zero in this
case. These are the points where R is minimum, when
cos kx = 0
2 x 
or  ( 2N  1)
 2

or x = (2N + 1) [N  I]
4
 3 5 
or x , , ...........
4 4 4
and the minimum value of R is given as
Rmin = 0 [7]
 3 5
Thus in the medium at position x = , , ......... the waves interfere destructively and
4 4 4
the amplitude of oscillation becomes zero. These points always remain at rest. Figure (a)
shows the oscillation amplitude of different medium particles in a stationary waves.

WAVES Page # 29
figure (a)
In figure (a) we can see that the medium particles at which constructive interference takes
place are called antinodes of stationary wave and the points of destructive interference are
called nodes of stationary waves which always remain at rest.
Figure (b) explain the movement of medium particles with time in the region where stationary
waves are formed. Let us assume that at an instant t = 0 all the medium particles are at their
extreme positions as shown in figure - (b - 1). Here points ABCD are the nodes of stationary
waves where medium particles remains at rest. All other starts moving towards their mean
positions and t = T / 4 all particles cross their mean position as shown in figure (b – 3), you
can see in the figure that the particles at nodes are not moving. Now the medium crosses
their mean position and starts moving on other side of mean position toward the other
extreme position. At time t = T/2, all the particles reach their other extreme position as
shown in figure (b - 5) and at time t = 3T/4 again all these particles cross their mean position
in opposite direction as shown in figure (b - 7).
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
(7) (8) (9)
figure (b)
Based on the above analysis of one complete oscillations of the medium particles, we can
make some interference for a stationary waves. These are :
(i) In oscillations of stationary wave in a region, some points are always at rest (nodes) and
some oscillates with maximum amplitudes (antinodes). All other medium particles oscillate
with amplitudes less then those of antinodes.
(ii) All medium particles between two successive nodes oscillate in same phase and all
medium particles on one side of a node oscillate in opposite phase with those on the other
side of the same node.
(iii) In the region of a stationary wave during one complete oscillation all the medium particles
come in the form of a straight line twice.
(iv) If the component wave amplitudes are equal, then in the region where stationary wave
is formed, no net flow of energy takes place, only redistribution of energy takes place in the
medium.

Page # 30 WAVES
(a) Different Equation for a Stationary Wave

Consider two equal amplitude waves travelling in opposite direction as
y1 = A sin (t – kx) ...(11)
and y2 = A sin (t + kx) ...(12)
The result of superposition of these two waves is
y = 2A cos kx sin t ...(13)
Which is the equation of stationary wave where 2A cos kx represents the amplitude of medium
particle situated at position x and sin t is the time sinusoidal factor. This equation (13) can
be written in several ways depending on initial phase differences in the component waves
given by equation (11)) can (12). If the superposing waves are having an initial phase
difference , then the component waves can be expressed as
y1 = A sin (t – kx) ...(14)
y2 = – A sin (t – kx) ...(15)
Superposition of the above two waves will result
y = 2A sin kx cos t ...(16)
Equation (16) is also an equation of stationary wave but here amplitude of different medium
particles in the region of interference is given by
R = 2A sin kx ...(17)
Similarly the possible equations of a stationary wave can be written as
y = A0 sin kx cos ( t + ) ....(18)
y = A0 cos kx sin (t + ) ...(19)
y = A0 sin kx sin (t + ) ...(20)
y = A0 cos kx cos (t + ) ...(21)
Here A0 is the amplitude of antinodes. In a pure stationary wave it is given as
A0 = 2A
Where A is the amplitude of component waves. If we care fully look at equation (18) to (21),
we can see that in equation (18) and (20), the particle amplitude is given by
R = A0 sin kx ...(22)
Here at x = 0, there is nodes as R = 0 and in equation (19) and (21) the particle amplitude
is given as
R = A0 cos kx ...(23)
Here at x = 0, there is an antinode as R = A0. Thus we can state that in a given system of co-
ordinates when origin of system is at a node we use either equation (18) or (20) for analytical
representation of a stationary wave and we use equation (19) or (21) for the same when an
antinode is located at the origin of system.
Ex.13 Find out the equation of the standing waves for the following standing wave pat-
tern.
x=L
x=0
2 x x x
(A) A sin x cos t (B) A sin cos  t (C) A cos cos t (D) A cos cos t
L L 2L L

WAVES Page # 31
Sol. General Equation of standing wave

y = A cos t
where
A = A sin (kx + )
here  = L
2
 k=
L
 2
A = A sin (kx + ) = A sin  x  

 L 
at x = 0 node
 A = 0 at x = 0
 =0
2
eq. of standing wave = A sin x cos t y
L
2A
Ex.14 Figure shows the standing waves pattern
in a string at t = 0. Find out the equation of A
the standing wave where the amplitude of
antinode is 2A. x
Sol. Let we assume the equation of standing waves
is = A sin (t + ) –2A
where A = 2A sin (kx + )
 x = 0 is node  A = 0, at x = 0
2A sin  = 0   = 0
at t = 0 Particle at is at y = A and going towards mean position.
  5
 = + =
2 3 6
so eq. of standing waves is
5 
y = 2Asin kx sin  t 


 6 
Ex.15 A string 120 cm in length sustains standing wave with the points of the string at
which the displacement amplitude is equal to 3.5 mm being separated by 15.0 cm.
The maximum displacement amplitude is X. 95 mm then find out the value of X.
Sol. In this problem two cases are possible :
A x=0 B
B x=0
15cm
15cm
Case - I is that A and B have the same displacement amplitude and case - 2 is that C and
D have the same amplitude viz 3.5 mm. In case 1, if x = 0 is taken at antinode then
A = a cos kx
In case -2, if x = 0 is taken at node, then
A = a sin kx
But since nothing is given in the question.
Hence from both the cases, result should be same. This is possible only when
a cos kx = a sin kx
 A 3 .5
or kx = or a   4.95mm
4

cos kx cos  / 4

Page # 32 WAVES
(b) Energy of standing wave in one loop

When all the particles of one loop are at extreme position then total energy in the loop is in
the form of potential energy only when the particles reaches its mean position then total
potential energy converts into kinetic energy of the particles so we can say total energy of
the loop remains constant
Total kinetic energy at mean position is equal to total energy of the loop because potential
energy at mean position is zero.
Small kinetic energy of the particle
which is in element dx is x dx
/2
1
d (KE) = dmv 2
2
dm =  dx
Velocity of particle at mean position
= 2A sin kx 
1
then d (KE) = dx . 4A2 2 sin2kx  d (KE) = 2A22 . sin2kx dx
2
/2
2 2 2
 d(K.E)  2A    sin 0
kxdx
 /2  /2
2 2  sin 2kx  1 2 2
Total K.E = A   (1 – cos 2kx)dx  A    x –
2 2 A  
2k  0
=
  2
0
11. STATIONARY WAVES IN STRINGS :
(a) When both end of string is fixed :

A string of length L is stretched between two points. When the string is set into vibrations, a
transverse progressive wave begins to travel along the string. It is reflected at the other
fixed end. The incident and the reflected waves interfere to produce a stationary transverse
wave in which the ends are always nodes, if both ends of string are fixed.
Fundamental Mode
(a) In the simplest form, the string vibrates in one loop in which the ends are the nodes and
the centre is the antinode. This mode of vibration is known as the fundamental mode and
frequency of vibration is known as the fundamental frequency or first harmonic.

Since the distance between consecutive nodes is
2
1
 L  1 = 2L
2
If f1 is the fundamental frequency of vibration, then the velocity of transverse waves is given
as,
v
v   1f1 or f1  ...(i)
2L

WAVES Page # 33
First Overtone
(b) The same string under the same conditions
may also vibrate in two loops, such that the cen-
tre is also the node
2 2
 L  2 = L
2  
If f2 is frequency of vibrations 2 2
v v
f2  
 2 L
v
 f2  ...(ii)
L
The frequency f2 is known as second harmonic or first overtone.
Second Overtone
(c) The same string under the same conditions
may also vibrate in three segments.
3 3
 L
2
2
 3  L
3
If f3 is the frequency in this mode of vibration, then,
3v
f3  ...(iii)
2L
The frequency f3 is known as third harmonic or second overtone.
Thus a stretched string vibrates with frequencies, which are integral multiples of the funda-
mental frequencies. These frequencies are known as harmonics.
T
The velocity of transverse wave in stretched string is given as v  . Where T = tension in

the string.
 = linear density or mass per unit length of string. If the string fixed at two ends, vibrates
in its fundamental mode, then
1 T
f
2L
....(17)

n T
In general f = nth harmonic
2 
(n – 1)th overtone
In general, any integral multiple of the fundamental frequency is an allowed frequency.
These higher frequenceis are called overtones. Thus, v1 = 2v0 is the first overtone, v2 = 3v0
is the second overtone etc. An integral multiple of a frequency is called its harmonic. Thus,
for a string fixed at both the ends, all the overtones are harmonics of the fundamental
frequency and all the harmonics of the fundamental frequency are overtones.

Page # 34 WAVES
(b) When one end of the string is fixed and other is free :
free end acts as antinode
/4 1 T
f fundamental or Ist harmonic
4
1.

3 T
  3 / 4 f IIIrd harmonic or Ist overtone
4
2.

(2n  1) T
In general : f  ((2n + 1)th harmonic, nth overtone)
4 
S.No. Tra ve lling w a ve s Sta tiona ry w a ve s

1 These waves advance in a medium with a These waves remain stationary between two
definite velocity boundaries in the medium.
2 In these waves, all particles of the In these waves, all particles except nodes
medium oscillate with same frequency oscillate with same frequency but different
and amplitude. amplitudes. Amplitude is zero at nodes and
maximum at antinodes.
3 At any instant phase of vibration varies At any instant the phase of all particles
continuosly from one particle to the other between two successive nodes is the
i.e., phase difference between two same, but phase of particles on one side of
particles can have any value between a node is opposite to the phase of particles
0 and 2  on the other side of the node, i.e, phase
difference between any two particles can be
either 0 or 
4 In these wave, at no instant all the In these waves all particles of the medium
particles of the medium pass through pass through their mean position
their mean positions simultaneously. simultaneously twice in each time period.
5 These waves transmit energy in the These waves do not transmit energy in the
medium. medium.

WAVES Page # 35

1. A transverse wave is described by the equation
Y = Y0 sin 2 (ft – x/). The maximum particle z  exp[ ( x  2) 2 ], Where ‘x’ is in meters. At t=1s,
velocity is equal to four times the wave velocity if the same wave disturbance is given by:
(A)  =  Y0/4 (B)  =  Y0/2 z  exp[ (2  x) 2 ], Then the wave propagation
(C)  =  Y0 (D)  = 2 Y0 velocity is
2. Both the strings, show in figure, are made of (A) 4 m/s in + x direction
same material and have same cross section. The (B) 4 m/s in –x direction
pulleys are light. The wave speed of a transverse (C) 2 m/s in + x direction
wave in the string AB is v1 and in CD it is v2. The (C) 2 m/s in –x direction
v1/v2 is y
A 8. The equation of
a wave travelling 1
along the positive
0
x-axis, as shown in x
B C figure at t=0 is
–0.5
–0.1
given by
D
   
(A) sin kx – t   (B) sin kx – t – 
6 6
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) 1/ 2
   
3. A transverse wave of amplitude 0.50 m, (C) sin t – kx   (D) sin t – kx – 
wavelength 1 m and frequency 2 hertz is  6  6
propagating in a string in the negative x-direction. 9. Figure shown the shape of part of a long string
The expression form of the wave is in which transverse waves are produced by
(A) y(x,t) = 0.5 sin (2x – 4t) attaching one end of the string to tuning fork of
(B) y(x,t) = 0.5 cos (2x + 4t) frequency 250Hz. What is the velocity of the
(C) y(x,t) = 0.5 sin (x – 2t) waves? 5cm
(D) y(x,t) = 0.5 cos (2x – 2t) 0.3cm
O
4. Two stretched wires A and B of the same 0.1cm 0.5cm
lengths vibrate independently. If the radius, –5cm
density and tension of wire A are respectively
twice those of wire B, then the fundamental (A) 1.0 ms–1 (B) 1.5 ms–1 (C) 2.0 ms–1 (D) 2.5 ms–1
frequency of vibration of A relative to that of B is 10. A block of mass 1 kg is hanging
(A) 1:1 (B) 1:2 (C) 1:4 (D) 1:8 vertically from a string of length 1
5. A copper wire is held at the two ends by rigid m and Mass/length =0.001 kg/m.
supports. At 30°C the wire is just taut, with A small pulse is generated at its 1m
negligible tension, The speed of transverse waves lower end. The Pulse reaches the
in this wire at 10°C is : top end in approximately.
( =1.7 × 10–5/°C, Y = 1.3 × 1011 N/m2, d = 9 × (A) 0.2sec (B) 0.1sec (C) 0.02sec (D) 0.01sec
103 kg/m3). 11. A uniform rope having some mass hanges
(A) 80 m/s (B) 90 m/s (C) 100 m/s (D) 70 m/s vertically from a rigid support. A transverse wave
pulse is produced at the lower end. The speed
6. A wave pulse is generated in a string that lies (v) of the wave pulse varies with height (h) from
along x-axis. At the points A and B, as shown in the lower end as:
figure, if RA and RB are ratio of wave speed to the v v
particle speed respectively then :
y
B V (A) (B)
A h h
x
v v
(A) RA > RB (B) RB > RA (C) RA = RB
(D) Information is not sufficient to decide.
7. A wave is propagating along x-axis. The (C) (D)
displacement of particles of the medium in Z-
h h
direction at t=0 is giv en by:

Page # 36 WAVES
12. A wire of 10 2 kg m 1 passes over a frictionless

light pulley fixed on the top of a frictionless inclined 1cm
plane, which makes an angle of 30 0 with the 2cm
horizontal. Masses m and M are tied at two ends of (C) 1cm (D)
wire such that m rests on the plane and M hangs
freely vertically downwards. The entire system is O 1cm
in equilibrium and a transverse wave propagates
17. A string 1m long is drawn by a 300Hz vibrator
along the wire with a velocity of 100 ms 1 . attached to its end. The string vibrates in 3
m 1 m segments. The speed of transverse waves in the
(A) M=5 kg (B)  (C) m=20 kg (D) 4 string is equal to
M 4 M
(A) 100m/s (B) 200m/s (C) 300m/s (D) 400m/s
13. A pulse shown here is reflected from the rigid
wall A and then from free end B. The shape of 18. The frequency of a sonometer wire is f, but
the string after these 2 Reflection will be. when the weights producing the tensions are
completely immersed in water the frequency
becomes f/2 and on immersing the weights in a
certain liquid the frequency becomes f/3. The
B A specific gravity of the liquid is:
4 16 15 32
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 9 12 27
19. For a wave displacement amplitude is 10–8 m,
A A
(A) (B) density of air 1.3 kg m–3, velocity in air 340 ms–1
B B
and frequency is 2000 Hz. The intensity of wave
is -
(A) 5.3 × 10–4 Wm–2 (B) 5.3 × 10–6 Wm–2
(C) 3.5 × 10–8 Wm–2 (D) 3.5 × 10–6 Wm–2
A
(C) (D) A 20. A wave moving with constant speed on a
B B
uniform string passes the point x = 0 with
amplitude A0, angular frequency 0 and average
14. A composition String is made up by joining rate of energy transfer P0. As the wave travels
two strings of different masses per unit length down the string it gradually loses energy and at
  and 4. the composite string is under the same the point x = , the average rate of energy
tension. A transverse wave pulse: Y = (6mm) sin P
transfer becomes 0 . At the point x = , angular
(5t+40x), Where ‘t’ is in seconds and ‘x’ in meters, 2
is sent along the lighter string towards the joint. frequency and amplitude are respectively.
The joint is at x=0. The equation of the wave
pulse reflected from the joint is (A) 0 and A 0 / 2 (B) 0/ 2 and A0
(A) (2mm) sin (5t-40x) (C) less than 0 and A0 (D) 0/ 2 and A0 / 2
(B) (4 mm) sin (40x-5t)
(C) –(2 mm) sin (5t-40x) 21. Two waves of equal amplitude A, and equal
(D) (2 mm) sin (5t-10x) frequency travels in the same direction in a
medium. The amplitude of the resultant wave is
15. In the previous question, the percentage of
(A) 0 (B) A (C) 2A
power transmitted to the heavier string through
(D) between 0 and 2A
the joint is approximately
(A) 33% (B) 89% (C) 67% (D) 75% 22. When two waves of the same amplitude and
frequency but having a phase difference of ,
16. A Wave pulse on a string has the dimension
travelling with the same speed in the same
shown in figure. The waves speed is v=1 cm/s.
direction (positive x), interfere, then
If point O is a free end. The shape of wave at time
t=3 s is: v=1cm/s (A) their resultant amplitude will be twice that of
a single wave but the frequency will be same
1 cm (B) their resultant amplitude and frequency will
O both be twice that of a single wave
(C) their resultant amplitude will depend on the
1cm 1cm 2cm phase angle while the frequency will be the same
O (D) the frequency and amplitude of the resultant
1cm
wave will depend upon the phase angle.
23. A wave pulse, travelling on a two piece string,
(A) O (B)
gets partially reflected and partially transmitted
1cm

WAVES Page # 37
at the junction. The reflected wave is inverted in wave to form a statioary wave such that the
shape as compared to the incident one. If the point x=0 is a node. The equation of the other
incident wave has wavelength  and the wave is:
transmitted wave . (A) -A sin(kx+ ωt) (B) -A cos(kx+ ωt)
(A)  >  (B)  =  (C)  < 
(D) nothing can be said about the relation of  and . (C) A sin(kx+ ωt) (D) A cos(kx+ ωt)
th
24. The rate of transfer of energy in a wave 30. A taut string at both ends vibrates in its n
depends overtone. The distance between adjacent Node
(A) directly on the square of the wave amplitude and antinode is found to be ‘d’ If the length of
and square of the wave frequency the string is L, then
(B) directly on the square of the wave amplitude (A) L=2d(n+1) (B) L=d(n+1)
and square root of the wave frequency (C) L=2dn (D) L = 2d(n – 1)
(C) directly on the wave frequency and square
31. A metallic Wire of length L is fixed between
of the wave amplitude
two rigid supports. If the wire is cooled through a
(D) directly on the wave amplitude and square of
temperature difference T (Y = young’s modulus,
the wave frequency.
 = density,  = coefficient of linear expansion)
25. Two wave pulses travel in opposite directions then the frequency of transverse vibration is
on a string and approach each other. The shape proportional to:
Y
of the one pulse in inverted with respect to the   
other. (A) Y (B) (C) (D)
(A) the pulses will collide with each other and  Y Y
vanish after collision. 20
(B) the pulses will reflect from each other i.e., 32. A Standing Wave y  A sin(  x) cos (1000 t ) is
3
the pulse going towards right will finally move maintained in a taut string where y and x are
towards left and vice versa. expressed in meters. The distance between the
(C) the pulses will pass through each other but successive points oscillating with the amplitude A/
their shapes will be modified 2 across a node is equal to
(D) the pulses will pass through each other without (A) 2.5 cm (B) 25 cm (C) 5 cm (D) 10 cm
any change in their shape.
33. A string of length 1m and linear mass density
26. A harmonic wave is travelling on string 1. At
0.01 kgm 1 is stretched to a tension of 100N.when
a junction with string 2 it is partly reflected and
partly transmitted. The linear mass density of the both ends of the string are fixed, the three lowest
second string is four times that of the first string, frequencies for standing wave are f1, f 2 and f 3 .
and that the boundary between the two strings when only one end of the string is fixed, the
is at x =0. If the expression for the incident wave three lowest frequencies for standing wave are
is, yi = Ai cos (k1x – 1t)
n1, n2 and n3 . Then
Then findout the expression for the transmitted
wave. (A) n3 = 5n1 = f3 = 125 Hz
(B) f3 = 5f1 = n2 = 125 Hz
1 3
(A) A i cos( 2k 1x –  1t) (B) A i cos( 2k 1x –  1t) (C) f3 = n2 = 3f1 = 150 Hz
3 2 f f
2 (D) n 2  1 2  75 Hz
(C) A i cos(2k 1x –  1t) (D) None 2
3 34. A wave represented by the equation y = a
27. A wave is represented by the equation cos (kx – t) is superposed with another wave to
y = 1 0sin 2 (100t  0.02 X )  10sin 2 (100t  0.02 X ). form a stationary wave such that the point x = 0
The maximum amplitude and loop length are is a node. The equation for other wave is :
respectively (A) a sin (kx + t) (B) – a cos (kx +  t)
(A) 20 units and 30 units (C) – a cos (kx – t) (D) – a sin (kx – t)
(B) 20 units and 25 units 35. A stretched sonometer wire resonates at a
(C) 30 units and 20 units frequency of 350 Hz and at the next higher
(D) 25 units and 20 units frequency of 420 Hz. The fundamental frequency
28. The resultant amplitude due to superposition of this wire is :
of two waves (A) 350 Hz (B) 5 Hz (C) 70 Hz (D) 170 Hz
Y1  5sin ( wt  kx) and y2  5cos ( wt  kx  1500 ) 36. In a stationary wave represented by y = a sin
t cos kx, amplitude of the component progressive
(A) 5 (B) 5 3 (C) 5 2 – 3 (D) 5 2  3 wave is :
29. A wave represented by the equation a
(A) (B) a (C) 2a (D) None
y  A cos(kx   t ) is superimposed with another 2

Page # 38 WAVES

y b
1. A wave equation which gives the displacement
along the Y direction is given by a c h
Y = 10–4 sin (60t + 2x) o x
d
where x and y are in metres and t is time in e g
seconds. This represents a wave f
(A) travelling with a velocity of 30 m/s in the 7. The points moving upward is/are
negative x direction. (A) a (B) c (C) f (D) g
(B) of wavelength  metre 8. The points moving downwards is/are
(C) of frequency 30/ hertz (A) o (B) b (C) d (D) h
(D) of amplitude 10–4 metre travelling along the 9. The stationary points is/are
negative x direction. (A) o (B) b (C) f (D) h
2. The displacement of a particle in a medium 10. The points moving with maximum speed is/are
due to a wave travelling in the x-direction through (A) b (B) c (C) d (D) h
the medium is given by y = A sin ( t – x), where 11. A perfectly elastic uniform string is suspended
t = time, and  and  are constants : vertically with its upper end fixed to the ceiling
(A) the frequency of the wave is  and the lower end loaded with the weight. If a
(B) the frequency of the wave is /2 transverse wave is imparted to the lower end of
(C) the wavelength is 2/ the string, the pulse will
(D) the velocity of the wave is / (A) not travel along the length of the string
3. A sinusoidal progressive wave is generated in a (B) travel upwards with increasing speed
string. It’s equation is given by y = (2 mm) sin (2x (C) travel upwards with decreasing speed
– 100 t + /3). The time when particle at x = 4 m (D) travelled upwards with constant acceleration
first passes through mean position, will be 12. One end of a string of length L is tied to the
1 1 1 1 ceiling of a lift accelerating upwards with an
(A) sec (B) sec (C) sec (D) sec
150 12 300 100 acceleration 2g. The other end of the string is
free. The linear mass density of the string varies
4. A transverse wave is described by the equation linearly from 0 to  from bottom to top.
y = A sin [2(ft – x/)]. The maximum particle (A) The velocity of the wave in the string will be 0.
velocity is equal to four times the wave velocity (B) The acceleration of the wave on the string
if : will be 3g/4 every where.
(A)  = A/4 (B) =A/2 (C)  = A (D)  = 2A (C) The time taken by a pulse to reach from
5. A wave equation is given as y = cos(500t – bottom to top will be 8L / 3 g .
70x), where y is in mm, x in m and t is in sec. (D) The time taken by a pulse to reach from
(A) the wave must be a transverse propagating
wave. bottom to top will be 4L / 3 g .
(B) The speed of the wave is 50/7 m/s
 x
(C) The frequency of oscillations 1000 Hz 13. A plane wave y = A sin   t   undergo a
(D) Two closest points which are in same phase  v
have separation 20/7 cm. normal incidence on a plane boundary separating
6. At a certain moment, the medium M1 and M2 and splits into a reflected and
photograph of a string on y transmitted wave having speeds v1 and v2 then
which a harmonic wave is (A) for all values of v1 and v2 the phase of
Q
travelling to the right is transmitted wave is same as that of incident wave
shown. Then, which of the (B) for all values of v1 and v2 the phase of reflected
P R x
following is true regarding wave is same as that of incident wave
the velocities of the points (C) the phase of transmitted wave depends upon
P, Q and R on the string. v1 and v2
(A) vP is upwards (B) vQ = – vR (D) the phase of reflected wave depends upon v1
(C) |vP| > |vQ| = |vR| (D) vQ = vR and v2
Question No. 7 to 10 (4 questions) 14. Two waves of equal frequency f and velocity
The figure represents the instantaneous picture v travel in opposite directions along the same
of a transverse harmonic wave traveling along path. The waves have amplitudes A and 3A. Then :
the negative x-axis. Choose the correct (A) the amplitude of the resulting wave varies
alternative(s) related to the movement of the with position between maxima of amplitude 4A
nine points shown in the figure. and minima of zero amplitude
(B) the distance between a maxima and adjacent

WAVES Page # 39
minima of amplitude is V/2f the consecutive nodes. For the next higher
(C) at point on the path the average displacement resonant frequency, this separation is reduced to
is zero 1.6 cm. The length of the string is
(D) the position of a maxima or minima of amplitude (A) 4.0 cm (B) 8.0 cm (C) 12.0 cm (D) 16.0 cm
does not change with time 20. A clamped string is oscillating in nth harmonic,
15. The vibration of a string fixed at both ends then
are described by Y = 2 sin(x)sin (100t) where (A) total energy of oscillations will be n2 times
Y is in mm, x is in cm, t in sec then that of fundamental frequency
(A) Maximum displacement of the particle at x = (B) total energy of oscillations will be (n – 1)2
1/6 cm would be 1mm. times that of fundamental frequency
(B) velocity of the particle at x = 1/6 cm at time (C) average kinetic energy of the string over a
t = 1/600 sec will be 1573 mm/s complete oscillations is half of that of the total
(C) If the length of the string be 10 cm, number energy of the string.
of loop in it would be 5 (D) none of these.
(D) None of these 21. Figure, shows a stationary wave between
16. In a standing wave on a string. two fixed points P and Q.
(A) In one time period all the particles are Which point(s) of 1, 2 and 3 are in phase with
simultaneously at rest twice. the point x?
(B) All the particles must be at their positive P X 1 23 Q
extremes simultaneously once in one time period. (A) 1, 2 and 3 (B) 1 and 2 only
(C) All the particles may be at their positive (C) 2 and 3 only (D) 3 only
extremes simultaneously once in a time period.
(D) All the partic les are nev er at rest 22. The equation of a wave disturbance is given
simultaneously.  
as : y  0.02 cos  50 t cos(10 x) , where x and
17. A standing wave pattern of amplitude A in a 2
string of length L shows 2 nodes (plus those at y are in meters and t in seconds. Choose the
two ends). If one end of the string corresponds wrong statement
to the origin and v is the speed of progressive (A) Antinode occurs at x = 0.3 m
wave, the disturbance in the string, could be (B) The wavelength is 0.2 m
represented (with appropriate phase) as : (C) The speed of the constituent waves is 4m/s
(D) Node occurs at x = 0.15 m
 2x   2vt 
(A) y(x, t) = A sin  cos 
 L   L  23. In a stationary wave,
(A) all the particles of the medium vibrate in phase
 3 x   2vt 
(B) y(x, t) = A cos  sin  (B) all the antinodes vibrate in phase
 L   L  (C) the alternate antinodes vibrate in phase
 4x   4vt  (D) all the particles between consecutive nodes
(C) y(x, t) = A cos  cos  vibrate in phase
 L   L 
 3 x   3 vt 
(D) y(x, t) = A sin  cos 
 L   L 
18. The length, tension, diameter and density of

a wire B are double than the corresponding
quantities for another stretched wire A. Then.
1
(A) Fundamental frequency of B is times
2 2
that of A.
1
(B) The velocity of wave in B is times that of
2
velocity in A.
(C) The fundamental frequency of A is equal to
the third overtone of B.
(D) The velocity of wave in B is half that of
velocity in A.
19. A string is fixed at both ends vibrates in a
resonant mode with a separation 2.0 cm between

Page # 40 WAVES

1. Consider the wave y = (5 mm) sin (1 cm–1) x –
(60 s–1)t] Find (a) the amplitude (b) the wave
number, (c) the wavelength, (d) the frequency,
25cm
(e) the time period and (f) the wave velocity.
2. The wave function for a traveling wave on a 2.0m
taut string is (in SI unit) 2kg
y(x, t) = (0.350 m) sin (10 t – 3x + /4)
(a) What are the speed and direction of travel of
the wave ?
(b) What is the vertical displacement of the string 7. A uniform rope of length 12 m and mass 6 kg
at t = 0, x = 0.100 m ? hange vertically from a rigid support. A block of
(c) What are wavelength and frequency of the mass 2 kg is attached to the free end of the
wave ? rope. A transverse pulse of wavelength 0.06 m is
(d) What is the maximum magnitude of the produced at the lower end of the rope. What is
transverse speed of a particle of the string ? the wavelength of the pulse when it reaches the
top of the rope ?
3. The string shown in figure is driven at a
frequecy of 5.00 Hz. The amplitude of the motion 8. A particle on stretched string supporting a
is 12.0 cm, and the wave speed is 20.0 m/s. travelling wave, takes 5.0 ms to move from its
Furthermore, the wave is such that y = 0 at x = mean position to the extreme position. The
0 and t = 0. Determine (a) the angular frequency distance between two consecutive particles,
which are at their mean position, is 2.0 cm. Find
and (b) wave number for this wave. (c) Write an
the frequency, the wavelength and the wave
expression for the wave function. Calculate (d)
speed.
the maximum transverse speed and (e) the
maximum transverse acceleration of a point on 9. A 6.00 m segment of a long string has a mass
the string. of 180 g. A high-speed photograph shows the at
y segment contains four complete cycles of wave.
The string is vibrating sinusoidally with a frequency
x of 50.0 Hz and a peak=to-valley displacement of
15.0 cm. (The "peak-to-valley" displacement is
x=0
the vertical distance from the farthest positive
dis plac ement to the farthes t ne gative
4. Two strings A and B with  = 2 kg/m and  = 8
displacement. (a) Write the function that
kg/m respectively are joined in series and kept
describes this wave traveling in the positive x
on a horizontal table with both the ends fixed. direction. (b) Determine the power being supplied
The tension in the string is 200 N. If a pulse of to the string.
amplitude 1 cm travels in A towards the junction,
then find the amplitude of reflected and 10. A 200 Hz wave with amplitude 1 mm travels
transmitted pulse. on a long string of linear mass density 6 g/m kept
under a tension of 60 N. (a) Find the average
5. A parabolic pulse given by equation y (in cm) power transmitted across a given point on the
= 0.3 – 0.1 (x – 5t)2 ( y  0) x in meter and t in string. (b) Find the total energy associated with
second travelling in a uniform string. The pulse the wave in a 2.0m long portion of the string.
passes through a boundary beyond which its
velocity becomes 2.5 m/s. What will be the 11. The equation of a plane wave travelling along
amplitude of pulse in this medium after 2
positive direction of x-axis is y = a sin (vt – x)
transmission ? 
When this wave is reflected at a rigid surface
6. In the arrangement shown in figure, the string and its amplitude becomes 80%, then find the
has mass of 4.5 g. How much time will it take for equation of the reflected wave
a transverse disturbance produced at the floor
to reach the pulley ? Take g = 10 m/s2 12. A travelling wave of amplitude 5 A is partially
reflected from a boundary with the amplitude 3
A. Due to superposition of two waves with different
amplitudes in opposite directions a standing wave

WAVES Page # 41
pattern is formed. Determine the amplitude at 19. A string vibrates in 4 loops with a frequency
node and antinodes. of 400 Hz.
13. Two waves are described by (a) What is its fundamental frequency ?
y1 = 0.30 sin [(5x – 200)t] (b) What is frequency will cause it to vibrate into
and y2 = 0.30 sin [(5x – 200t) + /3] 7 loops.
where y1, y2 and x are in meters and t is 20.A string fixed at both ends is vibrating in the
in seconds. When these two waves are combined, lowest mode of vibration for which a point at
a traveling wave is produced. What are the (a) quarter of its lengths from one end is a point of
amplitude, (b) wave speed, and (c) wave length maximum displacement. The frequency of vibration
of that traveling wave ? in this mode is 100 Hz. What will be the frequency
14.What are (a) the lowest frequency, (b) the emitted when it vibrates in the next mode such
second lowest frequency, and (c) the third lowest that this point is again a point of maximum
frequency for standing waves on a wire that is displacement.
10.0 m long has a mass of 100 g. and is stretched 21. A guitar string is 90 cm long and has a
under a tension of 250 N which is fixed at both fundamental frequency of 124 Hz. Where should
ends ? it be pressed to produced a fundamental
15. A nylon guitar string has a linear density of frequency of 186 Hz ?
7.20 g/m and is under a tension of 150 N. The 22. A 2.00 m long rope, having a mass of 80 g, is
fixed supports are distance D = 90.0 cm apart. fixed at one end and is tied to a light string at
The string is oscillating in the standing wave the other end. The tension in the string is 256 N.
pattern shown in figure. Calculate the (a) speed (a) Find the frequencies of the fundamental and
wavelength, and (c) frequency of the traveling the first two overtones. (b) Find the wavelength
waves whose superposition gives this standing in the fundamental and the first two overtones.
wave.
23. A stretched uniform wire of a sonometer
D
between two fixed knife edges, when vibrates in
its second harmonic gives 1 beat per second with
a vibrating tuning fork of frequency 200 Hz. Find
the percentage change in the tension of the wire
to be in unison with the tuning fork.
16.A string that is stretched between fixed 24. A sonometer wires resonates with a given
supports separated by 75.0 cm has resonant tuning fork forming standing waves with five
frequencies of 420 and 315 Hz with no intermediate antinodes between the two bridges when a mass
resonant frquencies. What are of 9 kg is suspended from the wire. When this
(a) the lowest resonant frequencies and (b) the mass is replaced by M, the wire resonates with
wave speed ? the same tuning fork forming three antinodes for
the same position of bridges. Find the value of M.
17. A string oscillates according to the equation
25. A 40 cm long wire having a mass 3.2 gm and
  –1 
y = (0.50 cm) sin  3 cm  x cos [(40  s–1)t]
area of c.s. 1 mm2 is stretched between the
  support 40.05 cm apart. In its fundamental mode.
What are the (a) amplitude and (b) speed of the It vibrate with a frequency 1000/64 Hz. Find the
two waves (identical except for direction of young’s modulus of the wire.
travel) whose superposition gives this oscillation 26. A steel rod having a length of 1m is fastened
? (c) What is the distance between nodes ? (d) at its middle. Assuming young’s modulus to be 2
What is the transverse speed of a particle of the × 1011 Pa, and density to be 8 gm/cm3 find the
string at the position x = 1.5 cm when t = 9/8 s ? fundamental frequency of the longitudinal
18. In an experiment of standing waves, a string vibration and frequency of first overtone.
90 cm long is attached to the prong of an
electrically driven tuning fork that oscillates
perpendicular to the length of the string at a
frequency of 60 Hz. The mass of the string is
0.044 kg. What tension must the string be under
(weights are attached to the other end) if it is to
oscillate in four loops ?

Page # 42 WAVES
1. The figure shows a snap photograph of a vi- of the transverse velocity of particle of string
brating string at t = 0. The particle P is observed versus time at x = +1m.
moving up with velocity 20 cm/s. The angle made
4. In a stationary wave pattern that forms as a
by string with x-axis at P is 6°.
result of reflection of waves from an obstacle
the ratio of the amplitude at an antinode and a
y node is  = 1.5. What percentage of the energy
(in10 m)
–3
4 P passes across the obstacle?
x
0 1.5 3.5 5.5 7.5 5. A string, 25 cm long, having a mass of 0.25
(in10 m)
–2
gm/cm, is under tension. A pipe closed at one
end is 40 cm long. When the string is set vibrat-
(a) Find the direction in which the wave is moving in its first overtone, and the air in the pipe in
ing its fundamental frequency, 8 beats/sec are heard.
(b) the equation of the wave It is observed that decreasing the tension in the
(c) the total energy carried by the wave per cycle string, decreases the beat frequency. If the speed
of the string, assuming that , the mass per unit of sound in air is 320 m/s, find the tension in the
length of the string = 50 gm/m. string.
2. A uniform rope of length L and mass m is held 6. A metal rod of length l = 100 cm is clamped at
at one end and whirled in a horizontal circle with two points. Distance of each clamp from nearer
angular velocity . Ignore gravity. Find the time end is a = 30cm. If density and Young’s modulus
required for a transverse wave to travel from one of elasticity of rod material are  = 9000 kgm–3
end of the rope to the other. and Y = 144 GPa respectively, calculate minimum
and next higher frequency of natural longitudinal
3. A symmetrical triangular pulse of maximum
oscillations of the rod.
height 0.4m and total length 1 m is moving in the
positive x-direction on a string on which the wave
speed is 24 m/s. At t = 0 the pulse is entirely
located between x = 0 and x = 1 m. Draw a graph

WAVES Page # 43
1. A metallic rod of length 1m is rigidly clamped string is 1.6 N. Identical wave pulses are produced
at its mid-point. Longitudinal stationary waves at one end at equal intervals of time,  t. The
are set up in the rod in such a way that there minimum value of  t which allows constructive
are two nodes on either side of the mid-point. interference between successive pulses is
The amplitude of an antinode is 2 × 10–6m. Write (A) 0.05 s (B) 0.10 s (C) 0.20 s (D) 0.40 s
the equation of motion at a point 2 cm from the (iii) A transverse sinusoidal wave of amplitude a,
mid-point and those of the constituent waves in wavelength  & frequency f is travelling on a
the rod [Young’s modulus = 2 × 1011 Nm–2, density stretched string. The maximum speed of any point
= 8000 Kg m–3].
v
[JEE-94, 6]
on the string is , where v is speed of propagation
2. Select the correct alternative : 10
[JEE-96, 2×2 = 4] of the wave. If a = 10–3m and v = 10 ms–1, then 
(i) The extension in a string, obeying Hooke’s law & f are given by
is x. The speed of wave in the stretched string is (A)  = 2  × 10–2 m (B)  = 10–2 m
10 3
v. If the extension in the string is increased to
1.5 x, the speed of wave will be (C) f  Hz (D) f = 104 Hz
(A) 1.22 v (B) 0.61 v (C) 1.50 v (D) 0.75 v 2
(ii) An open pipe is suddenly closed at one end 6. A long wire PQR is made by joining two wires
with the result that the frequency of third PQ and QR of equal radii. PQ has length 4.8 m
harmonic of the closed pipe is found to be higher and mass 0.06 kg.QR has length 2.56 m and mass
by 100 Hz than the fundamental frequency of 0.2 kg. The wire PQR is under a tension of 80N. A
the open pipe. The fundamental frequency of the sinusoidal wave-pulse of amplitude 3.5 cm is sent
open pipe is along the wire PQ from the end P. No power is
(A) 200 Hz (B) 300 Hz (C) 240 Hz (D) 480 Hz dissipated during the propagation of wave-pulse.
3. A place progressive wave of frequency 25 Hz, Calculate [JEE-99, 4+6]
amplitude 2.5 × 10–5 m & initial phase zero (a) the time taken by the wave-pulse to reach
propagates along the (–ve) x-direction with a the other end R of the wire, and
velocity of 300 m/s. At any instant, the phase (b) the amplitude of the reflected and transmitted
difference between the oscillations at two points wave-pulses after the incident wave-pulse crosses
6m apart along the line of propagation is ______ the joint Q.
& the corresponding amplitude difference is 7. As a wave progagates : [JEE-99, 3]
______ m. [JEE-97, 2] (A) the wave intensity remains constant for a
4. A wave travelling in a stretched string is described plane wave
by the equation y = A sin (kx – t). The maximum (B) the wave intensity decreases as the inverse
particle velocity is of the distance from the source for a spherical
(A) A (B) /k (C) d/dk (D) x/t wave
[JEE-97, 1] (C) the wave intensity decreases as the inverse
square of the distance from the source for a
5. Select the correct alternative (s). spherical wave
[JEE-98, 2 + 2 + 2] (D) total power of the sherical wave over the
(i) The (x, y) co-ordinates of the corners of a spherical surface centered at the source remains
square plate are (0, 0) (L, 0) (L, L) & (0, L). The constant at all times.
edges of the plate are clamped & transverse
standing waves are set up in it. If u(x, y) denotes 8. y(x, t) = 0.8/ [(4x + 5t)2 + 5] represents a
the displacement of the plate at the point (x, y) moving pulse, where x & y are in meter and t in
at some instant of time, the possible expression(s) second. Then :
for u is/are : (a = positive constant) (A) pulse is moving in +x direction
(B) in 2s it will travel a distance of 2.5 m
  x   y   x   y
(A) a cos  cos  (B) a sin   sin   (C) its maximum displacement is 0.16 m
 2L   2L   L  L (D) it is a symmetric pulse [JEE-99, 3]
  x  2 y   2 x    y 9. In a wave motion y = a sin (kx – t), y can
(C) a sin   sin   (D) a cos   sin  
 L  L   L   L represent :
(A) electric field (B) magnetic field
(ii) A string of length 0.4 m & mass 10–2 kg is (C) displacement (D) pressure [JEE-99, 3]
tightly clamped at its ends. The tension in the

Page # 44 WAVES
10. Standing waves can be produced [JEE-99, 3] from f1 then again a resonance is obtained when
(A) on a string clamped at both the ends the frequency is f2. If in this case the string
(B) on a string clamped at one end and free at vibrates in nth harmonic then [JEE-2005(Scr)]
3 5
the other
(C) when incident wave gets reflected from a wall (A) n = 3, f2  f1 (B) n = 3, f2  f1
(D) when two identical waves with a phase 4 4
difference of  are moving is same direction 5 3
(C) n = 5, f2  f1 (D) n = 5, f2  f1
11. Two vibrating strings of the same material 4 4
but lengths L and 2L have radii 2r and r 17. A transverse harmonic disturbance is produced
respectively. They are stretched under the same in a string. The maximum transverse velocity is 3
tension. Both the strings vibrate in their m/s and maximum transverse acceleration is 90
fundamental modes, the one of length L with m/s2. If the wave velocity is 20 m/s then find the
frequency f1 and the other with frequency f2. waveform. [JEE-2005]
The ratio f1/f2 is given by [JEE-2000(Scr), 1]
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 1 18. A massless rod is suspended by two identical
strings AB and CD of equal length. A block of
12. The ends of a stretched wire of length L are mass m is suspended from point O such that BO
fixed at x = 0 and x = L. In one experiment, the is equal to ‘x’. Further, it is observed that the
displacement of the wire is y1 = A sin (x/L) sin frequency of 1st harmonic (fundamental frequency)
t and energy is E1 and in another experiment its in AB is equal to 2nd harmonic frequency in CD.
displacement is y2 = A sin(2x/L) sin 2t and Then, length of BO is [JEE-2006]
energy is E2. Then [JEE-2001(Scr)]
(A) E2 = E1 (B) E2 = 2E1 C
(C) E2 = 4E1 (D) E2 = 16E1 A
13. Two pulses in a stretched string whose centres
are initially 8cm apart are moving towards each
other as shown in figure. The speed of each pulse B D
is 2 cm/s. After 2 seconds, the total energy of
the pulses will be [JEE-2001(Scr)] L
x
m
L L 4L 3L
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 4 5 4
8 cm 19. A transverse sinusoidal wave moves along a
(A) zero (B) purely kinetic string in the positive x-direction at a speed of 10
(C) purely potential cm/s. The wavelength of the wave is 0.5 m and
(D) partly kinetic and partly potential its amplitude is 10 cm. At a particular time t, the
14. A sonometer wire resonates with a given snap-shot of the wave is shown in figure. The
tuning fork forming standing waves with five velocity of point P when its displacement is 5 cm
antinodes between the two bridges when a mass is Figure : y [JEE-2008]
of 9 kg is suspended from the wire. When this
mass is replaced by mass M, the wire resonates P
with the same tuning fork forming three antinodes
for the same positions of the bridges. The value of x
M is [JEE-2002(Scr), 3]
(A) 25 kg (B) 5 kg
(C) 12.5 kg (D) 1/25 kg
3  3 
15. A stringe between x = 0 and x = l vibrates in (A) j m/s (B) – j m/s
fundamental mode. The amplitude A, tension T 50 50
and mass per unit length  is given. Find the total 3  3 
(C) i m/s (D) – i m/s
energy of the string. [JEE-2003] 50 50
x=0 x=l 20. A 20 cm long string, having a mass of 1.0 g,
is fixed at both the ends. The tension in the string
16. A string fixed at both ends is in resonance in is 0.5 N. The string is set into vibrations using an
its 2nd harmonic with a tuning fork of frequency external vibrator of frequency 100 Hz. Find the
f 1 . Now its one end becomes free. If the separation (in cm) between the successive nodes
frequency of the tuning fork is increased slowly on the string. [JEE 2009]

WAVES Page # 45
Exercise-I
1. B 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. A
8. D 9. A 10. D 11. C 12. C 13. A 14. C
15. B 16. D 17. B 18. D 19. D 20. A 21. D
22. C 23. C 24. A 25. D 26. C 27. B 28. A
29. B 30. A 31. B 32. C 33. D 34. B 35. C
36. A
Exercise-II
1. A,B,C,D 2. B,C,D 3. C 4. B 5. A,B,D 6. C,D 7. A,D

8. C 9. B,C 10. C,D 11. B,D 12. B,C 13. A,D 14. C,D
15. A,B 16. A,C 17. D 18. C,D 19. B 20. A,C 21. C
22. C 23. C,D
Exercise-III
1. (a) amplitude A = 5 mm (b) wave number k = 1 cm–1
2  60
(c) wavelength  = = 2 cm (d) frequency v = = Hz
k 2 2
1 
(e) time period T = = s (f) wave velocity u = n = 60 cm/s
v 30
10 
2. (a) i m / s (b) –5.48 cm (c) 0.667 m, 5.00 Hz (d) 11.0 m/s
3
3. (a) 10  rad/s (b) /2 rad/m (c) y = (0.120m) sin (1.57x – 31.4 t) (d) 1.2  m/s (e) 118 m/s2
1 2
4. Ar = – cm, At = cm 5. 0.2 cm 6. 0.02 s 7. 0.12 m 8. 50 Hz, 4.0 cm, 2.0 m/s
3 3
9. (a) y = (7.50 cm) sin (4.19 x – 314 t) (b) 625 W 10. (a) 0.47 W, (b) 9.4 mJ
2 
11. y = 0.8 a sin ( vt  x  ) 12. 2 A, 8 A 13. (a) 0.52 m ; (b) 40 m/s ; (c) 0.40 m
 2
5 10 5 10
14. (a) Hz ; (b) 5 10 Hz ; (c) Hz 15. (a) 144 m/s ; (b) 60.0 cm ; (c) 241 Hz
2 2
16. (a) 105 Hz ; (b) 158 m/s 17. (a) 0.25 cm (b) 1.2 × 102 cm/s; (c) 3.0 cm; (d) 0
18. 36 N 19. (a) 100 Hz (b) 700 Hz 20. 300 Hz 21. 60 cm from an end.
22. (a) 10 hz, 30 Hz, 50 Hz
(b) 8.00 m, 1.60 m
23. 1% 24. 25 kg 25. 1 × 109 Nm2 26. 2.5 kHz, 7.5 kHz

Page # 46 WAVES
Exercise-IV
 1  
1. (a) negative x; (b) y = 4 × 10–3 sin 100  3 t  0.5 x   (x, y in meter) ; (c) 144  × 10–5 J 2.
400  2
vp
19.2 m/s
3. 1/48 sec1/24 sec t 4. 96% 5. 67.6 N 6. 10 kHz, 30 kHz

–19.2m/s
Exercise-V
1. y = 2 × 10–6sin(0.1)cos (25000 t + ), for  = 0 : y1 = 10–6 sin(5x – 25000t), y2 = 10–6sin(5x + 25000t)

2. (i) A, (ii) A 3. rad, 0 m 4. A
5. (i) B,C, (ii) B, (iii) A,C
V2  V1 2V2
6. (a) Time = 140 ms, (b) A r  . cm ; A t  V  V A i  2 cm
A i  15
V2  V1 1 2
7. A,C,D 8. B,C,D 9. A,B,C 10. A,B,C 11. D 12. C 13. B
A22T 3
14. A 15. E  16. C 17. y = (10 cm) sin (30 t ± x + )
4l 2
18. A 19. A 20. 5

SOUND WAVES
CONTENTS
1. Sound Waves ..................................................................................................... 3
2. Propagation of sound Waves ........................................................................... 3 – 4
3. Compression Waves ....................................................................................... 4– 6
4. Velocity of Sound ........................................................................................... 6 –10
5. Appearance of sound ..................................................................................... 10 – 11
6. Interference ................................................................................................... 11 – 12
7. Standing Waves ............................................................................................ 12 – 13
8. Reflection of Sound Waves ................................................................................ 13
9. Waves in air column ...................................................................................... 13 – 23
10. Beats .......................................................................................................... 23 – 25
11. Doppler Effect .............................................................................................. 25 – 29
12. Exercise - I .................................................................................................. 30 – 42
13. Exercise - II ................................................................................................. 43 – 48
14. Exercise - III ................................................................................................ 49 – 58
15. Exercise - IV ............................................................................................... 59 – 60
16. Exercise - V ................................................................................................ 61 – 67
17. Answer key ................................................................................................. 68– 68
IVRS No. 0744-2439051/52/53 www. motioniitjee.com , email-info@motioniitjee.com
Page # 2 SOUND WAVES
Syllabus :
Weve motion (plane wave only), logitudinal and
transverse waves, Superposition of waves; progressive
and stationary waves; Vibration of strings and air
columns. Resonance; Beats; Speed of sound in gases
Doppler effect (in sound). Vibration of strings and air
columns. Resonance; Beats; Speed of sound in gases;
Doppler effect (in sound).
IVRS No : 0744-2439051/52/53 www.motioniitjee.com, info@motioniitjee.com
SOUND WAVES Page # 3
1. SOUND WAVES
Sound is type of longitudnal wave. In general majority of longitudinal waves are termed as sound
waves. Sound is produced by a vibrating source, like when a gong of a bell is struck with a hammer,
sound is produced. The vibrations produced by gong are propagated through air, Through air these
vibrations reach to the ear and ear drum is set into vibrations and these vibrations are communicated
to human brain. By touching the gong of bell by hand, we can feel the vibrations.
2. PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound is a mechanical three dimensional and longitudinal wave that is created by a vibrating source
such a guitar string, the human vocal cords, the prongs of a tuning fork or the diaphragm of a
loudspeaker. Being a mechanical wavs, sound needs a medium having properties of inetia and elasticity
for its propagation. Sound waves propagate in any medium through a series of periodic compressions
and rarefactions of presure, which is produced by the vibrating source.
Consider a tuning fork producing sound waves.
A B
.
. . . . . . ..
.
. . . . . . ..
.
. . . . . . ..
.
. . . . . . ..
.
. . . . . . ..
.
. . . . . . ..
normal atmospheric
pressure
Undisturbed tuning fork
A B
. . . . . . . . .
When Prong B moves outward towards right it compresses . . . . . . . . .
. .......... . .v. . . . .
the air in front of it, causing the pressure to rise slightly. . ............... . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
The region of increased pressure is called a compression
pulse and it travels away from the prong with the speed of normal atmospheric
pressure
sound Undisturbed tuning fork
After producing the compression pulse, the prong B reverses its motion and moves inward. This drages
away some air from the region in front of it, causing the pressure to dip slightly below the normal
pressure. This region of decreased pressure is called rarefaction pulse. Following immediately behind
the compression pulse, the rarefaction pulse also travels away from the prong with the speed of
sound.
A B
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . v. . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
rarefaction compression
pulse pulse
A longitudinal wave in a fluid is described either in tems of the longitudal displacements suffered by the
particles of the medium.
y  A sin t y  A sin ( t – x / v )
–A (0,0) A y A
v
x
Consider a wave going in the x-direction in a fluid. Suppose that at a time t, the particle at the
undistrubed position x suffers a displacement y in the x-direction.
 x
y = A sin   t –  ...(i)
 v
Position of any particle from origin at any time = x + y

x = Distance of the mean position of the particle from the origin.
y = Displacement of the particle from its mean position.
General Equation :
(0,0)  y = A sin (t + )
(0,x)  y = A sin [(t – x/v ) + 
Displacement wave y = A sin ( t – kx + )
• If we fix x = x0 then we are dealing with the particle whose mean position at distance x0 from origin &
this particle is performin SHM of amp. A with time period T phase difference = – kx + 
3. COMPRESSION WAVES
When a longitudinal wave propagated in a gaseous medium, it produces compression and rarefaction in
the medium periodically. The region where compression occurs, the pressure is more than the normal
pressure of the medium. Thus we can also describe longitudinal waves in a gaseous medium as
pressure waves and these are also termed as compression waves in which the pressure at different
point of medium also varies periodically with their displacements. Let us discuss the propagation of
excess pressure in a medium in longitudinal wave analytically.
y y+dy
A A' B B'
X
dx
x=x x=x+dx
Consider a longitudinal wave propagating in positive x-direction as shown in figure. Figure shows a
segmentAB of the medium of width dx. In this medium let a longitudinal wave is propagating whose
equation is given as
y = A sin ( t – kx) ...(1)
Where y is the displacement of medium particle situated at a distance x from the origin, along the
direction of propagation of wave. In figure shown AB is the medium segment whose a medium particle
is at position x = x and B is at x = x +dx at an instant. If after some time t medium particle at A reaches
to a point A' which is displaced by y and the medium particle at b reaches to point B which is at a
displacmenet y + dy from B. Here dy is given by equation (3.116) as
dy = – Ak cos (t – kx) dx
Here due to displacement of section AB to AB the change in volume of it's section is given as
dV = – S dy [S  Area of cross-section]
= SA k cos (t – kx) dx
The volume of section AB is V = S dx
Thus volume strain in section AB is
dV – SAk cos(t – kx)dx dV
 or  – Ax cos(t – kx)
V Sdx V
If B is the bulk modulus of the medium, then the excess pressure in the section AB can be given as
 dV 
P = – B  ...(2)
 V
P = BAk cos ( t – kx)

or P = P0cos(t – kx) ...(3)
Here P0 is the pressure amplitude at a medium particle at position x from origin and P is the excess
pressure at that point. Equation shown that excess varies periodically at every point of the medium
with pressure amplitude P0, which is given as
2
P0 = BAk = AB ...(4)

Equation shown is also termed as the equation of pressure wave in gaseous medium. We can also see
that the pressure wave differs in phase is /2 from the displacement wave and pressure maxima occurs
where the displacement is zero and displacement maxima occur where the pressure is at its normal
level. Remembers that pressure maxima implies that the presure at a point is pressure amplitude times
more or less then the normal pressure level of the medium.
Ex.1 A sound wave of wavelenth 40 cm travels in air. If the difference between the maximum and
minimum pressures at a given point is 2.0 × 10–3 N/m2, find the amplitude of vibration of the
particles of the medium. The bulk modulus of air is 1.4 × 105 N/m2
Sol. The pressure amplitude is
2.0  10 –3 N / m 2
p0   10 –3 N / m2
2
The displacement amplitudes s0 is given by
p0 = B k s0
p 0 p0  10 –3 N / m 2  (40  10 –2 m) 100
or, s0     Å  6.6 Å
Bk 2B 2    14  10 4 N / m 2 7
Density Wave
In this section we will find the relation between pressure wave and density wave.
According to definition of bulk modulus (B),
 dp 
B = – 
 dV /V
mass
Further, Volume = density
m m V
or V= or dV = – .d  – .d
 2 
dV d
or –
V 
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get
( dP ) dp  1 
d   2   2
B v B v 
Or this can be written as,
 1
  .P  2 P
B v
So, this relation relates the pressure equation with the density equation. For example, if
P = (P)m sin (kx – t)
then  = ()msin (kx –  t)
 ( P ) m
where, ()m = .( P )m 
B v2
Thus, density equation is in phase with the pressure equation and this is 90° out of phase with the
displacement equation.
3.1 Velocity and Acceleration of particle :

General equation of wave is given by
y = A sin (t – kx)
y
v = = A  cos (t – kx) ...(1)
t
2 y
a = = – A2 sin ( t – kx) ...(2)
 t2
y
 –Ak cos(t – kx) ...(3)
x
y
Here  x = slope of (y, x) curve Now again differentiate eq. – 3
2 y
 –Ak 2 sin( t – kx) ...(4)
 x2
from eq. (2) & (4)
2 y 2 y
2
 v2
t x 2
4. VELOCITY OF SOUND/LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN SOLIDS

Consider a section AB of medium as shown in figure(a) of cross-sectional area S. Let A and B be two
cross section as shown. Let in this medium sound propagation is from left to right. If wave source is at
origin O and when it oscillates, the oscillations at that point propagate along the rod.
velocity of sound
A' B'
A B
O x+y dx+dy
O x dx
(b)
(a)
Here we say an elastic wave has propagated along the rod with a velocity determined by the physical
properties of the medium. Due to oscillations say a force F is developed at every point of medium which
produces a stress in rod and is the cause of strain or propagation of disturbance along the rod. This
stress at any cross-sectional area can be given as
F
Stress S1 = ...(1)
S
If we consider the section AB of medium at a general instant of time t. The end A is at a distance x
from O and B is at a distance x + dx from O. Let in time dt due to oscillations, medium particles at a are
displaced along the length of medium by y and those at B by y + dy. The resulting position of section
and A and B shown in figure (b), Here we can say that the section AB is deformed (elongated) by a
length dy. Thus strain produced in it is
dy
Strain in section AB E ...(2)
dx
If Young's modulus of the material of medium is Y, we have
Stess S1
Young's Modulus Y = =
Strain E
F/S
From equation (1) and (2), we have Y 
dy / dx
dy
or F  YS ...(3)
dx
If net force acting of secting AB is dF then it is given as
dF = dma ...(4)
Where dm is the mass of section AB and a be its acceleration, which can be given as for a medium of
density .
d2 y
dm = Sdx and a=
dt 2
d2 y
From equation (4), we have dF = (Sdx)
dx 2
dF d2 y
or  S 2 ...(5)
dx dt
From equation (3) on differentiating w.r. to x, we can write
dF d2 y
 YS 2 ...(6)
dx dt
From equation (5) and (6) we get
d2 y  Y  d2 y
   ....(7)
dx 2    dx2
Equation (7) is the differential form of wave equation, comparing it with previous equation we get the
wave velocity in the medium can be given as
Y
v

Similar to the case of a solid in fluid, instead of Young's Modulus we use Bulk modulus of the medium
hence the velocity of longitudinal waves in a fluid medium is given as
B
v

Where B is the Bulk modulus of medium.
For a gaseous medium bulk modulus is defined as
dp dP
B or B  –V
(– dV / V) dV
4.1 Newton's Formula for velocity of Sound in Gases

Newton assumed that during sound propagation temperature of medium remains constant hence the
stated that propagation of sound in a gasesous medium is an isothermal phenomenon, thus Boyal's law
can be applied in the process. So for a section of medium we use
PV = constant
Differentiating we get
PdV + V dP = 0
dP
or –V P
dV
or bulk modulus of medium can be given as

B = P (Pressure of medium)
Newton found that during isothermal propagation of sound in a gaseous medium, bulk modulus of
medium is equal to the pressure of the medium, hence sound velocity in a gaseous medium can be
given as
B P
v  ...(1)
 
P RT
From gas law we have  ...(2)
 M
RT
From (1) & (2) we have v ...(3)
M
From the expression in equation (1) if we find the sound veloicty in air at normal temperature and
atompsheric pressure we have
Normal atmospheric pressure is P = 1.01 × 105 Pa
Density of air at NTP is  = 1.293 kg/m3
P .  10 5
101
Now from equation (1) v=   v = 279.45 m/s
1293
.
But the experimental value of veloicty of sound determined from various experiments gives the velocity
of sound at NTP, 332 m/s. Therefore there is a difference of about 52 m/s between the theoretical and
experimental values. This large difference can not be attributed to the experimental errors. Newton
was unable to explain error in his formula. This correction was explained by a French Scientist Laplace.
4.2 Laplace Correction

Laplace explained that when sound waves propagated in a gaseous medium. There is compression and
rarefaction in the particles of medium. Where there is compression, particles come near to each other
and are heated up, where there is rarefaction, medium expends and there is fall of temperature.
Therefore, the temperature of medium at every point does not remain constant so the process of
sound propagation is not isothermal. The total quantity of heat of the system as a whole remains
constant. medium does not gain or loose any heat to the surrounding. Thus in a gaseous medium sound
propagation is an adiabatic process. For adiabatic process the relation in pressure and volume of a
section of medium can be given as
PV = constant ...(1)
Cp
Here  = C , ratio of specific heats of the medium.
v
Differentiating equation (1) we get,

dPV + V–1 dVP = 0
PdV
or dP +  =0
dV
dP
or –V  P
dV
Bulk modulus of medium B = P
Thus Laplace found that during adiabatic propagation of sound, the Bulk modulus of gaseous medium is
equal to the product of ratio of specific heats and the pressure of medium. Thus velocity of sound
propagation can be given as
B P
v 
 
RT
From gas law v 
M
From above equation we find sound velocity in air at NTP, we have
Normal atmospheric pressure P = 1.01 × 105 Pa
Density of air at NTP P = 1.293 kg/m3
Cp
Ratio of specific heat of air   C  142
.
v
 142 .  10 5
.  101
 v = = 333.04 m/s
 1293
.
This value is in agreement with exerimental value.
1/ 2
R( 273  t) R273  t 
Now at any temperature t°C velocity of sound vt = = 1  
M M  273 
 t 
vt = v0  1  
 546 
4.3 Effect of Temperature on Velocity of Sound
We have velocity of sound propagation in a gasous medium as
RT
v
M
For a given gaseous medium , R and M remains constant, thus velocity of sound is directly proportional
to square root of absolute temperature of the medium. Thus
v T
If at two different temperatures T1 and T2, sound velocities in medium are v1 and v2 then from above
equation we have
v1 T1

v2 T2
4.4 Effect of Pressure on Velocity of Sound
We know form gas law
P RT

 M
If temperature of a medium remains constant then on changing pressure, density of medium proportionally
P
changes so that the ratio  remains constant.
Hence if in a medium, T = constant

P
Then,  = constant
P
Thus velocity of sound, v=  = constant
Therefore, the velocity of sound in air or in a gas is independent of change in pressure.
4.5 Effect of Humidity on Velocity of Sound
The density of water vapour at NTP is 0.8 kg/m3 whereas the density of dry air at NTP is 1.293 kg/3.
Therefore water vapour has a density less than the density of dry air. As atmospheric pressure
remains approximately same, the velocity of sound is more in moist air then the velocity of sound in
dry air.
vmoist air > vdry air (from the previous equation)
4.6 Effect of Wind on Velocity of Sound

If wind is blowing in the direction of propagation of sound, it will increase the velocity of sound, On the
other hand if wave propagation is opposite to the direction of propagation of wind, wave velocity is
decreased. If wind blows at speed v then sound velocity in the medium can be given as
  
v  vs  v w

Where v s is the velocity of sound in still air..
5. APPEARANCE OF SOUND TO HUMAN EAR

The appearance of sound to a human ear is characterised by three parameters (a) pitch (b) loudness
and (c) quality.
(a) Pitch and Frequency
Pitch of a sound is that sensation by which we differentiate a buffalo voice, a male voice and a female
voice. We say that a buffalo voice is of low pitch, a male voice has higher pitch and a female voice has
still higher pitch. This sensation primarly depends on the dominant frequency present in the sound.
Higher the frequency, higher will be the pitch and vice versa.
(b) Loudness and Intensity
The loudness that we sense is related to the intensity of sound though it is not directly proportional to
it. Our perception of loudness is beter correlated with the sound level measured in decibels (abbreviated
as dB) and defined as follows.
I 
  10 log10  

 I0 
where I is the intensity of the sound and I0 is a constant reference intensity 10–12 W/m2 The reference
intensity represents roughly the minimum intensity that is just audible at intermediate frequencies. For
I = I0 , the sound level  = 0.
(c) Quality and Waveform

A sound generated by a source may contain a number of frequency components in it. Different
frequency components have different amplitudes and superposition of them results in the actual
waveform. The appearance of sound depends on this waveform apart from the dominant frequency
and intensity. Figure shows waveforms for a tuning fork, a clarinet and a cornet playing the same note
(fundamental frequency = 440 Hz) with equal loudness.
p
t
p
t
p
t
We differenatiate between the sound from a tabla and that from a mridang by saying that they have
different quality.
(d) Energy in sound Waves

Pavg = 22 f2A2 v
Intensity = 22 A2 f 2  v
P  P0 cos(t – kx )
P0
P0  3 Ak  A   K
2 2 2
 2 A 2 v 2 P0 v 2 P0 v 3 P0 v 2 .v
Intensity = = 2 2
 2 2

2 2 k 2  2 2
2
P0  .v 
v   

2 2  
  
P02 V
I
2.
6. ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
S1
x1
A1 sin(t  kx) y1  A1 sin(t  kx1 )
y 2  A 2 sin(t  kx2 )
x2
S2
A 2 sin(t  kx)
Interference implies super position of waves. Whenever two or more than two waves superimpose
each other at some position then the resutant displacement of the particle is given by the vector sum
of the individual displacements.
Let the two waves coming from sources S1 & S2 be
y1 = A1 sin ( t + kx1 )
y2 = A2 sin (t + kx2) respectively.
Due to superposition
ynet = y1 + y2
ynet = A1 sin ( t + kx1) + A2 sin ( t + kx2)
Phase difference between y1 & y2 = k(x2 – x1)
i.e.,  = k(x2 – x1)
2
As  = x (where x = path difference &  = phase difference)

Anet = A 12  A 22  2 A 1A 2 cos 
2
 A net  A 12  A 22  2 A 1A 2 cos 
 Inet = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos  (as I  A2)

When the two displacements are in phase, then the resultant amplitude will be sum of the two
amplitude & Inet will be maximum, this is known of constructive interference.
For Inet to be maximum
cos = 1   = 2n where n = {0,1,2,3,4,5...........}
2
x  2n  x = n

For constructive interference

Inet = ( I1  I2 )2
When I1 = I2 = I
Inet = 4 I
Anet = A1 + A2
When superposing waves are in opposite phase, the resultant amplitude is the difference of two
amplitudes & Inet is minimum; this is known as destructive interference.
For Inet to be minimum,
cos  = – 1
 = (2n + 1)  where n = {0,1,2,3,4,5...........}
2 
x = (2n + 1)  x = (2n  1)
 2
For destructive interference
Inet = ( I1 – I2 ) 2
If I1 = I2
Inet = 0
Anet = A1 – A2
Generally,
Inet = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos 
If I1 = I2 = I
Inet = 2I + 2Icos

Inet = 2I(1 + cos ) = 4Icos2
2
( I1  I2 ) 2
Ratio of Imax & Imin =
( I1 – I2 ) 2
7. LONGITUDINAL STANDING WAVES

Two longitudinal waves of same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions interfere to
produce a standing wave.
If the two interfering waves are given by
p1 = p0 sin (t – kx) and p2 =p0 sin (t + kx + )
then the equation of the resultant standing wave would be given by
 
p = p1 + p2 = 2p0cos (kx + ) sin (t + )
2 2

 p = p0' sin (t + ) ...(1)
2
This is equation of SHM* in which the amplitude p0' depends on position as

p0' = 2p0cos (kx + ) ...(2)
2
Points where pressure remains permanently at its average value, i.e., pressure amplitude is zero is
called a pressure node, and the condition for a pressure node would be given by
p0' = 0

i.e. cos(kx  )  0
2
 
i.e. kx += 2n ± , n = 0,,1,2.......
2 2
Similarly points where pressure amplitude is maximum is called a pressure antinode and condition for a
pressure antinode would be given by
p0' = ±2p0

i.e. cos (kx + )=±1
2

or (kx + ) = n, n = 0, 1, 2,.......
2
Note :
• Note that a pressure node in a standing wave would correspond to a displacement antinode; and a
pressure anti-node would correspond to a displacement node.
• (when we label eqn. (1) as SHM, what we mean that excess pressure at any point varies simple
harmonically. if the sound waves were represented in terms of displacement waves, then the equation
of standing wave corresponding to (1) would be
 
s = s0' cos (t + ) where s0' = 2s0 sin (kx + )
2 2
This can be easily observed to be an equation of SHM. It represents the medium particles moving
simple harmonically about their mean position at x.
8. REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES

Reflection of sound waves from a rigid boundary (e.g. closed end of an organ pipe) as analogous to
reflection of a string wave from rigid boundary; reflection accompanied by an inversion i.e. an abrupt
phase change of p. This is consistent with the requirement of displacement amplitude of remains zero
at the rigid end, since a medium particle at the rigid end can not vibrate. As the excess pressure and
displacement corresponding to the same sound wave vary by /2 in term of phase, a displacement
minima at the rigid end will be a point of pressure maxima. This implies that the reflected pressure
waves from the rigid boundary will have same phase as the incident wave, i.e., a compression pulse is
reflected as a compression pulse and a rarefaction pulse is reflected as a rarefaction pulse
On the other hand, reflection of sound wave from a low pressure region (like open end of an organ
pipe) is analogies to reflection of string wave from a free end. This point corresponds to a displacment
maxima, so that the incident & reflected displacement wave at this point must be in phase. This would
imply that this point would be a minima for pressure wave (i.e. pressure at this point remains at its
average value), and hence thereflected presure wave would be out of phase by  with respect to the
incident wave. i.e. a compression pulse is reflected as a rarefaction pulse and vice-versa.
9. WAVES IN A VIBRATING AIR COLUMN

Hollow pipes have long used for making musical sounds. A hollow pipe we call organ pipe. To understand
how these work, first we examine the behaviour of air in a hollow pipe that is open at both ends. If we
blow air across one end, the disturbance due to the moving air at that end propagates along the pipe
to the far end. When it reaches far end, a part of the wave is reflected, similar in the case when a
wave is reflected along a string whose end point is free to move. Since the air particles are free to
move at the open end, the end point is an antinode. if one end of the pipe is closed off, the the air is
not free to move any further in that direction and closed end becomes a node. now the resonant
behaviour of pipe is completely changed. Similar in the case of string, here also all harmonic frequencies
are possible and resonance may take place it the frequency of external source matches with any of
the one harmonic freuquency of pipe. Let us discuss in detail.
9.1 Vibration of Air in a Closed Organ Pipe

When a tuning fork is placed near the open end of a pipe. The air in the pipe oscillates with the same
frequency as that of tuning fork. Here the open end should be an antinode and closed and should be a
node for perfect reflection of waves from either end or for formation of stationary waves. Since one
end is a node and other is an antinode, the lowest frequency (largest wavelength) vibration has no
other nodes or antinodes between ends as shown in figure(a). This is the fundamental (minimum)
frequency at which stationary waves can be formed in a closed organ pipe. Thus if the wavelength is
 then we can see from figure (a), which shows the displacement wave of longitudinal waves in the
closed organ pipe.

l= ...(1)
4
or =4l
(a) (b) (c)

Thus fundamental frequency of oscillations of closed organ pipe of length l be given as
 
n1 = = ...(2)
 4l
Similarly first overtone of closed pipe vibrations is shown in figure (b) here wavelength  and pipe
length l are related as
3'
l ...(3)
4
4l
or ' 
3
Thus frequency of first overtone oscillatinos of a closed organ pipe of length l can be given as
 3
n2 = = ...(4)
' 4l
= 3n1
This is three times the fundamental frequency thus after fundamental only third harmonic frequency
exist for a closed organ pipe at which resonance can take place or stationary waves can be formed in
it.
Similarly next overtone, second overtone is shown in figure(c). Here the wavelength  and pipe length
l are related as
5"
l
4
4l
or " 
5
Thus the frequency of second overtone oscillation of a closed organ pipe of length l can be given as
 5
n3 = =  5n1
' ' 4l
This is fifth harmonic frequency of fundamental oscillations.
( 2n – 1)v
In general f =
4
Here frequency of oscillation is called (2n – 1)th harmonic and (n – 1)th overtone
From above analysis it is clear that the resonant frequecies of the closed organ pipe are only odd
harnomics of the fundamental frequency.
9.2 Vibration of Air in Open Organ Pipe

Figure shown the resonant oscillations of an open organ pipe. The least frequency at which an open
organ pipe resonates is the one with longest wavelength when at both the open ends of pipe antinodes
are formed and there is one node is between as shown in figure (a). In this situation the wavelengths
of sound in air  is related to length of organ pipe as

l=
2
or =2l ...(1)
Thus the fundamental frequency of organ pipe can be given as
v v
n1  
 2l
(a) (b) (c)

Similarly next higher frequency at which the open organ pipe resonate is shown in figure (b) which we
call first overtone. Here the wavelength ' is related to the length of pipe as
l =  ....(2)
Thus here resonant frequency for first overtone is given as
v v
n2   ...(3)
' l
Which is second harmonic of fundamental frequency. Similarly as shown in figure (c), in second overtone
oscillations, the wavelength '' of sound is releated to the length of pipe as
3 ''
l ...(4)
2
2l
or ''  ...(5)
3
Thus be frequency of second overtone oscillations of an open organ pipe can given as
v 3v
n3   ...(6)
'' 2l
= 3n1 ...(7)
Which is third harmonic of fundamental frequency.
nv
In General f =
2
we can say frequency of oscillation is called nth harmonic and (n – 1)th overtone
The above analysis shown that resonant frequencies for formation of stationary waves includes all the
possible harmonic frequencies for an open organ pipe.
9.3 End correction

As mentioned earlier the displacment antinode at an open end of an organ pipe lies slightly outside the
open lend. The distance of the antinode from the open end is called end correction and its value is
given by
Np A0 Np
2r
P
e = 0.6 r
6r
e=0
where r = radius of the organ pipe.
with end correction, the fundamental frequency of a closed pipe (fe) and an open argon pipe (f0) will be
given by
v v
fe  and f0 
4(   0.6r ) 2(   12
. r)
9.4 Resonance Tube

This an apparatus used to determine velocity of sound in
air experimentally and also to compare frequncies of two
tuning forks.
shown figure the setup of a resonance the experiment.

There is a long tube T in which initially water is filled upto
the top and the eaer level can be change by moving a
reservoir R up and down.
A tunning fork of known frequency n0 is struck gently on a
rubber pad and brought near the open and tube T due to
which oscillations are transferred to the air coloumn in the
tube above water level. Now we gradually decrease the
water level in the tube. This air column behaves like a
closed organ pipe and the water level as closed end of
pipe. As soon as water level reaches a position where
there is a node of corresponding stationary wave, in air
column, resonance takes place and maximum sound
intensity is detected. Let at this position length of air column
be I1. If water level is further decreased, again maximum
sound intensity is observed when water leel is at another
node i.e. at a length l2 as shown in figure. Here if we find
two successive resonance lengths l1 and l2, we can get
the wavelength of the wave as

l2 – l1 =
2
or   2(l2 – l1 )
Thus sound velocity in air can be given as
v  n 0   2n 0 (l2 – l1 )
Ex.2 A tube of certain diameter and of length 48 cm is open at both ends. Its fundamental frequency
of resonance is found to be 320 Hz. The velocity of sound in air is 320 m/s. Estimate the diameter
of the tube. One end of the tube is now closed. Calculate the lowest frequency of resonance for
the tube.
Sol. The displacement curves of longitudinal waves in a tube open at both ends is shown in figure (a) and
(b).
48 cm
A B A
N
N
(b)
(a)
Let r be the radius of the tube. We know the antinodes occur slightly outside the tube at a distance
0.6 r from the tube end.
The distance between two antinodes is given by

 48  2  0.6 r
2
v 32000
We have = = = 100 cm
n 320
or 50 = 48 + 1.2r
2
or r= = 1.67 cm
12
.
Thus diameter of the tube is D = 2r = 3.33
When one end is closed, then

= 48 + 0.6r = 48 + 0.6 × 1.67 = 49
4
or  = 4 × 49 = 196 cm
v 32000
Now n=  = 163.3 Hz
 196
9.5 Quink's Tube
This is an apparatus used to demonstrate the phenomenon of interference and also used to measure
velocity of sound in air. This is made up of two U-tubes A and B as shown in figure. Here the tube B can
slide in and out from the tube A. There are two openings P and Q in the tube A. At opening P, a tuning
fork or a sound source of known frequency n0 is placed and at the other opening a detector is placed
to detect the resultant sound of interference occurred due to superposition of two sound waves
coming from the tubes A and B.
Initially tube B is adjusted so that detector detects a maximum. At this instant if length of paths
covered by the two waves from P to Q from the side of A and side of B are l1 are l2 respectively then
for constructive interference we must have
l2 – l2 = N ...(1)
If now tube B is further pulled out by a distance x so that next maximum is obtained and the length of
path from the side of B is l2' then we have
l2'  l2  2x ...(2)
Where x is the displacement of the tube. For next constructive interference of sound at point Q, we
have
l2' – l1  (N  1) ..(3)
From equation (1), (2) and (3), we get

or x= ...(4)
2
Thus by experiment we get the wavelength of sound as for two sucessive points of constructive
interference, the path difference must be . As the tube B is pulled out by x, this introduces a path
difference 2x in the path of sound wave through tube B. If the frequency of the source is known, n0,
the velocity of sound in the air filled in tube can be given as
v = n0 = 2n0x ...(5)
Ex.3 In a large room a person recieves direct sound waves from a source 120 m away from him. he
also receives waves from the same source which reach him, being reflected from the 25m high
ceiling at a point halfway between them. For which wavelength will these two sound waves
interfere constructivity?
Sol. As shown in figure for reflection from the ceilling
Path SCP = SC + CP = 2SC [As i = r, SC = CP]
C
or Path SCP = 2 60 2  25 2 = 130 cm
So path differene between interfering waves
along path SCP, and SP, i r
x = 130 –120 = 10 m
Now for consructive interfernece at P.
x = n. i.e., 10 = n
10 S P
or = with n = 1, 2, 3 ......... *
Source *
n Detector
i.e.  = 10 m, 5m, (10/3) m and so on
Ex.4 Figure shown a tube structure in which a sound signal is sent from one end and is received at
the othe end. The semicircular part has a radius of 20.0 cm. The frequency of the sound source
can be varied electronically between 1000 and 4000 Hz. Find the frequencies at which maxima
of intensity are detected. The speed of sound in air = 340 m/s.
Sol. The sound wave reaches detector by two paths simultaneously be straight as well as semicircular
track. The wave through the straight path travels a distance l1 = 2 × 20 cm and the wave through the
curved part travles a distane l2 =  (20 cm) = 62.8 cm before they meet again and travel to the
receiver. The path difference between the two waves received is, therefore,
 l = l2 – l2 = 62.8 cm – 40 cm = 22.8 cm = 0.228 m
v 340
The wavelength of either wave is = . For constructive interfernece, l = N, where N is an
n n
integer.
 340 
or, 0.228  N 
 n 
 340 
or, n = N  = N(1491.2) Hz = N(1490) Hz
0.228 
Thus, the frequencies within the specific range which cause maxima of intensity are 1490 Hz and 2980 Hz.
Ex.5 Two sources S1 and S2, separated by 2.0 m, vibrate according to equation y1 = 0.03 sin t and
y2 = 0.02 sin  t where y1, y2 and t are in M.K.S unit. They send out waves of velocity 1.5m/s.
Calculate the amplitude of the resultant motion of the particle co-linear with S1 and S2 and
located at a point (a) to the right of S2(b) to the left of S2 and (C) in the middle of S1 and S2.
Sol. The situation of shown in figure
1m 1m
P1 *S 1
Q *S 2
P2
2m
The oscillations y1 and y2 have amplitudes A1 = 0.03 m and A2 = 0.02 respectively.
 1
The frequency of both sources in n = = = 0.5 Hz
2 2
v 15
.
Now wavelength of each wave  = = = 3.0 m
n 0.5
(a) The path difference for all points P2 to the right of S2 is
 = (S1P2 – S2P2) = S1S2 = 2m
2
Phase difference    Path difference

2 4
  2.0 
3 3
The resultant amplitude for this point is given by
R  A 12  A 22  2A 1 A 2 cos   (0.03) 2  (0.02) 2  2  0.03  0.02  cos(4  / 3)

Solving we get R = 0.0265 m
(b) The path differnece for all point P, to the left of S1
 = (S2P – S1P) = S1S2 = 2.0 m
Hence the resultant amplitude for all points to the left of S1 is also 0.0265 m
(c) For a point Q, between S1 and S2, the path difference is zero i.e.,  = 0. Hence constructive interference
take place at Q, thus amplitude at this point is maximum and given as
R  A 12  A 22  2 A 1A 2 = A1 + A2 = 0.03 + 0.02 = 0.05 m
Ex.6 Two point sources of sound are placed at a distance d and a detector moves on a straight line
parallel to the line joining the sources as shown in figure. at a distane D away from sources.
Initially Detector is situated on the line so that it is equidistant from both the sources. Find the
displacement of detertor when it detects nth maximum sound and also find its displacement
when it detects nth minimum sound.
S1 *
d Detector
(D)
S2 (D>>d)
*

Let us consider the situation when detector move by a distance x
as shown. Let at this position the path diference between the D
waves
S1 * x
from S1 and S2 to detector by  then we have


 = S2D – S1D ~ S2Q [Where S1Q is perpendicular on line S2D] d O
– D
Here if  is small angle as D >> d, we have S2 Q
*
x
S2Q = d sin  ~
– d tan = d
D
Thus at the position of detector, path deference is
dx
= ....(1)
D
The expression for path difference in equation (1) is an important formula for such problems. Students
are advised to keep this formula in mind for future use.
When detector was at point O, path difference was zero and it detects a maxima, now if detector
detects nth maximum then its path difference at a distance x from O can be given as
=n
dx n D
or =n or x =
D d
Similarly if detector detects nth minima then the path difference between two waves at detector can
be given as
 dx  ( 2n  1) D
 = (2n + 1) or  (2n  1) or x=
2 D 2 2d
Ex.7 Two coherent narrow slits emitting of wavelength  in the same phase are placed parallel to
each other at a small separation of 2. the sound is detected by moving a detector on the screen
S at a distance D (>> ) from the slit S1 as shown in figure. Find the distance x such that the
intensity at P is equal to the intensity at O.
*P
x
2
* * O
S1 S2
D S
Sol. When detector is at O, we can see that the path differnece in the two waves reaching O is d = 2 thus
at O detector receives a maximum sound. When it reaches P and again there is a maximum sound
detected at P the path difference between two waves must  = . Thus shown figure the path
difference at P can be given as
 = S1P – S2P ~ S1Q
–
*P
= d cos  = 2 cos 
Q x
And we have at point P, path difference  = , Thus 
* d  2 * O
 = 2 cos  =  S1 S2
1
or, cos  = D
2

or, =
3
 
Thus the value of x can be written as x = D tan  = D tan   =
3 3D
Ex.8 Figure shown two coherent sources S1 and S2 which emit sound
of wavelength  in phase. The separation between the sources
is 3. A ciruclar wire of large radius is placed in such a way
that S1S2 lies in its plane and the middle point of S1S2 is at the
centre of the wire. Find the angular position  on the 
wire for which constructive interference takes place. S1 S2
B
P

C A
S1 S2
Sol.
d  3
From previous question, we can say that for a point P on the circle shown in fiure shown. The path
difference in the two waves at P is
 = S1P – S2P = d cos  = 3  cos 
We know for constructive interference at P. The path difference must be an integral multiple of
wavelength . Thus for a maxima at P, we have
3  cos  = 0 ; 3  cos  =  ; 3  cos  = 2 ; 3  cos  = 3 ;
 –1 1 2
or, = or  = cos or  = cos–1 or =0
2 3 3

There are four points A, B, C and D on circle at which  = 0 or and there are two points in each
2
–11 –1 2
quadrant at   cos and  = cos at which constructive interference takes place. Thus there are
3 3
total twelve points on circle at which maxima occurs.
9.6 Vibrations of Clamped Rod

We have discussed the resonant vibrations of a string clamped at two ends. Now we discuss the
ocillations of a rod clamped at a point on its length as shown in figure. Figure shows a rod AB clamped
at its middle point. If we gently hit the rod at its one end, it begin to oscillate and in the natural
oscillations the rod vibrates at its lowest frequency and maximum wavelength, which we call fundamental
mode of oscillations. With maximum wavelength when transverse stationary waves setup in the rod,
the free ends vibrates as antinodes and the clamped end a node as shown in figure. Here if  be the
wavelength of the wave, we have

l= or  =2 l
2
C
A B
Thus the frequency of fundamental oscillations of a rod damped at mid point can be given as
v I Y
n0   ...(1)
 2l 
Where Y is the Young's modulus of the material of rod and  is the density of the material of rod.
Next higher frequency at which rod vibrates will be then one when wave length is decreased to a value
so that one node is inserted between mid point and an end of rod as shown in figure
C
A B
l
In this case if  be the wavelength of the waves in rod, we have
3
l=
2
2l
or  ...(2)
3
Thus in this case the oscillation frequency of rod can be given as
v 3 Y
n1    3n0 ...(3)
 2l 
This is called first overtone frequency of the damped rod or thid harmonic frequency. Similarly, the
next higher freqnecy of oscillation i.e. second overtone of the oscillating rod can be shown in figure
shown. Here is  be the wavelength of the wave then it can be given as
5 2l
l or  ...(4)
2 5
C
A B
l
Thus the frequency of oscillation of rod can be given as
v 5 Y
n2    5n0 ..(5)
 2l 
Thus the second overtone frequency is the fifth harmonic of the fundamental oscillation frequency of
rod. We can also see from the above analysis that the resonant freqencies at which stationary waves
are setup in a damped rod are only odd harmonics of fundamental frequency.
Thus when an external source of frequency matching with any of the harmonic of the damped rod then
stationary waves are setup in the rod.
9.7 Natural Oscillation of Organ Pipes
When we initiate some oscillations in an organ pipe, which harmonics are excited in the pipe depends
on how initial disturbance is produced in it. For example, if you gently blow across the top of an organ
pipe it resonates softly at its fundamental frequency. But if you blow must harder you hear the higher
pitch of an overtone because the faster airsteam higher frequencies in the exciting disturbance. This
sound effect can also be achieved by increasing the air pressure to an organ pipe.
9.8 Kundt's Tube
This is an apparatus used to find velocity of sound in a gaseous medium or in different materials. It
consists of a glass tube as shown in figure. one end of which a piston B is fitted which is attached to
a wooden handle H and can be moved inside and outside the tube and fixed, the rod M of the required
material is fixed at clamp C in which the velocity of sound is required, at one end of rod a disc A is fixed
as shown.
In tube air is filled at room temperature and a thin layer of lycopodium powder is put along the length
of the tube. It is a very fine powder particles of which can be displaced by the air particles also.
When rod M is gently rubbed with a resin cloth or hit gently, it starts oscillating in fundamental mode as
shown in figure, frequency of which can be given as
v 1 Y 
nrod   [As 0 = ]
 2l0  2
10. BEATS
When two sources of sound that have almost the same frequency are sounded together, an interesting
phenomenon occurs. A sound with a frequency average of the two is heard and the loudness of sound
repeatedly grows and then decays, rather than being constant. Such a repeated variation in amplitude
of sound are called 'beats".
If the frequency of one of the source is changed, there is a corresponding change in the rate at which
the amplitude varies. This rate is called beat fequency. As the frequencies come close together, the
beat frequency becomes slower. A musician can tune a guitar to another source by listening for the
beats while increasing or decreasing the tension in each string, eventually the beat frequency becomes
very low so that effectively no beats are heard, and the two sources are then in tune.
We can also expalin the phenomenon of beat mathematically. Let us consider the two superposing
waves have frequencies n1 and n2 then their respective equations of oscillation are
y1 = A sin 2n1t ...(1)
and y2 = A sin 2n2t ...(2)
On superposition at a point, the displacement of the medium particle is given as
y = y1 + y2
y = A sin 2n1t + A sin 2n2t
 n – n2   n1  n 2 
y  2 A cos 2  1  t sin 2  t ...(3)
 2   2 
 n  n2 
y  R sin 2 1 t ...(4)
 2 
There equation (4) gives the displacement of medium particle where susperposition takes place, it
n1  n 2
shows that the particle executes SHM with frequency , average of the two superposing
2
frequencies and with amplitude R which varies with time, given as
 n – n2 
R  2 A cos 2 1 t ...(5)
 2 
Here R becomes maximum when
 n – n2 
cos 2  1  t  1
 2 
 n – n2 
or 2 1  t  N [N  I]
 2 
N
or t
n1 – n 2
1 2
or at time t  0, , ,.........
n1 – n 2 n1 – n 2
At all the above time instants the sound of maximum loudness is heard, similarly we can find the time
instans when the loudness of sound is minimum, it occurs when
 n – n2 
cos 2 1 t0
 2 
 n – n2  
or 2 1  t  (2N  1) [N  I]
 2  2
2N  1
or t
2(n1  n 2 )
1 3
or at time instants t , ,.......
2(n1 – n 2 ) 2(n1 – n 2 )
Here we can see that these time instants are exactly lying in the middle of the instans when loudest
sound is heard. Thus on superposition of the above two frequencies at a medium particle, the sound
will be increasing, decreasing, again increasing and decreasing and so on. This effect is called beats.
Here the time between two successive maximum or minimum sounds is called beat period, which is
given as
Beat Period TB = time between two successive maxima = time between two successive minima
1

n1 – n 2
Thus beat frequency or number of beats heard per second can be given as
1
fB   n1 – n 2
TB
The superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies is graphically shown in figure. The
resulting envelope of the wave formed after superposition is also shown in figure (b). Such a wave
when propagates, produces "beat" effect at the medium particles.
10.1 Echo
The repetition of sound produced due to reflection by a distant extended surface like a different, hill
well, building etc. is called an echo. The effect of sound on human ear remains for approximately one
tenth of a second. If the sound is reflected back in a time less then 1/10 of a second, no echo is heard.
Hence human ears are not able to distinguish a beat frequency of 10 Hz or more than 10 Hz.
11. DOPPLER'S EFFECT

When a car at rest on a road sounds its high frequency horn and you are also standing on the road
near by, you'll hear the sound of same frequency it is sounding but when the car approaches you with
its horn sounding, the pich (frequency) of its sound seems to drop as the car passes. This phenomenon
was first described by an Austrain Scientist Christien Doppler, is called the Doppler effect, He explained
that when a source of sound and a listener are in motion relative to each other, the frequency of the
sound heard by the listener is not the same as the source frequency. Lets discuss the Doppler effect in
detail for different cases.
11.1 Stationary Source and Stationary Observer

Figure shown a stationary sources of frequency n0 which produces sound waves in air of wavelength 0
given as
v
0  [v = speed of sound in air]
n0
v
0 
n0
v
*
S *
Observer
Source
(n0 Hz)
Although sound waves are longitudinal, here we represent sound weaves by the transverse displacement
curve as shown in figure to understand the concept in a better way. As source produces waves, these
waves travel towards, stationary observer O in the medium (air) with speed v and wavelength 0. As
observer is at rest here it will observe the same wavelength 0 is approaching it with speed v so it will
listen the frequency n given as
v
n  n0 [same as that of source] ...(1)
0
This is why when a stationary observer listends the sound from a stationary source of sound, it
detects the same frequency sound which the source is producting. Thus no Doppler effect takes place
if there is no relative motion between source and observer.
11.2 Stationary Source and Moving Observer
Figure shown the case when a stationary sources of frequency n0 produces sound waves which have
wavelength in air given as
v
0 
n0
v
0 
n0
v
v0
* O
S Observer
Source
(n0 Hz)
These waves travel toward moving observer with velocity v0 towards, the source. When sound waves
approach observer, it will receive the waves of wavelength 0 with speed v + v0 (relative speed). Thus
the frequency of sound heard by observer can be given as
v  v0
Apparent frequency nap = 0
v  v0  v  v0 
  n0  
 v  v 
  ...(2)
 n0 
Similarly we can say that if the obsever is receding away from the source the apparent frequency
heard by the observer will be given as
 v – v0 
n ap  n 0   ...(3)
 v 
11.3 Moving Source and Stationary Observer
Figure shows the situation when a moving source S of frequency n0 produces sound waves in medium
(air) and the waves travel toward observer with velocity v.
0
 ap v
A
S* S' *O
vs Observer
Source
(n0 Hz)
 1
vs  
 n0 
Here if we carefully look at the initial situation when source starts moving with velocity vs as well as it
 1
starts producting waves. The period of one oscillation is  n  sec and in this duration source emits
 0
one wavelength 0 in the direction of propagation of waves with speed v, but in this duratin the source
 1
will also move forward by a distance vs  n  . Thus the effective wavelength of emitted sound in air is
 0
slightly compressed by this distance as shown in figure. This is termed as apparent wavelength of
sound in medium (air) by the moving source. This is given as
 1
Apparent wavelength  ap   0 – v s  n  ...(1)
 0
 0n0 – v s v – v s
 
n0 n0
Now this wavelength will approach observer with speed v ( O is at rest). Thus the frequency of sound
heard by observer can be given as
v
Apparent frequecy n ap 
 ap
v  v 
= ( v – v ) / n = n0  v – v  ...(2)
s 0  s
Similarly if source is receding away from observer, the apparent wavelength emitted by source in air
toward observer will be slightly expanded and the apparent frequency heard by the stationary observer
can be given as
 v 
nap  n0   ...(3)
 v  vs 
11.4 Moving Source and Moving Observer
Let us consider the situation when both source and observer are moving in same direction as shown in
figure at speeds vs and v0 respectively.
0
v
vs
S* *O
In this case the apparent wavelength emitted by the source behind it is given as
v  vs
 ap 
n0
Now this wavelength will approach the observer at relative speed v + v0 thus the apparent frequency
of sound heard by the observer is given as
v  v0  v  v0 
n ap  = n0   ...(1)
 ap  v  vs 
By looking at the expression of apparent frequency given by equation, we can easily develop a general
relation for finding the apparent frequency heard by a moving observer due to a moving source as
 v  v0 
n ap  n 0   ...(2)
 v  vs 
Here + and – signs are chosen according to the direction of motion of source and observer. The sign
covention related to the motion direction can be stated as :
(i) For both source and observer v0 and vs are taken in equation with –ve sign if they are moving in the

direction of v i.e. the direction of propagation of sound from source to observer..
(ii) For both source and observer v0 and vs are taken in equation (2) with +ve sign if they are moving in

the direction opposite to v i.e. opposite to the direction of propagation of sound from source to
observer.
11.5 Doppler Effect in Reflected Sound

When a car is moving toward a stationary wall as shown in figure. If the car sounds a horn, wave
travels towards the wall and is reflected from the wall. When the reflected wave is heard by the driver,
it appears to be of relatively high pitch. If we wish to measure the frequency of reflected sound then
the problem must be handled in two steps.
reflected sound
vc
First we treat the stationary wall as stationary observer and car as a moving source of sound of
frequency n0. In this case the frequency received by the wall is given as
 v 
n1  n 0   ...(1)
 v – vc 
Now wall reflects this frequency and behaves like a stationary source of sound of frequency n1 and car
(driver) behave like a moving observer with velocity vc. Here the apparent frequency heard by the car
driver can be given as
 v  vc 
n ap  n1  
 v 
 v   v  vc   v  vc 
= n 0  v – v    v  = n 0  v – v  (2)
 c  c
Same problem can also be solved in a different manner by using method of sound images. In this
procedure we assume the image of the sound source behind the reflector. In previous example we can
explain this by situation shown in figure.
ve
vc
Here we assume that the sound which is reflected by the stationary wall is coming from the image of
car which is at the back of it and coming toward it with velocity vc. Now the frequency of sound heard
by car driver can directly be given as
 v  vc 
nap = n0  v – v  ...(3)
 c
This method of images for solving problems of Doppler effect is very convenient but is used only for
velocities of source and observer which are very small compared to the speed of sound and it should
not be used frequenctly when the reflector of sound is moving.
11.6 Doppler's Effect for Accelerated Motion

For the case of a moving source and a moving observer, we known the apparent frequency observer
can be given as
 v  v0 
n ap  n 0   ...(4)
 v  vs 
Here v is the velocity of sound and v0 and vs are the velocity of observer and source respectively.
When a source of observer has accelerated or ratarded motion then in equation (4) we use that value
of v0 at which observer receies the sound and for source, we use that value of vs at which it has
emitted the wave.
The alternative method of solving this case is by the traditional method of compressing or expending
wavelength of sound by motion of source and using relative velocity of sound with respect to observer
11.7 Doppler's Effect when Source and Observer are not in Same Line of Motion
Consider the situation shown in figure. Two cars 1 and 2 are moving along perpendicular roads at speed
v1 and v2. When car - 1 sound a horn of frequency n0, it emits sound in all directions and say car - 2 is
at the position, shown in figure. when it receives the sound. In such cases we use velocity components
of the cars along the line joining the source and observer thus the apparent frequency of sound heard
by car-2 can be given as
 v  v 2 cos  2 
n ap  n 0   ...(6.266)
 v – v1 cos 1 
car-1
1 v1
v2
Car-2
2
(Only one option is correct) (A) 2.5 × 10–4 (B) 2 × 10–4

1. The elevation of a cloud is 60°above the hori- (C) 2.0 × 10–2 (D) 2.5 × 10–2
zon. A thunder is heard 8 s after the observa- 6. A wave travels uniformly in all directions from
tion of lighting. The speed of sound is 330 ms– a point source in an isotropic medium. The
1
. The vertical height of cloud from ground is displacement of the medium at any point at a
distancer r from the source may be represented
by (A is a constant representing strength of
Cloud
source)
(A) [ A / r ] sin (kr – t) (B) [A/r] sin (kr – t)

(C) [Ar] sin (kr – t) (D) [A/r2] sin (kr – t)
60°
7. How many times more intense is 90 dB sound
Horizon than 40 dB sound?
(A) 2826 m (B) 2682 m
(A) 5 (B) 50
(C) 2286 m (D) 2068 m
(C) 500 (D) 105
2. The ratio of speed of sound in neon to that in
water vapours at any temperature (when mo- 8. In a test of subsonic Jet flies over head at an
lecular weight of neon is 2.02 × 10–2 kg mol–1 altitude of 100m. The sound intensity on the
and for water vapours is 1.8 × 10 –2 –1
kg mol ) ground as the Jet passes overhead is 160 dB.
(A) 1.06 (B) 1.60 (C) 6.10 (D) 15.2 At what altitude should the plane fly so that
the ground noise is not greater than 120 dB.
3. A Firecracker exploding on the surface of a
(A) above 10km from ground
lake is heard as two sounds a time interval t
(B) above 1 km from ground
apart by a man on a boat close to water
(C) above 5 km from ground
surface. Sound travels with a speed u in water
(D) above 8 km from ground
and a sped v in air. The distance from the
exploding firecracker to the boat is 9. When two waves with same frequency and
uvt t (u  v ) constant phase difference interfere,
(A) (B)
uv uv (A) there is a gain of energy
t (u  v) uvt (B) there is a loss of energy
(C) (D)
uv uv (C) the energy is redistributed and the distri-
4. The energy per unit area associated with a bution changes with time
progressive sound wave will be doubled if : (D) the energy is redistributed and the distri-
(A) the amplitude of the wave is doubled bution remains constant in time
(B) the amplitude of the wave is increased by
10. Sound waves from a tuning fork F reach a point
50%
P by two separate routes FAP and FBP (when
(C) the amplitude of the wave is increased by
FBP is greater than FAP by 12 cm there is si-
41%
lence at P). If the difference is 24 cm the
(D) None of these
sound becomes maximum at P but at 36 cm
5. A sound level I is greater by 3.0103 dB from there is silence again and so on. If velocity of
another sound of intensity 10 nW cm . The –2 sound in air is 330 ms–1, the least frequency of
absolute value of intensity of sound level I in tuning fork is :
Wm–2 is : (A) 1537 Hz (B) 1735 Hz
(C) 1400 Hz (D) 1375 Hz
(C) 10 log 3 (D) 20 log 2

11. S1 and S2 are two sources of sound emitting
15. In Quincke’s tube a detector detects minimum
sine waves. The two sources are in phase.
intensity. Now one of the tube is displaced by
The sound emmited by the two sources inter-
5 cm. During displacement detector detects
fere at point F. The waves of wavelength :
maximum intensity 10 times, then finally a
minimum intensity (when displacement is
2m 4m
S1 complete). The wavelength of sound is:
S2 F
(A) 10/9 cm (B) 1 cm
(A) 1 m will result in constructive interference
(C) 1/2 cm (D) 5/9 cm
2 16. The ratio of maximum to minimum intensity due
(B) m will result in constructive interference
3 49
to superposition of two waves is . Then the
(C) 4m will result in destructive interference 9
(D) All the above ratio of the intensity of component waves is
25 16
12. Three coherent waves of equal frequencies (A) (B)
4 25
having amplitude 10 m, 4 m, and 7  m 4 9
(C) (D)
49 49
respectively, arrive at a given point with
17. Two waves of sound having intensities I and 4I
successive phase difference of  / 2. the
interfere to produce interference pattern. The
amplitude of the resulting wave in m is given

by phase difference between the waves is at
2
(A) 5 (B) 6 point A and  at point B. Then the difference
(C) 3 (D) 4 between the resultant intensities at A and B is
13. A person standing at a distance of 6 m from a (A) 2I (B) 4I
source of sound receives sound wave In two (C) 5I (D) 7I
ways, one directly from the source and other 18. A cylindrical tube, open at one end and closed
after reflection from a rigid boundary as shown at the other, is in acoustic unison with an ex-
in figure. The maximum wavelength for which, ternal source of frequency held at the open
the person Will receive maximum sound end of the tube, in its fundamental note. Then
intensity, is (A) the displacement wave from the source
S
5m gets reflected with a phase change of  at the
closed end
6m
(B) the pressure wave from the source get re-
4m
flected without a phase change at the closed end
P (C) the wave reflected from the closed end
16 again gets reflected at the open end
(A) 4 m (B) m (D) All the above
3
19. Sound waves of frequency 660 Hz fall normally
8
(C) 2 m (D) m on a perfectly reflecting wall. The shortest
3
distance from the wall at which the air particle
14. The ratio of intensities between two coherent has maximum amplitude of vibration is (velocity
sound sources is 4:1 The difference of loudness of sound in air is 330 m/s)
in dB between maximum and minimum (A) 0.125 m (B) 0.5 m
intensities when they interfere in space is (C) 0.25 m (D) 2 m
(A) 10log 2 (B) 20 log 3 20. At the closed end of an organ pipe :
(A) the displacement is zero 2

correction,  is -
(B) the displacement is maximum 1
(C) the wave pressure is zero d

(D) None of these
21. An open organ pipe of length L vibrates in its 

fundamental mode. The pressure variation is
maximum
(A) at the two ends
(B) at the middle of the pipe
(   0.6d) 1 (   0.3 d)
(C) at distance L/4 inside the ends (A) (B)
(   0.3d) 2 (   0.6 d)
(D) at distance L/8 inside the ends
1 (   0.6 d) 1 (d  0.3 )
22. The effect of making a hole exactly at (1/3rd) (C) (D)
2 (   0.3 d) 2 (d  0.6 )
of the length of the pipe from its closed end is
such that : 25. An open organ pipe of length L vibrates in
(A) its fundamental frequency is an octave second harmonic mode. The pressure vibration
is maximum
higher than the open pipe of same length
(B) its fundamental frequency is thrice that (A) At the two ends
(B) at a distance L/4 from either end inside
before making a hole
the tube
(C) the fundamental alone is changed while
the harmonics expressed as ratio of fundamen- (C) At the mid-point of the tube
(D) None of these
tals remain the same
(D) All the above 26. An open organ pipe of length l is sounded
23. The displacement sound wave in a medium is together with another organ pipe of length l +
x in their fundamental tones (x << l). The beat
given by the equation Y = A cos (ax + bt)
frequency heard will be (speed of sound is v) :
where A, a and b are positive constants. The
wave is reflected by an obstacle situated at x vx vl 2
(A) (B)
4l 2 2x
= 0. The intensity of the reflected wave is
vx vx 2
0.64 times that of the incident wave. Tick the (C) 2 (D)
2l 2l
statement among the following that is incor-
rect. 27. A sufficiently long close organ pipe has a small
hole at its bottom. Initially the pipe is empty.
(A) the wavelength and frequency of the wave
are 2/a and b/2 respectively Water is poured into the pipe at a constant
rate. The fundamental frequency of the air
(B) the amplitude of the reflected wave is 0.8 A
(C) the resultant wave formed after reflection column in the pipe
(A) Continuously increasing
is y = A cos (ax + bt) + [–0.8 A cos (ax – bt)]
(B) First increases and them becomes constant
and Vmax (maximum particle speed) is 1.8 bA
(D) the equation of the standing wave so (C) Continuously decreases
formed is y = 1.6 A sin ax cos bt (D) First decreases and them become constant
24. A tube of diameter d and of length  unit is 28. A tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz is vibrated
open at both ends. Its fundamental frequency just above a cylindrical tube of length 120 cm.
of resonance is found to be 1. The velocity of Water is slowly poured in the tube. If the speed
sound in air is 330 m/sec. One end of tube is of sound is 340 ms–1 then the minimum height
now closed. The lowest frequency of resonance of water required for resonance is:
of tube is 2. Taking into consideration the end (A) 95 cm (B) 75 cm
(C) 45 cm (D) 25 cm
29. An organ pipe P1 closed at one end vibrating in 36. A closed organ pipe has length ‘l’. The air in it
its first overtone. Another pipe P2 open at both is vibrating in 3 rd overtone with maximum
ends is vibrating in its third overtone. They displacement amplitude ‘a’. The displacement
are in a resonance with a given tuning fork. amplitude at distance l / 7 from closed end of
The ratio of the length of P1 to that of P2 is: the pipe is :
(A) 8/3 (B) 3/8 (A) 0 (B) a
(C) 1/2 (D) 1/3 (C) a / 2 (D) none of these
30. In a closed end pipe of length 105 cm, standing 37. The first resonance length of a resonance tube
waves are set up corresponding to the third is 40cm and the second resonance length is
overtone. What distance from the closed end, 122 cm. The third resonance length of the tube
amongst the following, is a pressure Node? will be
(A) 20 cm (B) 60 cm (A) 200 cm (B) 202 cm
(C) 85 cm (D) 45 cm
(C) 203 cm (D) 204 cm
31. A pipe’s lower end is immersed in water such
38. The tuning forks A & B produce notes of fre-
that the length of air column from the top open
quencies 256 Hz & 262 Hz respectively. An un-
end has a certain length 25 cm. The speed of
sound in air is 350 m/s. The air column is found known note sounded at the sametime as A
to resonate with a tuning fork of frequency produces beats. When the same note is
1750 Hz. By what minimum distance should the sounded with B, beat frequency is twice as
pipe be raised in order to make the air column large. The unknown frequency could be :
resonate again with the same tuning fork (A) 268 Hz (B) 250 Hz
(A) 7 cm (B) 5 cm (C) 260 Hz (D) none of these
(C) 35 cm (D) 10 cm
39. The number of beats heard per second if there
32. In case of closed organ pipe which harmonic are three sources of frequencies (n – 1), n
the pth overtone will be and (n + 1) of equal intensities sounded to-
(A) 2p + 1 (B) 2p – 1 gether is :
(C) P + 1 (D) p – 1 (A) 2 (B) 1
33. A closed organ pipe of radius r1 and an open (C) 4 (D) 3
organ pipe of radius r2 and having same length
40. A tuning fork of frequency 280 Hz produces 10
L resonate when excited with a given tunning
fork. Closed organ pipe resonates in its beats per sec when sounded with a vibrating
fundamental mode where as open organ pipe sonometer string. When the tension in the
resonates in its first overtone, then string increases slightly, it produces 11 beats
(A) r2 – r1 = L (B) r2 – r1 = L/2 per sec. The original frequency of the vibrating
(C) r2 – 2r1 = 2.5 L (D) 2r2 – r1 = 2.5 L sonometer string is :
(A) 269 Hz (B) 291 Hz
34. First overtone frequency of a closed organ pipe
is equal to the first overtone frequency of an (C) 270 Hz (D) 290 Hz
open organ pipe. Further nth harmonic of closed 41. A closed organ pipe and an open pipe of same
organ pipe is also equal to the mth harmonic of
length produce 4 beats when they are set into
open pipe, where n and m are :
(A) 5, 4 (B) 7, 5 vibrations simultaneously. If the length of each
(C) 9, 6 (D) 7, 3. of them were twice their initial lengths, the
number of beats produced will be
35. If I1 and I2 are the lengths of air column for the
(A) 2 (B) 4
first and second resonance when a tuning fork
of frequency n is sounded on a resonance tube, (C) 1 (D) 8
then the distance of the displacement antinode 42. The speed of sound in a gas, in which two
from the top end of the resonance tube is :
waves of wavelength 1.0 m and 1.02 m produce
1
(A) 2(l2 – l1) (B) ( 2l1  l 2 ) 6 beats per second, is approximately :
2
l2  3l1 l2  l1 (A) 350 m/s (B) 300 m/s
(C) (D)
2 2 (C) 380 m/s (D) 410 m/s
43. Two trains move towards each other with the percentage change in frequency as the source
same speed. Speed of sound is 340 ms–1. If recedes the observer with the same speed.
the pitch of the tone of the whistle of one Given that vs < v. (v = speed of sound in air)
when heard on the other changes by 9/8 times, (A) 14.3% (B) 20%
then the speed of each train is : (C) 10.0% (D) 8.5%
47. Consider two sound sources S1 and S2 having

same frequency 100Hz and the observer O
located between them as shown in the fig. All
the three are moving with same velocity in same
v v direction. The beat frequency of the observer
(A) 2 ms–1 (B) 40 ms–1 is
(C) 20 ms–1 (D) 100 ms–1
–1
S1 30ms O 30ms
–1
S2 30ms–1
44. Source and observer both start moving simul-
(A) 50 Hz (B) 5 Hz
taneously from origin, one along X-axis and the
(C) zero (D) 2.5 Hz
other along Y-axis with speed of source equal
to twice the speed of observer. The graph be- 48. An engine whistling at a constant frequency
tween the apparent frequency (n) observed n0 and moving with a constant velocity goes
by observer and time t would be : (n is the past a stationary observer. As the engine
frequency of the source) crosses him, the frequency of the sound heard
n' n' by him changes by a factor f. The actual
difference in the frequencies of the sound heard
n' n by him before and after the engine crosses
(A) (B) him is
n n'
1 1  1 f 2 
(B) 2 n 0  f 
t t 2
(A) n 0 (1  f )
2  
n' n'
 1– f  1  1– f 
(C) n 0  1 f  (D) 2 n 0  1 f 
 
n' n
(C) (D)
49. A stationary sound source ‘s’ of frequency 334
n n'
Hz and a stationary observer ‘O’ are placed
t t near a reflecting surface moving away from
45. A small source of sound moves on a circle as
the source with velocity 2m/sec as shown in
shown in fig. and an observer is sitting at O.
Let at 1, 2 3 be the frequencies heard when the figure. If the velocity of the sound waves
the source is at A, B, and C respectively. in air is V = 330 m/sec, the apparent frequency
A of the echo is
o s
C O
B (A) 332 Hz (B) 326 Hz

(A) 1 > 2 > 3 (B) 1 = 2 > 3
(C) 334 Hz (D) 330 Hz
(C) 2 > 3 > 1 (D) 1 > 3 > 2 50. A source S of frequency f0 and an observer O,
46. The frequency changes by 10% as a sound moving with speeds v1 and v2 respectively, are
source approaches a stationary observer with moving away from each other. When they are
constant speed v s . What would be the separated by distance a (t = 0), a pulse is
emitted by the source. This pulse is received 54. A source of sound S having frequency f. Wind
by O at time t1 then t1, is equal to is blowing from source to observer O with
a a velocity u. If speed of sound with respect to
(A) v  v (B) v  v
s 2 1 s air is C, the wavelength of sound detected by
a a O is :
(C) v  v (D) v  v  v
s 2 1 2 s
Cu C–u
51. A detector is released from rest over a source (A) (B)
f f
of sound of frequency f 0 = 10 3 Hz. The
frequency observed by the detector at time t C(C  u) C
(C) (D)
is plotted in the graph. The speed of sound in (C – u)f f
air is (g = 10 m/s2)
55. Two sound sources each emitting sound of
wavelength  are fixed some distance apart. A
f(Hz)
listener moves with a velocity u along the line
2000 joining the two sources. The number of beats
1000 heard by him per second is -
30 t(s) 2u u
(A) (B)
 
(A) 330 m/s (B) 350 m/s

u 2
(C) 300 m/s (D) 310 m/s (C) (D)
3 u
52. An observer starts moving with uniform
acceleration ‘a’ towards a stationary sound
source of frequency f. As the observer
approaches the source, the apparent frequency
f’ heard by the observer varies with time t as :
f f
(A) (B)
t t
f
f'
(C) (D)
t
t
53. A sounding body of negligible dimension emitting

a frequency of 150 Hz is dropped from a height.
During its fall under gravity it passes near a
balloon moving up with a constant velocity of
2m/s one second after it started to fall. The
difference in the frequency observed by the
man in balloon just before and just after crossing
the body will be : (Given that - velocity of
sound = 300m/s ; g = 10 m/s2)
(A) 12 (B) 6
(C) 8 (D) 4
Exercise - II (ONLY ONE OPTION IS CORRECT)
Question No. 1 to 6 (6 questions) are traveling in the same direction but are 90°
The figure represents the instantaneous picture out of phase. Compared to the individual waves,
of a longitudinal harmonic wave travelling along the resultant wave will have the same.
the negative x-axis. Identify the correct (A) amplitude and velocity but different
statement(s) wavelength
related to the movement of the points shown (B) amplitude and wavelength but different
in the figure. velocity
(C) wavelength and velocity but different
y v i
a amplitude
b h j (D) amplitude and frequency but different
g
o c x velocity.
d f k
e
1. The points moving in the direction of wave
are R
(A) b (B) c S
(C) f (D) i
2. The points moving opposite to the direction of
propagation are
D
(A) a (D) d A narrow tube is bent in the form of a circle of
(C) f (D) j radius R, as shown in the figure. Two small
3. The stationary points are holes S and D are made in the tube at the
(A) a (B) c positions right angle to each other. A source
(C) g (D) k placed at S generated a wave of intensity I0
which is equally divided into two parts : One
4. The maximum displaced points are
part travels along the longer path, while the
(A) a (B) e
other travels along the shorter path. Both the
(C) g (D) i
part waves meet at the point D where a detector
5. The points of maximum compression are is placed
(A) c (B) g
10. If a maxima is formed at the detector then,
(C) e (D) k
the magnitude of wavelength  of the wave
6. The points of maximum rarefaction are produced is given by
(A) a (B) e R
(C) g (D) i (A) R (B)
2
7. Which of the following graphs is/are correct. R 2 R
(C) (D)
4 3
sound in air)
sound in air)2
(Velocity of
(Velocity of
(T=constat)
11. If the minima is formed at the detector then,
(A) Parabola (B) the magnitude of wavelength  of the wave
Pressure
produced is given by
Temperature
3 R
(A) 2R (B)
(Fundamental freq.
2
wave in a string)
of an organ pipe)
2 R 2 R
(Velocity of
transverse
(C) (D)
(C) Parabola
(D) 3 5
12. The maximum intensity produced at D is given
Tension Length of organ pipe
by
8. Which of the following statements are wrong (A) 4I0 (B) 2I0
about the velocity of sound in air : (C) I0 (D) 3I0
(A) decreases with increases in temperature 13. The maximum value of  to produce a maxima
(B) increases with decrease in temperature at D is given by
(C) decreases as humidity increases (A) R (B) 2R
(D) independent of density of air.
R 3 R
9. Two interfering waves have the same (C) (D)
wavelength, frequency, and amplitude, They 2 2
14. The maximum value of  to produce a minima 20. In an organ pipe whose one end is at x = 0,
at D is given by the pressure is expressed by
(A) R (B) 2R 3 x
p  p 0 cos sin 300  t where x is in meter and
R 3 R 2
(C) (D)
2 2 t in sec. The organ pipe can be
15. The second overtone of an open organ pipe A (A) closed at one end, open at another with
and a closed pipe B have the same frequency length = 0.5 m
at a given temperature. If follows that the ratio (B) open at both ends, length = 1m
of the (C) closed at both ends, length = 2m
(A) length of A and B is 4 : 3 (D) closed at one end, open at another with
(B) fundamental frequencies of A & B is 5 : 6 2
length = m
(C) lengths of B to that of A is 5 : 6 3
(D) frequencies of first overtone of A & B is 10 : 9 21. Two whistles A and B each have a frequency
16. Four open organ pipes of different lengths and of 500 Hz. A is stationary and B is moving
different gases at same temperature as shown towards the right (away from A) at a speed of
in figure. Let fA, fB, fC and fD be their fundamental 50 m/s. An observer is between the two whistles
moving towards the right with a speed of 25
frequencies then : [Take  CO2 = 7/5] m/s. The velocity of sound in air is 350 m/s.
H2 Assume there is no wind. Then which of the
following statements are true.
(A) The apparent frequency of whistle B as
O2 N2 heard by A is 444Hz approximately
l
CO2 (B) The apparent frequency of whistle B as
l/2 2l/3 heard by the observer is 469 Hz approximately
l/3 (C) The difference in the apparent frequencies
of A and B as heard by the observer is 4.5 Hz
(A) (B) (C) (D) (D) The apparent frequencies of the whistles
(B) fB / fC  72 / 28 of each other as heard by A and B are the
(A) fA/ fB = 2 same
(C) fC/fD = 11 / 28 (D) fD /fA = 76 / 11 22. A source of sound moves towards an observer
17. A gas is filled in an organ pipe and it is sounded (A) the frequency of the source is increased
with an organ pipe in fundamental mode. (B) the velocity of sound in the medium is
Choose the correct statement(s) : (T = increased
constant) (C) the wavelength of sound in the medium
(A) If gas is changed from H 2 to O 2 , the towards the observer is decreased
resonant frequency will increase (D) the amplitude of vibration of the particles
(B) If gas is changed from O 2 to N 2 , the is increased
resonant frequency will increase 23. A car moves towards a hill with speed vc. It
(C) If gas is changed from N 2 to He, the blows a horn of frequency f which is heard by
resonant frequency will decrease an observer following the car with speed v0.
(D) If gas is changed from He to CH4, the The speed of sound in air is v.
resonant frequency will decrease (A) the wavelength of sound reaching the hill
18. A closed organ pipe of length 1.2 m vibrates in v
its first overtone mode. The pressure variation is
f
is maximum at : (B) the wavelength of sound reaching the hill
(A) 0.8m from the open end
(B) 0.4 m from the open end v  vc
is
(C) at the open end f
(D) 1.0 m from the open end (C) the beat frequency observed by the
19. For a certain organ pipe three successive  v  v0 
resonance frequencies are observed at 425 Hz, observer is  v  v  f
 c
595 Hz and 765 Hz respectively. If the speed
(D) the beat frequency observed by the
of sound in air is 340 m/s, then the length of
the pipe is 2v c ( v  v 0 ) f
v 2  v c2
(A) 2.0 m (B) 0.4 m observer is
(C) 1.0 m (D) 0.2 m

1. A sound wave of frequency 100 Hz is travelling detector D as in figure. B
in air. The speed of sound in air is 350 m/s. (a) (b) Also determine the intensity of the resultant
By how much is the phase changed at a given sound wave as recorded by detector D . Velocity
point in 2.5 ms? (b) What is the phase differ- of sound = 340 m/s.
ence at a given instant between two points A 2.4m
separated by a distance of 10.0 cm along the D
direction of propagation? 90°
2. The equation of a travelling sound wave is y =
1m
6.0 sin (600 t - 1.8 x) where y is measured in
10-5 m, t in second and x in metre. (a) Find the
ratio of the displacement amplitude of the par-
ticles to the wavelength of the wave. (b) Find
B
the ratio of the velocity amplitude of the par-
ticles to the wave speed. 10. Two identical loudspeakers are located at points
A & B, 2 m apart. The loudspeakers are driven
3. A man stands before a large wall at a distance by the same amplifier. A small detector is moved
of 100.0 m and claps his hands at regular in- out from point B along a line perpendicular to
tervals. In such way that echo of a clap merges the line connecting A & B. Taking speed of
with the next clap. If he has to clap 5 times sound in air as 332 m/s. Find the frequency
during every 3 seconds, find the velocity of below which there will be no position along the
sound in air. line BC at which destructive interference oc-
4. Calculate the speed of sound in oxygen from curs.
A
the following data. The mass of 22.4 litre of
oxygen at STP 2m
(T = 273 K and p= 1.0 x 105 N/m2) is 32 g, the
molar heat capacity of oxygen at constant vol- B
ume is Cv = 2.5 R and that at constant pres-
sure is Cp = 3.5 R. 11. A source of sound S and a detector D are
5. In a mixture of gases, the average number of placed at some distance from one another. A
degrees of freedom per molecule is 6. The rms big cardboard is placed near the detector and
speed of the molecules of the gas is c. Find perpendicular to the line SD as shown in fig-
the velocity of sound in the gas. ure. It is gradually moved away and it is found
that the intensity changes from a maximum to
6. Find the intensity of sound wave whose
a minimum as the board is moved through a
frequency is 250 Hz. The displacement
distance of 20 cm. Find the frequency of the
amplitude of particles of the medium at this
sound emitted. Velocity of sound in air is 336
position is 1 × 10–8 m. The density of the
m/s.
medium is 1 kg/m3, bulk modulus of elasticity
of the medium is 400 N/m2.
7. Two identical sounds A and B reach a point in
the same phase. The resultant sound is C. The S D
loudness of C is n dB higher than the loudness
of A. Find the value of n.
8. The loudness level at a distance R from a long 12. Sound of wavelength  passes through a
linear source of sound is found to be 40dB. At Quincke’s tube, which is adjusted to give a
this point, the amplitude of oscillations of air maximum intensity I0. Find the distance through
molecules is 0.01 cm. Then find the loudness the sliding tube should be moved to give an
level & amplitude at a point located at a intensity I0/2.
distance ‘10R’ from the source. 13. The stationary wave y = 2a sin kx cos w t in
9. Two point sound sources A and B each of power a closed organ pipe is the result of the
superposition of y = a sin (wt – kx) &
25 W and frequency 850 Hz are 1 m apart.
(a) Determine the phase difference between 14. The equation of a longitudinal standing wave
the waves emitting from A and B received by due to superposition of the progressive waves
produced by Two sources of sound is s = –20 20. An open organ pipe filled with air has a
sin 10 x sin 100 t where s is the displace- fundamental frequency 500 Hz. The first
ment from mean position measured in mm, x is harmonic of another organ pipe closed at one
in metres and t in seconds. The specific grav- end and filled with carbon dioxide has the same
ity of the medium is 10-3. Density of water = frequency as that of the first harmonic of the
103 kg/m3. Find: open organ pipe. Calculate the length of each
(a) Wavelength, frequency and velocity of the pipe. Assume that the velocity of sound in air
progressive waves. and in carbondioxide to be 330 and 264 m/s
(b) Bulk modulus of the medium and the pres- respectively.
sure amplitude . 21. Two identical piano wires have a fundamental
(c) Minimum distance between pressure antin- frequency of 600 vib/sec, when kept under
ode and a displacement antinode. the same tension. What fractional increase in
(d) Intensity at the displacement nodes. the tension of one wire will lead to the occur-
15. A tube 1.0 m long is closed at one end. A wire rence of six beats per second when both wires
of length 0.3 m and mass 1 × 10–2 kg is vibrate simultaneously.
stretched between two fixed ends and is placed 22. A metal wire of diameter 1 mm, is held on two
near the open end. When the wire is plucked knife edges separated by a distance of 50 cm.
at its mid point the air column resonates in its The tension in the wire is 100 N. The wire
1st overtone. Find the tension in the wire if it vibrating in its fundamental frequency and a
vibrates in its fundamental mode. Vibrating tuning fork together produces 5 beats
[Vsound = 330 m/s] per sec. The tension in the wire is then re-
16. A closed organ pipe of length  = 100 cm is cut duced to 81 N. When the two are excited,
into two unequal pieces. The fundamental fre- beats are again at the same rate. Calculate
quency of the new closed organ pipe piece is (a) the frequency of the fork
found to be same as the frequency of first (b) the density of the material of the wire.
overtone of the open organ pipe piece. Deter- 23. Two stationary sources A and B are sounding
mine the length of the two pieces and the notes of frequency 680 Hz. An observer moves
fundamental tone of the open pipe piece. Take from A to B with a constant velocity u. If the
velocity of sound = 320 m/s. speed of sound is 340 ms–1, what must be the
17. Find the number of possible natural oscillations value of u so that he hears 10 beats per second
of air column in a pipe whose frequencies lie 24. Tuning fork A when sounded with a tuning fork
below v0 = 1250 Hz. The length of the pipe is  B of frequency 480 Hz gives 5 beats per second.
= 85 cm. The velocity of sound is v = 340 m/s. When the prongs of A are loaded with wax, it
Consider the two cases: gives 3 beats per second. Find the original
(a) the pipe is closed from one end frequency of A.
(b) the pipe is opened from both ends.
The open ends of the pipe are assumed to be 25. A, B and C are three tuning forks. Frequency
the antinodes of displacement. of A is 350 Hz. Beats produced by A and B are
5 per second and by B and C are 4 per second.
18. The first overtone of a pipe closed at one end When a wax in put on A beat frequency
resonates with the third harmonic of a string between A and B is 2Hz and between A and C
fixed at its ends. The ratio of the speed of is 6Hz. Then, find the frequency of B and C
sound to the speed of transverse wave respectively.
travelling on the string is 2 : 1. Find the ratio
of the length of pipe to the length of string. 26. S, O & W represent source of sound (of fre-
quency f), observer & wall respectively. V0,
19. In a resonance-column experiment, a long tube, Vs, VD, V are velocity of observer, source, wall
open at the top, is clamped vertically. By a & sound (in still air) respectively. VW is the
separate device, water level inside the tube velocity of wind. They are moving as shown.
can be moved up or down. The section of the Find
tube from the open end to the water level act
as a closed organ pipe. A vibrating tuning fork
is held above the open end, first and the vw vD
second resonances occur when the water level
is 24.1 cm and 74.1 cm respectively below the V0
vs
open end. Find the diameter of the tube. [Hint
: end correction is 0.3d]
(i) The wavelength of the waves coming to- 29. The loudness level at a distance R from a long
wards the observer from source. linear source of sound is found to be 40dB. At
(ii) The wavelength of the waves incident on this point, the amplitude of oscillations of air
the wall. molecules is 0.01 cm. Then find the loudness
(iii) The wavelength of the waves coming to- level & amplitude at a point located at a
wards observer from the wall. distance ‘10R’ from the source.
(iv) Frequency of the waves (as detected by
O) coming from wall after reflection. 30. A fixed source of sound emitting a certain
frequency appears as fa when the observer is
27. S is source R is receiver. R and S are at rest. approaching the source with speed v and
Frequency of sound from S is f. Find the beat frequency fr when the observer recedes from
frequency registered by R. Velocity of sound is v. the source with the same speed. Find the
u frequency of the source.
(const.)
31. The first overtone of an open organ pipe beats
S with the first overtone of a closed organ pipe
R
with a beat frequency of 2.2 Hz. The funda-
mental frequency of the closed organ pipe is
110 Hz. Find the lengths of the pipes. Velocity
of sound = 330 m/s
28. A car moving towards a vertical wall sounds a
horn. The driver hears that the sound of the
horn reflected from the cliff has a pitch half-
octave higher than the actual sound. Find the
ratio of the velocity of the car and the velocity
of sound.

1. The displacement of the medium in a sound the wall A with velocity u = 30 m/s and air
wave is given by the equation ; y1 = A cos(ax columns in chamber 1 and 2 vibrates with mini-
+ bt) where A, a & b are positive constants. mum frequency such that there is node (dis-
The wave is reflected by an obstacle situated placement)
at x = 0. The intensity of the reflected wave is at B and antinode (displacement) at A. Find
0.64 times that of the incident wave. (i) the fundamental frequency of air column.
(a) what are the wavelength & frequency of (ii) Find the frequency of tuning fork.
the incident wave. Assume velocity of sound in the first and sec-
(b) write the equation for the reflected wave. ond chamber be 1100 m/s and 300 m/s re-
(c) in the resultant wave formed after reflec- spectively. Velocity of sound in air 330 m/s.
tion, find the maximum & minimum values of A B C
the particle speeds in the medium.
1 2
2. (a) A standing wave in second overtone is
maintained in a open organ pipe of length l. v1= 1100 m/s
v2 = 300 m/s
The distance between consecutive displace-
ment node and pressure node is
______________.
(b) Two consecutive overtones produced by a 0.5 m 1.0 m
narrow air column closed at one end and open 5. A source emits sound waves of frequency 1000
at the other are 750 Hz and 1050 Hz. Then the Hz. The source moves to the right with a speed
fundamental frequency from the column is of 32 m/s relative to ground. On the right a
______________. reflecting surface moves towards left with a
(c) A standing wave of frequency 1100 Hz in a speed of 64 m/s relative to the ground. The
column of methane at 20°C produces nodes speed of sound in air is 332 m/s. Find
that are 20 cm apart. What is the ratio of the (a) the wavelength of sound in air incident on
heat capacity at constant pressure to that at reflecting surface
constant volume. (b) the number of waves arriving per second
3. Two speakers are driven by the same oscillator which meet the reflecting surface.
with frequency of 200 Hz. They are located 4 (c) the speed of reflected waves.
m apart on a vertical pole. A man walks straight (d) the wavelength of reflected waves.
towards the lower speaker in a direction 6. A supersonic jet plane moves parallel to the
perpendicular to the pole, as shown in figure. ground at speed v = 0.75 mach (1 mach =
speed of sound). The frequency of its engine
sound is 0 = 2kHz and the height of the jat
plane is h = 1.5 km. At some instant an ob-
server on the ground hears a sound of fre-
quency  = 20, Find the instant prior to the
instant of hearing when the sound wave re-
ceived by the observer was emitted by the jet
plane. Velocity of sound wave in the condition
(a) How many times will he hear a minimum in of observer = 340 m/s.
sound intensity, and
(b) how far is he from the pole at these mo- 7. A train of length l is moving with a constant
ments ? speed v along a circular track of radius R, The
Take the speed of sound to be 330 m/s, and engine of the train emits a whistle of frequency
f. Find the frequency heard by a guard at the
ignore any sound reflections coming off the
ground. rear end of the train. Make suitable assump-
tion.
4. A cylinder ABC consists of two chambers 1
and 2 which contains two different gases. The 8. A bullet travels horizontally at 660 m/s at a
height of 5 m from a man. How far is the bullet
wall C is rigid but the walls A and B are thin
from the man when he hears its whistle? Ve-
diaphragms. A vibrating tuning fork approaches
locity of sound in air = 340 m/s.

1. A whistle emitting a sound of frequency 440 (A) 2 × 108 m/s (B) 2 × 107 m/s
Hz is tied to a string of 1.5 m length and rotated (C) 2 × 106 m/s (D) 2 × 105 m/s
with an angular velocity of 20 rad s–1 in the
7. A train moves towards a stationary observer
horizontal plane. Calculate the range of
with speed 34 m/s. The train sounds a whistle
frequencies heard by an observer stationed at
and its frequency registered by the observer
a large distance from the whistle. [JEE-96, 3]
is f1. If the train’s speed is reduced to 17 m/s,
2. A whistle giving out 450 Hz approaches a the frequency registered is f2. If the speed of
stationary observer at a speed of 33 m/s. The sound is 340 m/s then the ratio f1/f2 is
frequency heard by the observer in Hz is [JEE-2000(Scr), 1]
[JEE-97, 1] (A) 18/19 (B) 1/2 (C) 2 (D) 19/18
(A) 409 (B) 429
8. Two monatomic ideal gases 1 and 2 of molecular
(C) 517 (D) 500
masses m1 and m2 respectively are enclosed in
3. The first overtone of an open organ pipe beats separate container kept at the same
with the first overtone of a closed organ pipe temperature. The ratio of the speed of sound
with a beat frequency of 2.2 Hz. The in gas 1 to that in gas 2 is given by
fundamental frequency of the closed organ pipe m1 m2
is 110 Hz. Find the lengths of the pipes. (A) m2 (B) m1
[JEE-97, 5]
m1 m2
4. A band playing music at a frequency f is moving (C) m (D) m [JEE-2000(Scr)]
2 1
towards a wall at a speed vb. A motorist is
following the band with a speed vm. If v is the
9. A 3.6 m long vertical pipe resonates with a
speed of sound, obtain an expression for the
source of frequency 212.5 Hz when water level
beat frequency heard by the motorist.
is at certain heights in the pipe. Find the heights
[JEE-97, 5]
of water level (from the bottom of the pipe) at
5. The air column in a pipe closed at one end is which resonances occur. Neglect end
made to vibrate in its second overtone by a correction. Now, the pipe is filled to a height H
tuning fork of frequency 440 Hz. The speed of (~ 3.6m). A small hole is drilled very close to
sound in air is 330 ms–1. End corrections may its bottom and water is allowed to leak. Obtain
be neglected. Let P0 denote the mean pressure an expression for the rate of fall of water level
at any point in the pipe &P0 the maximum in the pipe as a function of H. If the radii of
amplitude of pressure variation. the pipe and the hole are 2 × 10–2 m and 1 ×
(i) Find the length L of the air column. 10–3 m respectively, calculate the time interval
[JEE-98, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2] between the occurence of first two resonances.
(ii) What is the amplitude of pressure variation Speed of sound in air is 340 m/s and g = 10 m/
at the middle of the column ? s2. [JEE-2000, 10]
(iii) What are the maximum & minimum pressures 10. A boat is travelling in a river with a speed of
at the open end of the pipe. 10 m/s along the stream flowing with a speed
(iv) What are the maximum & minimum 2 m/s. From this boat, a sound transmitter is
pressures at the closed end of the pipe ? lowered into the river through a rigid support.
6. In hydrogen spectrum the wavelength of H The wavelength of the sound emitted from the
line is 656 nm, where as in the spectrum of a transmitter inside the water is 14.45 mm.
distant galaxy, H line wavelength is 706 nm. Assume that attenuation of sound in water and
Estimated speed of the galaxy with respect to air is negligible.
earth is. [JEE-99, 2] (a) What will be the frequency detected by a
receiver kept inside the river downstream ?
(b) The transmitter and the receiver are now (A) 22 m/s (B) 24 m/s
pulled up into air. The air is blowing with a (C) 20 m/s (D) 18 m/s
speed 5 m/sec in the direction opposite the
river stream. Determine the frequency of the 14. A cylindrical tube when sounded with a tuning
sound detected by the receiver. fork gives, first resonance when length of air
(Temperature of the air and water = 20ºC; column is 0.1 and gives second resonance when
Density of river water = 103 Kg/m3; Bulk modulus the length of air column is 0.35 m. Then end
of the water = 2.088 × 109 Pa; Gas constant R correction is [JEE-2003 (Scr)]
= 8.31 J/mol-K; Mean molecular mass of air = (A) 0.025 m (B) 0.020 m
28.8 × 10–3 kg/mol; Cp/Cv for air = 1.4) (C) 0.018 m (D) 0.012 m
[JEE-2001, 5 + 5]
15. A tuning fork of frequency 480 Hz resonates
Note : Boat velocity is with respect to ground
with a tube closed at one end of length, 16cm
& receiver is stationary w.r.t. ground.
and diameter 5 cm in fundamental mode.
11. A siren placed at a railway platform is emitting Calculate velocity of sound in air. [JEE-2003]
sound of frequency 5 kHz. A passenger sitting
16. A closed organ pipe of length L and an open
in a moving train A records a frequency of 5.5
organ pipe contain gases of densities 1 and 2
kHz while the train approaches the siren. During
respectively. The compressibility of gases are
his return journey in a different train B he
equal in both the pipes. Both the pipes are
records a frequency of 6.0 kHz. while
vibrating in their first overtone with same
approaching the same siren. The ratio of the
frequency. The length of the open organ pipe
velocity of train B to that of train A is
is [JEE-2004 (Scr)]
[JEE-2002(Scr), 3]
L 4L
(A) 242/252 (B) 2 (A) (B)
3 3
(C) 5/6 (D) 11/6
4L 1 4L 2
(C) 3 2 (D) 3 1
12. Two narrow cylindrical pipes A and B have the
same length. Pipe A is open at both ends and
17. A source of sound of frequency 600 Hz is placed
is filled with a monoatomic gas of malar mass
inside water. The speed of sound in water is
MA. Pipe B is open at one end and closed at
1500 m/s and in air it is 300 m/s. The frequency
the other end, and is filled with a diatomic gas
of sound recorded by an observer who is
of molar mass MB. Both gases are at the same
standing in air is [JEE-2004(Scr)]
temperature.
(A) 200 Hz (B) 3000 HZ
(a) If the frequency of the second harmonic of
(C) 120 Hz (D) 600 Hz
the fundamental mode in pipe A is equal to the
frequency of the third harmonic of the 18. In a resonance column method, resonance
fundamental mode in pipe B, determine the occurs at two successive level of l1 = 30.7 cm
value of MA/MB. and l2 = 63.2 cm using a tuning fork of f = 512
(b) Now the open end of pipe B is also closed Hz. What is the maximum error in measuring
(so that the pipe is closed at both ends). Find speed of sound using relations v = f  &  =
the ratio of the fundamental frequency in pipe 2(l2 – l1) [JEE-2005 (Sc)]
A to that in pipe B. [JEE-2002, 3 + 2] (A) 256 cm/sec (B) 92 cm/sec
(C) 128 cm/sec (D) 102.4 cm/sec
13. A police van moving with velocity 22 m/s and
emitting sound of frequency 176 Hz, follows a 19. A whistling train approaches a junction. An
motor cycle in turn is moving towards a observer standing at junction observers the
stationary car and away from the police van. frequency to be 2.2 KHz and 1.8 KHz of the
The stationary car is emitting frequency 165 approaching and the receding train. Find the
Hz. If motorcyclist does not hear any beats speed of the train (speed sound = 300 m/s).
then his velocity is [JEE-2003 (Scr)] [JEE-2005]
20.. A student performed the experiment to measure 22. A police car with a siren of frequency 8 kHz is
the speed of sound in air using resonance moving with uniform velocity 36 km/hr towards
aircolumn method. Two resonances in the a tall building which reflects the sound waves.
aircolumn ware obtained by lowering the water The speed of sound in air is 320 m/s. The
level. The resonance with the shorter aircolumn frequency of the siren heard by the car driver
is the first resonance and that with the longer
is [JEE 2011]
aircolumn is the second resonance. Then,
(A) 8.50 kHz (B) 8.25 kHz
[JEE 2009]
(C) 7.75 kHz (D) 7.50 kHz
(A) the intensity of the sound heard at the
first resonance was more than that at the 23. A person blows into open-end of a long pipe.
second resonance As a result, a high-pressure pulse of air travels
down the pipe. When this pulse reaches the
(B) the prongs of the tuning fork were kept in
other end of the pipe, [JEE 2012]
a horizontal plane above the resonance tube (A) a high-pressure pulse starts travelling up
(C) the amplitude of vibration of the ends of the pipe, if the other end of the pipe is open.
the prongs is typically around 1 cm (B) a low-pressure pulse starts travelling up
(D) the length of the aircolumn at the first the pipe, if the other end of the pipe is open.
(C) a low-pressure pulse starts travelling up
1
resonance was somewhat shorter than the the pipe, if the other end of the pipe is closed.
4 (D) a high-pressure pulse starts travelling up
of the wavelength of the sound in air the pipe, if the other end of the pipe is closed.
21. A stationary source is emitting sound at a fixed
frequency f0, which is reflected by two cars
approaching the source. The difference be-
tween the frequencies of sound reflected from
the cars is 1.2 %of f0. What is the difference
in the speeds of the cars (in km per hour) to
the nearest integer ? The cars are moving at
constant speeds much smaller than the speed
of sound which is 330 ms–1 [JEE 2010]
Exercise-I
1. C 2. A 3. D 4. D 5. B 6. B 7. D 8. A 9. D 10. D 11. D 12. A 13. A 14. B
15. B 16. A 17. B 18. D 19. A 20. A 21. B 22. D 23. B 24. C 25. B 26. C 27. B 28. C
29. B 30. D 31. D 32. A 33. C 34. C 35. D 36. B 37. D 38. B 39. B 40. D 41. A 42. B
43. C 44. B 45. D 46. D 47. C 48. B 49. D 50. C 51. C 52. A 53. A 54. A 55. A
Exercise-II
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. A,B,D 5. A,D 6. C 7. B,C 8. A,B,C,D 9. C 10. A,B,C 11. A,B,D 12. B 13. A
14. B 15. C,D 16. C 17. B,D 18. B 19. C 20. C 21. C 22. C 23. B,D
Exercise-III
 2  2  10 –9
1. (a) (b) 2. (a) 1.7 × 10–5 (b) 1.08 × 10–4 3. 333 m/s 4. 310 m/s 5. 2c/3 6. W/m2
2 35 4
7. 6 8. 30 dB, 10 10 mm 9. (a) p (b) I  ( IA – IB )2  ( 25 / 312 )2 10. 83 Hz 11. 420 Hz 12. /8
13. a [sin (kx +  t) + 2 sin (kx –  t)] 14. (a) f = 50 Hz,  = 0.2 m, v = 10 ms –1
(b) Pm = 62.8 Nm = 20  Nm–2, B = 100 Nm–2
–2
(c) /4 = 0.05 m (d) I = 20 2  200 wm–2

15. 735 N 16. 20, 80 cm, 200 Hz
v v
17. (a) vn = (2n + 1); six oscillations (b) vn = (n + 1), also six oscillations ; Here n = 0, 1, 2, .............
4 2
18. 1 : 1 19. 3 cm 20. 33 cm and 13.2 cm 21. 2 %
40
22. (a) 95% (b)  10 3 kg / m 3 23. 2.5 ms–1 24. 485 Hz 25. 345, 341 or 349 Hz

26. (i) (V – Vw + Vs) / f (ii) (V + Vw – Vs) / f
(iii) (V – Vw – VD) / fr ; where fr = (V + Vw + V0/v + Vw – Vs) f (iv) (V – Vw – Vo/ V – Vw – VD) fr
2uf fr  fa 150
27. fb  28. 1 : 5 29. 30 dB, 10 10 mm 30. 31. Lc = 0.75 m, Lo = m, 1.006 m
v u 2 151
Exercise-IV
1. (a) 2 /a, b/2, (b) y2 = ± 0.8 A cos (ax – bt), (c) max. = 1.8 bA, min = 0, 2. (a) l/6 ; (b) 150 Hz; (c) 1.28
3. (a) 2; (b) 9.28 m and 1.99 m 4. 1650 Hz, 1500 Hz 5. (a) 0.3 m, (b) 1320, (c) 332 m/s, (d) 0.2 m
6. 5.9 sec 7. f 8. 9.7 m
Exercise-V
2v b ( v  v m ) f
1. fmax = 484 Hz, fmin = 403.3 Hz 2. D 3. Lc = 0.75 m; L0 = 0.99 m or 1.006 m 4.
v 2  v b2
15 P0
5. (i) L  m, (ii) , (iii) Pmax = Pmin = P0,(iv) Pmax = P0 + DP0, Pmin = P0 – DP0 6. B 7. D 8. B
16 2
9. h = 3.2, 2.4, 1.6, 0.8, 0; v = 5 × 10–3
5H ; Dt = 80 (4 – 2 3 ) 10. (a) 100696 Hz (b) 103038 Hz 11. B
12. (a) 2.116, (b) 3/4 13. A 14. A 15. 336 m/s 16.C 17. D 18. D 19. Vs = 30 m/s 20. A,C,D 21. 7 22. A 23. B,D
IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
HEAT- I
CONTENTS
1. Heat ............................................................................. 3 – 4
2. Law of mixture ................................................................ 4 – 5
3. Phase Change ................................................................ 5– 6
5. Heat Transfer (Introduction) ................................................7
6. Conduction ................................................................... 7 – 15
7. Radiation (Introduction) ................................................. 16 – 17
8. Stefan-Boltzman's Law ................................................... 17 – 18
9. Newton's law of cooling .................................................. 18 – 20
10. Wien's displacement Law ................................................ 20 – 21
11. Exercise -I ................................................................... 22 – 36
12. Exercise - II ................................................................. 37 – 39
13. Exercise - III ................................................................ 40 – 49
14. Exercise - IV ................................................................ 50 – 51
15. Exercise - V ................................................................. 52 – 58
16. Answer key .................................................................. 59 – 60

Page # 2 HEAT
Syllabus :
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases; Calorimetry,
latent heat; Heat conduction in one dimension; Elementary
concepts of convection and radiation; Newton’s law of cooling;

HEAT Page # 3
CALORIMETRY
1. HEAT
The energy that is being transferred between two bodies or between adjacent parts of a
body as a result of temperature difference is called heat. Thus, heat is a form of energy. It is
energy in transit whenever temperature differences exist. Once it is transferred, it becomes
the internal energy of receiving body. If should be clearly understood that the word “heat” is
meaningful only as long as the energy is being transferred. Thus, expressions like “heat in a
body” or “heat of body” are meaningless.
T1>T2 T2
A Heat B
When we say that a body is heated it means that its molcules begin to move with greater
kinetic energy.
S.I. unit of heat energy is joule (J). Another common unit of heat energy is calorie (cal).
1.1 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
In early days heat was not recongnised as a form of energy. Heat was supposed to be
something needed to raise the temperature of a body or to change its phase. Calorie was
defined as the unit of heat. A number of experimets were performed to show that the
temperature may also be increased by doing mechanical work on the system. These experiments
established that heat is equivalent to mechanical energy and measured how much mechanical
energy is equivalent to a calorie. If mechanical work W produces the same temperature
change as heat H, we write,
W = JH
Where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. J is expressed in joule/calories. The value of
J gives how many joules of mechanical work is needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of
water by 1°C.
1 calorie : The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water from
14.5 to 15.5 °C at one atmospheric pressure is 1 calorie.
1 calorie = 4.186 Joule
1.2 Specific Heat
Specific heat of substances is equal to heat gain or released by that substance to raise or fall
its temperature by 1°C for a unit mass of substance.
When a body is heated, it gains heat. On the other hand, heat is lost when the body is
cooled. The gain or loss of heat is directly proportional to :
(a) the mass of the body Q  m
(b) rise or fall of temperature of the body Q  T
Q  m T or Q  m s T
or dQ  m s d T or Q=m  s dT
Q
where s is a constant and is known as the specific heat of the body s = . S.I. unit of s
m T
is joule/kg-kelvin and C.G.S unit is cal/gm °C
Specific heat of water : s = 4200 J/kg°C = 1000 cal/kg°C = 1 Kcal/kg°C = 1 cal/gm°C
Specific heat of steam = half of specific heat of water = specific heat of ice
Ex .1 Heat required to increases the temperature of 1 kg water by 20°C
Sol. heat required = Q = ms
= 1 × 20 = 20 Kcal.
 S = 1 cal/gm°C = 1 Kcal/kg°C

Page # 4 HEAT
Important Points :
Q
(a) We know, s = , if the substance undergoes the change of state which occurs at
m T
constant temperature (T = 0), the s = Q/0 = . Thus the specific heat of a substance
when it melts or boils at constant temprature is infinite.
(b) If the temperature of the substance changes without the transfer of heat (Q = 0) then s
Q
= = 0. Thus when liquid in the thermos flask is shaken, its temperature increases
m T
without the tranfer of heat and hence and the specific heat of liquid in the thermos flask
is zero.
(c) To raise the temperature of saturated water
vapour, heat (Q) is withdrawn. Hence, specific
heat of saturated water vapour is negative.
(This is for your information only and not in 1.008
specific heat
the course)
(cal g–1C–1)
(d) The slight variation of specific heat of water
with temperature is shown in the graph at 1 1.000
atmosphere pressure. Its variation is less than
1% over the interval form 0 to 100°C. 0 15 35 100
1.3 Heat capacity or Thermal capacity : Temp(°C)
Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to rasie the temperature of
that body by 1°C. If ‘m’ is the mass and ‘s’ the specific heat of the body, then
Heat capaicty = m s.
Units of heat capacity in : CGS system is, cal °C–1 ; SI unit is, JK–1
1.4 Relation between Specific heat and Water equivalent :
It is the amount of water which requires the same amount of heat for the same temperature
rise as that of the object
ms
ms T = mw Sw T  mw = s
w
In calorie sw = 1
 mw = ms
mw is also represented by W
so W = ms
2. LAW OF MIXTURE :
When two substances at different temperatures are mixed together, the exchange of heat
continues to take place till their temperatues become equal. This tempeature is then called
final temperature of mixtue. Here, Heat taken by one substance = Heat given by another
substance
m1s1(T1 – Tm) = m2s2(Tm – T2)
m1, s1, T1 m2, s2, T2
(T1>T2)
Mixture Temperature = Tm
Ex.2 An iron block of mass 2 kg, fall from a height 10 m. After colliding with the ground it
loses 25 % energy to surroundings. Then find the temperature rise of the block (Take
sp. heat of iron 470 J/kg°C)
1 10  10
Sol. mS = mgh   =
4 4  470

HEAT Page # 5
Ex.3 The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B, and C are 10°C 15°C
and 20°C respectively. The temperatue when A and B are mixed is 13°C and when B
and C are mixed, it is 16°C. What will be the temperature when A and C are mixed?
Sol. when A and B are mixed
mS1 × (13 – 10) = m × S2 × (15 – 13) 13°C 16°C
3S1 = 2S2 ...(1)
when B and C are mixed A B C
m m m
S2 × 1 = S3 × 4 ...(2)
S1 S2 S3
when C and A are mixed 10°C 15°C 20°C
S1( – 10) = S3 × (20 – ) ...(3)
by using equation (1), (2) and (3)
140
we get  = C
11
Ex.4 If three different liquid of different masses specific heats and temperature are mixed
with each other and then what is the temperature mixtrue at thermal equilibrium.
m1, s1, T1  specification for liquid
Sol. Total heat lost or gain by all substance is equal to zero
Q = 0
m1s1(T – T1) + m2s2(T – T2) + m3s3(T – T3) = 0
m1s1T1  m 2 s 2 T2  m 3 s 3 T3
so T= m1s1  m 2 s 2  m 3 s 3
3. PHASE CHANGE :
Heat required for the change of phase or state,
Q = mL, L = latent heat.
(a) Latent heat (L) : The heat supplied to a substance which changes its state at constant
temperature is called latent heat of the body.
(b) Latent heat of Fusion (Lf) : The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from solid to
liquid state at its melting point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of fusion.
(c) Latent heat of vaporisation (Lv) : The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from
liquid to vapour state at its boiling point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of vaporization.
If in question latent heat of water are not mentioned and to solve the problem it require to
assume that we should consider following values.
Latent heat of ice : L = 80 cal/gm = 80 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 80 J/kg
Latent heat of steam : L = 540 cal/gm = 540 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 540 J/kg
The given figure, represents the change of state by different lines
m
ea
St
water+Steam
Tb
er l2
wat
Tm ice+water
l1
e
ic
O Q
Tm = Melting Temperature
Tb = Boiling Temperature
>
l2 > l1

Page # 6 HEAT
Note : If we increases the temperature of liquid (phase) K.E  & temp.  but at a later time K .E.
stop increasing and the phase of the liquid starts changing.
Ex.5 Find amount of heat released if 100 g ice at – 10°C is converted into 120°C, 100 g
steam.
–10°C, 100 gm ice 120° 100 gm steam
Q  msT
1
  100  10
2
= 500 cal.
0°, 100 gm ice

Q = mLf
= 100 × 80
= 8000 cal.
0°, 100 gm water

Q  msT
Q  msT
1
= 1×100 × 100   100  20
2
= 10000 cal.
= 1000 cal.
100°, 100 gm water
Q = mLv
= 100 × 540
= 54000 cal
100°, 100 gm Steam
Qnet = 73.5 Kcal.
Ex.6 500 gm of water at 80°C is mixed with 100 gm steam at 120°C. Find out the final
mixture.
Sol. 120°C steam 100°C steam
1
Req. heat = 100 × ×20 = 1 kcal
2
80°C water 100°C water
Req. heat = 500 × 1 × 20 = 10 kcal
100gm steam 100 gm water at 100°C
Req. heat = 100 × 540 = 54 kcal
Total heat = 55 kcal.
Remaining heat = 55 – 10 = 45 kcal
250
Now we have 600 gm water at 100°C  4500 = m × 540  m  gm
3
250  250 
So at last we have gm steam and  600 – gm of water
3  3 

HEAT Page # 7
HEAT TRANSFER
4. INTRODUCTION
Heat is energy in transit which flows due to temperature difference; from a body at higher
temperature to a body at lower temperature. This transfer of heat from one body to the
other takes place through three routes.
(i) Conduction (ii) Convection (iii) Radiation
(a) CONDUCTION
(i) Requires Medium
(ii) Energy is transmitted from one particle to another particle without displaced of particle
(iii) No transfer of particle
(b) CONVECTION
(i) Requires Medium
(ii) Enegy is transfer through movement of the particle of medium.
(c) RADIATION
(i) Does not requires any medium
(ii) Enegy is transfer through Electromagnetic waves.
Vaccum Air
Radiation Air Convection +
Radiation
T1 T2 T1 Convection T2 T1 T2
+
Conduction Radiation Conduction
5. CONDUCTION
Figure shows a rod whose ends are in thermal contact with a hot reseroir at temperature Ti
and a cold reservoir at temperature T2. The sides of the rod are covered with insulating
medium, so the transport of heat is along the rod, not through the sides. The molecules at
the hot reservoir have greater vibrational energy. This energy is transferred by collisions to
the atoms at the end face of the rod. These atoms in turn transfer energy to their neighbours
further along the rod. Such transfer of heat through a substance in which heat is transported
without direct mass transport is called conduction.
T1>T2
T1 T2
(Hot) Q (Cold)
Most metals use another, more effective mechanism to conduct heat. The free electrons,
which move throughout the metal can rapidly carry energy from the hotter to cooler regions,
so metals are generally good donductors of heat. The presence of 'free' electrons also causes
most metals to be good electrical conductors. A metal rod at 5°C feels colder than a piece of
wood at 5°C because heat can flow more easily from your hand into the metal.
Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are at different temperatures, and the rate
dQ
of heat flow is . This rate is also called the heat current, denoted by H. Experiments show
dt
that the heat current is proportional to the cross-section area A of the rod and to the
dT
temperature gradient , which is the rate of change of temperature with distance along
dx
the bar. In general
dQ dT
H  –kA
dt dx
dQ dT
The negative sign is used to make a positive quantity since is negative. The constant
dt dt
k, called the thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat.
A substance with a large thermal conductivity k is a good heat conductor. The value of k
depends on the temperature, increasing slightly with increasing temperature, but k can be

Page # 8 HEAT
taken to be practically constant throughout a substance if the temperature difference between

its ends is not too great.
Let us apply Eq. (i) to a rod of length L and constant cross sectional area A in which a steady
state has been reached. In a steady state the temperature at each point is constant in time.
Hence.
dT
–  T1 – T2
dt
Therefore, the heat Q transferred in time t is
 T – T2 
Q  kA  1  t
 L 
l
Here, T = temperature difference (TD) and R  =thermal resistance of the rod.
kA
• Important Points in conduction
1. Consider a section ab of a rod as shown in figure. Suppose Q1 heat enters into the section at
'a' and Q2 leaves at 'b', then Q2 < Q1 . Part of the energy Q1 – Q2 is utilized in raising the
tempeature of section ab and the remaining is lost to atmosphere thorugh ab. If heat is
continuously supplied from the left end of the rod, a stage comes when temperature of the
section becomes constant. In that case, Q1 = Q2 if rod is insulated from the surroundings (or
loss thorugh ab is zero). This is called the steady state condition. Thus, in steady state
temperature of different sections of the rod becomes constant (but not same).
Q1 Q2
a b
Hence, in the figure :
Q Q
T1 T2 T3 T4
Insulated rod in steady state
T1 = constant, T2 = constant etc.
and T1 > T2 > T3 > T4
Now, a natural question arises, why the temperature of T
whole rod not becomes equal when heat is being T1
continuously supplied ? The answer is : there must be a
temperature difference in the rod for the heat flow, same T4
as we require a potential difference across a resistance
for the current flow thorugh it.
In steady state, the temperature varies linearly withd
istance along the rod if it is insluated. x
2. Comparing equation number (iii), i.e., heat current
dQ T  l 
H   where R  
dt R  kA 
with the equation, of current flow through a resistance,
dq V  l 
i   where R  
dt R   A
We find the following similarities in heat flow through a rod and current flow through a
resistance.

HEAT Page # 9
Heat flow through a

Current flow thorugh a resistance
conducting rod
dq
dQ Electric current i = = rate of charge flow
Heat current H = = rate of dt
heat flow dt
V PD
i 
T TD R R
H 
R R
I
I R
R A
kA
k = thermal conductivity
  electrical conductivity
From the above table it is evident that flow of heat through rods in series and parallel is
analogous to the flow of current through resistances in series and parallel. This analogy is of
great importance in solving complicated problems of heat conduction.
K = 2 W°/C m
A = 0.5 m2
100°C 0°C
Ex.7
10 m
Find out the heat current and temperature at any distance x.
10 
Sol. R=  10 
2  0 .5 KA K = 2 W°/C m
A = 0.5 m2 T
100 kAT
i  10 
10 
100°C 0°C
and temperature at any distance x.
x
kA (100 – T ) KAT (100 – T ) (100 – 0 )
q    10 m
x  x 
100  – T  = 100 x
100( – x )
T

A C
TH = 80°C 20°C = TL
Ex.8 5m
9m
Find out the temperature at distance 5 m.

Page # 10 HEAT
T=?
Sol. Heat current is same. so,
A B C
TH – TL T –T 80 – 20 80 – T
 H  
 x 9 5 TH = 80°C 20°C = TL
5x
140 9m
T= C
3
5.1 SLABS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES
(a) Slabs in series (in steady state)
L2 L1
Consider a composite slab consisting of two
materials having different thickness L1 and L2
Heat reservoir
different cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 and
different thermal conductivities K1 and K2. The
Q
at Tc
temperature at the outer surface of the states
are maintained at TH and TC, and all lateral K2 K1
surfaces are covered by an adiabatic coating.
Let temperature at the junction be T, since steady

state has been achieved thermal current through Heat reservoir adiabatic coating
each slab will be equal. Then thermal current at temperatureHT
through the first slab.
Q TH – T
i= = R or TH – T = iR1 ..(5.1)
t 1
and that through the second slab,
Q T – TC
i= = R or T – TC = iR2 ..(5.2)
t 2
adding eqn. 5.1 and eqn 5.2
TH – TL = (R1 + R2) i or i=
Thus these two slabs are equivalent to a single slab of thermal resistance R1 + R2
If more than two slabs are joined in series and are allowed to attain steady state, then
equivalent thermal resistance is given by
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... (5.3)
Ex.9 The figure shows the cross-section of the outer wall of a house built in a hill-resort to
keep the house insulated from the freezing temperature of outside. The wall consists
of teak wood of thickness L1 and brick of thickness (L2 = 5L1), sandwitching two layers
of an unknown material with identical thermal conductivities and thickness. The thermal
conductivity of teak wood is K1 and that of brick is (K2 = 5K). Heat condcution through
the wall has reached a steady state with the temperature of three surfaces being
known. (T1 = 25°C, T2 = 20°C and T5 = –20°C.) Find the interface temperature T4 and T3.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
L1 L L L2

HEAT Page # 11
Sol. Let interface area be A. the thermal resistance of wood.

L1
R1 = K A
1
and that of brick wall
L2 5L1
R2 = K A = 5K A = R1
2 1
Let thermal resistance of the each sand witch layer = R. Then the above wall can be
visualised as a circuit
iT R1 R R R1 iT
25°C 20°C T3 T4 –20°C

thermal current through each wall is same.
25 – 20 20 – T3 T – T4 T4  20
Hence R1 = = 3 = R1
R R
 25 – 20 = T4 + 20  T4 = – 15°C Ans.
20  T4
also, 20 – T3 = T3 – T4  T3 = = 2.5°C Ans.
2
Ex.10 In example 3, K1 = 0.125 W/m–°C, K2 = 5K1 = 0.625 W/m–°C and thermal conductivity
of the unknown material is K = 0.25 W/m°C. L1 = 4cm, L2 = 5L1 = 20 cm and L = 10 cm.
If the house consists of a single room of total wall area of 100 m2, then find the power
of the electric heater being used in the room.
(4  10 –2 m)
Sol. R1 = R2 = = 32 × 10–4 °C/w
( 0.125 w / m– C)(100m 2 )
(10  10 –2 m)
R= = 40 × 10–4°C/w
( 0.25 W / m– C)(100m 2 )
the equivalent thermal resistance of the entire wall = R1 + R2 + 2R = 144 × 10–4 ºC/W
TH  TC
 Net heat current, i.e. amount of heat flowing out of the house per second 
R
45  10 4
25 º C  ( 20º C)
  watt
144  10 4 º C / w 144
Hence the heater must supply 3.12 kW to compensate for the outflow of heat. Ans.
(b) Slabs in parallel :
Consider two slabs held between the same heat
L
reservoirs, their thermal conductivities K1 and K2
SLAB 1
and cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 K1 A1 Q1
L L
then R1  , R2  SLAB 2
K2 A2 Q2
K 1A1 K 2A2
Heat reservoir adiabatic coating
thermal current through slab 1 at temperature TH
Heat reservoir
T  TC at temperature T C
i1  H
R1
and that through slab 2
TH  TC
i2 
R2

Page # 12 HEAT
Net heat current from the hot to cold reservoir

 1 1
i  i1  i2  ( TH  TC )   
 R1 R 2 
Comparing with i  TH  TC , we get,

R eq
1 1 1
 
R eq R1 R 2
If more than two rods are joined in parallel, the equivalent thermal resistance is given by
1 1 1 1
   ...... .....(5.4)
R eq R1 R 2 R 3
Ex.11 Two thin concentric shells made from copper with radius r1 and r2 (r2 > r1) have a
material of thermal conductivity K filled between them. The inner and outer spheres
are maintained at temperatures TH and TC respectively by keeping a heater of power P
at the centre of the two spheres. Find the value of P.
Sol. Heat flowing per second through each cross-section of the sphere = P = i
Thermal resistance of the spherical shell of radius x and thickness dx,
r2
dx dx 1 1 1
dR =
K.4 x2
R=  4x .K  4K  r
r1
2
1
– 
r2  r1 r2
P
thermal current
dx x
TH – TC 4 K ( TH – TC ) r1r2
i=P= = (r2 – r1 ) Ans.
R
R1 R2
T2
A K B
Ex.12
R2 – R1 << l
Find out the equivalent thermal resistance between point A and B.

dx
Sol. dR 
k r 2
r1 r r
 2 
y y   y  x  r1 y  r1   r2 y
R1 r R2
 r  
r2  1  x  x
r1  r1  r (y  x) r2  r1 dx
y  r 2    K
(r1  r2 ) (r2  r1 )  y  r1  
   
 r2  r1  Element is disc
of radius r
 
dx dx dx
dR   
kr 2 
0
k.  r 2   (r  r1 )x 
0 k.   r  2
2 ...(i)
1 
  

HEAT Page # 13
5.2 Junction Law

Heat current is a Tensor quantity because, it doesn’t follow the vector laws but the direction
of heat current matter.
According to the Junction law the sum of all the heat current directed towards a point is
equal to the sum of all the heat currents directed away from the points.
i2
i1 i1  i 2  i3
i3
100ºC
2R
0ºC x
Ex.13 R
2R
50ºC 100ºC
Find out the temperature at point x. i2
Sol. i1  i2  i3  0 i1 2R
0ºC x
( x  0) ( x  100) ( x  50) R
i1  , i2  , i3  2 R 2R
R 2 R i2
50ºC
4x = 150  x = 37.5ºC
WHEAT STONE BRIDGE
Ex.14 Find out the relation between R1, R2, R3 and R4, so T
there is no that current in R. i1
R1 R2
T  T1  T2 i1
Sol. T1 T2
R'
T1  T  i1 R1 ...(i) i2
T1  T  i2 R 3 ...(ii) R3 R4
i2
Eq. (i) / (ii) T
i1 R 1
 1 ...(iii)
i2 R 3
T  T2  i1 R 2 ...(iv)
T  T2  i2 R 4 ...(v)
Eq. (4) / eq. (5)
i1 R2 = i2 R4 ...(vi)
Eq. (iii)/(vi)
R1 R 3
  R1 R 4  R 2 R 3
R2 R4
Now,
R1 R2
T1 T2
R3 R4

Page # 14 HEAT
T=?
6R 3R
Ex.15 100ºC 2R 0ºC
4R 2R
100 6R T 3R 0
100ºC 0ºC
100  T T  0

Sol. 6R 3 R  T  100 / 3 º C
100 4R 2R 0
Ex.16 R R Find i2 / i1  ?
i2
i1
100ºC R OºC
i2 R R R
1 1
Sol. i1 : i2 = : =3:1 100ºC 0ºC
R 3R
i1
3 1
i1 = × 100 = 75  i2 = × 100 = 25 R
4 4
Ex.17 A container of negligible heat capacity contains 1 kg of water. It is connected by a steel
rod of length 10 m and area of cross-section 10cm2 to a large steam chamber which is
maintaned at 100°C. If initial temperature of water is 0°C, find the time after which it
becomes 50°C. (Neglect heat capacity of steel rod and assume no loss of heat to
surroundings) (use table 3.1, take specific heat of water = 4180 J/kg°C)
Sol. Let temperature of water at time t be T, then thermal current at time t,
 100 – T 
i =  
R 
This increases the temperature of water from T to T + dT
dH dT 100 – T dT
i= = ms  = ms
dt dt R dt
50 t
dT dT  1 t
    Rms  –  n   =
100 – T 2 Rms
0 0
L
or t = Rms  n 2sec = ms  n 2sec
KA
(10m)(1kg)( 4180 J / kg–  C) 418
= = (0.69 )  10 5 = 6.27 × 105 sec
46( w / m C)  (10  10 –4 m 2 ) 46
= 174.16 hours Ans.

HEAT Page # 15
Ex.18 On a cold winter day, the atmospheric temperature is - (on Celsius scale) which is
below 0ºC. A cylindrical drum of height h made of a bad conductor is completely filled
with water at 0ºC and is kept outside without any lid. Calculate the time taken for the
whole mass of water to freeze. Thermal conductivity of ice is K and its latent heat of
fusion is L. Neglect expansion of water on freezing.
Sol. Suppose, the ice starts forming at time t = 0 and a
x
thickness x is formed at time t. The amount of heat
flown from the water to the surrounding in the time interval h dx
t to t + dt is 0ºC
KA
Q  dt
x
The mass of the ice formed due to the loss of this amount of heat is
Q KA
dm   dt
L xL
The thickness dx of ice formed in time dt is
dm K L
dx   dt or, dt  x dx
A xL K
Thus, the time T taken for the whole mass of water to freeze is given by
T h
L Lh 2
 dt   x dx
K or, T .
0 0 2 K
Ex.19 Figure shows a large tank of water at a constant temperature 0 and a small vessel
containing a mass m of water at an initial temperature 1(< 0). A metal rod of length
L, area of cross-section A and thermal conductivity K connects the two vessels. Find
the time taken for the temperature of the water in the smaller vessel to become 2(1
< 2 < 0). Specific heat capacity of water is s and all other heat capacities are negligible.
L
Sol. Suppose, the temperature of the water in the smaller vessel is  at time t, In the next time
interval dt, a heat Q is transferred to it where
KA
Q = ( 0 – )dt ...(i)
L
This heat increases the temperature of the water of mass m to  + d where
Q = ms d. ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii),
KA
( 0 – )dt = ms d
L
T 2
Lms d Lms d
or, dt = KA  –  or,,  dt  
0
KA 0 –
0 1
where T is the time required for the temperature of the water to become 2.
Lms  0 – 1
Thus, T = KA ln  – 
0 2

Page # 16 HEAT
RADIATION
6. RADIATION
The process of the transfer of heat from one place to another place without heating the
intervening medium is called radiation. The term radiation used here is another word for
electromagnetic waves. These waves are formed due to the superposition of electric and
magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and carry energy.
Propoerties of Radiation :
(a) All objects emit radiations simply because their temperature is above alsolute zero, and
all objects absorb some of the radiation that falls on them from other objects.
(b) Maxwell on the basis of his electromagnetic theory proved that all radiations are
electromagnetic waves and their sources are vibrations of charged particles in atoms and
molecules.
(c) More radiations are emitted at higher temperature of a body and lesser at lower temperature.
(d) The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of radiations shifts from longer
wavelength to shorter wavelength as the temperature increases. Due to this the colour
of a body appears to be changing. Radiations from a body at NTP has predominantly
infrared waves.
(e) Thermal radiations travels with the speed of light and move in a straight line.
(f) Radiations are electromagnetic waves and can also travel through vacuum.
(g) Similar to light, thermal radiations can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized.
1
(h) Radiation from a point source obeys inverse square law (intensity  )
r2
6.1. PREVOST THEORY OF EXCHANGE
According to this theory, all bodies radiate thermal radiation at all temperatures. The amount
of thermal radiation radiated per unit time depends on the nature of the emitting surface, its
area and its temperature. The rate is faster at higher temperatures. Besides, a body also
absorbs part of the thermal radiation emitted by the surrounding bodies when this radiation
falls on it. If a body radiates more then what it absorbs, its temperature falls. If a body
radiates less than what it absorbs, its temperature rises. And if the temperature of a body is
equal to temperature of its surroundings it radiates at the same rate as it absorbs.
6.2 PERFECTLY BLACK BODY AND BLACK BODY RADIATION (FERY’S BLACK BODY)
A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the heat radiations of whatever wavelength,
incident on it. It neither reflects nor transmits any of the incident radiation and therefore
appears black whatever be the colour of the incident radiation.
In actual practice, no natural object possesses strictly the properties of a perfectly black
body. But the lamp-black and platinum black are good approximation of black body. They
absorb about 99% of the incident radiation. The most simple and commonly used black body
was designed by Fery. It consists of an enclosure with a small opening which is painted black
from inside. The opeining acts as a perfect black body. Any radiation that falls on the opening
goes inside and has very little chance of escaping the enclosure before getting absorbed
through multiple reflections. The cone opposite to the opening ensures that no radiation is
reflected back directly.
P Q

HEAT Page # 17
6.3 ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND EMISSION OF RADIATIONS

Q = Qr + Q t + Qa
Q
(Incident) Qf (Reflected)
Qr Q t Qa
1  
Q Q Q
where r = reflecting power, a = absorptive power
and t = transmission power.
(i) r = 0, t = 0, a = 1, perfect black body Qa

(Absorbed) Qt (Transmitted)
(ii) r = 1, t = 0, a = 0, perfect reflector
(iii) r = 0, t = 1, a = 0, perfect transmitter
(a) Absorptive power :
In particular absorptive power of a body can be defined as the fraction of incident radiation
that is absorbed by the body.
Energy absorbed
a=
Energy incident
As all the raditions incident on a black body are absorbed, a = 1 for a black body.
(b) Emissive power :
Consider a small area A of a body emitting thermal
radiation. Consider a small solid angle  about
the normal to the radiating surface. Let the energy
A
radiated by the area A of the surface in the 
solid angle  in time t be U. We define emissive
power of the body as
U
E
( A )( )( t )
Thus, emissive power denotes the energy radiated per unit area per unit time per unit solid
angle along the normal to the area.
(c) Spectral Emissive power (E) :

Emissive power per unit wavelength range at wavelength  is known as spectral emissive
power, E If E is the total emissive power and E is spectral emissive power, they are related
as follows,

dE
E=  E d
 and
d
 E
0
(d) Emissivity :
Emissive power of a body at temperature T E

e = Emissive power of a black body at same temperature T = E
0
7. STEFAN-BOLITZMANN'S LAW :
Consider a hot body at temperature T placed in an environment at a lower temperature T0.
The body emits more radiation than it absorbs and cools down while the surroundings absorb
radiation from the body and warm up. The body is losing energy by emitting radiations and
this rate.
d d d d
 T4 ,  A, e   eAT 4
dt dt dt dt
P1  eAT 4

Page # 18 HEAT
and is receiving energy by absorbing radiations and this absorption rate

d
= P2  aAT04
dt
Here, 'a' is a pure number between 0 and 1 indicating the relative ability of the surface to
absorbs radiation from its surroundings. Note that this 'a' is different from the absorptive
power 'a'. In thermal equilibrium, both the body and the surrounding have the same temperture
(say Tc) and,
P1 = P2
or eATc4  aATc4
or e=a
Thus, when T > T0, the net rate of heat transfer from the body to the surroundings is,
dQ
Net heat loss =  eA(T 4 – T04 )
dt
 dT 
or ms    eA ( T 4 – T04 )  Rate of cooling
 dt 
 dT  eA 4 dT
–  (T – T04 ) or  ( T 4 – T04 )
 dt  mc dt
8. NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING

According to this law, if the temperature T of the body is not very different from that of the
dT
surroundings T0, then rate of cooling – is proportional to the temperature difference
dt
between them. To prove it let us assume that
T = T0 + t
d 4
 Ae ( T  T ) 4 – T0
 
dt
d  4 T 
 AeT04 1  – 1  4AT 3 T
dt  T0  0
if the temperature difference is small.

Thus, rate of colling
dT d
–  T or –  
dt dt
as dT = d or T = D
8.1 Variation of temperature of a body according to Nerton's law

Suppose a body has a temperature i at time t = 0. It is placed in an atmosphere whose
temperature is 0. We are interested in finding the temperature of the body at time t,
assuming Newton's law of cooling to hold good or by assuming that the temperature difference
is small. As per this law,
 0  cons tan t
0  cons tan t
i

t=0
rate of cooling  temperature difference

HEAT Page # 19
 d   eA   3  d 
or –  ( 4 0 )(  –  0 ) or –   (  –  0 )
 dt   mc   dt 
 4eA 30 
Here     is a constant

 mc  
 t i
d
   –  dt

i
 – 0 0
   0  (i – 0 )e – t 0
From this expression we see that  = i at t = 0
and  = 0 at t = , i.e., temperature of the
body varies exponentially with time from i to 0 t
(< i ). The temperature versus time graph is a
shown in figure.
Note : If the body cools by radiation from 1 to 2 in time t, then taking the approximation
 d   i –  2  1   2 
–  and    av   
 dt  t  2 
 d 
The equation  –   ( –  0 ) becomes
 dt 
i –  2    2 
  i – 0 
t  2 
This form of the law helps in solving numerical problems related to Newton's law of cooling.
8.2 Limitations of Newton’s Law of Cooling :
(a) The difference in temperature between the body and surroundings must be small
(b) The loss of heat from the body should be radiation only.
(c) The temperature of surroundings must remain constant during the cooling of the body.
Ex.20 A body at temperature 40°C is kept in a surrounding of constant temperature 20°C. It

is observed that its temperature falls to 35°C in 10 minutes. Find how much more time
will it take for the body to attain a temperature of 30°C.
Sol. f = ie–kt
for the interval in which temperature falls from 40 to 35°C
(35 – 20) = (40 – 20) e–k.10
4
3 n
e –10 k
= K= 3
4 10
for the next interval
2
(30 – 20) = (35 – 20) e–kt  e–10 k = 3
 4
 n  t
3  3 3
 kt = n   n
2 10 2
 3
 n 
 2
 t = 10 minute = 14.096 min Ans.
 4
 n 
 3

Page # 20 HEAT
Aliter : (by approximate method)

for the interval in which temperature falls from 40 to 35°C
40  35
<> = = 37.5°C
2
d ( 35 C – 40 C)
from equation (14.4) = – k(<> – 0)  = –K (37.5°C – 20°C)
dt 10(min)
1
 K= (min –1)
35
for the interval in which temperature falls from 35°C to 30°C
35  30
<> = =32.5°C
2
from equation (14.4)
( 30 C – 35 C)
 = – (32.5°C – 20°C)
t
 required time,
5
t= × 35 min = 14 min Ans.
12.5
9. NATURE OF THERMAL RADIATIONS : (WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW)
From the energy distribution curve of black body radiation, the following conclusions can be
drawn :
(a) The higher the temperature of a body, the higher is the area under the curve i.e. more
amount of energy is emitted by the body at higher temperature.
(b) The energy emitted by the body at different temperatures is not uniform. For both long
and short wavelengths, the energy emitted is very small.
E 2000k
1500k
10
00
k
 (in micron)
 m3
 m2  m1
(c) For a given temperature, there is a paricular wavelength (m) for which the energy
emitted (E) is maximum
(d) With an increase in the temperature of the black body, the maxima of the curves shift
towards shorter wavelengths.
From the study of energy distribution of black body radiation discussed as above, it was
established experimentally that the wavelength (m) corresponding to maximum intensity
of emission decreases inversely with increase in the temperature of the black body. i.e.
1
m  or m T = b
T
This is called Wien’s displacement law.
Here b = 0.282 cm-K, is the Wien’s constant.

HEAT Page # 21
Ex.21 The earth receives solar radiation at a rate of 8.2J/cm2 - minute. Assuming that the
sun radiates like a blackbody, calculate the surface temperature of the sun. The angle
subtended by the sun on the earth is 0.53° and the Stefan constant  = 5.67 × 10–8 W/
m2 – K4.
Sol. Let the diameter of the sun be D and its distance from
the earth be R. From the questions.
D  D
 0.53  = 9.25 × 10–3 ...(i) earth
R 180 R
sun
The radiation emitted by the surface of the sun per unit time is
3
D
4  T 4  D 2 T 4
2
At distance R, this radiation falls on an area 4R2 in unit time. the radiation received at the
earth's surface per unit time per unit area is, therefore,
2
D 2 T 4 T 4  D 
  
4R 2 4 R
2
T 4 D
Thus,   = 8.2 J/cm2 - minute
4 R
1  W  4 8.2 W
or,   5.67  10 – 8 2 T  (9.25  10 – 3 ) 2 =
4  m – K4  10 – 4  60 m 2
or, T = 5794 K  5800 K.

Page # 22 HEAT
1. 10 gm of ice at 0°C is kept in a calorimeter of 7. A block of ice with mass m falls into a lake.
water equivalent 10 gm. How much heat should After impact, a mass of ice m/5 melts. Both the
be supplied to the apparatus to evaporate the block of ice and the lake have a temperature of
water thus formed? (Neglect loss of heat) 0°C. If L represents the heat of fusion, the
(A) 6200 cal (B) 7200 cal minimum distance the ice fell before striking the
(C) 13600 cal (D) 8200 cal surface is
2. Heat is being supplied at a constant rate to a L 5L gL mL
(A) (B) (C) (D)
sphere of ice which is melting at the rate of 0.1 5g g 5m 5g
gm/sec. It melts completely in 100 sec. The rate
8. The specific heat of a metal at low
of rise of temperature thereafter will be (Assume temperatures varies according to S = aT3 where
no loss of heat) a is a constant and T is absolute temperature.
(A) 0.8 °C/sec (B) 5.4 °C/sec
The heat energy needed to raise unit mass of
(C) 3.6 °C/sec (D) will change with time the metal from T = 1 K to T = 2 K is
3. A 2100 W continuous flow geyser (instant 15a 2a 12a
geyser) has water inlet temperature = 10°C while (A) 3a (B) (C) (D)
4 3 5
the water flows out at the rate of 20 g/sec. The
outlet temperature of water must be about 9. The graph shown in the figure represent change
(A) 20°C (B) 30°C in the temperature of 5 kg of a substance as it
(C) 35°C (D) 40°C abosrbs heat at a constant rate of 42 kJ min–1. The
latent heat of vapourization of the substance is :
4. A continuous flow water heater (geyser) has
an electrical power rating = 2 k W and efficienty
of conversion of electrical power into heat = 80%.
If water is flowing through the device at the rate
of 100 cc/sec, and the inlet temperature is 10
Temp (°C)
°C, the oulet temperature will be
(A) 12.2 °C (B) 13.8 °C
(C) 20 °C (D) 16.5 °C
5. Ice at 0°C is added to 200 g of water initially
at 70°C in a vacuum flask. When 50 g of ice has
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
been added and has all melted the temperature
of the flask and contents is 40°C. When a further time(min)
–1
80 g of ice has been added and has all metled, (A) 630 kJ kg (B) 126 kJ kg–1
the temperature of the whole is 10°C. Calculate (C) 84 kJ kg–1 (D) 12.6 kJ kg–1
the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
10. The density of a material A is 1500 kg/m3 and
[Take Sw = 1 cal/gm °C]
that of another mateial B is 2000 kg/m3. It is
(A) 3.8 × 105 J/kg (B) 1.2 × 105 J/kg
found that the heat capacity of 8 volumes of A is
(C) 2.4 × 105 J/kg (D) 3.0 × 105 J/kg
equal to heat capacity of 12 volumes of B. The
6. A solid material is supplied with heat at a ratio of specific heats of A and B will be
constant rate. The temperature of material is (A) 1 : 2 (B) 3 : 1
changing with heat input as shown in the figure. (C) 3 : 2 (D) 2 : 1
What does slope DE represent.
y 11. Find the amount of heat supplied to decrease
the volume of an ice water mixture by 1 cm3
without any change in temperature. (ice= 0.9
Temperature
E water, Lice = 80 cal/gm)

C
(A) 360 cal (B) 500 cal
D
(C) 720 cal (D) none of these
A B
12. Some steam at 100°C is passed into 1.1 kg
O
of water contained in a calorimeter of water
Heat Input x
equivalent 0.02 kg at 15°C so that the temperature
(A) latent heat of liquid of the calorimeter and its contents rises to 80°C.
(B) latent heat of vapour What is the mass of steam condensing. (in kg)
(C) heat capacity of vapour (A) 0.130 (B) 0.065
(D) inverse of heat capacity of vapour (C) 0.260 (D) 0.135

HEAT Page # 23
13. A wall has two layers A and B, each made of K 1K 2 2 K 1K 2

different material. Both the layers have the same (C) 1  K 2
K (D) K  K
1 2
thickness. The thermal conductivity for A is twice
that of B. Under steady state, the temperature 17. A pot with a steel bottom 1.2 cm thick rests
difference across the whole wall is 36°C. Then on a hot stove. The area of the bottom of the
the temperature difference across the layer A is pot is 0.150 m2. The water inside the pot is at
(A) 6°C (B) 12°C 100°C and 0.440 kg vapourise in every 5 minutes.
(C) 18°C (D) 24°C The temperature of the lower surface of the pot,
which is in contact with the stove is (Given : Lv =
14. Two metal cubes with 3 cm-edges of copper
2.256 × 106 J/kg and Ksteel = 50.2 W/m-K)
and aluminium are arranged as shown in figure.
(A) 105.3 °C (B) 205.3 °C
(KCU = 385 W/m-K, KAL = 209 W/m-K) (KCU = 385
(C) 185.3 °C (D) 115.3 °C
W/m-K, KAL = 209 W/m-K)
(a) The total thermal current from one reservoir 18. A lake surface is exposed to an atmosphere
to the other is : where the temperature is < 0°C. If the thickness
of the ice layer formed on the surface grows from
Al 2 cm to 4 cm in 1 hour, The atmospheric
100°C Cu 20°C temperature, Ta will be -
(Thermal conductivity of ice K = 4 × 10–3 cal/cm/s/
°C; density of ice = 0.9 gm/cc. Latent heat of
(A) 1.43 × 103 W (B) 2.53 × 103 W fusion of ice = 80 cal/gm. Neglect the change of
4
(C) 1.53 × 10 W (D) 2.53 × 104 W density during the state change. Assume that
(b) The ratio of the thermal current carried by the water below the ice has 0°c temperature
the copper cube to that carried by the aluminium every where) -
cube is - (A) –20°C (B) 0°C
(A) 1.79 (B) 1.69 (C) –30°C (D) –15°C
(C) 1.54 (D) 1.84 19. One end of a 2.35m long and 2.0cm radius
15. Two identical square rods of metal are welded aluminium rod (K = 235 W.m–1K–1) is held at 20°C.
end to end as shown in figure (a). Assume that The other end of the rod is in contact with a
10 cal of heat flows through the rods in 2 min. block of ice at its melting point. The rate in kg. s–
1
Now the rods are welded as shown in figure. (b) at which ice melts is
The time it would take for 10 cal to flow through (A) 48 × 10–6 (B) 24 × 10–6
–6
the rods now, is : - (C) 2.4 × 10 (D) 4.8 × 10–6
10
[Take latent heat of fusion for ice as × 105
0°C 3
J.kg–1]
100°C
100°C
0°C 20. Four rods of same material with different radii
r and length l are used to connect two reservoirs
of heat at different temperatures. Which one will
(a) conduct most heat ?
(b)
(A) 0.75 min (B) 0.5 min (A) r = 2cm, l =0.5m (B) r=2cm, l =2m
(C) 1.5 min (D) 1 min (C) r=0.5cm, l =0.5m (D) r =1cm, l = 1 m
16. A wall consists of alternating blocks with length 21. A cylinder of radius R made of a material of
‘d’ and coefficint of thermal conductivity k1 and thermal conductivity k 1 is surrounded by a
k2. The cross sectional area of the blocks are the cylindrical shell of inner radius R and outer radius
same. The equivalent coefficient of thermal 2R made of a material of thermal conductivity k2.
conductivity of the wall between left and right is The two ends of the combined system are
d maintained at different temperatures. There is
k1 no loss of heat from the cylindrical surface and
k2 the system is in steady state. The effective
k1 thermal conductivity of the system is
k2 k 1k 2
k1 (A) k1 + k2 (B) k  k
1 2
k2
1 1
(C) (k 1  3k 2 ) (D) (3k  k 2 )
4 4
(K 1  K 2 )
(A) K1 + K2 (B) 22. A rod of length L and uniform cross-sectional
2
area has varying thermal conductivity which

Page # 24 HEAT
changes linearly from 2K at end A to K at the H. The ADB part is now replaced with
other end B. The ends A and B of the rod are another metal keeping the temperatures T1 and
maintained at constant temperature 100°C and T2 constant. The heat carried increases to 2H.
0°C, respectively. At steady state, the graph of What should be the conductivity of the new ADB
temperature : T = T(x) where x = distance from
end A will be ACB
part? Given =3 :
ADB
T T
C
100°C 100°C
(A) (B)
x x
L L
A B
T T T1 T2
100°C 100°C
D
7
(C) (D) (A) k (B) 2 k
3
x x
L L 5
(C) k (D) 3 k
23. Two sheets of thickness d and 2d and same area 2
are touching each other on their face. Temperature
TA, TB, TC shown are in geometric progression with 26. Three conducting rods of same material and
common ratio r = 2. Then ratio of thermal conductivity cross-section are shown in figure. Temperatures
of thinner and thicker sheet are of A, D and C are maintained at 20°C, 90°C and
0°C. The ratio of lengths of BD and BC if there is
TA TB TC no heat flow in AB is :
A B C
d 2d D
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 (A) 2/7 (B) 7/2
24. The wall with a cavity consists of two layers (C) 9/2 (D) 2/9
of brick separated by a layer of air. All three layers 27. Six identical conducting rods are joined as
have the same thickness and the thermal shown in figure. Points A and D are maintained at
conductivity of the brick is much greater than temperature of 200°C and 20°C respectively. The
that of air. The left layer is at a higher temperature temperature of junction B will be :
than the right layer and steady state condition
exists. Which of the following graphs predicts
correctly the variation of temperature T with
A B C D
distance d inside the cavity ? 200°C 20°C
T T (A) 120° C (B) 100°C
(C) 140°C (D) 80°C
28. A metallic rod of cross-sectional area 9.0 cm2
(A) (B) and length 0.54 m, with the surface insulated to
prevent heat loss, has one end immersed in boiling
x x
O d O d water and the other in ice-water mixture. The
heat conducted through the rod melts the ice at
T T
the rate of 1 gm for every 33 sec. The thermal
conductivity of the rod is
(A) 330 Wm–1K–1 (B) 60 Wm–1K–1
(C) (D) (C) 600 Wm K–1 –1
(D) 33 Wm–1K–1
x x 29. A hollow sphere of inner radius R and outer
O d O d radius 2R is made of a material of thermal
25. A ring consisting of two parts ADB and ACB conductivity K. It is surrounded by another hollow
of same conductivity k carries an amount of heat sphere of inner radius 2R and outer radius 3R

HEAT Page # 25
made of same material of thermal conductivity K. (A) k1 > k2 (B) k1 < k2

The inside of smaller sphere is maintained at 0°C (C) k1 = k2 but heat flow through material
and the outside of bigger sphere at 100°C. The (1) is larger then through (2)
system is in steady state. The temperature of (D) k1 = k2 but heat flow through material (1) is
the interface will be : less than that through (2)
(A) 50°C (B) 70°C 33. Two rods A and B of different materials but
(C) 75°C (D) 45°C same cross section are joined as in figure. The
30. The ends of a metal bar of constant cross- free end of A is maintained at 100°C and the free
sectional area are maintained at temperatures T1 end of B is maintained at 0°C. If l2 = 2l1, K1 = 2K2
and T2 which are both higher than the temperature and rods are thermally insulated from sides to
of the surroundings. If the bar is unlagged, which prevent heat losses then the temperature  of
one of the following sketches best represents the junction of the two rods is
the variation of temperature with distance along l1 l2
the bar?
T1 T1 A B
T2 T2 100°C K1  K2 0°C
(A) (B) (A) 80°C (B) 60°C
(C) 40°C (D) 20°C
O Distance O Distance Question No. 34. to 36 (3 questions)
T1 T1 Two rods A and B of same cross-sectional are A
and length l connected in series between a source
T2 T2 (T1 = 100°C) and a sink (T2 = 0°C) as shown in
figure. The rod is laterally insulated
(C) (D)
O Distance O Distance T1 T2
100°C 3K K 0°C
31. Three identical rods AB, CD and PQ are joined
as shown. P an Q are mid points of AB and CD  
respectively. Ends A, B, C and D are maintained
at 0°C, 100°C, 30°C and 60°C respectively. The 34. The ratio of the thermal resistance of the rod is
direction of heat flow in PQ is RA 1 RA
0°C C (A) R  3 (B) R  3
A B B
30°C
RA 3 4
(C) R  4 (D)
P Q B 3
35. If TA and TB are the temperature drops across
the rod A and B, then
B 60°C TA 3 TA 1
100°C D (A) T  1 (B) T  3
(A) from P to Q B B
(B) from Q to P TA 3 TA 4
(C) heat does not flow in PQ (C) T  4 (D) T  3
B B
(D) data not sufficient
36. If GA and GB are the temperature gradients
32. The temperature drop through each layer of across the rod A and B, then
two layer furnace wall is shown in figure. Assume GA 3 GA 1
that the external temperature T1 and T3 are (A) G  1 (B) G  3
maintained constant and T1 > T3. If the thickness B B
of the layers x1 and x2 are the same, which of the GA 3 GA 4
following statements are correct. (C) G  4 (D) G  3
B B
T
k1 k2 37. Two sheets of thickness d and 3d, are
touching each other. The temperature just outside
T1
the thinner sheet side is A, and on the side of
the thicker sheet is C. The interface temperature
T3 is B. A, B and C are in arithmetic progressing, the
x1 x2 X ratio of thermal conductivity of thinner sheet and
thicker sheet is
Page # 26 HEAT
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 3 : 1 is true:

(C) 2 : 3 (D) 1 : 9 T1 T2
38. A cylindrical rod with one end in a steam T2 T1
chamber and the outer end in ice results in melting
of 0.1 gm of ice per second. If the rod is replaced A1 B1 A2 B2
by another with half the length and double the
radius of the first and if the thermal conductivity
of material of second rod is 1/4 that of first, the x x1
rate at which ice melts is gm/sec will be x2 x2
(A) 3.2 (B) 1.6 Rod (l) Rod (lI)
(C) 0.2 (D) 0.1 (A) I of Rod (I) = I of Rod (II)
39. A composite rod made of three rods of equal (B) I of Rod (I) > I of Rod (II)
length and cross-section as shown in the fig. (C) I of Rod (I) < I of Rod (II)
The thermal conductivities of the materials of the (D) data is insufficient
rods are K/2, 5K and K respectively. The end A 43. A system S receives heat continuously from
and end B are at constant temperatures. All heat an electrical heater of power 10 W. The
entering the face A goes out of the end B there temperature of S becomes constant at 50°C when
being no loss of heat from the sides of the bar. the surrounding temperature is 20°C. After the
The effective thermal conductivity of the bar is heater is switched off, S cools from 35.1 °C to
A B 34.9 °C in 1 minute. The heat capacity of S is
(A) 100 J/°C (B) 300 J/°C
K/2 5K K (C) 750 J/°C (D) 1500 J/°C
(A) 15K/16 (B) 6K/13
44. A sphere of ice at 0°C having initial radius R
(C) 5K/16 (D) 2K/13.
is placed in an environment having ambient
40. A rod of length L with sides fully insulated is temperature > 0°C. The ice melts uniformly, such
of a material whose thermal conductivity varies that shape remains spherical. After a time ‘t’ the
 radius of the sphere has reduced to r. Assuming
with temperature as K = , where  is a the rate of heat absorption is proportional to the
T
constant. The ends of the rod are kept at surface area of the sphere at any moment, which
temperature T1 and T2. The temperature T at x, graph best depicts r(t).
r r
where x is the distance from the end whose
R R
temperature is T1 is
x
x T2 (A) (B)
T L
(A) T1  2  (B) L ln T t t
 T1  1 r r
T2 x R R
T2 – T1
(C) T e T1 L (D) T1  x
1 L (C) (D)
41. Heat flows radially outward through a spherical t t
shell of outside radius R2 and inner radius R1. The 45. The power radiated by a black body is P and
temperature of inner surface of shell is 1 and it radiates maximum energy around the wavelength
that of outer is 2. The radial distance from centre 0. If the temperature of the black body is now
of shell where the temperature is just half way changed so that it radiates maximum energy
between 1 and 2 is : around wavelength 3/40, the power radiated by
R  R2 R1R 2 it will increase by a factor of
(A) 1 (B) R  R (A) 4/3 (B) 16/9
2 1 2
2 R1R 2 (C) 64/27 (D) 256/81
R2
(C) R  R (D) R1  46. A black metal foil is warmed by radiation from
1 2 2
a small sphere at temperature ‘T’ and at a
42. The two ends of two similar non-uniform rods distance ‘d’. It is found that the power received
of length  each and thermal conductivity ‘K’ are by the foil is P. If both the temperature and
maintained at different but constant temperature. distance are doubled, the power received by the
The temperature gradient at any point on the foil will be :
T (A) 16 P (B) 4P
rod is . The heat flow per unit time through the (C) 2 P (D) P

rod is I : Given T1 > T2. Then which of the following

HEAT Page # 27
47. Star S1 emits maximum radiation of wavelength 51. The intensity of radiation emitted by the Sun
420 nm and the star S2 emits maximum radiation has its maximum value at a wavelength of 510
of wavelength 560 nm, what is the ratio of the nm and that emitted by the North Star has the
temperature of S1 and S2 : maximum value at 350 nm. If these stars behave
(A) 4/3 (B) (4/3)1/4 like black bodies then the ratio of the surface
(C) 3/4 (D) (3/4)1/2 temperature of the Sun and the North Star is
(A) 1.46 (B) 0.69
48. Spheres P and Q are uniformly constructed
(C) 1.21 (D) 0.83
from the same material which is a good conductor
of heat and the radius of Q is thrice the radius of 52. Two bodies P and Q have thermal emissivities
P. The rate of fall of temperature of P is x times of p and Q respectively. Surface areas of these
that of Q when both are at the same surface bodies are same and the total radiant power is
temperature. The value of x is : also emitted at the same rate. If temperature of
(A) 1/4 (B) 1/3 P is P kelvin then temperature of Q i.e. Q is
(C) 3 (D) 4 1/ 4 1/ 4
 Q   P 
49. An ice cube at temperature –20°C is kept in (A)   P (B)   P
a room at temperature 20°C. The variation of  P   Q 
temperature of the body with time is given by
1/ 4 4
 Q  1  Q 
T T (C)    (D)   P
 P  P  P 
53. A black body calorimeter filled with hot water

(A) (B) cools from 60ºC to 50ºC in 4 min and 40ºC to
30ºC in 8 min. The approximate temperature of
t t
surrounding is
(A) 10ºC (B) 15ºC
T T (C) 20ºC (D) 25ºC
54. The rate of emission of radiation of a black
(C) (D) body at 273ºC is E, then the rate of emission of
radiation of this body at 0ºC will be
t t E E
50. The spectral emissive power E for a body at (A) (B)
16 4
temperature T1 is plotted against the wavelength
and area under the curve is found to be A. At a E
(C) (D) 0
different temperature T2 the area is found to be 8
9A. Then 1/2 = 55. A body cools from 75°C to 65°C in 5 minutes.
If the room temperature is 25°, then the
temperature of the body at the end of next 5
minutes is :
T2 (A) 57°C (B) 55°C
T1 (C) 54°C (D) 53°
56. The temperature of a body falls from 40°C to
36°C in 5 minutes. when placed in a surrounding
(A) 3 (B) 1/3 of constant temperature 16°C. Then the time
(C) 1 / 3 (D) 3 taken for the temperature of the body to become
32°C is -
(A) 5 min (B) 4.3 min
(C) 6.1 min (D) 10.2 min.

Page # 28 HEAT
1. From a black body, radiation is not : 7. An experiment is perfomed to measure the

specific heat of copper. A lump of copper is heated
(A) emitted (B) absorbed
in an oven, then dropped into a beaker of water.
(C) reflected (D) refracted To calculate the specific heat of copper, the
2. In accordance with Kirchhoff’s law : experimenter must know or measure the value of
all of the quantities below EXCEPT the
(A) bad absorber is bad emitter
(B) bad absorber is good reflector (A) heat capacity of water and beaker
(C) bad reflector is good emitter (B) original temperature of the copper and the
(D) bad emitter is good absorber water
3. The energy radiated by a body depends on : (C) final (equilibrium) temperature of the copper
and the water
(A) area of body (B) nature of surface
(D) time taken to achieve equilibrium after the
(C) mass of body (D) temperature of body
copper is dropped into the water
4. A hollow and a solid sphere of same material
and identical outer surface are heated to the same 8. One end of a conducting rod is maintained at
temperature : temperature 50ºC and at the other end, ice is melting
(A) in the beginning both will emit equal amount at 0ºC. The rate of melting of ice is doubled if :
of radiation per unit time. (A) the temperature is made 200ºC and the area
(B) in the beginning both will absorb equal amount of cross-section of the rod is doubled
of radiation per unit time (B) the temperature is made 100ºC and length of
(C) both spheres will have same rate of fall of rod is made four times
temperature (dT/dt) (C) area of cross-section of rod is halved and
(D) both spheres will have equal temperatures at length is doubled
any moment. (D) the temperature is made 100ºC and the area
5.The rate of cooling of a body by radiation of cross-section of rod and length both are
depends on : doubled.
(A) area of body 9. Two metallic sphere A and B are made of same
(B) mass of body material and have got identical surface finish. The
mass of sphere A is four times that of B. Both the
(C) specific heat of body
spheres are heated to the same temperature and
(D) temperature of body and surrounding. placed in a room having lower temperature but
6. A polished metallic piece and a black painted thermally insulated from each other.
wooden piece are kept in open in bright sun for a (A) The ratio of heat loss of A to that of B is 24/3
long time :
(B) The ratio of heat loss of A to that of B is 22/3
(A) the wooden piece will absorbs less heat than
(C) The ratio of the initial rate of cooling of A to
the metallic piece
that of B is 2–2/3
(B) the wooden piece will have a lower temperature
(D) The ratio of the initial rate of cooling of A to
than the metallic piece
that of B is 2–4/3
(C) if touched, the metallic piece will feel hotter
10. Two bodies A and B have thermal emissivities
than the wooden piece
of 0.01 and 0.81 respectively. The outer surface
(D) when the two pieces are removed from the areas of the two bodies are the same. The two
open to a cold room, the wooden piece will lose bodies radiate energy at the same rate. The
heat at a faster rate than the metallic piece wavelength B, corresponding to the maximum

HEAT Page # 29
spectral radiancy in the radiation from B, is shifted 12. Choose the correct statement(s)
from the wavelength corresponding to the (A) The radiant energy is not equally distributed
maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from among all the possible wavelengths
A by 1.00 m. If the temperature of A is 5802 K,
(B) For a particular wavelength the spectral
(A) the temperature of B is 1934 K intensity is maximum
(B) B = 1.5 m (C) The area under the curve is equal to the
(C) the temperature of B is 11604 K total rate at which heat is radiated by the body
(D) the temperature of B is 2901 K at that temperature
11. Three bodies A, B and C have equal surface (D) None of these
area and thermal emissivities in the ratio 13. If the temperature of the body is raised to a
1 1 higher temperature T,’ then choose the correct
e A : eB : e C  1 : : . All the three bodies are
2 4 statement(s)
radiating at same rate. Their wavelengths
(A) The intensity of radiation for every
corresponding to maximum intensity are A, B and
wavelength increases
C respectively and their temperature are TA, TB
and TC on kelvin scale, then select the incorrect (B) The maximum intensity occurs at a shorter
statement. wavelength
(C) The area under the graph increases
(A) TA TC  TB (B)  A  C   B
(D) The area under the graph is proportional to
the fourth power of temperature
(C) e A TA e C TC  eB TB
14. Identify the graph which correctly represents
the spectral intensity versus wavelength graph
(D) eA A TA . eBBTB  eCCTC
at two temperatures T and T(T < T)
E E
The figure shows a radiant energy spectrum
T'
graph for a black body at a temperature T. T'
T
(A) (B) T
O O
T
E
T'
O
T

Page # 30 HEAT

1. In following equation calculate the value of H. which the temperature decreases by 5°C. Specific
1 kg steam at 200°C = H + 1 Kg water at 100°C heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg–°C and latent
(Ssteam = Constant = .5 cal/gm°C) heat of vaporization of water = 2.27 × 106 J/kg.
2. From what height should a piece of ice (0°C)
8. An aluminium container of mass 100 gm contains
fall so that it melts completely ? Only one quarter
200 gm of ice at –20°C. Heat is added to the
of the heat produced is absorbed by the ice. The
system at the rate of 100 cal/s. Find the
latent heat of ice is 3.4 × 105 J kg–1 and g is 10 N
temperature of the system after 4 minutes
kg–1.
(specific heat of ice = 0.5 and L = 80 cal/gm,
3. A copper cube of mass 200 g slides down on a specific heat of Al = 0.2 cal/gm/°C)
rough inclined plane of inclination 37° at a constant
9. A volume of 120 ml of drink (half alcohol + half
speed. Assume that any loss in mechanical energy
water by mass) originally at a temperature of
goes into the copper block as thermal energy.
25°C is cooled by adding 20 gm ice at 0°C. If all
Find the increase in the temperature of the block
the ice melts, find the final temperature of the
as it slides down through 60 cm. Specific heat
drink.(density of drink = 0.833 gm/cc, specific
capacity of copper = 420 J/kg-K.
heat of alcohol = 0.6 cal/gm/°C)
4. 10 gm ice at –10°C, 10 gm water at 20°C and 10. Two identical calorimeter A and B contain
2g steam at 100°C are mixed with each other equal quantity of water at 20°C. A 5 gm piece of
then final equilibrium temperature. metal X of specific heat 0.2 cal g–1 (C°)–1 is
dropped into A and a 5 gm piece of metal Y into
5. Materials A, B and C are solids that are at their B. The equilibrium temperature in A is 22° C and
melting temperatures. Material A requires 200 J in B 23°C. The initial temperature of both the metals
to melt 4 kg, material B requires 300 J to melt 5 is 40°C. Find the specific heat of metal Y in cal g–1(C°)–1.
kg, and material C requires 300 J to melt 6 kg.
11. Two 50 gm ice cubes are dropped into 250
Rank the materials according to their heats of
gm of water into a glass. If the water was initially
fusion, greatest first.
at a temperature of 25°C and the temperature of
6. In a thermally isolated container, material A of ice –15°C. Find the final temperature of water.
mass m is placed against material B, also of mass (specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal/gm/°C and L = 80
m but at higher temperature. When thermal cal/gm). Find final amount of water and ice.
equilibrium is reached, the temperature changes
12. A substance is in the solid form at 0°C. The
TA and TB of A and B are recorded. Then the
amount of heat added to this substance and its
experiment is repeated, using A with other
temperature are plotted in the following graph. If
materials. All of the same mass m. The results
the relative specific heat capacity of the solid
are given in the table. Rank the four materials
substance is 0.5, find from the graph
according to their specific heats, greatest first. C
Experiment Temperature Changes 120
100
1. TA = + 50 C° TB = – 50 C° A B
temp(°C)
80
2. TA = + 10 C° TC = – 20 C° 60
3. TA = + 2 C° TD = – 40 C° 40
20
7. Indian style of cooling drinking water is to keep
it in a pitcher having porous walls. Water comes 1000 2000
Q (calories)
to the outer surface very slowly and avaporates.
(i) the mass of the substance;
Most of the energy needed for evaporation is
taken from the water itself and the water is cooled (ii) the specific latent heat of the melting process,
down. Assume that a pitcher contains 10 kg of and
water and 0.2 g of water comes out per second.
Assuming no backward heat transfer from the (iii) the specific heat of the substance in the
atmosphere to the water, calculate the time in liquid state.
13. A uniform slab of dimension 10cm × 10cm ×
1cm is kept between two heat reservoirs at
HEAT Page # 31
temperatures 10°C and 90°C. The larger surface 4 cm thick layer of insulation whose thermal
areas touch the reservoirs. The thermal conductivity is 0.2 W/m/K. The outer face of the
conductivity of the material is 0.80 W/m–°C. Find insulation is 25°C. Find the temperature of the
the amount of heat flowing through the slab per tank in the steady state.
second. 20. The figure shows the face and interface
14. One end of a steel rod (K = 42 J/m–s–°C) of temperature of a composite slab containing of
length 1.0m is kept in ice at 0°C and the other four layers of two materials having identical
end is kept in boiling water at 100°C. The area of thickness. Under steady state condition, find the
cross-section of the rod is 0.04 cm2. Assuming value of temperature .
no heat loss to the atmosphere, find the mass of
20°C 10°C  –5°C –10°C
the ice melting per second. Latent heat of fusion
of ice = 3.36 × 105 J/kg.
15. A rod CD of thermal resistance 5.0 K/W is k 2k k 2k
joined at the middle of an identical rod AB as
shown in figure. The ends A, B and D are
maintained at 100°C, 0°C and 25°C
k=thermal conductivity
respectively. Find the heat current in CD.
A B 21. In the square frame of side l of metallic rods,
100°C C 0°C the corners A and C are maintained at T1 and T2
respectively. The rate of heat flow from A to C is
. If A and D are instead maintained T1 & T2
respectively find, find the total rate of heat flow.
D l
25°C B C
16. A semicircular rod is joined at its end to a
straight rod of the same material and same cross- l l
sectional area. The straight rod forms a diameter
of the other rod. The junctions are maintained at A l D
different temperatures. Find the ratio of the heat
transferred through a cross-section of the 22. A hollow metallic sphere of radius 20 cm
semicircular rod to the heat transferred through surrounds a concentric metallic sphere of radius
a cross-section of the straight rod in a given 5 cm. The space between the two spheres is
time. filled with a nonmetallic material. The inner and
outer spheres are maintained at 50°C and 10°C
17. One end of copper rod of uniform cross-section
respectively and it is found that 160  Joule of
and of length 1.45 m is in contact with ice at 0°C
heat passes from the inner sphere to the outer
and the other end with water at 100°C. Find the
sphere per second. Find the thermal conductivity
position of point along its length where a
temperature of 200°C should be maintained so of the material between the spheres.
that in steady state the mass of ice melting is 23. Find the rate of heat flow through a cross-
equal to that of steam produced in the same section of the rod shown in figure (2 > 1). Thermal
interval of time [Assume that the whole system is conductivity of the material of the rod is K.
insulated from surroudings]. [take Lv = 540 cal/g Lf
= 80 cal/g] r2
r1 L
18. Three slabs of same surface area but different 1
conductivities k1, k2, k3 and different thickness 2
t1, t2, t3 are placed in close contact. After steady  2  1
state his combination behaves as a single slab.
Find is effective thermal conductivity. 24. A metal rod of cross-sectional area 1.0 cm2
19. A thin walled metal tank of surface area 5m2 is being heated at one end. At one time, the
is filled with water tank and contains an immersion temperature gradient is 5.0°C/cm at cross-section
heater dissipating 1 kW. The tank is covered with A and is 2.6°C/cm at cross-section B. Calculate

Page # 32 HEAT
the rate at which the tempeature is increasing in 32. A copper sphere is suspended in an evacuated
the part AB of the rod. The heat capacity of the chamber maintained at 300 K. The sphere is
part AB = 0.40 J/°C, thermal conductivity of the maintained at a constant temperature of 500 K
material of the rod = 200 W/m–°C. Neglect any by heating it electrically. A total of 210 W of
loss of heat to the atmosphere. electric power is needed to do it. When the surface
of the copper sphere is completely blackened,
25. A rod of negligible heat capacity has length
700 W is needed to maintain the same temperature
20 cm, area of cross-section 1.0 cm2 and thermal
of the sphere. Calculate the emissivity of copper.
conductivity 200 W/m–°C. The tempeature of one
end is maintained at 0°C and that of the other 33. During a certain duration in the day, the earth
end is slowly and linearly varied from 0°C to 60°C is in radiative equilibrium with the sun. Find the
in 10 minutes. Assuming no loss of heat through surface temperature of the earth during that
the sides, find the total heat transmitted through duratian.
the rod in these 10 minutes. [Given, radius of sun = 6.9 × 108 m surface
temperature of sun = 6000 K and the distance of
26. A pan filled with hot food cools from 50.1 °C
earth from the sun = 1.49 × 1011 m. Assume that
to 49.9 °C in 5 sec. How long will it take to cool
the sun and earth behave as black bodies.]
from 40.1 °C to 39.9°C if room temperature is
30°C ? 34. Estimate the temperature at which a body
may appear blue or red. The values of mean for
27. A solid copper cube and sphere, both of same
these are 5000 and 7500 Å respectively. [Given
mass & emissivity are heated to same initial
Wein’s constant b = 0.3 cm K]
temperature and kept under identical conditions.
What is the ratio of their initial rate of fall of 35. Find the quantity of energy radiated from 1
temperature ? cm2 of a surface in one second by a black body if
the maximum energy density corresponds to a
28. Two spheres of same radius R have their
wavelength of 5000 Å
densities in the ratio 8 : 1 and the ratio of their
(b = 0.3 cm K and  = 5.6 × 10–8 w/m2k4)
specific heats are 1 : 4. If by radiation their rates
of fall of temperature are same, then find the 36. The following observations have been noted
ratio of their rates of losing heat. for a black body spectrum, taken for T = 500 K.
Calculate the value of m at T = 1000 K.
29. The maximum wavelength in the energy
distribution spectrum of the sun is at 4753 Å and

its temperature is 6050K. What will be the 10 8 6 4
(in  m )
temperature of the star whose energy distribution
shows a maximum at 9506 Å. E
10 14 16 12
30. A black body radiates 5 watts per square cm (in SI units)
of its surface area at 27°C. How much will it
radiate per square cm at 327°C. 37. A liquid cools from 70°C to 60°C is 5 minutes.
31. A 100 W bulb has tungsten filament of total Find the time in which it will further cool down to
length 1.- m and radius 4 × 10–5 m. The emissivity 50 °C, if its surrounding is held at a constant
of the filament is 0.8 and  = 6.0 × 10–8 W/m2 – temperature of 30°C
K4. Calculate the temperature of the filament when 38. A body cools down from 50°C to 45°C in 5
the bulb is operating at correct wattage. minutes and to 40°C in another 8 minutes. Find
the temperature of the surrounding.

HEAT Page # 33
1. A copper calorimeter of mass 100 gm contains 5. Ice at –20°C is filled upto height h = 10 cm in
200 gm of a mixture of ice and water. Steam at a uniform cylindrical vessel. Water at temperature
100°C under normal pressure is passed into the °C is filled in another identical vessel upto the
calorimeter and the temperature of the mixture is same height h = 10 cm. Now, water from second
allowed to rise to 50°C. If the mass of the vessel is poured into first vessel and it is found
calorimeter and its contents is now 330 gm, what
that level of upper surface falls through h = 0.5
was the ratio of ice and water in beginning?
cm when thermal equilibrium is reached. Neglecting
Neglect heat losses.
thermal capacity of vessels, change in density of
Given : Specific heat capacity of copper
water due to change in temperature and loss of
= 0.42 × 103 J kg–1 K–1,
heat due to rediation, calculate initial temperature
Specific heat capacity of water
= 4.2 × 103 J kg–1K–1,  of water.
Specific heat of fusion of ice Given, Density of water, w = 1 gm cm–3
= 3.36 × 105 J kg–1 Density of ice, i = 0.9 gm/cm3
Latent heat of condensation of steam Specific heat of water, sw = 1 cal/gm °C
= 22.5 × 105 Jkg–1 Specific heat of ice si = 0.5 cal/gm ºC
Specific latent heat of ice, L = 80 cal/gm
2. A solid substance of mass 10 gm at –10°C was
heated to –2°C (still in the solid state). The heat 6. A composite body consists of two rectangular
required was 64 calories. Another 880 calories plates of the same dimensions but different
was required to raise the temperature of the thermal conductivities KA and KB . This body is
substance (now in the liquid state) to 1°C, while used to transfer heat between two objects
900 calories was required to raise the temperature maintained at different temperatures. The
from –2°C to 3°C. Calculate the specific heat composite body can be placed such that flow of
capacities of the substance in the solid and liquid heat takes place either parallel to the interface
state in calories per kilogram per kelvin. Show or perpendicular to it. Calculate the effective
that the latent heat of fusion L is related to the
thermal conductivities K|| and K  of the composite
melting point temperature tm by L = 85400 + 200 tm.
bo dy for the parallel and perpendicular
3. A steel drill making 180 rpm is used to drill a orientations. Which orientation will have more
hole in a block of steel. The mass of the steel thermal conductivity ?
block and the drill is 180 gm. If the entire
mechanical work is used up in producing heat 7. A highly conducting solid cylinder of radius a
and the rate of raise in temperature of the block and length l is surrounded by a co-axial layer of a
and the drill is 0.5 °C/s. Find material having thermal conductivity K and
(a) the rate of working of the drill in watts, and negligible heat capacity. Temperature of
(b) the torque required to drive the drill. surrounding space (out side the layer) is T0, which
Specific heat of steel = 0.1 and J = 4.2 J/cal. is higher than temperature of the cylinder. If heat
Use : P = 
capacity per unit volume of cylinder material is s
4. A flow calorimeter is used to measure the and outer radius of the layer is b, calculate time
specific heat of a liquid. Heat is added at a known required to increase temperature of the cylinder
rate to a stream of the liquid as it passes through from T1 to T2. Assume end faces to be thermally
the calorimeter at a known rate. Then a insulated.
measurement of the resulting temperature
difference between the inflow and the outflow 8. A vertical brick duct (tube) is filled with cast
points of the liquid stream enables us to compute iron. The lower end of the duct is maintained at a
the specific heat of the liquid. A liquid of density temperature T1 which is greater than the melting
0.2 g/cm3 flows through a calorimeter at the rate point Tm of cast iron and the upper end at a
of 10 cm3/s. Heat is added by means of a 250-W temperature T2 which is less than the temperature
electric heating coil, and a temperature difference of the melting point of cast iron. It is given that
of 25°C is established in steady-state conditions the conductivity of liquid cast iron is equal to k
between the inflow and the outflow points. Find times the conductivity of solid cast iron. Determine
the specific heat of the liquid. the fraction of the duct filled with molten metal.

Page # 34 HEAT
9. A lagged stick of cross section area 1 cm2 and Blackened

length 1 m is initially at a temperature of 0°C. It sphere envelop
is then kept between 2 reservoirs of temperature
100°C and 0°C. Specific heat capacity is 10 J/ space to
kg°C and linear mass density is 2 kg/m. Find section
100°C 0°C 14. A liquid takes 5 minutes to cool from 80°C to

x 50°C. How much time will it take to cool from
60°C to 30°C? The temperature of surrounding is
(a) temperature gradient along the rod in steady 20°C. Use exact method.
state.
15. A barometer is faulty. When the true
(b) total heat absorbed by the rod to reach steady
barometer reading are 73 and 75 cm of Hg, the
state.
faulty barometer reads 69 cm and 70 cm
10. A cylindrical block of length 0.4 m an area of respectively.
cross-section 0.04 m2 is placed coaxially on a (i) What is the total length of the barometer tube
thin metal disc of mass 0.4 kg and of the same ?
cross-section. The upper face of the cylinder is (ii) What is the true reading when the faulty
maintained at a constant temperature of 400K barometer reads 69.5 cm?
and the initial temperature of the disc is 300K. If (iii) What is the faulty barometer reading when
the thermal conductivity of the material of the the true barmeter reads 74 cm?
cylinder is 10 watt/m-K and the specific heat of
the material of the disc in 600 J/kg-K, how long 16. A vessel of volume V = 30 l is separated into
will it take for the temperature of the disc to three equal parts by stationary semipermeable
increase to 350K ? Assume, for purposes of thin membrances as shown in the Figure. The
calculation, the thermal conductivity of the disc
left, middle and right parts are filled with mH2  30g
to be very high and the system to be thermally
insulated except for the upper face of the cylinder. of hydorgen, m O 2  160g of oxygen, and mN2  70g
11. A solid copper sphere cools at the rate of of nitrogen respectively. The left partition lets
2.8°C per minute, when its temperature is 127°C. through only hydrogen, while the right partition
Find the rate at which another solid copper sphere
lets through hydrogen and nitrogen. What will be
of twice the radius lose its temperature at 327°C,
the pressure in each part of the vessel after the
if in both the cases, the room temperature is
equilibrium has been set in if the vessel is kept at
maintained at 27°C.
a constant temperature T = 300K?
12. End A of a rod AB of length L = 0.5 m and of
uniform cross-sectional area is maintained at some H2 O2 N2
constant temperature. The heat conductivity of
the rod is k = 17 J/s-m°K. The other end B of this
17. Twelve conducting rods form the riders of a
rod is radiating energy into vaccum and the
uniform cube of side ‘l’. If in steady state, B and
wavelength with maximum energy density emitted
from this end is 0 = 75000 Å. If the emissivity of H ends of the rod are at 100°C and 0°C. Find the
the end B is e = 1, determine the temperature of temperature of the junction ‘A’.
F G
the end A. Assuming that except the ends, the 0°C
rod is thermally insulated. E
H
13. The shell of a space station is a blackened
100°C B
sphere in which a temperature T = 500K is C
maintained due to operation of appliances of the D

A
station. Find the temperature of the shell if the
station is enveloped by a thin spherical black
screen of nearly the same radius as the radius of
the shell.

HEAT Page # 35
1. The temperature of 100 gm of water is to be may be neglected. The cross-sectional area A of
raised from 24°C to 90°C by adding steam to it. the connecting rod is small compared to the
Calculate the mass of the steam required for this surface area of X. Find the temperature of X at
purpose. [JEE’ 96] time t = 3t1 [JEE’ 98]
2. Two metal cubes A & B of same size are 7. A black body is at a temperature of 2880 K.
arranged as shown in figure. The extreme ends The energy of radiation emitted by this object
of the combination are maintained at the indicated with wavelength between 499 nm and 500 nm is
temperatures. The arrangement is thermally U1, between 999 nm and 1000 nm is U2 and
insulated. The coefficients of thermal conductivity between 1499 nm and 1500 nm is U3. The Wien
of A & B are 300 W/m°C and 200 W/m°C constant b = 2.88 × 106 nm K. Then
respectively. After steady state is reached the [JEE’98]
tem perature T o f th e in terf ace will be (A) U1 = 0 (B) U3= 0
_____________. [JEE’ 96] (C) U1 > U2 (D) U2 > U1
8. A block of ice at –10°C is slowly heated and
A B
100°C
converted to steam at 100°C. Which of the

0°C
following curves represents the phenomenon

qualitatively? [JEE(Scr)2000]
T
Temperature
Temperature
3. A double pane window used for insulating a
room thermally from outside consists of two glass (A) (B)
sheets each of area 1 m2 and thickness 0.01 m
separated by a 0.05 m thick stagnant air space. Heat supplied Heat supplied
Temperature
Temperature
In the steady state, the room glass interface
and the glass outdoor interface are at constant
temperatures of 27°C and 0°C respectively. (C) (D)
Calculate the rate of heat flow through the
window pane. Also find the temperatures of other Heat supplied Heat supplied
interfaces. Given thermal conductivities of glass 9. The plots of intensity versus wavelength for
and air as 0.8 and 0.08 Wm–1K–1 respectively. three black bodies at temperature T1, T2 and T3
[JEE ‘97] respectively are as shown. Their temperatures
are such that [JEE(Scr)2000]
4. A spherical black body with a radius of 12 cm I
radiates 450 W power at 500 K. If the radius T3 T2
T1
were halved and the temperature doubled, the
power radiated in watt would be
(A) 225 (B) 450 
(C) 900 (D) 1800 (A) T1 > T2 > T3 (B) T1 > T3 > T2
5. Earth receives 1400 W/m2 of solar power. If all (C) T2 > T3 > T1 (D) T3 > T2 > T1
the solar energy falling on a lens of area 0.2 m2 is 10. Three rods made of the same material and
focussed on to a block of ice of mass 280 grams, having the same cross-section have been joined
the time taken to melt the ice will be __________ as shown in the figure. Each rod is of the same
minutes. (Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.3 × 105 length. The left and right ends are kept at 0°C
J/kg) [JEE ‘97] and 90°C respectively. The temperature of the
6. A solid body X of heat capacity C is kept in an junction of the three rods will be
atmosphere whose temperature is TA = 300K. At [JEE (Scr) 2001]
time t = 0, the temperature of X is T0 = 400K. It 90°C
cools according to Newton’s law of cooling. At
time t1 its temperature is found to be 350K. At 0°C
this time t1, the body X is connected to a larger
90°C
body Y at atmospheric temperature TA, through
a conducting rod of length L, cross-sectional area (A) 45°C (B) 60°C (C) 30°C (D) 20°C
A and thermal conductivity K. The heat capacity 11. An ideal black body at room temperature is
of Y is so large that any variation in its temperature thrown into a furnace. It is observed that
(A) initially it is the darkest body and at later

Page # 36 HEAT
times the brightest. (A) QA is maximum (B) QB is maximum

(B) it the darkest body at all times (C) QC is maximum (D) QA = QB = QC
(C) it cannot be distinguished at all times.
17. Two identical conducting rods are first
(D) initially it is the darkest body and at later connected independently to two vessels, one
times it cannot be distinguished.[JEE(Scr)2002] containing water at 100°C and the other
12. An ice cube of mass 0.1 kg at 0°C is placed in containing ice at 0°C. In the second case, the
an isolated container which is at 227°C. The rods are joined end to end and connected to the
specific heat S of the container varies with same vessels. Let q1 and q2 g/s be the rate of of
temperature T according the empirical relations = ice in the two cases respectively. The ratio q2/q1
A + BT, where A = 100 cal/kg-K and B = 2 × 10–2 is [JEE’ 2004(Scr.)]
cal/kg-K2. If the final temperature of the container (A) 1/2 (B) 2/1
is 27°C, determine the mass of the container. (C) 4/1 (D) 1/4
(Latent heat of fusion for water = 8 × 104 cal/kg. 18. Liquid oxygen at 50 K is heated to 300 K at
Specific heat of water = 103 cal/kg-K) constant pressure of 1 atm. The rate of heating
[JEE’2001] is constant. Which of the following graphs
13. 2 kg ice at –20°C is mixed with 5kg water at represents the variation of temperature with time
20°C. Then final amount of water in the mixture [JEE’2004(Scr.)]
would be ; Given specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal/ Temp. Temp.
g°C, specific heat of water = 1 cal/g°C,
[JEE’ (Scr) 2003] (A) (B)
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal/g.
(A) 6 kg (B) 5 kg Time Time
Temp. Temp.
(C) 4 kg (D) 2 kg
14. If emissivity of bodies X and Y are ex and ey
(C) (D)
and absorptive power are Ax and Ay then
T Time Time
19. A cube of coefficient of linear expansion s is
x floating in a bath containing a liquid of coefficient
y of volume expansion l. When the temperature is
raised by T, the depth upto which the cube is
t submerged in the liquid remains the same. Find
(A) ey > ex ; Ay > Ax (B) ey < ex; Ay < Ax the relation between s and l, showing all the
(C) ey > ex ; Ay < Ax (D) ey = ex ; Ay = Ax steps. [JEE 2004]
15. Hot oil is circulated through 20. One end of a rod of length L and cross-
an insulated container with a sectional area A is kept in a furnace of
wooden lid at the top whose T =127°C
l
temperature T1. The other end of the rod is kept
t = 5 mm, emissivity = 0.6. at a temperature T2. The thermal conductivity of
Temperature of the top of the the material of the rod is K and emissivity of the
lid in steady state is at Tl = rod is e. It is given that T2 = TS + T where T
T 0
127°. If the ambie nt << T S , T S being the temperature of the

T =27°C
a
temperature Ta = 27°C. surroundings. If T  (T 1 – T S ), find the
Hot oil
Calculate proportionality constant. Consider that heat is
(a) rate of heat loss per unit area due to rediation lost only by radiation at the end where the
from the lid. temperature of the rod is T2. [JEE 2004]
17
(b) temperature of the oil. (Given  = × 10–8) Insulated TS
3
[JEE’ 2003] Furance T1 Rod T2
16. Three discs A, B, and C having radii 2 m, 4m L
and 6m respectively are coated with carbon black Insulated
on their outer surfaces. The wavelengths
21. Three graphs marked as 1,2,3 representing
corresponding to maximum intensity are 300 nm,
the variation of maximum emissive power and
400 nm and 500 nm respectively. The power
wavelength of radiation of the sun, a welding arc
radiated by them are QA, QB and QC respectively.
and a tungsten filament. Which of the following
[JEE’ 2004 (Scr.)] combination is correct

HEAT Page # 37
E in the visible spectrum.

(D) The reflected energy in unit time by the black
body remains same. [JEE 2006]
(3) 27. In an insulated vessel, 0.05 kg steam at 373K
(2) and 0.45 kg of ice at 253K are mixed. Then, find
(1) the final temperature of the mixture.
 Given, Lfusion = 80 cal/g = 336 J/g, Lvaporization = 540
(A) 1-bulb, 2  welding arc, 3  sun cal/g = 2268 J/g,
(B) 2-bulb, 3  welding arc, 1  sun Sice = 2100 J/kg K=0.5 cal/gK and Swater = 4200 J/
(C) 3-bulb, 1  welding arc, 2  sun kg K = 1 cal/gK [JEE 2006]
(D) 2-bulb, 1  welding arc, 3  sun
28. Column I gives some devices and Column II
[JEE’2005(Scr)]
gives some processes on which the functioning
22. In which of the following phenomenon heat of these devices depend. Match the devices in
convection does not take place [JEE’ 2005 (Scr)] Column I with the processes in Column II and
(A) land and sea breeze indicate your answer by darkening appropriate
(B) boiling of water bubbles in the 4 × 4 matrix given in the ORS.
(C) heating of glass surface due to filament of [JEE 2007]
the bulb Column I Column II
(D) air around the furance (A) Bimetallic strip (P) Radiation from a hot
23. 2 litre water at 27°C is heated by a 1 kW body
heater in an open container. On an average heat (B) Steam engine (Q) Energy conversion
is lost to surroundings at the rate 160 J/s. The (C) Incandescent lamp (R) Melting
time required for the temperature to reach 77°C (D) Electric fuse (S)Thermal
is exapansion of solids
(A) 8 min 20 sec (B) 10 min 29. A metal rod AB of length 10x has its one end
(C) 7 min (D) 14 min A in ice at 0°C, and the other end B in water at
[JEE’ 2005(Scr)] 100°C. If a point P on the rod is maintained at
24. A spherical body of area A, and emissivity e 400°C, then it is found that equal amounts of
= 0.6 is kept inside a black body. What is the water and ice evaporate and melt per unit time.
rate at which energy is radiated per second at The latent heat of evaporation of water is 540
temperature T cal g–1 and latent heat of melting of ice is 80 cal
(A) 0.6 AT4 (B) 0.4 AT4 g–1 . If the point P is at a distance of lx from the
(C) 0.8 AT4 (D) 1.0 AT4 ice end A, find the value of l. [Neglect any heat
[JEE’ 2005 (Scr)] loss to the surrounding. [JEE 2009]
30. A piece of ice (heat capacity = 2100 J kg–1
25. 1 calorie is the heat required to increased °C–1 and latent heat = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1) of mass
the temperature of 1 gm of water by 1°C from m grams is at –5°C at atmospheric pressure. It is
(A) 13.5° C to 14.5°C at 76 mm of Hg given 420 J of heat so that the ice starts melting.
(B) 14.5°C to 15.5°C at 760mm of Hg Finally when the ice-water mixture is in equilibrium,
(C) 0°C to 1°C at 760mm of Hg it is found that 1 gm of ice has melted. Assuming
(D) 3°C to 4°C to 760mm of Hg there is no other heat exchange in the process,
[JEE’ 2005(Scr)] the value of m is : [JEE 2010]
26. In a dark room with ambient temperature T0, 31. Three very large plates of same area are kept
a black body is kept at a temperature T. Keeping parallel and close to each other. They are
the temperature of the black body constant (at considered as ideal black surfaces and have very
T), sunrays are allowed to fall on the black body high thermal conductivity. The first and third plates
through a hole in the roof of the dark room are maintained at temperatures 2T and 3T
Assuming that there is no change in the ambient respectively. The temperature of the middle (i.e.
temperature of the room, which of the following second) plate under steady state condition is
statement(s) is/are correct? 1 1
(A) The quantity of radiation absorbed by the  65  4  97  4
(A)   T (B)   T [JEE 2012]
black body in unit time will increase.  2   4 
(B) Since emissivity = absorptivity, hence the 1
quantity of radiation emitted by black body in  97  4 1
(C)   T (D)  97  4 T
unit time will increase.  2 
(C) Black body radiates more energy in unit time

Page # 38 HEAT
:: ANSWER KEY ::
Exercise-I
1. D 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. A 6. D
7. A 8. B 9. C 10. D 11. C 12. A
13. B 14. (a) A (b) D 15. B 16. B 17. A 18. C
19. C 20. A 21. C 22. B 23. A 24. D
25. A 26. B 27. C 28. B 29. C 30. C
31. A 32. A 33. A 34. A 35. B 36. B
37. A 38. C 39. A 40. A 41. B 42. A
43. D 44. B 45. D 46. B 47. A 48. C
49. B 50. D 51. B 52. B 53. B 54. A
55. A 56. C
Exercise-II
1. CD 2. ABC 3. ABD 4. AB 5. ABCD 6. CD

7. D 8. D 9. A,C 10. A,B 11. D 12. A,B
13. A,B,CD 14. B
Exercise-III
315
1. H = 590 Kcal.2. 136 km 3. 8.6 × 10–3 °C 4.  =  C = 28.66°C
1050 11
5. LB > LA = LC 6. SA = SB > SC > SD 7. sec. = 7.7 min
2.27
8. 25.5°C 9. 4°C 10. 27/85
11. 0°C, 125/4 g ice, 1275/4 g water 12. (i) 0.02 kg, (ii) 40,000 cal kg–1, (iii) 750 cal kg–1 K–1
13. 64 J 14. 5 × 10–5 g/s 15. 4.0 W 16. 2 : 

17. 10 cm from end in contact with water at
t1  t 2  t 3
t 1 t t
18.  2  3 19. 65°C 20. 5°C 21. 4/3 
k1 k 2 k 3
Kr1r2 ( 2 – 1 )
22. 15 W/m–°C 23.
L
24. 12 °C/s 25. 1800 J 26. 10 sec 27. ( 6 /  )1/ 3 28. 2 : 1 29. 3025 K 30. 80 Watt.
31. 1700 K 32. 0.3 33. 15°C
34. 6 × 103 K ; 4 × 103 K 35. 7.31 × 1010 erg/cm2 sec. 36. m = 3 m
37. 7 minutes. 38. 34°C

HEAT Page # 39
Exercise-IV
1. 1 : 1.26 2. 800 cal kg–1 K–1, 1000 cal kg–1 K–1 3. (a) 37.8 J/s (Watts), (b) 2.005 N-m
K A  KB 2K AK B
4. 5000 J/°C kg 5. 45°C 6. K11 > K  , K|| = , K = K  K
2 A B
a2 s  b  T0  T1  l1 k( T1  Tm )
7. 2K loge  a  loge  T  T  8. 
l k( T1  Tm )  ( Tm  T2 ) 9. (a) –100°C/m, (b) 1000 J
 0 2
10. 166.3 sec 11. 9.72°C/min 12. TA = 423K 13. T’’ = 4

2 × 500 = 600 K
14. 10 minutes 15. (i) 74 cm, (ii) 73.94 cm, (iii) 69.52 cm
16. (i) p1 = pH2 ~– 1.25 × 106 Pa ; p2 = pH2 + pO2 + pN2 ~– 2.8125 × 106 Pa ; p3 = pH2 + pN2 ~– 1.5625 × 106 Pa
17. 60°C
Exercise-V
1. 12 gm 2. 60°C 3. 41.53 Watt; 26.48 °C ; 0.55 °C 4. D 5. 5.5 min
loge 2   KA loge 2  
6. k = ; T = 300 + 50 exp.    2t1  7. D 8. A
t1   LC t1  
9. B 10. B 11. D 12. 0.5 kg 13. A 14. A

15. (a) 595 watt/m2, (b) T0 420K 16. B 17. D 18. C
K
19. l = 2s 20. 21. A 22. C 23. A 24. A 25. B 26. A,D 27. 273K
4eLTS3  K
28. (A) S, Q ; (B) Q ; (C) P, Q ; (D) Q, R or (A) S, (B) Q, (C) P, (D) R 29. 9 30. 8 g
31. C

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
HEAT- 2
CONTENTS
1. Concept of an Ideal Gas ............................................................ 2
2. Kinetic theory of gases ............................................................. 2
3. Pressure of a gas .................................................................. 2 – 3
4. Gas Law ............................................................................. 3 – 12
5. Maxwell's Distribution Law ..................................................... 12 – 13
6. Degree of Freedom .............................................................. 13 – 14
7. Internal Energy ....................................................................... 15
8. Thermodynamics ................................................................. 16 – 20
9. First Law of thermodynamics ................................................. 21 – 24
10. Specific Heat .................................................................... 24 – 29
11. Exercise -I ....................................................................... 30 – 61
12. Exercise - II ..................................................................... 62 – 68
13. Exercise - III .................................................................... 69 – 79

Page # 2 HEAT– 2
1. CONCEPT OF AN IDEAL GAS

A gas has no shape and size and can be contained in a vessel of any size or shape. It
expands indefinitely and uniformly to fill the available space. It exerts pressure on its sur-
roundings.
The gases whose molecules are point massses (mass without volume) and do not attract
each other are called ideal or perfect gases. It is a hypothetical concept which can't exist in
reality. The gases such as hydrogen, oxygen or helium which cannot be liquified easily are
called permanent gases. An actual gas behaves as ideal gas most closely at low pressure
and high temperature.
1.1 Ideal gas Equation
According to this equation.
m
PV  nRT  RT
M
m
In this equation n = number of moles of the gas =
M
m = total mass of the gas.
M = molecular mass of the gas
R = Universal gas constant
= 8.31 J/mol-K
= 2.0 cal/mol- K
2. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Kinetic Theory of gases is based on the following basic assumptions.
(a) A gas consists of very large number of molecules. These molecules are identical, perfectly
elastic and hard spheres. They are so small that the volume of molecules is negligible as
compared with the volume of the gas.
(b) Molecules do not have any preferred direction of motion, motion is completely random.
(c) These molecules travel in straight lines and in free motion most of the time. The time of
the collision between any two molecules is very small.
(d) The collision between molecules and the wall of the container is perfectly elastic. It
means kinetic energy is conserved in each collision.
(e) The path travelled by a molecule between two collisions is called free path and the mean
of this distance travelled by a molecule is called mean free path.
(f) The motion of molecules is governed by Newton’s law of motion
(g) The effect of gravity on the motion of molecules is negligible.
Note :
At higher temperature and low pressure or at higher temperature and low density, a
real gas behaves as an ideal gas.
3. EXPRESSION FOR THE PRESSURE OF A GAS :
Let us suppose that a gas is enclosed in a cubical box having length  . Let there are ‘N’
identical molecules, each having mass ‘m’. Since the molecules are of same mass and perfectly
elastic, so their mutual collisions result in the interchange of velocities only. Only collisions
with the walls of the container contribute to the pressure by the gas molecules. Let us focus
on a molecule having velocity v1 and components of velocity v X1 , v y1 , v z1 along x, y and
z-axis as shown in figure. G H
C Y
D v z1 v y1
v1 X
v x1 Z
Fm
E

A  B
HEAT– 2 Page # 3
v 12  v 2x1  v 2y1  v 2z1

The change in momentum of the molecule after one collision with wall BCHE
= m v x1 – (– m v x1 ) = 2 m v x1 .
dis tan ce 2
The time taken between the successive impacts on the face BCHE = = v
velocity x1
change in momentum 2mv x1 mv 2 x1

Time rate of change of momentum due to collision= = 2 / v =
time taken x1 
Hence the net force on the wall BCHE due to the impact of n N molecules of the gas is :
mv 2x1 mv 2x2 mv 2x3 mv 2xn m 2

Fx =

+

+

+ ........

=

v x1  v 2x2  v 2x3 ...... v 2xn
  = mN

v 2
x 
where < vx 2 > = mean square velocity in x-direction. Since molecules do not favour any
particular direction therefore < vx 2 > = < vy 2 > = < vz 2 >.
But <v2> = <vx2> + <vy2> + <vz2>
 v2 
 <vx2> = . Pressure is equal to force divided by area.
3
Fx M M
P= = <v2> = <v2>. Pressure is independent of x, y, z directions
2 3 3 3V
where  3 = volume of the container = V
M = total mass of the gas, <v2> = mean square velocity of molecules
1
P=  <v2>
3
from PV = nRT
Mass M
n= = (in kg/mole)
Molecular Weight M0
M RT RT 1 2 3RT

P = M V RT = M  M = Vrms  Vrms =
0 0 0 3 M0
3RT 3RT 3Kt

Vrms = M0 = mN A = m
R
K = Boltzman’s const. = N
A
3.1 Co-ordinate of the gases

(P, V, T) is the coordinate of the gas
If initial condition of gas is given by (P1 V1 T1) and final condition of gas is given by (P2, V2 T2)
such as
(P1 V1 T1) (P2 V2 T2)
Then (P, V, T) define situation of gas. When a gas changes from one coordinate system to
another co-ordinate system, then we have to follow a process.
4. GAS LAWS
Assuming permanent gases to be ideal, through experiments, it was established that gases
irrespective of their nature obey the following laws :

Page # 4 HEAT– 2
4.1 Boyle's Law

According to this law, for a given mass of a gas the volume of a gas at constant temperature
(called isothermal process) is inversely proportional to its pressure, i.e.,
1
V (T = constant)
P
or PV = constant
or PiVi = Pf Vf
Thus, P – V graph in an isothermal process is a rectangular hyperbola. Or PV versus P or V
graph is a straight line parallel to P or V axis.
P PV
T = constant
T = constant
V P or V
4.2 Charle's law

According to this law, for a given mass of a gas the volume of a gas at constant pressure
(called) isobaric process) is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, i.e.,
VT
V
or = constant
T
Vi V f
or 
Ti Tf
Thus, V – T graph in an isobaric process is a straight line passing through origin. Or V/T
versus V or T graph is a straight line parallel to V or T axis.
V V/T
P = constant P = constant
T (in K) V or T
4.3 Gay Lussac's Law or Pressure law
According to this law, for a given mass of a gas the pressure of a gas at constant volume
(called isochoric process) is directly proportional to its absolute temperature i.e.,
PT
P
or = constant
T
Pi P f
or 
Ti T f
Thus, P - T graph in an isochoric process is a straight line passing through origin or P/T
versus P or T graph is a straight line parallel to P or T axis.
P P/T
V = constant
T (in K) P or T

HEAT– 2 Page # 5
4.4 Avogadro's Law

Two gases at same volume pressure and temperature contain equal amount of moles (mass
of gas may be different) or we can say contain equal no. of particle.
1 mole = 6.023 × 10–23 Particles
4.5 Reading of P-V diagram
P P
P=V
A Isobaric B
45º
V V
From PV = n RT
P = constant
V;T
P V Isothermal
A
Isobaric
B
V T
V = constant T = constant
P= V;P
T=
B
V
Isobaric
A
T (K)
PV = nRT
 P  const

A  B V 
 T 
When T in ºC  PV = nR(T + 273)
V
V ric
ba
iso
Not isobaric
T(K) –273 T(ºC)

Page # 6 HEAT– 2
P B P A
V
=
A P
V V
AB PV = Constant
P, V, T T=C
P; V
• ISOTHERMAL
P P V
A B
B A
V T T
• ISOBARIC
P P
V
B A B A
V T T
• ISOCHORIC
P A P
A V
B A
B
B
V T T
P ?)
(2P 0,V0.
B C (2P0,2V0, ?)
2P0
A (P ,V ,T )
Ex.1 P0 0 0 0
V0 2V0 V
Find out the values of co-ordinates at point A, B, C in terms of pressure , volume and
temperature and draw curve.

HEAT– 2 Page # 7
P ,2 T 0)
(2P 0,V 0
B C (2P 0,2V 0,4T0)
2P0
A (P ,V ,T )
Sol. P0 0 0 0
V0 2V0 V
A  B V = constant B–C P = constant
P0 2P0 V0 2V0
= 2T0 = TC
T0 TB
TB = 2T0 TC = 4T0
P V
B C
2P0
V0
A
P0
T0 2T0 4T0
T0 2T0 T 4T0 T
P
Ex.2 Find out the values of co-ordinates at point A, 2P0 C
B, C in terms of pressure , volume and tem-
perature and draw Temp. At point
curve. A = T0
P0 A B
Sol. AB V0 2V0 V

(Isobaric) P
V0 2 V0 2P0 C (2P0,2V0,4T0)
T0 = TB
, T 0)
TB = 2T0 ,V 0
(P 0 B (P0,2V0,2T0)
B  C (Isochoric) P0 A
P1 P2
T1 = T2 V0 2V0 V
P0 2P0
 2T = T  T2 = 4T0
0 2
P V
2P0 C B C
2V0
A B
P0
V0 A
T0 2T0 4T0 T  T0 2T0 4T0 T

Page # 8 HEAT– 2
Ex.3 Find out the values of co-ordinates at point A, P

B
B, C in terms of pressure , volume and tem- 2V0
perature and draw
curve. C
P0 A (P0,V 0,T 0)
P V0 2V0 V 
B (2P0,V0,2T0)
2V0
C (P 0,2V 0,2T0)
Sol. P0 A (P0,V0,T0)
V0 2V0 V 
P1 P2
A  B Volume Const (Isochoric) T1 = T2
B  C Temp. Const (Isothermial) P1V1 = P2V2
V1 V2
C  A Pressure Const (Isobaric) T = T
1 2

P V
2V0 C
2P0
V0 A B
P0
T0 2T0
T0 2T0 T
T
Ex.4 Find out the values of co-ordinates at point A, 

V B
B, C in terms of pressure , volume and tem- 2V0 C
Pressure at point
perature and draw
A = T0
curve.
V0
A
Sol. AB Temp. Constant (isothermal) T0 2T0
P1V1 = P2V2 T
2P0V0 = 2V0P2 
  P0 , 2 V0, T0 

P0 V B 2
 P2 = 2V0 C (P 0,2V 0,2T0)
2
BC volume constant (Isochoric)

V0 ,T0)
PB PC A (P0,V 0
TB = TC
T0 2T0
T
P0 PC
 2T0 = 2T0  PC = P0

HEAT– 2 Page # 9
Note : SOME COMMONLY USED TERM
There is heat transfer from gas to surrounding and final temp is same.
Conducting wall
There is no Heat Transfer.

adiabatic or non-
conducting or insulator
A B
Movable Piston
If it is diathermic seprator then the finally temperature is also same on both side
(finally pressure is same)
movable piston
A B
finally pressure on both side is same then it doesn’t move (massless)
Adiabatic
walls
Ex.5 If the temperature of the increases slowly from T0 to 2T0 then how much piston will
move ?
Gas
Heater
,T0)
(P 0,V 0
non-conducting
V0 Vt
Sol. Pressure Same = T = 2T x
0 0
Gas
Vf = 2V0
Heater
for finding distance move ,T )
(P 0,V 0 0
chauqe is volume = Ax
non-conducting
2V0 – V0 = Ax
V0
x=
A

Page # 10 HEAT– 2
A
Ex.6 If the temperature of the gas changes slowly from
T0 to 2T0. Then find out the displacement of the piston. P0,V0,T0
Sol. Pgas A = Kx + P0 A
 Kx 
Pgas = Pf =   P0  P P0,V0,T0
 A  n..
P. A
P0 V0 Pf ( V0  A x ) Pags A Kx
= x
T0 Tf
PRESSURE VARIATION

H
N
Note 1 : Pressure of due to liquid = hg
A
N    Ahg
A
h
 h sin 
h
P   Hg .76  g
Note 2 : A 
1atm

A PA  h sin .g
PA  hg
vaccum
76cm
of Hg P   Hg . 76 × g x
1 atm
P   Hg . x . g
x cm of Hg pressure means if we placed a straight tube vertically in vaccum. fill the tube with
Hg upto x in of height.
Then the pressure exerted by Hg at the bottom of the tube is equals to pressure of the gas.
Ex.7 Find the new length of gas column in tube if tube is inverted (Assume temperature
is constant)
atm
Pgas
10cm
10cm
75 cm P
P0 of Hg

HEAT– 2 Page # 11
Sol. Initially :
Pgas + 10 = 75  Pgas = 65
Finally
75 + 10 = Pgas  Pgas = 85 cm
P1V1 = P2V2
1950
85 × A ×  = 65 × 30 × A   
85
,Ex.8 Find the new length of gas column in tube if tube is rotated at an angle 60° as shown.
(Assume constant temperature)
Gas
40 60º
20cm Hg
cm
20
P0
Pgas = 75 – 20 = 55 [P + 20 cos 60 = 75
P1V1 = P2 V2 2P + 20 = 150
55 × 40 × A = 65 ×  × A 2P = 130
55  40
 P = 65]
65
40
Ex.9 P0, T0 P0, T0
30 30
Assume constant temperature if the tube is changed to vertical position and the pallet
comes down by 5 cm then find out P0.
Sol. For upper part
P1V1 = P0V0
P1 35 A = P0 30 A 30+5
A
30
P1  P0 ...(i)
35 5
For lower part
P2V2 = P0V0 40
P0 30 A = P2 25 A
30 30–5 = 25
P2  P0 ...(ii)
25
B
Again
P1 + 40 = P2 ...(iii)
From (i) and (ii)
30 30
P0  40  P0
35 25

Page # 12 HEAT– 2
PRESSURE VARIATION IN ATMOSPHERE.

Assuming temp. to be const.
 PM 
-dP = dH ..g  -dP = dh.   .g
 RT 
RT P+dP
PV = nRT  P = dh
M P
PM
= h
RT
P h
dP Mg
–

P
P
=
 RT . dh
0
0
P Mg
Pn P0 = – RT h
Mg
P = P0 e– .h
RT
PRESSURE VARIATION IN ROTATING ROD. 
P P+dP
dx
(P + dP) A – PA = dm w2x
AdP = Aw2d dx
x
dP = w2x dx dm  Adx
P x
dP W 2M

P0
P
=
RT  x dx
0
x
W2M  x 2 
[ln P]PP0   
RT  2 
0
P W2M x 2
ln  .
P0 RT 2
W2Mx 2
P  P0  2RT
5. MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION LAW
dN( v)
Distribution Curve – A plot of (number of molecules per unit speed interval) against c
dv
is known as Maxwell’s distribution curve. The total area under the curve is given by the
 
dN( v)
integral  dv =  dN( v)  N
dv
0 0
dN(v)
[Note : - The actual formula of is not in JEE syllabus.]
dv
Figure shows the distribution curves for two different temperatures. At any temperature the
number of molecules in a given speed interval dv is given by the area under the curve in that
interval (shown shaded). This number increases, as the speed increases, upto a maximum
and then decreases asymptotically toward zero. Thus, maximum number of the molecules
have speed lying within a small range centered about the speed corresponding the peak (A)
of the curve. This speed is called the ‘most probable speed’ vp or vmp.

HEAT– 2 Page # 13
T1
T2 (higher)
dN( v)
dv
vp v vrms v
dv
The distribution curve is asymmetrical about its peak (the most probable speed vp) because
the lowest possible speed is zero, whereas there is no limit to the upper speed a molecule can
attain. Therefore, the average speed v is slightly larger than the most probable speed vp.
The root-mean-square speed, vrms, is still larger /(vrms > v > vp).
Average (or Mean) Speed :
8 RT 8RT
v
 M0 = M0 = 1.59 kT / m
(derivation is not in the course)

RMS Speed :
3RT 3kT kT
vrms = (v2 ) = M0 = = 1.73
m m
Most Probable Speed :
The most probable speed vp or vmp is the speed possessed by the maximum number of
molecules, and corresponds to the maximum (peak) of the distribution curve. Mathematically,
it is obtained by the condition.
dN( v)
= 0 [by substitution of formula of dN(v) (which is not in the course)]
dv
Hence the most probable speed is
2kT 2 RT
vP = = M0
m
From the above expression, we can see that
vrms > v < vP.
R = 8.314 J/mole
k = Boltzmann counstant (k = 1.38 × 10–23JK–1)
6. DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Total number of independent co-ordinates which must be known to completely specify the
position and configuration of dynamical system is known as “degree of freedom f”. Maximum
1 2 1 2 1 2
possible translational degrees of freedom are three i.e.  mVx  mVy  mVz 
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
Maximum possible rotational degrees of freedom are three i.e.  Ix  x  I y  y  I z  z 
2 2 2
Vibrational degrees of freedom are two i.e. (Kinetic energy. of vibration and Potential energy
of vibration)
Monoatonic
Eg : (all inrent gases, He, Ar, etc.)
f=3 (translational)
(Vx, Vy, VZ)

Page # 14 HEAT– 2
Diatomic
Eg : (gases like H2, N2, O2 etc)
f=5 (3 translational + 2 rotational)
(Vx, Vy, Vz ; Wx, Wy, Wz)

x
If temp < 70 K for diatomic molecules, then

f=3
If temp is in between 250 K to 5000 K, then
f=5
If temp is very high (> 5000K)
f = 7 [3 translational +2 rotational +2 vibrational]
Triatomic y
(Non - linear) D.O.f. = 6
V , V , V , Wx , Wy , Wz
xyz    x
3 Trans. 3 Rotational
If linear (CO2) z
Total D.O.f = 5
Vx , Vy , Vz , Wy , Wz
 
  x
3 Trans. 2 Rotational
Maxwell’s law of equipartition of energy.
1
Energy associated with each degree of freedom= KT..
2
1
of one pasticle is same and = KT
2
If degree of freedom of a molecule is f then
t
total kinetic energy of that molecule = KT
2
Monoatomic
3 3 3
Energy of one particle = KT, one mde = RT, n mole = nRT
T
2 2 2
Diatomic
5 5 5
Energy of one Barticle = KT, one mole = RT, n mole = nRT
T
2 2 2
General degree of freedom.

t t t
Energy of one particle = KT, one mole = RT, n mole = nRT
T
2 2 2
Internal energy of a gas only dipends on the temperature of the gas desn’t depend on the
process taken by the gas to reach the tempreature.

HEAT– 2 Page # 15
7. INTERNAL ENERGY
The internal energy of a system is the sun of kinetic and potential energies of the molecules
of the system. It is denoted by U. Internal energy (U) of the system is the function of its
absolute temperature (T) and its volume (V). i.e. U = f(T , V)
In case of an ideal gas, intermolecular force is zero. Hence its potential energy is also zero. In
this case, the internal energy is only due to kinetic energy. Which depends on the absolute
f
temperature of the gas. i.e. U = f(T). For an ideal gas internal energy U = nRT.
2
Ex.10 A light container having a diatomic gas enclosed with in is moving with velocity v.
Mass of the gas is M and number of moles is n.
mass of gas = M v
tempeature T
(i) What is the kinetic energy of gas w.r.t centre of mass of the system?
(ii) What is K.E. of gas w.r.t ground?
5
Sol. (i) K.E. = nRT
2
(ii) Kinetic energy of gas w.r.t ground = Kinetic energy of centre of mass w.r.t ground +
Kinetic energy of gas w.r.t center of mass.
1 5
K.E. = Mv2  nRT
2 2
Ex.11 Two nonconducting containers having volume V1 and V2 contain monoatomic and
dimatomic gases respectively. They are containers are P1, T1 and P2, T2 respectively.
Initially stop cock is closed, if the stop cock is opened find the final pressure and
temperature.
P1 V1 P2 V2
T1 T2
P1 V1 P2 V2
Sol. n1 = RT n2 = RT
1 2
n = n1 + n2 (number of moles are conserved)

Finally pressure in both parts & temperature of the both the gases will be become equal.
P(V1  V2 ) P1 V1 P2 V2
= RT + RT
RT 1 2
From energy conservation

3 5 3 5
n1RT1  n2RT2 = n1RT  n2RT
2 2 2 2
(3P1 V1  5P2 V2 )T1 T2
 T = 3P V T  5P V T
1 1 2 2 2 1
 3P1V1  5P2 V2   P1 V1 T2  P2 V2 T2 
P =  3P V T  5P V T   
 1 1 2 2 2 1   V1  V2 

Page # 16 HEAT– 2
8. THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is mainly the study of exchange of heat energy between bodies and conversion
of the same into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Thermodynamic System
Collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules confined within certain boundaries
such that it has a certain value of pressure (P),volume (V) and temperature (T) is called a
thermodynamic system. Anything outside the thermodynamic system to which energy or
matter is exchanged is called its surroundings. Taking into consideration the interaction
between a system and its surroundings thermodynamic system is divided into three classes :
(a) Open system : A system is said to be an open system if it can exchange both energy
and matter with its surroundings.
(b) Closed system : A system is said to be closed system if it can exchange only energy
(not matter with its surrounding
(c) Isolated system : A system is said to be isolated if it can neither exchange energy nor
matter with its surroundings.
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics :
If two systems (B and C) are separately in thermal equilirbrium with a third one (A), then they
the mselves are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
adiabatic wall
diathermic wall
C B
A
Equation of State (for ideal gases) :

The relation between the thermodynamic variables (P, V, T) of the system is called equation
of state. The equation of state for an ideal gas of n moles is given by
PV = nRT,
Work done by a gas :
Let P and V be the pressure and volume of the gas. If A be the area of the piston. then force
exerted by gas on the piston is, F = P × A
Let the piston move through a small distance dx during the expansion of the gas. Work done
for a small displacement dx is dW = F dx = PA dx
Since A dx = dV, increase in volume of the gas is dV
 dW = P dV
P area
dx enclosed
P,V,T
vi vf
V
or W  d W   P dV
Area enclosed under P-V curve gives work done during process

HEAT– 2 Page # 17
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROCESSES

(a) Isothermal Process :
T = constant [Boyle’s law applicable] PV = constant
P T T
V P V
There is exchange of heat between system and surroundings. System should be compressed
or expanded very slowly so that there is sufficient time for exchange of heat to keep the
temperature constant.
Slope of P-V curve in isothermal process :
PV = constant = C
dP P
 
dV V
Work done in isothermal process :
Vf If v f  vi then W is positive 
W = nRT ln V  
i If v f  vi then W is negative 
 V 
W  2.303 nRT log10 f 
 Vi 
P P
Compression
Expansion
vi vf V vi vf V
Internal energy in isothermal process :

U = f (T) U = 0
(b) Iso-Choric Process (Isometric Process) :
V = constant  Change in volume is zero
P
 is constant
T
P
= const. (Galussac-law)
T
Work done in isochoric process :
Since change in volume is zero therefore
dW = p dV = 0
Indicator diagram of isochoric process :
P V V
T T P
Change in internal energy in isochoric process :
f
U  n R T
2

Page # 18 HEAT– 2
Heat given in isochoric process :

f
Q = U  n R T
2
(c) Isobaric Process : Pressure remains constant in isobaric process

V
 P = constant   cons tan t
T
Indicator diagram of isobaric process :
P P P
T V T (in Kelvin)
Work done in isobaric process :

W = P V = P (Vfinal – Vinitial) = nR(Tfinal – Tinitial)
Change in internal energy in isobaric process :
f
U = n R T
2
Heat given in isobaric process : Q = U + W
f f
Q = n R T + P[Vf – Vi] = n R T + nR T
2 2
Above expression gives an idea that to increase temperature by T in isobaric process heat
required is more than in isochoric process.
(d) Cyclic Process :

In the cyclic process initial and final states are same therefore initial state = final state
Work done = Area enclosed under P-V diagram.
Change in internal Energy U = 0
Q = U + W
 Q = W
If the process on P-V curve is clockwise, then net work done is (+ve) and vice-versa.
The graphs shown below explains when work is positive and when it is negative
(–)work (–)work (+)work (–)work
P P P P
V V V V
Ex.13 The cylinder shown in the figure has conducting walls and temperature of the
surrounding is T, the pistion is initially in equilibrium, the cylinder contains n moles of
a gas. Now the piston is displaced slowly by an external agent to make the volume
double of the initial. Find work done by external agent in terms of n, R, T.
n
moles

HEAT– 2 Page # 19
Sol. 1st Method :

Work done by external agent is positive, because Fext and displacement are in the same
direction. Since walls are conducting therefore temperature remains constant. Applying
equilibrium condition when pressure of the gas is P
PatmA
PA
Fext
PA + Fext = PatmA
Fext = Patm A – PA
d d d d 2v
nRT
Wext =  Fext dx =  Patm Adx –  PA dx = Patm A  dx –  V
dV = Patm Ad – nRT ln 2
0 0 0 0 v
2nd Method
Applying work energy theorem on the piston
k = 0
Wall = k
Wgas + Watm + Wext = 0
Vf
nRT ln V – nRT + Wext = 0
i
Wext = nRT (1 –ln2)
Ex.14 A nonconducting piston of mass m and area of cross
section A is placed on a nonconducting cylinder as
Patm K
shown in figure. Temperature, spring constant, height
of the piston are given by T, K, h respectively. Initially
mass = m
spring is relaxed and piston is at rest. Find Area = A
T
(i) Number of moles

(ii) Work done by gas to displace the piston by distance
d when the gas is heated slowly.
(iii) Find the final temperature
 mg 

P 
mg   Patm  A  Ah
Sol. (i) PV = nRT   atm Ah = nRT  n =  
 A 
RT
(ii) 1st method
Applying newton’s law on the piston
mg + Patm A + Kx = PgasA Kx mg PatmA
d d dx
Wgas =  Pg Adx =  (mg  PatmA  Kx)dx
0 0
x PgasA
1
 Wgas = mgd + PatmdA + Kd2
2
2nd method
Applying work energy theorem on the pistion
Wall = KE
Since piston moves slowly therefore KE = 0
Wgravity + Wgas + Watm + Wspring = 0
1
– mgd + Wgas + (–PatmAd) + [–( Kd2 – 0)] = 0
2
1
 Wgas = mgd + PatmdA + Kd2
2

Page # 20 HEAT– 2
P
Ex.15 Find out the work done in the given graph.
Also draw the corresponding T-V curve and B
P-T curve. 2P0 C
Sol. Since in P-V curves area under the cycle is equal to work done A
P0 D
therefore work done by the gas is equal to P0V0.
Line AB and CD are isochoric line, line BC and DA are isobaric line.
O V
 the T-V curve and P-T curve are drawn as shown. V0 2V0
T C P
B B C
D A
A D
V T
T
Ex.16 T-V curve of cyclic process is shown below,
number of moles of the gas n find the total
B C
work done during the cycle. 2T0
Sol. Since path AB and CD are isochoric therefore work
done is zero during path AB and CD. Process BC T0 D
and DA are isothermal, therefore A
VC V0 2V0 V
WBC = nR2T0 ln V = 2nRT0 ln 2
B
VA
WDA = nRT0 ln V = – nRT0 ln 2
D
Total work done = WBC + WDA
= 2nRT0 ln 2 – nRT0 ln 2 = nRT0 ln 2
P
Ex.17 P-T curve of a cyclic process is shown. Find out the work
T2 B T3
done by the gas in the given process if number of moles P2 C
of the gas are n.
A T1T4
Sol. Since path AB and CD are isochoric therefore work done during P1
D
AB and CD is zero. Path BC and DA ar isobaric.
Hence WBC = nRT = nR(T3 – T2) T
WDA = nR(T1 – T4)
Total work done = WBC + WDA = nR(T1 + T3 – T4 – T2)
Ex.18 Consider the cyclic process ABCA on a sample of 2.0 mol of an ideal gas as shown in
figure. The temperatures of the gas at A and B are 300 K and 500 K respectively. A
total of 1200 J heat is withdrawn from the sample in the process. Find the work done
by the gas in part BC. Take R = 8.3 J/mol-K.
Sol. The change in internal energy during the cyclic
process is zero. Hence, the heat supplied to the P C
gas is equal to the work done by it. Hence,
WAB + WBC + WCA = –1200 J. ...(i)
The work done during the process AB is A B
WAB = PA(VB – VA)
= nR(TB – TA) V
= (2.0 mol) (8.3 J/mol-K) (200 K) = 3320 J
The work done by the gas during the process CA is zero as the volume remains constant.
From (i)
3320 J + WBC = – 1200 J
or WBC = –4520 J
= –4520 J

HEAT– 2 Page # 21
9. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states that if a
system absorbs heat dQ and as a result the internal energy of the system changes by dU and
the system does a work dW, then dQ = dU + dW
But, dW = P dV dQ = dU + P dV
which is the mathematical statement of first law of thermodynamics.
Heat gained by a system, work done by a system and increase in internal energy are
taken as positive.
Heat lost by a system, work done on a system and decrease in internal energy are
taken as negative.
Ex.19 1 gm water at 100°C is heated to convert into steam at 100°C at 1 atm. Find out
change in internal energy of water. It is given that volume of 1 gm water at 100°C = 1
cc. volume of 1 gm steam at 100°C = 1671 cc. Latent heat of vaporization = 540 cal/g.
(Mechanical equivalent of heat J = 4.2 J/cal.)
Sol. From first law of thermodynamic Q = u + w
Q = mL = 1 × 540 cal. = 540 cal.
105 (1671 – 1)  10–6
W = PV =
4.2
105 (1670)  10–6

= = 40 cal.
4.2
U = 540 – 40 = 500 cal.
Ex.20 Two moles of a diatomic gas at 300 K are kept in a nonconducting container enclosed
by a piston. Gas is now compressed to increase the temperature from 300 K to 400 K.
Find work done by the gas
Diatomic 2 moles non conducting

gas 300 K container
Sol. Q = u + W
Since container is conconducting therefore
Q = 0 = u + w
f 5
 W = – u = – n R T = – 2 × R(400 – 300)
2 2
= – 5 × 8.314 × 100 J = – 5 × 831.4 J = – 4157 J
Ex.21 A sample of an ideal gas is taken through the cyclic process abca (figure. It ab-sorbs
50 J of heat during the part ab, no heat during bc and reflects 70 J of heat during ca. 40
J of work is done on the gas during the part bc.(a) Find the internal energy of the gas
at b and c if it is 1500 J at a. (b) Calculate the work done by the gas during the part ca.
P b
c a

Page # 22 HEAT– 2
Sol. (a) In the part ab the volume remains constant. Thus, the work done by the gas s zero. The
heat absorbed by the gas is 50 J. The increase in internal energy from a to b is
U = Q = 50 J.
As the internal energy is 1550 J at a, it will be 1550 J at b. In the part bc, the work done by
the gas is W = –40J and no heat is given to the system. The increase in internal energy from
b to c is
U = – W = 40 J.
As the internal energy is 1550 J at b, it will be 1590 J at C.
(b) The change in internal energy, from c to a is
U = 1500 J – 1590 J = –90 J
The heat given to the system is Q = – 70 J
Using Q = U + W,
Wca = Q – U = – 70 J + 90 J = 20 J.
Ex.22 The internal energy of a monatomic ideal gas is 1.5 nRT. One mole of helium is kept in
a cylinder of cross-section 8.5 cm2. The cylinder is closed by a light frictionless piston.
The gas is heated slowly in a process during which a total of 42 J heat is given to the
gas. If the temperature rises through 2°C, find the distance moved by the piston.
Atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa.
Sol. The change in internal energy of the gas is
U = 1.5 nR (T)
= 1.5 (1 mol) (8.3 J/mol-K) (2K)
= 24.9 J
The heat given to the gas = 42 J
The work done by the gas is
W = Q – U = 42 J – 24.9 J = 17.1 J
If the distance moved by the piston is x, the work done is
W = (100 kPa) (8.5 cm2) x.
Thus, (105 N/m2) (8.5 × 10–4 m2) x = 17.1 J
or, x = 0.2 m = 20 cm.
Ex.23 A sample of an ideal gas has pressure p0, volume v0 and temperature T0. It is
isothermally expanded to twice its original volume. It is then compressed at constant
pressure to have the original volume V0. Finally, the gas is heated at constant volume
to get the original temperature. (a) Show the process in a V - T diagram (b) Calculate
the heat absorbed in the process.
Sol. (a) The V-T diagram for the process is shown in figure. The initial state is represented by the
point a. In the first step, it is isothermally expanded to a volume 2V0. This shown by ab. Then
the pressure is kept constant and the gas is compressed to the volume V0. From the ideal gas
equation, V/T is constant at constant pressure. Hence, the process is shown by a line bc
which passes through the origin. At point c, the volume is V0. ln the final step, the gas is
heated at constant volume to a temperature T0. This is shown by ca. The final state is the
same as the initial state.
(b) The process is cylic so that the change in
internal energy is zero. The heat supplied is, V b
therefore, equal to the work done by the gas.
The work done during ab is 2V0
2V0
W1 = nRT0 ln V = nRT0 ln 2 = p0V0 ln 2. V0 c
0 a
Also from the ideal gas equation
paVa = pbVb T
T0

HEAT– 2 Page # 23
pa Va p0 V0 p0
or, pb = Vb = 2V0 = .
2
In the step bc, the pressure remains constant. Hence the work done is,
p0 p0 V0
W2 = (V0 – 2V0) = –
2 2
In the step ca, the volume remains constant and so the work done is zero. The net work
done by the gas in the cyclic process is
W = W1 + W2 = p0V0 [ln 2 – 0.5] = 0.193 p0V0.
Hence, the heat supplied to the gas is 0.193 p0V0.
Ex.24 A sample of ideal gas (f = 5) is heated at constant pressure. If an amount 140 J of heat
is supplied to the gas, find (a) the change in internal energy of the gas (b) the work
done by the gas.
Sol. Suppose the sample contains n moles. Also suppose the volume changes from V1 to V2 and
the temperature changes from T1 to T2.
The heat supplied is
2U
Q = U + PV = U + nRT = U +
f
(a) The change is internal energy is
f f f 140J
U = n R(T2 – T1) = R n(T2 – T1) = Q = = 100 J
2 2 2f 1.4
(b) The work done by the gas is
W = Q – U = 140 J – 100 J = 40 J
Ex.25 There are two vessels. Each of them contains one mole of a monoatomic ideal gas.
I nit ial volum e of t he gas in each vessel is 8.3 × 10 –3 m3 at 27°C. Equal amount of heat
is supplied to each vessel. ln one of the vessels, the volume of the gas is doubled
without change in its internal energy, whereas the volume of the gas is held constant
in the second vessel. The vessels are now connected to allow free mixing of the gas.
Find the final temperature and pressure of the combined gas system.
Sol. 369.3K, 2.462 × 105 N/m2
Efficiency of cycle () :
total Mechanical work done by the

gas in the whole process area under the cycle in P-V curve
 =
Heat absorbed by the gas (only +ve) Heat injected into the system
 Q2   T2 
 =  1 – Q  for Heat Engine,   =  1 – T  for Cannot cycle
 1  1
P
Ex.26 n moles of a diatomic gas has undergone a cyclic
process ABC as shown in figure. Temperature at A is T0. B
2P0 C
Find
A
(i) Volume at C ? P0
(ii) Maximum temperature ?
(iii) Total heat given to gas ? V0 V V
(iv) is heat rejected by the gas, if yes how much heat is rejected ?
(v) Find out the efficiency

Page # 24 HEAT– 2
Sol. (i) Since triangle O A V0 and OC V are similar therefore

2P0 P
 0  V = 2V
V V0 0
(ii) Since process AB is isochoric hence

PA P
 B  T = 2T
TA TB B
TB TC
Since process BC is isobaric therefore V  V
B C
 TC = 2TB = 4T0
(iii) since process is cyclic therefore
1
Q = W = area under the cycle = P0 V0
2
(iv) Since u and W both are negative in process CA
 Q is negative in process CA and heat is rejected in process CA
QCA = wCA + uCA
1 5
=– [P0 + 2P0] V0 – nR (Tc – Ta)
2 2
1 5  4P0 V0 P0 V0 
= – [P0 + 2P0]V0 – nR  – 
2 2  nR nR 
= – 9P0V0 = Heat injected.
(v)  = efficiency of the cycle
work done by the gas P0 V0 / 2
= == Q × 100
heat injected injected
Qinj = QAB + QBC

5  5 
=  nR(2T0 – T0 )   nR(2T0 )  2P0 (2V0 – V0 )
 2   2 
19 100
= P0 V0 = %
2 19
10. SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat supplied per unit mass of
the substance per unit rise in the temperature. If an amount Q of heat is given to a mass
m of the substance and its temperature rises by T, the specific heat capacity s is given by
equation
Q
s=
mT
The molar heat capacities of a gas are defined as the heat given per mole of the gas per unit
rise in the temperature. The molar heat capacity at constant volume, denoted by Cv, is :
 Q  f
Cv =  nT   R
 cons tan t volume 2
and the molar heat capacity at constant pressure, denoted by Cp is,
 Q  f 
CP =  nT     1 R
 cons tan t Pr essure 2 
where n is the amount of the gas in number of moles and f is degree of freedom. Quite often,
the term specific heat capacity or specific heat is used for molar heat capacity. It is advised
that the unit be carefully noted to determine the actual meaning. The unit of specific heat
capacity is J/kg-K whereas that of molar heat capacity is J/mol-K.

HEAT– 2 Page # 25
MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY OF IDEAL GAS IN TERMS OF R :

(i) For a monoatomic gas f = 3
3 5 CP 5
CV = R , CP = R   = = 1.67
2 2 C v 3
(ii) For a diatomic gas f = 5
5 7 CP
CV = R , CP = R  =  1.4
2 2 CV
(iii) For a Triatomic gas f = 6
CV = 3R, CP = 4R
CP 4
= C = = 1.33
V 3
[Note for CO2 ; f = 5, it is linear]
ln general if f is the degree of freedom of a molecule, then
f f  CP  2
CV = R , CP =   1  R ,  =  1  
2  2  C V  f
f R work done by gas

for any general process C = 
2 n T
Ex.27 Two moles of a diatomic gas at 300 K are enclosed in a

Patm light piston
cylinder as shown in figure. Piston is light. Find out the heat
given if the gas is slowly heated to 400 K in the following
three cases. 300 K
2 mole
(i) Piston is free to move Diatomic
(ii) If piston does not move
(iii) If piston is heavy and movable.
Sol. (i) Since pressure is constant
7
 Q = nCPT = 2 × × R × (400 – 300) = 700 R
2
(ii) Since volume is constant
 W = 0 and Q = u (from first law)
5
Q = u = nCvT = 2 × × R × (400 – 300) = 500 R
2
(iii) Since pressure is constant
7
Q = nCP T = 2 × × R × (400 – 300) = 700R
2 P
B Diatomic
Ex.28 P-V curve of a diatomic gas is shown in the 2P0
Isothermal
figure. Find the total heat given to the gas in
A
the process AB P0 C
and BC
Sol. From first law of thermodynamics V
V0 2V0
QABC = uABC + WABC
VC 2V0
WABC=WAB+WBC=0+nRTBln V = nRTB ln V
B 0
= nRTB ln 2 = 2P0 V0 ln 2
5 5
u = nCv T = (2P0V0 – P0V0)  QABC = P V + 2P0V0 ln 2.
2 2 0 0

Page # 26 HEAT– 2
Ex.29 Calculate the value of mechanical equivalent of heat from the following data. Specific
heat capacity of air at constant volume = 170 cal/kg-K,  = Cp/Cv = 1.4. and the density
of air at STP is 1.29 kg/m3. Gas constant R = 8.3 J/mol-K
Sol. Using pV = nRT, the volume of 1 mole of air at STP is
nRT (1mol)  (8.3 J / mol – K)  (273K)
V= = = 0.0224 m3.
p 1.0  105 N / m2
The mass of 1 mole is, therefore,
(1.29 kg/m3) × (0.0224 m3) = 0.029 kg.
1
The number of moles in 1 kg is . The molar heat capacity at constant volume is
0.029
170 cal
CV = = 4.93 cal/mol-K
(1 / 0.029) mol  K
Hence, Cp = Cv = 1.4 × 4.93 cal/mol-K
or, Cp – Cv = 0.4 × 4.93 cal/mol-K =1.97 cal/mol-K
Thus, 8.3 J = 1.97 cal.
The mechanical equivalent of heat is
8.3 J
= 4.2 J/cal.
197
. cal
Average Molar Specific Heat of Metals :
[Dulong and Petit law] 6
At room temperature average molar specific heat
of all metals are same and is nearly equal to 3R
(6 cal. mol–1K–1) Cv
[Note : Temp. above which the metals have constant
Cv is called Debye temp.]
Mayer’s equation : CP – CV = R (for ideal gases only)
T
ADIABATIC PROCESS
When no heat is supplied or extracted from the system the
process is called adiabatic. Process is sudden so that there is insulating
no time for exchange of heat. If walls of a container are thermally wall
insulated no heat can cross the boundary of the system and
Gas
process is adiabatic.
Equation of adiabatic process is given by
PV = constant [Poission law]
TP1– = constant
T V – 1 = constant
P
Slope of P-V curve in adiabatic process : dP  P 
  – 
Since PV is constant dV  V
dp P
  –  
dV V
Slope of P – T – curve in adiabatic process :
v
Since T P1– is a constant
dV  P ( ) P
 =– =
dT (1 – ) T ( – 1) T

HEAT– 2 Page # 27
dP  P

dT (  – 1) T
P
T dV  1 V
P  – 
dT  (  – 1) T 
Slope of T-V-curve :
dV 1 V
–
dT ( – 1) T
Work done in adiabatic Process :

T
PV
i i – Pf Vf
W = – U = nCv (Ti – Tf ) =
( – 1)
nR(Ti – Tf )
=
 –1
work done by system is (+ve), if Ti > Tf (hence expansion)

work done on the system is (–ve) if Ti < Tf (hence compression)
Ex.30 A quantity of air is kept in a container having walls which are slightly conducting. The
initial temperature and volume are 27°C (equal to the temperature of the surrounding)
and 800 cm3 respectively. Find the rise in the temperature if the gas is compressed to
200 cm3 (a) in a short time (b) in a long time. Take  = 1.4.
Sol. (a) When the gas is compressed in a short time, the process is abiabatic. Thus,
T2 V2–1 = T1V1–1
 –1 0.4
 V1   800 
or T2 = T1   = (300 K) ×   = 522 K.
 V2   200 
Rise in temperature = T2 – T1 = 222K

(b) When the gas is compressed in a long time, the process is isothermal. Thus, the temperature
remains equal to the temperature of the surrounding that is 27°C. The rise in temperature = 0.
Ex.31 A monoatomic gas is enclosed in a nonconducting cylinder having a piston which can
move freely. Suddenly gas is compressed to 1/8 of its initial volume. Find the final
pressure and temperature if initial pressure and temperature are P0 and T0 respectively.
Sol. Since process is adiabatic therefore
5/3
5 V
P0 V3 = Pfinal  
8
CP 5R 3R 5
= C = / =
V 2 2 3
Since process is adiabatic therefore.
2 /3
V 
T1V1–1 = T2 V2–1  T0V02/3 = Tfinal  0   T = 4T0
 8 

Page # 28 HEAT– 2
Ex.32 A cylindrical container having nonconducting walls is partitioned in two equal parts
such that the volume of the each parts is equal to V0. A movable nonconducting piston
is kept between the two parts. Gas on left is slowly heated so that the gas on right is
V
compressed upto volume 0 . Find pressure and temperature on both sides if initial
8
pressure and temperature, were P0 and T0 respectively. Also find heat given by the
heater to the gas. (number of moles in each part is n)
non conducting walls

non conducting movable piston
P0,
V0,
P0,V0,T0 monoatomic
T0
Diatomic
Sol. Since the process on right is adiabatic therefore
PV = constant.
 P0V0 = Pfinal (V0/8)
 Pfinal = 32 P0
T0V0–1 = Tfinal (V0/8)–1
Let volume of the left part is V1
V0 15 V0
 2V0 = V1 +  V1 =
8 8
Since number of moles on the left parts remains constant therefore for the left part PV/T =
constant.
Final pressure on both sides will be same
P0 V0 Pfinal V1
 T0 = Tfinal  Tfinal = 60 T0
Q = u + w
5R 3R
Q = n ( 60 T0 – T0 ) + n (4T0 – T0)
2 2
5nR 3nR
Q = × 59T0 + × 3T0
2 2
Free Expansion
If a system, say a gas expands in such a way that no heat enters or leaves the system and
also no work is done by or on the system, then the expansion is called the “free expansion”.
Q = 0, U = 0 and W = 0. Temperature in the free expansion remains constant.
Ex.33 A nonconducting cylinder having volume 2V0 is partitioned by a fixed nonconducting
wall in two equal part. Partition is attached with a valve. Right side of the partition is a
vaccum and left part is filled with a gas having pressure and temperature P0 and T0
respectively. If valve is opened find the final pressure and temperature of the two
parts.
Fixed
V0 nonconductor
P0,V0,T0 Vacuum

HEAT– 2 Page # 29
Sol. From the first law thermodynamics Q = u + W

Since gas expands freely therefore W = 0, since no heat is given to gas Q = 0
 u = 0 and temperature remains constant.
Tfinal = T0
Since the process is isothermal therefore
P0 × V0 = Pfinal × 2V0
 Pfinal = P0/2
Reversible and Irreversible Process
A process is said to be reversible when the various stages of an operation in which it is
subjected can be traversed the back in the opposite direction in such a way that substance
passes through exactly the same conditions at every step in the reverse process as in the
direct process.
Comparison of slopes of Iso-thermal and Adiabatic Curve
Adiabatic
P
isobaric
P
Isothermal isothermal
poly
di adiabatic
Isothermal mono
V1 V2 V
Adiabatic
Wmono < Wdi < Wpoly < Wisothermal < Wisobaric
V
dP dP

dV adia dV isothermal
In compression up to same final volume :

Wadia  Wisothermal
In Expansion up to same final volume :
Wisothermal  Wadia
Limitations of Ist Law of Thermodynamics :
The first law of thermodynamics tells us that heat and mechanical work are interconvertible.
However, this law fails to explain the following points :
(i) It does not tell us about the direction of transfer of heat.
(ii) It does not tell us about the conditions under which heat energy is converted into work.
(iii) It does not tell us whether some process is possible or not.
Mixture of non-reacting gases :
n1M1  n2M2
(a) Molecular weight  n1  n2
M1 & M2 are molar masses.
n1C V1  n2C V2 n1CP1  n2CP2
(b) Specific heat C V  , CP 
n1  n2 n1  n2
CPmix n1CP1  n2CP2  ......

(c) for mixture,   C 
n1C V1  n2C V2  ......
Vmix
n1f1  n2 f2
(d) Degree of freedom for mixture f = n1  n2

Page # 30 HEAT– 2

SECTION (A) : KINETIC THEORY OF GASES at room temperature. As compared to a hydrogen
molecule an oxygen molecule hits the wall
1. When an ideal gas is compressed isothermally then
(A) With greater average speed
its pressure increases because :
(B) with smaller average speed
(A) its potential energy increases
(C) with greater average kinetic energy
(B) its kinetic energy increases and molecules move
(D) with smaller average kinetic energy.
apart
(C) its number of colisions per unit area with walls of 11. Keeping the number of moles, volume and
container increases temperature the same, which of the following are the
(D) molecular energy increases same for all ideal gas ?
(A) rms speed of a molecule
2. Which of the following is correct for the molecules
(B) density
of a gas in thermal equilibrium ?
(C) pressure
(A) All have the same speed
(D) average magnitude of moentum.
(B) All have different speeds which remain constant
(C) They have a certain constant average speed 12. Consider the quantity MkT / pV of an ideal gas
(D) They do not collide with one another. where M is the mass of the gas. It depends on the
(A) temperature of the gas (B) volume of the gas
3. Which of the following quantities is zero on an
(C) pressure of the gas (D) nature of the gas
average for the molecules of an ideal gas in equilibrium ?
(A) kinetic energy (B) momentum 13. If vrms = root mean square speed of molecules,
(C) density (D) speed vav = average speed of molecules.
vmp = most probable speed of molecules,
4. The average momentum of a molecules in a sample
v = speed of sound in a gas
of an ideal gas depends on
Then, identify the correct relation between these speeds.
(A) temperature (B) number of moles
(A) vrms > vav > vmp > vs (B) vav > vmp > vrms > vs
(C) volume (D) none of these
(C) vmp > vav > vrms > vs (D) vrms > vav > vs > vmp
5. A gas behaves more closely as an ideal gas at
14. Three closed vessels A, B and C are at the same
(A) low pressure and low temperatue
temperature T and contain gases which obey the
(B) low pressure and high temperature
Maxwellian distribution of velcoities. Vessel A contains
(C) high pressure and low temperature
only O2, B only N2 and C a mixture of equal quantities
(D) high pressure and high temperature.
of O2 and N2. If the average speed of O2 molecules in
6. The temperature at which the r.m.s velocity of vessel A is V1, that of the N2 molecules in vessel B is
oxygen molecules equal that of nitrogen molecules at V2, the average speed of the O2 molecules in vessel C
100°C is nearly : will be :
(A) 426.3 K (B) 456.3 K (C) 436.3 K (D) 446.3 K (A) (V1 + V2) / 2 (B) V1
7. Suppose a container is evacuated to leave just (C) (V1V2)1/2 (D) 3kT / M
one molecule of a gas in it. Let va and rms represent
the average speed and the rms speed of the gas. 15. A vessel contains a mixture of one mole of oxygen
(A) a > rms (B) a < rms and two moles of nitrogen at 300 K. The ratio of the
(C) a = rms (D) rms is undefined average rotational kinetic energy per O2 molecule to
that per N2 molecule is :
8. The rms speed of oxygen molecules in a gas is . If (A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 2 : 1
the temperature is doubled and the O2 molecule (D) depends on the moments of inertia of the two
dissociated into oxygen atoms, the rms speed will become molecules
(A)  (B) 2 (C) 2  (D) 4
16. Three particles have speeds of 2u, 10u and 11u.
9. The quantity pV/kT represents Which of the following statements is correct ?
(A) mass of the gas (A) The r.m.s speed exceeds the mean speed by about u.
(B) kinetic energy of the gas (B) The mean speed exceeds the r.m.s speed by about u.
(C) number of moles of the gas (C) The r.m.s speed equals the mean speed.
(D) number of molecules in the gas (D) The r.m.s. speed exceeds the mean speed by more
10. Consider a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen kept than 2u.

HEAT– 2 Page # 31
2E
17. The pressure of an ideal gas is written as P = .
Temperature/K
Temperature/K
3V
Here E refers to M N M
L
(A) translational kinetic energy
(C) (D) N
(B) rotational kinetic energy L
(C) vibrational kinetic energy
volume volume
(D) total kinetic energy.
18. Which of the following quantities is the same for 23. Find the approx. number of molecules contained
all ideal gases at the same temperature ? in a vessel of volume 7 litres at 0°C at 1.3 × 105
(A) the kinetic energy of 1 mole pascal
(B) the kinetic energy of 1 g (A) 2.4 × 1023 (B) 3 × 1023
23
(C) the number of molecules in 1 mole (C) 6 × 10 (D) 4.8 × 1023
(D) the number of molecules in 1 g 24. A cylindrical tube of cross-sectional area A has
19. Refer to fig. Let U1 and U2 be the changes in two air tight frictionless pistons at its two ends. The
internal energy of the system in the processes A and pistons are tied with a straight two ends. The
B then P pistons are tied with a straight piece of metallic wire.
A
B A A
V
(A) U1 > U2 (B) U1 = U2 The tube contains a gas at atmospheric pressure P0
(C) U1 < U2 (D) U1  U2 and temperature T0. If temperature of the gas is doubled
20. N(< 100) molecules of a gas have velocities 1,2,3..... then the tension inthe wire is -
N/km/s respectively. Then (A) 4 P0A (B) P0A/2 (C) P0A (D) 2P0A
(A) rms speed and average speed of molecules is same. 25. An ideal gas mixture filled inside a balloon expands
(B) ratio of rms speed to average speed is (2N + 1) according to the relation PV 2/3 = constant. The
(N + 1) / 6N temperature inside the balloon is
(C) ratio of rms speed to average speed is (2N + 1) (A) increasing (B) decreasing
(N + 1) / 6 N (C) constant (D) can’t be said
(D) ratio of rms speed to average speed of a molecules 26. A rigid tank contains 35 kg of nitrogen at 6 atm.
is 2/6 x (2N + 1)/(N + 1) Sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied to increase
the pressure to 9 atm, while the temperatute remains
21. Five particles have speeds 1,2,3,4,5 m/s. the
constant. Amount of oxygen supplid to the tank is :
average velocity of the particles is (in m/s)
(A) 5 kg (B) 10 kg (C) 20 kg (D) 40 kg
(A) 3 (B) 0 (C) 2.5
(D) cannot be calculated 27. A perfect gas of a given mass is heated first in a
small vessel and then in a large vesssel, such that
SECTION (B) : THERMODYNAMICS their volumes remain unchanged. The P-T curves are
22. A fixed mass of ideal gas undergoes changes of (A) parabolic with same curvature
pressure and volume starting at L, as shown in figure. (B) parabolic with different curvature
L M (C) linear with same slopes
Pressure
Isothermal (D) linear with different slopes
N 28. At a temperature T K, the pressure of 4.0 g argon

in a bulb is p. The bulb is put in a bath having
volume temperature higher by 50 K than the first one. 0.8 g
O
Which of the following is correct : of argon gas had to be removed to maintained original
pressure. The temperature T is equal to
L (A) 510 K (B) 200 K (C) 100 K (D) 73 K
Temperature/K
Temperature/K
M N
29. When 2 gms of a gas are introduced into an evacuated
N flask kept at 25°C the pressure is found to be one
M
(A) (B) atmosphere. If 3 gms of another gas added to the same
L flask the pressure becomes 1.5 atmospheres. The ratio
volume volume of the molecular weights of these gases will be

Page # 32 HEAT– 2
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 3 : 1 (C) 2 : 3 (D) 3 : 2 37. A vessel with open mouth contains air at 60°C.
30. An open and wide glass tube is immersed vertically When the vessel is heated upto temperature T, one
in mercury in such a way that length 0.05 m extends fourth of the air goes out. The value of T is
above mercury level. The open end of the tube is (A) 80°C (B) 171°C (C) 333°C (D) 444°C
closed and the tube is raised further by 0.43 m. The 38. 28 gm of N2 gas is contained in a flask at a pressure
length of air column above mercury level in the tube of 10 atm and at a temperature of 57°. It is found
will be : Take Patm = 76 cm of mercury that due to leakage in the flask, the pressure is reduced
(A) 0.215 m (B) 0.2 m (C) 0.1 m (D) 0.4 m to half and the temperature reduced to 27°C. The
31. A vessel of volume 0.02 m3 contains a mixture of quantity of N2 gas the leaked out is
hydrogen and helium at 20°C and 2 atmospheric (A) 11/20 gm (B) 20/11 gm (C) 5/63 gm (D) 63/5 gm
pressure. The mass of mixture is 5 gms. Find the ratio 39. If a mixture of 28 g of Nitrogen, 4 g of Hydrogen
of mass of hydrogen to that of helium in the mixture. and 8 gm of Helium is contained in a vessel at
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 1 : 3 (C) 2 : 3 (D) 3 : 2 temperature 400 K and pressure 8.3 × 105 Pa, the
32. An ideal gas follows a process PT = constant. The density of the mixture will be :
correct graph between pressure & volume is (A) 3 kg/m3 (B) 0.2 kg/m3
(C) 2 g/litre (D) 1.5 g/litre
P P 40. The temperature of a gas is doubled (i) on absolute

(A) (B) scale (ii) on centigrade scale. The increase in root
mean square velocity of gas will be
V V
(A) More in case (i) (B) More in case (ii)
(C) Same in both case
P P
(D) Information not sufficient
(C) (D)
41. A cylinder containing gas at 27°C is divided into
V V
two parts of equal volume each 100cc and at equal
33. The process AB is shown in the A pressure by a piston of cross sectional area 10.85
2P
diagram. As the gas is taken from A cm2. The gas in one part is raised in temperature to
to B, its temperature P B 100°C while the other maintained at original
(A) initially increases then decreases temperature. The piston and wall are perfect insulators.
(B) initially decreases then increases V 2V How far will the piston move during the change in
(C) remains constant temperature?
(D) variation depends on type of gas (A) 1 cm (B) 2 cm (C) 0.5 cm (D)1.5 cm
34. During an experiment an ideal gas obeys an addition 42. 12 gms of gas occupy a volume of 4 × 10–3 m3 at
equation of state P 2 V = constant. The
a temperature of 7°C. After the gas is heated at
initial temperature and pressure of gas are T and V
constant pressure its density becomes 6 × 10–4 gm/cc.
respectively. When it expands to volume 2V, then its
What is the temperature to which the gas was heated.
temperature will be :
(A) 1000 K (B) 1400 K (C) 1200 K (D) 800 K
(A) T (B) 2T (C) 2 T (D) 2 2T
43. The expansion of an ideal gas of mass m at a
35. A barometer tube, containing mercury, is lowered constant pressure P is given by the straight line B.
in a vessel containing mercury until only 50 cm of the Then the expansion of the same ideal gas of mass 2 m
tube is above the level of mercury in the vessel. If at a pressure 2P is given by the straight line
the atmospheric pressure is 75 cm of mercury, what is Volume
the pressure at the top of the tube ? A
(A) 33.3 kPa (B) 66.7 kPa B
(C) 3.33 MPa (D) 6.67 MPa C
36. One mole of a gas expands
( V0 ,P0 )
obeying the relation as shown P Temperature
in the P/V diagram. The (2 V0 ,P0 / 2) (A) C (B) A (C) B (D) none
maximum temperature in this
44. A vessel contains 1 mole of O2 gas (molar mass
process is equal to
V 32) at a temperature T. The pressure of the gas is P.
P0 V0 3 P0 V0 9 P0 V0 An identical vessel containing one mole of He gas (molar
(A) (B) (C) (D) None mass 4) at a temperature 2T has a pressure of
R R 8R

HEAT– 2 Page # 33
(A) P/8 (B) P (C) 2P (D) 8P work is done by the gas. In which pair of the changes
work is done on the gas ?
45. A container X has volume double that of contianer
Y and both are connected by a thin tube. Both contains Q
Pressure
P
same ideal gas. The temperature of X is 200 K and
that of Y is 400 K. If mass of gas in X is m then in Y it S R
will be :
volume
(A) m/8 (B) m/6 (C) m/4 (D) m/2
(A) PQ and RS (B) PQ and QR
46. An ideal gas of Molar mass M is contained in a
(C) OR and RS (D) RS and SP
vertical tube of height H, closed at both ends. The
tube is accelerating vertically upwards with 53. Consider the process on a P
acceleration g. Then, the ratio of pressure at the system shown in fig. During the
bottom and the mid point of the tube will be process, the cumulative work
(A) exp [2MgH/RT] (B) exp[–2MgH/RT] done by the system
(C) exp[MgH/RT] (D) MgH/RT (A) continuously increase
(B) continuously decreases V
47. The ratio of average translational kinetic energy (C) first increases then decreases
to rotational kinetic energy of a diatomic molecule at (D) first decreases then increases
temperature T is
(A) 3 (B) 7/5 (C) 5/3 (D) 3/2 54. Consider two processes on a system as shown in
fig. The volume in the initial states are the same in
48. One mole of an ideal gas at STP is heated in an the two processes and the volumes in the final states
insulated closed container until the average speed of are also the same. Let W1 and W2 be the work done
its molecules is doubled. Its pressure would therefore by the system in the processes A and B respectively.
increase by factor. P
(A) 1.5 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) 4

A B
49. The ratio of specific heat of a gas is 9/7, then the
number of degrees of freedom of the gas molecules
T
for translational motion is : (A) W1 > W2 (B) W1 = W2 (C) W1 < W2
(A) 7 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) none (D) Nothing can be said about the relation between
50. A diatomic gas of moleculer weight 30 gm/mole is W1 and W2
filled in a container at 27°C. It is moving at a velocity 55. A mass of an ideal gas undergoes a reversible
100 m/s. If it is suddenly stopped, the rise in isothermal compression. Its molecules will then have
temperature of gas is : compared with initial state, the same
(i) root mean square velocity
600 6  104 6  105 (ii) mean momentum
(A) 60/R (B) (C) (D)
R R R (iii) mean kinetic energy
P (A) (i), (ii), (iii) correct (B) (i), (ii) correct
51. One mole of an ideal 2(V ,4P )0 0
diatomic gas is taken through (C) (ii), (iii) correct (D) (i) correct
the cycle as shown in the 56. When a system is taken from state ‘a’ to state ‘b’
figure. 3(4V , P ) 0 0 along the path ‘acb’, it is found that a quantity of heat
1(V , P )
0 0
1  2 : isochoric process Q = 200 J is absorbed by the system and a work W =
2  3 : straight line on P - V diagram V 80 J is done by it. Along the path ‘adb’, Q = 144J. The
3  1 : isobaric process work done along the path ‘adb’ is
The average of molecular speed of the gas in the P
states c b
1, 2 and 3 are in the ratio
(A) 1 : 2 : 2 (B) 1 : 2 : 2 a d
(C) 1 : 1 : 1 (D) 1 : 2 : 4 V
(A) 6J (B) 12J (C) 18 J (D) 24 J
52. A fixed mass of gas undergoes the cycle of changes
represented by PQRSP as shown in figure. In some of 57. In the above question, if the work done on the system
the changes, work is done on the gas and in others, along the curved path ‘ba’ is 52J, heat absorbed is

Page # 34 HEAT– 2
(A) – 140 J (B) – 172 J (C) 140 J (D) 172 J dimtomic gas to be constant, its specific heat at
constant volume per mole (gram mole) is
58. In above question, if Ua = 40 J, value of Ub will be
(A) 5/2 R (B) 3/2 R (C) R (D) 1/2 R
(A) –50 J (B) 100 J (C) –120 J (D) 160 J
66. For an ideal gas, the heat capacity at constant
59. In above question, if Ud = 88 J, heat absorbed for
pressure is larger than that at constant volume because
the path ‘db’ is
(A) work is done during expansion of the gas by the
(A) –72 J (B) 72 J (C) 144 J (D) –144 J
external pressure
60. Ideal gas is taken through process shown in figure : (B) work is done during expansion by the gas against
P
external pressure
B (C) work is done during expansion by the gas against
C intermolecular forces of attraction.
(D) more collisions occur per unit time when volume is
A kept constant.
T
67. Fig shows a process on a
(A) ln process AB, work done by system is positive. P
(B) In process AB, heat is rejected out of the system. gas in which pressure and
(C) In process AB, internal energy increases volume both change. The molar
(D) In process AB internal energy decreases and in
heat capacity for this process
process BC internal energy increases.
is C. V
61. If heat is supplied to an ideal gas in an isothermal
process, - (A) C = 0 (B) C = Cv (C) C > Cv (D) C < Cv
(A) the internal energy of the gas will increase
(B) the gas will do positive work 68. For a solid with a small expansion coefficient,
(C) the gas will do negative work (A) Cp – Cv = R (B) Cp – Cv = R
(D) the said process is not possible (C) Cp is slightly greater than Cv
62. A gas is contained in a metallic cylinder fitted (D) Cp is slightly less than Cv
with a piston. The piston is suddenly moved in to P
69. The molar heat capacity for
compress the gas and is maintaioned at this position. the process shown in fig. is
As time passes the pressure of the gas in the cylinder (A) C = Cp
(A) increases (B) decreases K
(B) C = Cv p
(C) remains constant (C) C > Cv V
(D) increases or decreases depending on the nature V
(D) C = 0
of the gas.
70. In the following P – V diagram of an ideal gas, two
63. A system can be taken from the initial state p1, V1 adiabates cut two isotherms at T1 and T2. The value
to the final state p2, V2 by two different methods. Let of VB/VC is
Q and W represent the heat given to the system
and the work done by the system. Which of the following
must be the same in both the methods ? A B
(A) Q (B) W (C) Q + W (D) Q – W T1
P
64. Refer to fig. Let U1 and
U 2 be change in internal D C
P T2
energy in process A and B A
respectively, Q be the net VA VB VC
VD
heat given to the system in B
process A + B and U be the V
net work done by the system in
AB  T1, DC  T2
the process A + B. V
(A) = VA / VD (B) < VA / VD
(A) U1 + U2 = 0 (B) U1 – U2 = 0
(C) > VA / VD (D) cannot say
(C) Q – W = 0 (D) Q + W = 0
71. Four curves A, B, C and D are drawn in the fig. for
SECTION (C) : SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF
a given amount of gas. The curves which represent
GASES
adiabatic and isothermal changes are
65. Supposing the distance between the atoms of a

HEAT– 2 Page # 35
P
B C T1  T2 T1 T2
(A) n  n (B) n  n
1 2 1 2
A D
n2 T1  n1 T2 n1 T1  n2 T2
(C) n1  n2 (D) n1  n2
O v
(A) C and D respectively (B) D and C respectively
(C) A and B respectively (D) B and A respectively 80. At temperature T, N molecules of gas A each having
mass m and at the same temperature 2N molecules of
72. When an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic change gas B each having mass 2m are filled in a container.
causing a temperature change T The mean square velocity of molecules of gas B is v2
(i) there is no heat gained or lost by the gas
and mean square of x component of velocity of molecules
(ii) the work done is equal to change in internal energy
of gas A is w2. The ratio of w2/v2 is :
(iii) the change in internal energy per mole of the
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 1/3 (D) 2/3
gase is Cv T, where Cv is the molar heat capacity at
constant volume. 81. A given mass of a gas expands from a state A to
(A) (i), (ii), (iii) correct (B) (i), (ii) correct the state B by three paths 1,2 and 3 as shown in T -
(C) (i), (iii) correct (D) (i) correct V indicator diagram. If W1, W2 and W3 respectively be
the work done by the gas along the three paths, then
73. Starting with the same initial conditins, an ideal T
B
gas expands from volume V1 to V2 in three different 1
ways. The work done by the gas is W1 if the process
2
is isothemal, W2 if isobaric and W3 if adiabatic, then :
A 3
(A) W2 > W1 > W3 (B) W2 > W3 > W1
(C) W1 > W2 > W3 (D) W1 > W3 > W2
O V
74. The internal energy of an ideal gas decreases by
(A) W1 > W2 > W3 (B) W1 < W2 < W3
the same amount as the work done by the system
(C) W1 = W2 = W3 (D) W1 < W2, W1 > W3
(A) The process must be adiabatic
(B) The process must be isothermal 82. An ideal gas undergoes the
(C) The process must be isobaric process 1  2 as shown in the V
figure, the heat supplied and 2
(D) The temperatuer must decrease
work done in the process is Q
and W respectively. The ratio 1
Five moles of helium are mixed with two moles of
Q : W is
hydrogen to form a mixture. Take molar mass of helium T
(A)  :  – 1 (B) 
M1 = 4g and that of hydrogen M2 = 2g P
(C)  – 1 (D)  – 1/ 3P0 B
75. The equivalent molar mass of the mixture is
83. In the above thermodynamic
13g 18g process, the correct statement is
(A) 6 g (B) (C) (D) none A
2P C 0
7 7 (A) Heat given in the complete cycle
ABCA is zero V 2V V 0 0
76. The equivalent degree of freedom f of the mixture
is (B) Work done in the complete cycle ABCA is zero
(A) 3.57 (B) 1.14 (C) 4.4 (D) none (C) Work done in the complete cycle ABCA is (1/2
P0V0) (D) None
77. The equivalent value of  is
(A) 1.59 (B) 1.53 (C) 1.56 (D) none 4. Pressure versus temperature graph of an ideal gas
78. If the internal energy of He sample of 100J and is shown in figure.
that of the hydrogen sample is 200 J, then the internal P
C
energy of the mixture is
B
(A) 900 J (B) 128.5 J (C) 171.4 J (D) 300 J
79. Two monoatomic ideal gas at temperature T1 and D
T2 are mixed. There is no loss of energy. If the masses A
of molecules of the two gases are m1 and m2 and T
number of their molecules are n1 and n2 respectively. (A) During the process AB work done by the gas is -
The temperature of the mixture will be : positive

Page # 36 HEAT– 2
(B) during the process CD work done by the gas is (B) gas A and B both are diatomic
negative (C) gas A is monoatomic
(C) during the process BC internal energy of the gas (D) gas B is monoatomic & gas A is diatomic
is increasing 90. A thermodynamic cycle takes in heat energy at a
(D) None high temperature and rejects energy at a lower
temperature. If the amount of energy rejected at the
85. A reversible adiabatic path on a P-V diagram for low temperature is 3 times the amount of work done
an ideal gas passes through state A where by the cycle, the efficiency of the cycle is
P = 0.7 × 105 N/m–2 and v = 0.0049 m3. The ratio of (A) 0.25 (B) 0.33 (C) 0.67 (D) 0.9
specific heat of the gas is 1.4. The slope of path at A
91. Monoatomic, diatomic and triatomic gases whose
is :
initial volume and pressure are same, are compressed
(A) 2.0 × 107 Nm–5 (B) 1.0 × 107 Nm–5
till their volume becomes half the initial volume.
(C) –2.0 × 107 Nm–5 (D) –1.0 × 107 Nm–5
(A) If the compression is adiabatic then monoatomic
86. An ideal gas at pressure P and volume V is expanded gas will have maximum final pressure.
to volume 2V. Column I represents the thermodynamic (B) If the compression is adiabatic then triatomic gas
processes used during expansion. Column II represents will have maximum final pressure.
the work during these processes in the random order. (C) If the compression is adiabatic then their final
Column I Column II pressure will be same.
(D) If the compression is isothermal then their final
PV(1 – 21–  )
(p) isobaric (x) pressure will be different.
 –1
92. If heat is added at constant volume, 6300 J of
(q) isothermal (y) PV
heat are required to raise the temperature of an ideal
(r) adiabatic (z) PV ln 2
gas by 150 K. If instead, heat is added at constant
The correct matching of column I and column II is
pressure, 8800 joules are required for the same
given by :
temperature change. When the temperature of the
(A) p – y, q – z, r – x (B) p – y, q – x, r – z
gas changes by 300K, the internal energy of the gas
(C) p–x, q–y, r–z (D) p–z, q–y, r–x
P changes by
A
87. An ideal gas is taken from (A) 5000 J (B) 12600 J (C) 17600 J (D) 22600 J
point A to point C on P–V
O 93. Three processes from a thermodynamic cycle as
diagram through two process
B shown on P-V diagram for an ideal gas. Process 1  2
AOC and ABC as shown in the P0 C takes place at constant temperature (300 K). Process
figure. Process AOC is
2  3 takes place at constant volume. During this
isothermal V0 2V0 V
process 40J of heat leaves the system. Process 3  1
(A) Process AOC requires more heat than process ABC.
is adiabatic and temperature T3 is 275K. Work done by
(B) Process ABC requires more heat than process AOC.
the gas during the process 3  1 is
(C) Both process AOC & ABC require same amount of
P 1
heat.
(D) Data is insufficient for comparison of heat
requirement for the two processes. 2
88. One mole of an ideal gas is contained piston with 3
in a cyclinder by a frictionless piston and is initially at
V
temperature T. The pressure of the gas is kept constant (A) – 40 J (B) – 20 J (C) + 40 J (D) +20 J
while it is heated and its volume doubles. If R is molar
gas constant, the work done by the gas in increasing 94. When unit mass of water boils to become steam
its volume is at 100°C, it absorbs Q amount of heat. The densities
(A) RT ln2 (B) 1/2 RT (C) RT (D) 3/2 RT of water and steam at 100°C are 1 and 2 respectively
and the atmospheric pressure is p0. The increase in
89. The figure, shows the internal energy of the water is
ln P
graph of logarithmic reading of
1 1 
pressure and volume for two (A) Q (B) Q + p0   –  
ideal gases A and B undergoing  1 2 
adiabatic process. From figure A 1 1 1 1 

B (C) Q + p0   –   (D) Q – p0     
it can be concluded that
 2 1   1 2 
(A) gas B is diatomic
ln V

HEAT– 2 Page # 37
95. A polyatomic gas with six degrees of freedom does 102. Two identical vessels A & B contain equal
25 J of work when it is expanded at constant pressure. amount of ideal monoatomic gas. The piston of A is
The heat given to the gas is fixed but that of B is free. Same amount of heat is
(A) 100 J (B) 150 J (C) 200 J (D) 250 J absorbed by A & B. If B’s internal energy increases by
96. An ideal gas expands from volume V1 to V2. This 100 J the change in internal energy of A is
may be achieved by either of the three processes :
isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic, Let U be the
change in internal energy of the gas, Q be the quantity A B
of heat added to the system and W be the work done
by the system on the gas. Identify which of the
following statements is false for U? Q Q
(A) U is least under adiabatic process
(B) U is greatest under adiabatic process. 500
(A) 100 J (B) J (C) 250 J (D) none
(C) U is greatest under the isobaric process 3
(D) U in isothermal process lies in-between the values
103. Three processes compose a thermodynamics
obtained under isobaric and adiabatic processes.
cycle shown in the PV diagram. Process 1  2 takes
97. In an isobaric expansion of an ideal gas, which of place at constant temperature. Process 2  3 takes
the following is zero ? place at constant volume, and process 3  1 is
(A) work done (B) Q (C) U (D) d2V/dT2 adiabatic. During the complete cycle, the total amount
98. A perfect gas is found to obey the relation PV3/2 = of work done is 10 J. During process 2  3, the internal
constant, during an adiabatic process. If such a gas, energy decrease by 20J and during process 3  1, 20
initially at a temperature T, is compressed adiabatically J of work is done on the system. How much heat is
to half’ its initial volume, then its final temperature will added to the system during process 1  2 ?
be P
1
(A) 2T (B) 4T (C) 2T (D) 22T
99. A ideal monoatomic gas is 2
P
carried around the cycle ABCDA B C 3
3P0
as shown in the fig. The
efficiency of the gas cycle is V
(A) 0 (B) 10 J (C) 20 J (D) 30 J
4 2
(A) (B) P0 D 104. An ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic process
21 21 A
obeying the relation PV4/3 = constant. If its initial
4 2 V0 2V0 V temperature is 300 K and then its pressure is increased
(C) (D) upto four times its initial value, then the final
31 31
temperature (in Kelvin) :
100. In thermodynamic process pressure of a fixed
mass of gas is changed in such a manner that the gas (A) 300 2 (B) 300 3 2 (C) 600 (D) 1200
releases 30 joule of heat and 18 joule of work was 105. The adiabatic Bulk modulus of a diatomic gas at
done on the gas. If the initial internal energy of the atmospheric pressure is
gas was 60 joule, then, the final internal energy will (A) 0 Nm–2 (B) 1 Nm–2
4 –2
be : (C) 1.4 × 10 Nm (D) 1.4 × 105 Nm–2
(A) 32 joule (B) 48 joule (C) 72 joule (D) 96 joule 106. A closed container is fully insulated from outside.
101. A cyclinder made of perfectly non conducting One half of it is filled with an ideal gas X separated by
material closed at both ends is divided into two equal a plate P from the other half Y which contains a vacuum
parts by a heat proof piston. Both parts of the cylinder as shown in figure. When P is removed, X moves into
contain the same masses of a gas at a temperature Y. Which of the following statements is correct ?
t0 = 27° and pressure P0 = 1 atm. Now if the gas in
one of the parts is slowly heated to
X Y
t = 57°C while the temperature of first part is vacuum
gas
maintained at t0 the distance moved by the piston p
from the middle of the cylinder will be (length of the
cyclinder = 84 cm) (A) No work is done by X
(A) 3 cm (B) 5 cm (C) 2 cm (D) 1 cm (B) X decreases in temperature

Page # 38 HEAT– 2
(C) X increases in internal energy 110. A vessel contains an ideal monoatomic gas
(D) X doubles in pressure. which expands at constant pressure, when heat Q is
P B given to it. Then the work done in expansion is :
107. A cyclic process ABCA is A
shown in PT diagram. When 3 2 2
(A) Q (B) Q (C) Q (D) Q
presented on PV, it would 5 5 3
C
P B P B
111. One mole of an ideal monoatomic gas at
A A T
temperature T0 expands slowly according to the law
P/V = constant. If the final temperature is 2T0, heat
(A) (B) C supplied to the gas is :
C
V V 3 1
(A) 2RT0 (B) RT0 (C) RT0 (D) RT0
P B A P 2 2
B A
112. One mole of an ideal gas at temperature T1
(C) C (D) C
P
expends according to the law  a (constant). The
V V V2
108. Considere the thermodynamics cycle shown on work done by the gas till temperature of gas becomes
PV diagram. The process A  B is isobaric, B  C is T2 is :
isochoric and C  A is a straight line process. The 1 1
following internal energy and heat are given : (A) R(T2 – T1) (B) R( T2 – T1 )
2 3
1 1
P(Nm –2) A (C) R( T2 – T1 ) (D) R( T2 – T1 )
5 B 4 5
3×10
113. 2 moles of a diatomic gas undergoes the process
5
2×10 C : PT2 / V = constant. Then, the molar heat capacity
of the gas during the process will be equal to
1 1.5 V(m )
3 (A) 5R/2 (B) 9R/2 (C) 3R (D) 4R
P
114. Fig. shows graphs of pressure T1
UA  B = + 400 kJ and QB  C = – 500 kJ
vs. density for an ideal gas at T2
The heat flow in the process QC  A is :
(A) – 20 kJ (B) + 25 kJ two temperature T1 and T2.
(C) – 25 kJ (D) Data are insufficient (A) T1 > T2 (B) T1 = T2 
(C) T1 < T2 (D) any of the three is possible
109. 1 kg of a gas does 20 kJ of work and receives
16 kJ of heat when it is expanded between two states.
A second kind of expansion can be found between the
initial and final state which requires a heat input of 9
kJ. The work done by the gas in the second expansion
is :
(A) 32 kJ (B) 5 kJ (C) – 4 kJ (D) 13 kJ

HEAT– 2 Page # 39
Exercise - II
1. Consider a collision between an oxygen molecule (A) The graph of the process of T - V diagram is a
and a hydrogen molecules in a mixture of oxygen and parabola.
hydrogen kept at room temperature. Which of the (B) The graph of the process of T - V diagram is a
following are possible ? straight line.
(A) The kinetic energies of both the molecules increase. (C) Such an expansion is possible only with heating.
(B) The kinetic energies of both the molecules decrease (D) Such an expansion is possible only with cooling.
(C) The kinetic energy of the oxygen molecule
8. Figure shows the pressure P versus volume V graphs
increases and that of the hydrogen molecules
for two different gas sample at a given temperature.
decreases.
MA and MB are masses of two samples, nA and nB are
(D) The kinetic energy of the hydrogen molecules
numbers of moles. Which of the following must be
increases and that of the oxyzen molecule decreases.
incorrect.
2. In a process on a system, the initial pressure and P
volume are equal to the final pressure and volume.
(A) The initial temperature must be equal to the final
B
temperature A
(B) The initial internal energy must be equal to the V
final internal energy.
(A) MA > MB (B) MA < MB (C) nA > nB (D) nA < nB
(C) The net heat given to the system in the process
must be zero. 9. According to kinetic theory of gases,
(D) The net work done by the system in the process (A) The velocity of molecules decreases for each
must be zero. collision
(B) The pressure exerted by a diatomic gas is
3. A system undergoes a cyclic process in which it
proportional to the mean velocity of the molecule.
absorbs Q1 heat and given out Q2 heat. The efficiency
(C) The K.E. of the gas decreases on expansion at
of the process in  and work done is W. Select correct
constant temperature.
statement.
(D) The mean translational K.E. of a diatomic gas
(A) W = Q1 – Q2 (B)  = W/Q1
increases with increase in absolute temperature.
(C)  = Q2/Q1 (D)  = 1 – Q2/Q1
10. A closed vessel contains a mixture of two diatomic
4.A gas kept in a container of finite conductivity is
gases A and B. Molar mass of A is 16 times that of B
suddenly compressed. The process
and mass of gas A contained in the vessel is 2 times
(A) must be very nearly adiabatic
that of B. The following statements are given
(B) must be very nearly isothermal
(i) Average kinetic energy per molecule of A is equal
(C) may be very nearly adiabatic
to that of B.
(D) may be very nearly isothemal
(ii) Root mean square value of translational velocity
5. A rigid container of neligible heat capacity contains of B is four times that of A.
one mole of an ideal gas. The temperatur of the gas (iii) Pressure exerted by B is eight time of that exerted
increases by 1°C if 3.0 cal of heat is added to it. The by A.
gas may be (iv) Number of molecules of B in the cylinder is eight
(A) helium (B) argon time that of A.
(C) oxygen (D) carbon dioxide (A) (i), (ii) and (iii) are true
(B) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are true
6. When an enclosed perfect gas is subjected to an
(C) (i), (ii) and (iv) are true
adiabatic process :
(D) All are true.
(A) Its total internal energy does not change
(B) Its temperature does not change 11. What is/are the same for O2 and NH3 in gaseous
(C) Its pressure varies inversely as a certain power of state
its volume (A) ratio of specific heats
(D) The product of its pressure and volume is directly (B) average velocity
proportional to its absolute temperature. (C) maximum no. of vibrational degree of freedom
(D) None of these
7. An ideal gas expands in such a way that PV2 =
constant throughout the process. assumption of the kinetic theory for an ideal gas ?

Page # 40 HEAT– 2
(A) The duration of a collision is negligible as compared 17. For an ideal gas
to the time between successive collisions (A)The change in internal energy in a constant pressure
(B) The molecules have negligible attraction for each process from temperature T 1 to T 2 is equal to
other nCV(T2 – T1) where CV is the molar specific heat at constant
(C) The molecules have negligible momentum change volume and n is the number of the moles of the gas.
on collision with the container walls (B) The change in internal energy of the gas and the
(D) There is no total kinetic energy change of the work done by the gas are equal in magnitude in an
molecules on colliding with each other or with the adiabatic process.
walls of the container. (C) The internal energy does not change in an
isothermal process
13. Select the incorrect statement(s)
(D) A, B and C
(A) RMS speed of 8 gm oxygen gas in container at 27°
C is approximately 484 m/s 18. Two gases have the same initial pressure, volume
(B) RMS speed of 8 gm oxygen in container at 27°C is and temperature. They expand to the same final
approximately 968 m/s volume, one adiabatically and the other isothermally
(C) For number of molecules greater than one, RMS (A) The final temperature is greater for the isothermal
speed is greater than average speed process
(D) A gas behaves more closely as an ideal gas at low (B) The final pressure is greater for the isothermal
pressures and high temperatues process
(C) The work done by the gas is greater for the
14. A gas is enclosed in a vessel at a constant
isothermal process
temperature at a pressure of 5 atmosphere and volume
(D) All the above options are incorrect
4 litre. Due to a leakage in the vessel, after some
time, the pressure is reduced to 4 atmosphere. As a 19. The first law of thermodynamics can be written
result, the as U = Q + W for an ideal gas. Which of the
(A) volume of the gas decreased by 20% following statements is correct ?
(B) average K.E. of gas molecule decreases by 20% (A) U is always zero when no heat enters or leaves
(C) 20% of the gas escaped due to the leakage the gas
(D) 25% of the gas escaped due to the leakage. (B) W is the work done by the gas in this written law
(C) U is zero when heat is supplied and the
15. A container holds 1026 molecules/m3, each of mass
temperature stays constant
3 × 10–27 kg. Assume that 1/6 of the molecules move
(D) Q = – W when the temperature increases very
with velocity 2000 m/s directly towards one wall of
slowly
the container while the remaining 5/6 of the molecules
move either away from the wall or in perpendicular 20. For two different gases X
direction, and all collisions of the molecules with the and Y, having degrees of
wall are elastic freedom f1 and f2 and molar heat ln P
(A) number of molecules hitting 1m2 of the wall every capacities at constant vloume
y
second is 3.33 × 1028 C V1 and C V2 respectively, the x
(B) number of molecules hitting 1m2 of the wall every
second is 2 × 1029 lnP versus ln V graph is plotted
of adiabatic process, as shown ln V
(C) pressure exerted on the wall by molecules is 24 × 105
Pa (A) f1 > f2 (B) f2 > f1
(D) pressure exerted on the wall by molecules is 4 × (C) C V2  C V1 (D) C V1  C V2
105 Pa
16. A student records Q, U & W for a
thermodynamics cycle A  B  C  A. Certain entries
are missing. Find correct entry in following options.
(A) WBC = – 70 J (B) QCA = 130 J

(C) UAB = 190 J (D) UCA = – 160 J

HEAT– 2 Page # 41

1. Find the average velocity of molecules of hydrogen P
gas in a container at temperature 300 K. B C
2P
2. A cubical container having each side as  is filled
with a gas having N molecules in the container. Mass
of each molecule is m. If we assume that at every P D
A
instant half of the molecules are moving towards the
positive x-axis and half of the molecules are moving V
O V 2V
towards the negative x-axis. Two walls of the container
are perpendicular to the x-axis. Find the force acting 11. Find the work done by gas going through a cyclic
on the two walls given ? Assume that all the molecules
are moving with speed v0. process shown in figure ?
3. A uniform tube closed at one end, contains a pallet
of mercury 10 cm long. When the tube is kept vertically
30
Volume (ltr)
with the closed end upward, the length of the air
column trapped is 20 cm. Find the length of the air
column trapped when the tube is inverted so that the 10
closed end goes down. Atmospheric pressure = 75 cm
of mercury.
10 30
4. An ideal gas is trapped between a mercury column k(Pa)
and the closed end of a narrow vertical tube of uniform Pressure (kPa)
base containing the column. The upper end of the
tube is open to the atmosphere. The lengths of the
12. The following graph shows two isotherms for a
mercury column and the trapped air column are 20 cm
fixed mass of an ideal gas. Find the ratio of r.m.s.
and 43 cm respectively. What will be the length of the
air column when the tube is tied slowly in a vertical speed of the moelcules at temperatures T1 and T2 ?
plane through an angle of 60° ? Assume the
temperature to remain constant.
4
5. Find the temperature at which average speed of
3
oxygen molecule be sufficient so as to escape from P 2
5
the earth? Escape velocity from the earth is 11.0 km/ (10 Pa) T2
1
sec and the mass of one molecule of oxygen 5.34 × T1
10–26 kg (Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 × 10–23 joule/K) : 0 1 2 3 4
V(m3 )
6. Find the average magnitude of linear momentum of
a helium molecule in a sample of helium gas at 0°C
Mass of helium molecule = 6.64 × 10 –27 kg and
13. A sample of an ideal gas initially having internal
Boltazmann constant = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K.
energy U1 is allowed to expand adiabatically performing
7. Find the ratio of the mean speed of hydrogen work W. Heat Q is then supplied to it, keeping the
molecules to the mean speed of nitrogen molecules in volume constant at its new value, until the pressure
a sample containing a mixture of the two gases. rised to its original value. The internal energy is
8. 0.040 g of He is kept in a closed container initially then U2. (See Fig.) Find the increase in internal
at 100.0ºC. The container is now heated. Neglecting enery (U2 – U1) ?
the expansion of the container, calculate the
temperature at which the internal energy is increased
by 12 J.
9. Calculate the change in internal energy of a gas
Pressure
kept in a rigid container when 100 J of heat is supplied

to it.
10. An ideal monoatomic gas is taken round the cycle

Volume
ABCDA as shown in the P-V diagram. Find the work
done by the gas during the cycle ?

Page # 42 HEAT– 2
P(atm)
P
14. An ideal gas taken around 4P1 B 23. In the P-V diagram shown 3 C
the cycle ABCA shown in P – V in figure, ABC is a semicircle. B
diagram. Find the net work Find the workdone in the
done by the gas during the 1 A
P1 C process ABC.
cycle ? A v(lt)
1 2
O V1 3V1 V
24. The average degrees of freedom per molecules
15. A gas is enclosed in a cylindrical vessel fitted with for a gas is 6. The gas performs 25 J of work when it
a frictionless piston. The gas is slowly heated for some expands at constant pressure. Find the heat absorbed
time. During the process, 10 J of heat is supplied and by the gas.
the piston is found to move out 10 cm. Find the increase
in the internal energy of the gas. The area of cross-
25. Pressure versus temperature P
section of the cylinder = 4 cm2 and the atmospheric 3P B
g r a p h of a n id e a l g a s is
pressure = 100 kPa.
shown. Density of gas at point P
16. Find the change in the internal energy of 2 kg of A
A is 0. Find the density of gas
water as it is heated from 0°C to 4°C. The specific T
at B. T0 2T0
heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg-K and its densities
at 0°C and 4°C 999.9 kg/m 3 and 1000 kg/m 3 26. An empty pressure cooker of volume 10 litres
respectively. Atmospheric pressure = 105 Pa. contains air at atmospheric pressure 10 5 Pa and
17. A substance is taken through the process abc as temperature of 27ºC. It contains a whistle which has
shown in figure. If the internal energy of the substance area of 0.1 cm2 and weight of 100 gm. What should
increases by 5000 J and a heat of 2625 cal is given to be the temperature of air inside so that the whistle is
the system, calculate the value of J. just lifted up ?
whistle
c
300 kPa
a b
200 kPa
V(lit.)
27. V-T curve for 2 moles of a B
0.02 m3 0.05 m3 gas is straight line as shown in
18. An ideal gas is taken through a process in which the graph here. Find the A
the pressure and the volume are changed according 53º
pressure of gas at A.
to the equation p = kV. Show that the molar heat T(K)
capacity of the gas for the process is given by C = Cv 28. Air at temperature of 400 K and atmospheric
+ R/2. pressure is filled in a balloon of volume 1 m 3. If
surrounding air is at temperature of 300 K, find the
19. Two ideal gases have the same value of Cp/Cv = .
ratio of Buoyant force on balloon and weight of air
What will be the value of this ratio for a mixture of the
inside
two gases in the ratio 1 : 2 ?
29. Ideal diatomic gas is taken through a process Q
20. A gaseous mixture consists of 16 g of helium and
= 2U. Find the molar heat capacity for the process
Cp
16 g of oxygen. Find the ratio C of the mixture ? (where Q is the heat supplied and U is change in
v internal energy)
21. A gas at NTP is suddenly compressed to one- 30. Figure shows a parabolic T
fourth of its original volume. If  is supposed to be 3/ graph between T and 1/V for a 2T0
2, then find final pressure ? mixture of a gas undergoing an
22. An ideal gas at pressure 2.5 × 10 5 Pa and adiabatic process. What is the T0
temperature 300 K occupies 100 cc. It is adiabatically ratio of Vrms and speed of sound
compressed to half its original volume. Calculate (a) in the mixtur (1/V0) (4/V0) (1/V)
the final pressure, (b) the final temperature and (c)
the work done by the gas in the process. Take  = 31. A piston divides a closed gas cylinder into two
1.5. parts. Initially the piston is kept pressed such that
one part has a pressure P and volume 5V and th other
part has pressure 8P and volume V. The piston is now

HEAT– 2 Page # 43
left free. Find the new pressures and volumes for the
adiabatic and isothermal processes. For this gas  =
1.5.
32. A gas undergoes a process in which the pressure
and volume are related by VPn = constant. Find the
buk modulus of the gas.
33. A standing wave of frequency 1000Hz in a column
of methane at 27°C produces nodes which are 20.4
cm apart. Find the ratio of heat capacity of mathane
at constant pressure to that at constant volume (Take
gas constant, R = 8.31 J.K–1mol–1)
34. One mole of an ideal gas is compressed from 0.5
lit to 0.25 lit. During the compression, 23.04 × 102 J
of work is done on the gas and heat is removed to
keep the temperature of the gas constant all times.
Find the temperature of the gas. (Take universal gas
constant R = 8.31 J mol–1K–1)
35. The pressure of an ideal gas changes with volumes
as P = aV where ‘a’ is a constant. One moles of this
gas is expanded to 3 time its original volume V0. Find
(i) the heat transferred in the process
(ii) the heat capacity of the gas.
36. 70 calorie of heat is required to raise the
temperautre of 2 mole of an ideal gas at constant
pressure from 40°C to 45°C. Find the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of the same through
the same range at constant volume (R = 2 cal/mol-K)
37. Find the molecular mass of a gas if the specific
heats of the gas are C p = 0.2 cal/gm°C and
Cv = 0.15 cal/gm°C . [Take R = 2 cal/mol°C]

Page # 44 HEAT– 2

1. A freely moving piston divides a vertical cylinder,
closed at both ends, into two parts each containing 1
mole of air. In equilibrium, at T = 300 K, volume of the
upper part in  = 4 times greater than the lower p k
part. At what temperature will the ratio of these
volumes be equal to ’ = 2?
h
2. A sample of an ideal non linear tri-atomic gas has a
pressure P0 and temperature T0 taken through the
cycle as shown starting from A. Pressure for process
C  D is 3 times P0. Calculate the heat absorbed in
the cycle and work done.
5. At a temperature of T0 = 273°K, two mols of an
V ideal gas undergoes a process as shown. The total
7 V0 B amount of heat imparted to the gas equals Q = 27.7
C
2 k J . Determine the ratio of molar specific heat
V0 A capacities.
D
T
T0 T
C
3. Figure shown three processes for an ideal gas. The
tempeature at ‘a’ is 600 K, pressure 16 atm and volume A
273K B
1 litre. The volume at ‘b’ is 4 litre. Out of the two
process ab and ac, one is adiabatic and he other is V 4V
isothermal. The ratio of specific heats of the gas is 1.5.
Answer the following :
6. A fixed mass of a gas is taken through a process A
a  B  C  A. Here A B is isobaric. B  C is adiabatic
p atm
and C  A is isothemal. Find efficiency of the process

(take  = 1.5)
c
b
A B
P
1 4 litre
(i) Which of ab and ac processes is adiabatic. Why ?

(ii) Compute the pressure of th gas at b and c. C
(iii) Compute the temperature and b and c.
V V
(iv) Compute the volume at c. 4V
4. An ideal gas NTP is enclosed in a adiabatic vertical

7. A cylinder containing a gas is closed by a movable
cylinder having area of cross section A = 27 cm2,
piston. The cylinder is submerged in an ice-water
between two light movable pistons as shown in th
mixture. The piston is quickly pushed down from position
figure. Spring with force constant k = 3700 N/m is in a
relaxed state initially. Now the lower piston is moved 1 to position 2. The piston is held at position 2 until
upwards a height h/2, h being the initial length of gas the gas is again at 0°C and then slowly raised back to
column. It is observed that the upper piston moves position 1. Represent the whole process on P – V
up by a distance h/16. Find h taking  for the gas to diagram. If m = 100 gm of ice are melted during the
be 1.5. Also find the final temperature of the gas. cycle, how much work is done on the gas. Latent
heat of ice = 80 cal/gm.
IVRS No. 0744-2439051, 0744-2439052, 0744-2439053 www.motioniitjee.com, email-hr.motioniitjee@gmail.com
HEAT– 2 Page # 45
(a) Final pressurs in each compartment A, B and C

1 (b) Final temperatures in each compartment A, B and C
2 (c) Heat supplied by the heater
(d) Work done by gas in A and B.
(e) Heat flowing across piston I.
11. How many atoms do the molecules of gas consist

8. A parallel beam of particles of mass m moving with
of if  increases 1.20 times when the vibrational degrees
velocities v impings on a wall at an angle  to its
normal. The number of particles per unit volume in the of freedom are “frozen”? Assume that molecules are
beam is n. If the collision of particles with the wall is non linear.
elastic, then find the pressure exerted by this beam
12.Figure shows the variation of the internal energy
on the wall.
U with the density  of one mole of idel monoatomic
9. For the thermodynamic process shown in the figure. gas for a thermodynamic cycle ABCA.
PA = 1 × 105 Pa ; PB = 0.3 × 105 Pa Here process AB is a part of rectangular hyperbola.
PD = 0.6 × 105 Pa ; VA = 0.20 litre
VD = 1.30 litre.
U
A C
5U0
P
PA
2U0 B
PD D 20 
PB B C
(a) Draw the P-V diagram for the above process.
VC VD V (b) Find the net amount of heat absorbed by the
VA
system for the cyclic process.
(c) Find the work done in the process AB.
(a) Find the work performed by the system along path
AD.
(b) In the total work done by the system along the 13. An ideal monoatomic gas undergoes a process
path ADC is 85 J find the volume a point C. where its pressur is inversely proportional to its
(c) How much work is perfomed by the system along tempeature.
the path CDA ? (i) Calculate the specific heat for process.
10. The figure shows an insulated cylinder divided into (ii) Find the work done by two moles of gas if the
three parts A, B and C. Pistons I and II are connected temperature changes from T1 to T2.
by a rigid rod and can move without friction inside the
cylinder. Piston I is perfectly conducting while piston
14. An ideal diatomic gas undergoes a process in which
II si pefectly insulating. The initial state of the gas (
= 1.5) present in each compartment A, B and C is as its internal energy ralates to the volume as U  a V
shown. Now, compartment A is slowly given heat
where  is a constant.
through a heater H such that the final volume of C
4 V0 (a) Find the work performed by the gas and the amount
becomes . Assume the gas to be ideal and find. of heat to be transferred to this gas to increase its
9
internal energy by 100 J.
I II (b) Find the molar specific heat of the gas for this
H A C process.
B
P0, V0, T0
P0, V0, T0 15. Two rectangular boxes shown in figures has a
P0, V0, T0
partition which can slide without friction along the
Page # 46 HEAT– 2
length of the box. Initially each of the two chambers (a) Find the initial pressure of the gas.
of the box has one mole of a monoatomic ideal gas ( (b) If block m is gentily pushed down and released it
= 5/3) at a pressure p0 volume V0 and temperature T0. oscillates harmonically, find its angula frquency of
The chamber on the left is slowly heated by an electric oscillation.
heater. The walls of the box and the partitions are (c) When the gas in the cylinder is heated up the
thermally insulated. Heat loss through the lead wires piston starts moving up and the spring gets compressed
of the heater is negligible. The gas in the left chamber so that the block M is just lifted up. Determine the
expands, pushing the partition until the final pressure heat supplied.
in both chambers becomes 243 P0/32 . Determine Take atmospheric pressure P0 = 105 Nm–2 , g = 10 m/s2
17. A thermally insulated vessel is divided into two

parts by a heat-insulating piston which can move in
the vessel without the friction. The left part of the
vessel contains one mole of an ideal monatomic gas,
& the right part is empty. The piston is connected to
(i) the final temperature of the gas in each chamber the right wall of the vessel through a spring whose
and length in free state is equal to the length of the vessel
(ii) the work-done by the gas in the right chamber. as shown in the figure. Determine the heat capacity C
16. 0.01 moles of an ideal diatomic gas is enclosed in of the system, neglecting the heat capacities of the
an adiabatic cylinder of cross-sectional area A = 10 –4 vessel, piston and spring.
m2. In the arrangement shown, a block of mass M =
0.8 kg is placed on a horizontal support, and another
block of mass m = 1 kg is suspended from a spring of
stiffness constant k = 16 N/m. Initially, the spring is
relaxed and the volume of the gas is V = 1.4 × 10–4 m3
M
k
m
HEAT– 2 Page # 47

1. The temperature of an ideal gas is increased from root mean square speed and the most probable speed
120 K to 480 K. If at 120 K the root mean-square of the molecule in an ideal monoatomic gas at absolute
velocity of the gas molecules is v, at 480 K it becomes : temperature T. The mass of a molecule is m then :
(A) 4v (B) 2v (C) v / 2 (D) v/4
[JEE ‘96,2] (A) no molecule can have speed greater than 2 v rms
2. The average translational energy and the rms speed (B) no molecule can have speed less than v p / 2
of molecules in a sample of oxygen gas at 300 K are
6.21 × 10–21 J & 484 m/s respectively. The corresponding (C) vp < vav < vrms
values at 600 K are nearly (assuming ideal gas behaviour ) (D) the average kinetic energy of a molecule is 3/4 mvp2
(A) 12.42 × 10–21 J, 968 m/s [JEE’98]
(B) 8.78 × 10–21 J, 684 m/s 9.A given quantity of an ideal gas is at pressure P and
(C) 6.21 × 10–21 J, 968 m/s absolute temperature T. The isothermal bulk modulus
(D) 12.42 × 10–21 J, 684 m/s [JEE’ 97,1] of the gas is :
3. The average translational kinetic energy of O2 (molar (A) 2P/3 (B) P (C) 3P/2 (C) 2P
mass 32) molecules at a particular temperature is 0.048 [JEE’98]
eV. The translational kinetic energy of N2 (molar mass 10. During the melting of a slab of ice at 273 K at
28) molecules in eV at the same temperature is atmospheric pressutre : [JEE’98]
(A) 0.0015 (B) 0.003 (C) 0.048 (D) 0.768 (A) positive work is done by the ice-water system on
[JEE ‘97,3] the atmosphere.
4. Select the correct alternative.A vessel contains 1 (B) positive work is done on the ice-water system by
mole of O2 gas (molar mass 32) at a temperature T. the atmosphere
The pressure of the gas is P. An identical vessel (C) the internal energy of the ice-water system
containing one mole of He gas (molar mass 4) at a increases
temperature 2T has a pressure of : (D) the internal energy of ice-water system decreases.
(A) P/8 (B) P (C) 2P (D) 8P 11. The ratio of the speed of sound in nitrogen gas to
5. Two cylinders A and B fitted with pistons contain that in helium gas, at 300 K is
equal amounts of an ideal diatomic gas at 300 K. The (A) (2/7) (B) (1/7)
piston of A is free to move, while that of B is held (C) (3)/5 (D) (6/5) [JEE’ 99]
fixed. The same amount of heat is given to the gas in 12.A gas mixture consists of 2 moles of oxygen and 4
each cylinder. If the rise in temperature of the gas A moles of argon at temperature T. Neglecting all
is 30K, then rise in temperature of the gas in B is vibrational modes, the total internal energy of the
(A) 30 K (B) 18 K (C) 50 K (D) 42 K system is
[JEE ‘98] (A) 4RT (B) 15 RT
6. Two identical containers A and B with frictionless (C) 9 RT (D) 11 RT [JEE’99]
pistons contain the same ideal gas at the same 13. A weightless piston divides a thermally insulated
temperature and the same volume V. The mass of the cylinder into two parts of volumes V and 3V.2 moles of
gas in A is mA and that in B is mB. The gas in each an ideal gas at pressure P = 2 atmosphere are confined
cylinder is now allowed to expands isothermally to the to the part with volume V = 1 litre. The remainder of
same final volume 2V. The change in the pressure in A the cylinder is evacuated. The piston is now released
and B are found to be P and 1.5 P respectively. and the gas expands to fill the entire space of the
Then [JEE’ 98] cylinder. The piston is then pressed back to the initial
(A) 4mA = 9mB (B) 2mA = 3mB position. Find the increase of internal energy in the
(C) 3mA = 2mB (D) 9mA = 4mB process and final temperature of the gas. The ratio of
7. A vessel contains a mixture of one mole of oxygen the specific heat of the gas  = 1.5.
and two moles of nitrogen at 300 K. The ratio of the 14. Two moles of an ideal monatomic gas is taken
average rotational kinetic energy per O2 molecule the through a cycle ABCA as shown in the P-T diagram.
that per N2 molecule is [JEE’ 98]
During the process AB, pressure and temperature of
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 2 : 1
(D) depend on the moment of inertia of two molecules. the gas vary such that PT = constant. If T1 = 300 K,
8. Let vav, vrms and vp respectively denote mean speed, calculate :
Page # 48 HEAT– 2
P  
B C
2P1
(A) (B)
P P
 
P1 A
T1 2T1 T (C) (D)
(a) the work done on the gas in the process AB and P P

(b) the heat absorbed or released by the gas in each of 19. A cubical box of side 1 meter contains helium gas
the processes. Give answers in terms of the gas (atomic weight 4) at a pressure of 100 N/m2. During
constant R. [JEE’ 2000] an observation time of 1 second, an atom travelling
with the root mean square speed parallel to one of
15. P-V plots for two gases during adiabatic processes the edges of the cube, was found to make 500 hits
are shown in the figure. Plots 1 and 2 should correspond with a particular wall, without any collision with other
respectively to atoms.
P
Take R = 25/3 J/mol-K and k = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K.
[JEE’ 2002]
1 (a) Evaluate the temperature of the gas
(b) Evaluate the average kinetic energy per atom
2
(c) Evaluate the total mass of helium gas in the box.
V
20. In the figure AC represent Adiabatic process. The
(A) He and O2 (B) O2 and He corresponding PV graph is [JEE (Scr) 2003]
(C) He and Ar (D) O2 and N2 P A
[JEE’ 2001]
16. In a given process on an ideal gas, dW = 0 and dQ < 0. C
then for the gas [JEE’ 2001] B
T
(A) the temperature will decrease P A P
(B) the volume will increase A B
(C) the pressure will remain constant
(A) (B) C
(D) the temperature will increase C B
V V
17. An ideal gas is taken through the cycle A  B  C P B P A
 A, as shown in the figure. If the net heat supplied B
to the gas in the cycle is 5J, the work done by the (C) A C
(D)
C
gas in the process C  A is [JEE(Scr) 2002]
V V
3 21. An insulated container containing monoatomic gas
V(m )
of molar m is moving with a velocity v0. If the container
C B
is suddenly stopped, find the change in temperature.
2 [JEE 2003]
A 22. An ideal gas expands isothermally from a volume
1 V1 to V2 and then compressed to original volume V1
adiabatically. Initial pressure is P1 and final pressure is
10 P(N/m2) P3. The total work done is W. Then
(A) P3 > P1, W > 0 (B) P3 < P1, W < 0
(C) P3 > P1, W < 0 (D) P3 = P1, W = 0
(A) – 5J (B) –10J
[JEE’ 2004 (Scr)]
(C) –15J (D) –20J
18. Which of the following graphs correctly represents 23. The piston cylinder arrangement shown contains
the variation of  = –(dV/dP)/V with P for an ideal gas a diatomic gas at temperature 300 K. The cross-
at constant temperature ? sectional area of the cylinder is 1 m2. Initially the
HEAT– 2 Page # 49
height of the piston above the base of the cylinder is Paragraph for Question Nos. 28 to 30 (3 questions)
1 m. The temperature is now raised to 400 K at A fixed thermally conducting cylinder has radius R and
constant pressure. Find the new height of the piston length L0. The cylinder is open at its bottom and has a
above the base of the cylinder. If the piston is now small hole at its top. A piston of mass M is held at a
brought back to its original height without any heat distance L from the top surface, as shown in the figure.
loss, find the new equilibrium temperature of the gas. The atmospheric pressure is P0.
You can leave the answer is fraction. [JEE’ 2004] 2R
L0
1m
24. An ideal gas is filled in a closed rigid and thermally

Piston
insulated container. A coil of 100  resistor carrying 28. The piston is now pulled out slowly and held at a
current 1A for 5 minutes supplies heat to the gas.
distnace 2L from the top. The pressure in the cylinder
The change in internal energy of the gas is
(A) 10 KJ (B) 20 KJ (C) 30 KJ (D) 0 KJ between its top and the piston will then be
[JEE’ 2004 (Scr)] [JEE 2007]
(A) P0 (B) P0/2
25. When the pressure is changed from p1 = 1.01 ×
105 Pa to P2 = 1.165 × 105 Pa then the volume changes P0 Mg P0 Mg
(C)  (D) –
by 10% the bulk modulus is 2 R2 2 R 2
(A) 1.55 × 105 Pa (B) 0.0015 × 105 Pa 29. While the piston is at a distance 2L from the top,
5
(C) 0.015 × 10 Pa (D) none of these the hole at the top is sealed. The piston is then
[JEE’ 2004 (Scr)] released, to a position where it can stay in equilibrium.
26. A cylinder of mass 1 kg is given heat of 20000 J at In this condition, the distance of the piston from the
atmospheric pressure. If initially temperature of cylinder top is
is 20°C, find
(a) final temperature of the cylinder  2P0 R2   P0 R 2 – Mg 
(A)  2
 ( 2L) (B)  2
 ( 2L)
(b) work done by the cylinder  R P0  Mg   R P0 
(c) change in internal energy of the cylinder.
(Given that specific heat of cylinder = 400 J kg–1°C–1,  P0 R 2  Mg   P0 R 2 
Coefficient of volume expansion = 9 × 10–5 °C–1, (C)  2
 ( 2L) 
(D) 
(2L )
2 
Atmospheric pressure = 105 N/m2 and density of  R P0   R P0 – Mg 
cylinder = 9000 kg/m3 ) [JEE 2005] [JEE 2007]
30. The piston is taken completely out of the cylinder.
The hole at the top is sealed. A water tank is brought
27. Match the following for the given process :
below the cylinder and put in a position so that the
P(atm) water surface in the tank is at the same level as the
J top of the cylinder as shown in the figure. The density
30
of the water is . In equilibrium, the height H of the
20 M water column in the cylinder satisfies
[JEE 2007]
10 L
K
10 20 V(m3) L0
H
Column I Column II
(A) Process J  K (P) w > 0
(B) Process K  L (Q) w < 0 (A) g(L0 – H)2 + P0(L0 – H) + L0P0 = 0
(C) Process L  M (R) Q > 0 (B) g(L0 – H)2 – P0(L0 – H) – L0P0 = 0
(D) Process M  J (S) Q < 0 (C) g(L0 – H)2 + P0(L0 – H) – L0P0 = 0
[JEE 2006] (D) g(L0 – H)2 – P0(L0 – H) + L0P0 = 0
Page # 50 HEAT– 2
31.STATEMENT - 1 (D) An ideal monoatomic (s) The gas gains heat

The total translational kinetic energy of all the gas expands such that its
molecules of a given mass of an ideal gas is 1.5 times pressure P and volume V
the product of its pressure and its volume follows the behaviour
because shown in the graph
STATEMENT - 2
The molecules of a gas collide with each other and v
the velocities of the molecules change due to the
collision.
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True,
Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
v1 2v1 v
(B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True,
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for 34. Cv and Cp denote the molar specific heat capacities
Statement-1 of a gas at constant volume and constant pressure,
(C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False respectively. Then [JEE 2009]
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True (A) Cp – Cv is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for a
[JEE 2007] monoatomic ideal gas
32. An ideal gas is expanding such that PT2 = con- (B) Cp + Cv is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for a
stant. The coefficient of volume expansion of the gas monoatomic ideal gas
is (C) Cp / Cv is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for a
1 2 3 4 monoatomic ideal gas
(A) (B) (C) (D)
T T T T (D) Cp.Cv is larger for a diatomic ideal gas than for a
[JEE 2008] monoatomic ideal gas
33.Column I Contains a list of processes involving 35. The figure shows the P–V plot of an ideal gas
expansion of an ideal gas. Match this with Column II taken through a cycle ABCDA. The part ABCis a
describing the thermodynamic change during this pro- semicircle and CDA is half of an ellipse. Then,
cess. Indicate your answer by darkening the appro- [JEE 2009]
priate bubbles of the 4×4 matrix given in the ORS. P
A
[JEE 2008] 3
Column I Column II
(A) An insulated container (p) The temperature of 2
B
has two chambers separated the by gas decreases D
a valve. Chamber I contains 1 C
an ideal gas the Chamber II
has vacaum. The valve is opened. 0 1 2 3 V
(A) the process during the path A  B is isothermal
opened (B) heat flows out of the gas during the path B  C  D
I II (C) work done during the path A  B  C is zero
(D) positive work is done by the gas in the cycle
ideal gas vacuum
ABCDA
36. This section contains 2 questions. Each questions
(B) An ideal monoatomic (q) The temperature of the
gas expands to twice its gas increase or remains contains statements given in two columns, which have
original volume such that constant to be matched. The statements in Column I are
its pressure P  1 , where labelled A, B, C and D, while the statements in Column
V2
V is the volume of the gas II are labelled p, q, r, s and t. Any given statement in
(C) An ideal monoatomic (r) The gas loses heat Column I can have correct matching with one or more
gas expands to twice its
original volume such that statement(s) in Column II. The appropriate bubbles
its pressure P  1 , corresponding to the answers to these questions have

4/3
V to be darkened as illustrated in the following example
where V is its volume
:
HEAT– 2 Page # 51
If the correct matches are A – p, s and t; B – q and r (A) Internal energies at A and B are the same.
; C – p and q; and D – s and t; then the correct (B) Work done by the gas in process AB is P0V0 n 4
darkening of bubbles will look like the following.
Column II gives certain systems undergoing a process. (C) Pressure at C is P0/4 (D) Temperature at C is T0/4
Column I suggests changes in some of the parameters 39. A diatomic ideal gas is compressed adiabatically
related to the system. Match the statements in
to 1/32 of its initial volume. In the initial temperature
Column I to the appropriate process(es) from Column
of the gas is T1 (in Kelvin) and the final temperature is
II. [JEE 2009]
Column I Column II aT1. the value of a is [JEE 2010]
(A) The energy of the (P) System: A capacitor 40. 5.6 liter of helium gas at STP is adiabatically com-
system is increased Initially uncharged pressed to 0.7 liter. Taking the initial temperature to
increased
be T1, the work done in the process is
Process: It is connected
(A) 9/8 RT1 (B) 3/2 RT1 (C) 15/8 RT1 (D)9/2 RT1
to a battery
(B) Mechanical energy (Q) System : A gas in an [JEE 2011]
is provided to the system, adiabatic container 41. One mole of a monatomic ideal gas is taken through
which is converted into fitted with an adiabatic a cycle ABCDA as shown in the P-V diagram. Column
energy of random motion piston II gives the characteristics involved in the cycle. Match
of its parts Process : The gas is them with each of the processes given in Column I :
compressed by pushing the
piston
(C) Internal energy of (R) System : a gas in a B A
3P
the system is converted rigid container
into its mechanical energy. Process : The gas gets
cooled due to colder
atmosphere surrounding it
(D) Mass of the system (S) System : A heavy 1P
C D
is decreased nucleus initially at rest
Process : The nucleus
fissions into two 0 1V 3V 9V V
fragments of nearly
equal masses and some Column I Column II
neutrons are emitted (A) Process A  B (P) Internal energy decreases
(T) System : A resistive (B) Process B  C (Q) Internal energy increases
wire loop (C) Process C  D (R) Heat is lost
Process : The loop is (D) Process D  A (S) Heat is gained
placed in a time varying (T) Work is done on the gas
magnetic field perpendicular [JEE 2011]
to its plane.
42. A mixture of 2 moles of helium gas (atomic mass =
37. A real gas behaves like an ideal gas if its
4 amu) and 1 mole of argon gas (atomic mass = 40
(A) pressure and temperature are both high
amu) is kept at 300 K in a container. The ratio of the
(B) pressure and temperature are both low
 vrms helium 
(C) pressure is high and temperature is low
rms speeds  v  is
 [JEE 2012]
(D) pressure is low and temperature is high  rms  arg on 
[JEE 2010] (A) 0.32 (B) 0.45 (C) 2.24 (D) 3.16
38. One mole of an ideal gas in initial sate A under-
goes a cyclic process ABCA, as shown in the figure. 43. Two moles of ideal helium gas are in a rubber
Its pressure at A is P0. Choose the correct option (s) balloon at 30°C. The balloon is fully expandable and
from the following. [JEE 2010] can be assumed to require no energy in its expansion.
The temperature of the gas in the balloon is slowly
V
changed to 35°C. the amount of heat required in raising
B
4v0 the temperature is nearly (take R = 8.31 J/mol. K)
(A) 62 J (B) 104J (C) 124J (D) 208J
[JEE 2012]
v0 A
C
T
T0
Page # 52 HEAT– 2
:: ANSWER KEY ::
ANSWER EX–I (OBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
1. A 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. C 6. C 7. B 8. A 9. B 10. C 11. A 12. D 13.D 14. C

15. A 16. D 17. D 18. B 19. D 20. C 21. C 22. A 23. D 24. D 25. A 26. C 27. A 28. B
29. A 30. C 31. B 32. B 33. A 34. C 35. A 36. C 37. C 38. A 39. D 40. B 41. D 42. A
43. C 44. A 45. A 46. A 47. B 48.D 49. D 50. D 51. D 52. B 53. D 54. B 55. B 56. B
57. A,C 58. D 59. A 60. A 61. B 62. C 63. C 64. B 65. A 66. D 67. A 68. C 69. A 70. C
71. A 72. B 73. A 74. A 75. D 76. B 77. D 78. C 79. C 80. C 81. A 82. A,D 83. D 84. B
85. D 86. A 87. D 88. A
ANSWER EX–II (MULTIPLE CHOICE PROBLEMS)
1. D 2. C 3. CD 4. B 5. ABC 6. AB 7. C 8. AD
9. B,D 10. ACD 11. D 12. BD 13. D 14. D 15. A 16. ABD
17. AB 18. AB 19. AD 20. B 21. B 22. CD 23. CD 24. BC
ANSWER EX–III (SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
20012 .428
1. 28.7236 × 103 sec. 2.  10  25 kg  m / s 3. 1 : 2 4. 14 5. 11 RT 6. 196ºC

3
7. PROOF 8. 3.3 × 103 9. 2T 10. 1 : 2 11. 27 : 4 12. 0
2
13. 1.25 × 104 N/m2 14. (i) P1 < P2, T1 < T2 ; (ii) T1 = T2 < T3 ; (iii) V2 > V1 ; (iv) P2 > P1
15. 74.9 cm 16. 120 R 17. 1500 J 18. 0.0091 J 19. PV 20. –100J
25
21. 3P1 V1 22. /2 atm-lt 23. Q – W 24. 24 J 25. (33600 + 0.02) J 26. J / cal
6
88 208
27. J / cal 28. 100 J 29. 3600 R 30. (i) 765 J (ii) 31. 3R 32. PROOF
21 1921
R
33. –  34.  35. 3R, 2R, 1.5 36. 47/29 37. 1.5 38. CV +
V
R  3 – 2 
39. 40. 12600 J 41. 50 calorie 42. RT   – 1 
2  
43. the molar mass of the gas is 40 gm, the numbe of degrees of freedom of the gas molecules is 6
 1 
3  1 – / 3 
44. 8 atmosphere 45. 1 –  2  46. 1.5 47. 5R 48. P/n 49. 300 K
l n2
HEAT– 2 Page # 53
ANSWER EX–IV (TOUGH SUBJECTIVE PROBLEMS)
1. 750 K 2. 31P0V0 ; – 5P0V0 3. (ii) Pb = Pc = 2 atm, (iii) Tb = 300 K, TC = 600 K, (iv) VC = 8 litre
P
Isochoric
Adlabatic
3 – 2ln2
4. 1.6 m, 364 K 5. 1.63 6. 7. 8000 cal.
3 Isotherm
V
8. 2 mnv2cos2 9. (a) W AD = 88 J, (b) VC = 1.223 litre, (c) W CDA = –85J
27 21
10. (a) Final pressure in A = P0 = Final pressure in C, Final pressure in B = P0
8 4
21 3
(b) Final temperature in A (and B) = T0 , Final temperature in C = T0 ,
4 2
(c) 18 P0V0, (d) work done by gas in A = + P0V0, work done by gas in B = 0
P
50  0U0 C
3M
17 20  0U0  10 
(e) P0 V0 11. four 12. (a) B A , (b) Q =  ln2.5 – 2 U0 , (c) – 2U0
2 3M 3
V
M M
5 0 20
7R 9 15
13. , 4R (T2 – T1) 14. (a) 80 J, 180 J, (b) 4.5 R 15. T1 = (207/16)T0 ; T2 = T0 , – PV
2M 4 8 0 0
16. (a) 2 × 105 N/m2 ; (b) 6 rad/s, (c) 75 J 17 C = 2R
ANSWER EX–V (JEE PROBLEMS)
1. B 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. C 7. A 8. C,D
9. B 10. B,C 11. C 12. D 13. 400 J, 2 T0
14. (a) 1200 R, (b) QAB = – 2100 R, QBC = 1500 R, QCA = 1200 R ln2
15. B 16. A 17. A 18. A 19. 160 K, 3.3 × 10–21 J, 0.3 gm 20. A
0.4
mv 0 2  4
21. T = 22. C 23. T3 = 400  K 24. C 25. A
3R  3
26. (a) Tfinal = 70°C, (b) 0.05 J, (c) 19999.95 J 27.(A)  S; (B)  P and R ; (C)  (R); (D)  Q and S
28. A 29. D 30. C 31. B 32. C
33. (A)  q, (B)  p & r, (C)  p & s, (D)  q & s
34. B,D 35. B,D 36. (A)  (PQST), (B)  (Q), (C)  (S), (D)  (S) 37. D 38. A,B
39. 4 40. A 41. (A)  p,t,r ; (B)  p,r ; (C)  q, s ; (D)  r,t 42. D 43. D
ELECTROST
ELECTROSTA
OSTATICS - 1
CONTENTS
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 3 – 4
2. Coloumb's Law ............................................................................................... 5 – 14
3. Electric field ................................................................................................... 14 – 29
4. Conservative force .......................................................................................... 29 – 32
5. Electrostatic Potential Energy ....................................................................... 32 – 36
6. Electric Potential ........................................................................................... 36 – 40
7. Relation Between E and V ............................................................................. 40 – 41
8. Electric lines of force ..................................................................................... 41 – 43
9. Equipotential Surface ..................................................................................... 43 – 45
10. Electric dipole .............................................................................................. 45 – 52
11. Exercise - I................................................................................................... 53 – 67
12. Exercise - II ................................................................................................. 68 – 73
13. Exercise - III ................................................................................................. 74 – 82
14. Exercise - IV ................................................................................................ 83 – 84
15. Exercise - V ................................................................................................. 85 – 89
16. Answer key .................................................................................................. 90 – 92
1 IVRS No. 0744-2439051, 0744-2439052, 0744-2439053 www.motioniitjee.com, email-hr.motioniitjee@gmail.com
Page # 2 ELECTROSTATICS - 1
JEE SYLLABUS :
Coulomb’s law; Electric field and potential; Electrical Potential
energy of a system of point charges and of electrical dipoles in
a uniform electrostatic field, Electric field lines;

ELECTROSTATICS - 1 Page # 3
1. INTRODUCTION :
(a) Introduction : Electromagnetism is a science of the combinatin of electrical and magnetic phenomenon.
Electromagnetism can be divided into 2 parts :
(1) Electrostatics : It deals with the study of charges at rest.
(2) Electrodynamics : It deals with the study of charges in motion (discusses magnetic phenomenon).
In this chapter we will be dealing with charges at rest i.e. electrostatics.
(b) Structure of Atom :

An atom consists of two parts (i) nucleus (ii) extra nuclear part. Nucleus consists of neutrons and
protons and extra nuclear part has electrons revolving around nucleus.
In a neutral atom.
number of electrons = number of protons.
charge of electrons = charge of protons = 1.602 × 10–19 coulomb.
Normally positive charges are positron, proton and positive ions. In nature practically free existing
positive charge are positive ions and negative charges are electrons.
(c) Electric Charge

Charge of a material body or particle is the property (acquired or natural) due to which it produces and
experiences electrical and magnetic effects. Some of naturally charged particles are electron, proton,
α-particle etc.
(d) Types of Charge

(i) Positive charge : It is the deficiency of electrons compared to protons.
(ii) Negative charge : It is the excess of electrons compared to protons.
(e) Units of Charge

Charge is a derived physical quantity. Charge is measured in coulomb in S.I. unit. In practice we use mC
(10–3C), µC (10 –6 C), nC (10–9C) etc.
C.G.S unit of charge = electrostatic unit = esu.
1 coulomb = 3 × 109 esu of charge
Dimensional formula of charge = [M°L°T1I1]
(f) Properties of Charge

(I) Charge is a scalar quantity : It adds algebrically and represents excess, or deficiency of
electrons.
(II) Charge is transferable : Charging a body implies transfer of charge (electrons) from one body
to another. Positively charged body means loss of electrons, i.e. deficiency of electrons. Negatively
charged body means excess of electrons. This also shows that mass of a negatively charged
body > mass of a positively charged identical body.
(III) Charge is conserved : In an isolated system, total charge (sum of positive and negative)
remains constant whatever change takes place in that system.
(IV) Charge is quantized : Charge on any body always exists in integral multiples of a fundamental
unit of electric charge. This unit is equal to the magnitude of charge on electron (1e = 1.6 ×
10–19 coulomb). So charge on anybody Q = ± ne, where n is an integer and e is the charge of
the electron. Millikan's oil drop experiment proved the quantization of charge or atomicity of
charge.

1 2
• Recently, the existence of particles of charge ± e and ± e has been postulated. These particles
3 3
are called quarks but still this is not considered as the quantum of charge because these are unstable
(They have very short span of life.)
(v) Like point charges repel each other while unlike point charges attract each other.
(vi) Charge is always associated with mass, i.e., charge can not exist without mass though mass
can exist without charge. The particle such as photon or neutrino which have no (rest) mass
can never have a charge.
(vii) Charge is relativistically invariant : This means that charge is independent of frame of reference,
i.e., charge on a body does not change whatever be its speed. This property is worth mentioning
as in contrast to charge, the mass of a body depends on its speed and increases with increase
in speed.
(viii) A charge at rest produces only electric field around itself; a charge having uniform motion
produces electric as well as magnetic field around itself while a charge having accelerated
motion emits electromagnetic radiation.
(g) Conductors and Insultators :
Any object can be broadly classified in either of the following two categories :
(i) Conductors
(ii) Insulators
(i) Conductors : These are the materials that allow flow of charge through them. This category generally
comprises of metals but may sometimes contain non-metals too. (ex. Carbon in form of graphite.)
(ii) Insulators : These are the materials which do not allow movement of charge through them.
(h) Charging of Bodies :

An object can be charged by addition or removed of electrons from it. In general an object can either
be a conductor or insulator. Thus we are going to discuss the charging of a conductor and charging of
an insultor in brife.
(i) Charging of Conductors :

Conductors can be charged by
(a) Rubbing or frictional electricity
(b) Conduction & Induction (will be studied in later sections)
(c) Thermionic emission (will be study the topic "heat")
(d) Photo electric emission (will be studied under the topic modern physics)
(ii) Charging of Insulators :
Since charge cannot flow through insulators, neither conduction nor induction can be used to charge,
insultators, so in order to charge an insulator friction is used. Whenever an insulator is rubbed against
a body exchange of electrons takes place between the two. This results in apperance of equal and
opposite charges on the insulator and the other body. Thus the insulator is charged. For example
rubbing of plastic with fur, silk with glass causes charging of these things.
To charge the bodies through friction one of them has to be an insultator.

2. COULOMB'S LAW :
Coulomb, through his experiments found out that the two charges 'q1' and 'q2' kept at distance 'r' in a
medium as shown in figure-1 exert a force 'F' on each other. The value of force F is given by
Kq1q2
F=
r2
F r F
+q1 +q2
This law gives the net force experienced by q1 and q2 taking in account the medium surrounding them.
Where
F gives the magnitude of electrostatic force.
q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the two interacting charges.
K is electrostatic constant which depends upon the medium surrounding the two charges.
This force F acts along the line joining the two charges and is repulsive if q1 and q2 are of same sign
and is attractive if they are of opposite sign.
Let us take some examples on application of coulomb's Law.
Ex.1 Charge 5.0 × 10–7 C, –2.5 × 10–7C and 1.0 × 10–7 C are FAC
fixed at the corners A, B and C of an equilateral triangle
of side 5.0 cm. Find the electric force on the charge at
C due to the rest two.
C q3 = 1.0 × 10–7C
9 × 109 × 5 × 10–7 × 1 × 10–7
FAC = = 0.18 Nt FBC
(.05)2
a = 5 cm
9 –7 –7
a
9 × 10 × –2.5 × 10 × 1 × 10
FBC = 2 = – .09 Nt
(.05)
→ → → A a B
Net force on C is F Net = F AC + F BC q1 = 5 × 10–7C q2 = –2.5 × 10–7C
→
F Net = (FAC )2 + (F BC )2 + 2(FAC )(F BC ) cos θ [θ = 120°]
= 0.15588 Nt
Ex.2 If charge q1 is fixed and q2 is free to move then find out the velocity of q2 when it reaches
distance r2 after it is release from a distance of r1 from q1 as shown in figure (Assume friction is
absent).
q2
q1
fixed r1
r2
Find v of q2 when it reaches distance r2 after it is released from rest.

kq1q2
Sol. a=
mx2
v r2
kq1q2 dx v2 kq1q2 1 1  2kq1q2 1 1 
∫
0
vdv =
m ∫x
r1
2 ⇒ 2 = m  −  ⇒ v=
r
1 r2 m
 − 
 r1 r2 
Ex.3 Ten charged particles are kept fixed on the X axis at point x = 10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, ..........
100 mm. The first particle has a charge 10–8 C, the second 8 × 10–8 C, the third 27 × 10–8C and
so on. The tenth particle has a charge 1000 × 10–8C. Find the magnitude of electric force acting
on a 1 C charge placed at the origin.
q1 q2 q3 q4
1C
Kq1 × 1 Kq2 × 1 Kq3 × 1

Sol. Force of 1C charge = –3 2 + –3 2 + + .......
(10 × 10 ) (20 × 10 ) (30 × 10–3 )2
K × 10–8  13 23 33 103 
= –4  2 + 2 + 2 + ...... 2  = 9 × 109 × 10–4 × 55 = 4.95 × 107 Nt
10  1 2 3 10 
[This example explains that the concept of superposition holds in the case of electric forces. Net
electric force at the origin is equal to sum of the individual electric forces on the 1 C charge]
Ex.4 A block 'A' of charge q1 is fixed and second block of mass
m and charge q2 is allowed to free on the floor A,q1 m,q2
findout the range of q2 for which the particle is at rest. fixed
Sol Maximum friction = µ mg µ
r
kq q µmgr2
µmg = 12 2 ⇒ q2 =
r kq1
µmgr2 µmgr2
– <q<
kq1 kq1
2.1 Vector forms of Coloumb’s law
q1
r q2
F21
r1
r2
(F21 : force on q2 due to q1)

k q1q2 k q1q2
F21 = ˆ
r = r
2
r r3
kq q
F21 = 1 2 3 ( r2 − r1 )
r2 − r1 

Head of r points at that position where force has to be calculated.

r2 & r1 depend on origin but r does not.
q1 and q2 should be put along with sign.
Ex.5 Given a cube with point charges q on each of its vertices. Calculate the force exerted on any of
the charges due to rest of the 7 charges.
Sol. The net force on particle A can be given by vector sum of force experienced by this particle due to all
the other charges on vertices of the cube.
For this we use vector form of coulomb's law
→ Kq1q2 → →
F = 3
( r1 – r2 )
→ →
r1 – r2
From the figure the different forces acting on A are given as

→ ˆ
Kq2 (–ak) Z
F A1 = 3
a
→ ˆ
ˆ – ak)
Kq2 (–aj (a, 0, a) 1
FA 2 = 3
( 2a) 4
(a, a, a) 2 (0, a, a)
→ Kq2 (–aî – aj ˆ
ˆ – ak)
FA 3 = 3 3
( 3a)
→ ˆ
Kq2 (–aî – ak) → ˆ 5 A
FA 4 = Kq2 (–ai) (0,0,0)
, FA 5 =
( 2a)3 a 3
X (a, 0, 0)
→ Kq2 (–aî – aj)

ˆ 6 (0, a, 0)
FA 6 = 7
( 2a) 3 (a, a, 0)
Y
→ ˆ
Kq2 (–aj)
FA 7 = 3
a
The net force experienced by A can be given as

Fnet = FA1 + FA2 + FA3 + FA4 + FA5 + FA6 + FA7
–Kq3  1 1  
 + ˆ
+ 1  (iˆ + ˆj + k)
= a  3 3 2  
Ex.6 Two particles, each having a mass of 5 gm and charge 1.0 × 10–7C, stay in limiting equilirbium
on a horizontal table with a separation of 10 cm between them. The coefficient of friction between
each particle and the table is the same. Find the value of this coefficient.
q = 10–7 c q = 10–7
FC 5 gm 5 gm Fc
f f
A 10cm B

Sol. Consider particle A. Forces acting on A are coulombic force and frictional force under limiting condition
friction will be limiting and will be equal to coulombic force.
Kq2 9 × 109 × (10–7 )2

FC = = –2 2
= 9 × 10–3 N
2 (10 × 10 )
r
f = µ N = µmg = µ(5 × 10–3 × 10) = µ (5 × 10–2 N)
For equilibrium, we have Fc = f
9 × 10–3
9 × 10–3 = µ (5 × 10–2) ⇒ µ= = 0.18
5 × 10–2
Ex.7 Two identical charge, Q each, are kept at a distance r from each other. A third charge q is placed
on the line joining the above two charges such that all the three charges are in equilibrium.
What is the magnitude, sign and position of the charge q ?
Sol. Suppose the three charges be placed in the manner, as shown in fig.
The charge q will be in equilibrium if the forces exerted on it by the r
x
charges at A and C are equal and opposite. A B C
Q q Q
Qq Qq
k. = k. or x = (r – x)
2 2
x2 (r − x)2
r
or x = r – x or x=
2
Since the charge at A is repelled by the similar charge at C, so it will be in equilibrium if it is attracted
by the charge q at B, i.e., the sign of charge q should be opposite to that of charge Q.
∴ Force of repulsion between charges at A and C
= Force of attraction between charges at A and B
Q.q Q.Q Q
k 2
=k or q=
(r / 2) r2 4
Ex.8 Two point charges +4e and +e are fixed a distance ‘a’ apart. Where should a third point charge
q be placed on the line joining the two charges so that it may be in equilibrium ? In which case
the equilibrium will be stable and in which unstable.
Sol. Suppose the three charges are placed as shown in fig. +4e +q +e
Let the charge q be positive. F2

F1
x a–x
For the equilibrium of charge +q, we must have
Force of repulsion F1 between + 4e and +q = Force of repulsion F2 between + e and +q
1 4e × q 1 e×q
or 2
=
4πε0 x 4πε0 (a − x)2
or 4(a – x)2 = x2
or 2(a – x) = ± x
2a
∴ x= or 2a.
3
As the charge q is placed between +4e and +e, so only x = 2a/3 is possible. Hence for equilibrium, the
charge q must be placed at a distance 2a/3 from the charge +4e.
We have considered the charge q to be positive.
If we displace it slightly towards charge e, from the equilibrium position, then F1 will decrease and F2
will increase and a net force (F2 – F1) will act on q towards left i.e., towards the equilibrium position.
Hence the equilibrium of position q is stable.

Now if we take charge q to be negative, the force F1 and F2 will be attractive, as shown in fig.
+4e –q +e
F1 F2
x a–x
The charge –q will still be in equilibrium at x = 2a/3. However, if we displace charge – q slightly towards
right, then F1 will decrease and F2 will increase. A net force (F2 – F1) will act on –q towards right i.e.,
away from the equilibrium position. So the equilibrium of the negative q will be unstable.
Ex.9 Two ‘free’ point charges +4e and +e are placed a distance ‘a’ apart. Where should a third point
charge –q be placed between them such that the entire system may be in equilirbium ? What
should be the magnitude and sign of q ? What type of a equilibrium will it be ?
Sol. Suppose the charges are placed as shown in fig.
As the charge +e exerts repulsive force F on charge +4e, so for the equilibrium of charge + 4e, the
charge –q must exert attraction F′ on +4e. This requires the charge q to be negative.
For equilibrium of charge +4e,
F = F′ +4e –q +e
1 4e × e 1 4e × q F F' F1 F2
= . x
4πε0 a2 4πε0 x2 a–x
a
ex2
or q=
a2
For equilibrium of charge –q,
F1 between +4e and –q
F2 between + e and – q
1 4e × e 1 e×q
2
=
4πε0 x 4πε0 (a − x)2
or x2 = 4(a – x)2 ∴ x = 2a/3
ex2 e 4a2 4e
Hence q = 2
= 2
. =
a a 9 9
Ex.10 A charge Q is to be divided in to two smalll objects. What should be the value of the charge on
the objects so that the force between the objects will be maximum.
Sol. Let one body have charge q and other hence Q – q
Kq(Q – q)
Here force between the charges F =
r2 q Q–q
dF
For F to be maximum =0 r
dq
d  KqQ Kq2 
 – 2  = 0
dq  r2 r 
KQ 2Kq Q
– =0 ⇒ q=
r2 r2 2
Thus we have to divide charges equally on the objects.

Ex.11 Two identical positive point charges Q each are fixed apart at a distance 2a. A point charge q
lies mid way between the fixed charges. Show that
(i) For small displacement (relative to a) along line joining the fixed charges, the charge q
executes SHM if it is +ve and
(ii) For small lateral displacement, it executes SHM if it is –ve. Compare the frequencies of
oscillation in the two cases.
Sol. The two situations are shown in figure
(i) Let x be the displacement of the charge +q from +Q q +q +Q
x
the mean position. Now net force acting on the charge
q toward its equilirbium position is (i)
a
KQq KQq
F= – –q
(a – x)2 (a + x)2
+Q x +Q
4KQqax 4KQqax
= ≈ [As x < < a]
(a2 – x2 )2 a4 a (ii)
4KQqx
≈
a3
F 4KQqx
Restoring acceleration, a = =– [– ve sign shows restoring tendency]
m ma3
a = –ω2x [where m is the mass of the charge]
As acceleration is directly proportional to displacement, hence the motion is SHM. Its time period T1 is
given by
2π
T1 =
ω
 ma3  π ∈0 ma3
T1 = 2π  4QqK  = 2π qQ ...(1)
 
(ii) Restoring force on –q toward Q is given by
2KQq x 2KQq 2KQqx
. ≈
F = (a2 + x2 ) = 2 2 3/2 [As x << a]
(a + x2 )
2
(a + x ) a3
F 2KQq
Restoring acceleration a = =– x
m ma3
a = –ω2x
Hence the motion is SHM. Its time period T2 is igven by
2π
T2 =
ω
 ma3  2π ∈0 ma3
T2 = 2π   = 2π ...(2)
 2QqK  qQ
n1 T
Now, = 2 = 2
n2 T1
Ex.12 Two particles A and B having charges q and 2 q respectively are placed on a smooth table with
a separation d. A third particle C is to be clamped on the table in such a way that the particles
A and B remain at rest on the table under electrical forces. What should be the charge on C and
where should it be clamped ?

+q –Q +2q
A C
B
Sol. x
d
For the charges to be in equilibrium forces should be balanced on A as well as on B.
Balancing forces on A
Kq(2q) +q
FAB
FAB = FAC
d2
A
KqQ 2q Q
FAC = 2 or 2
=
x d x2
2qx2
or Q= ...(1)
d2
Balancing force on B
2Kq(Q) +2q
F BC
FBC = 2 F AB
(d – x)
B
2Kq(Q) Kq(2q)
or =
(d – x)2 d2
(Q) q
or =
(d – x)2 d2
Solving equation (1) and (2) we get
2qx2 q
= (d – x)2
d2 d2
or 2x2 = (d – x)2
or 2x2 = d2 + x2 – 2xd
or x2 + 2xd – d2 = 0
or x = ( 2 – 1) d or – d (1 + 2)
The negative value implies that the particle C will lie toward left of A at a distance ( 2 – 1) d from A
(as x was measured from A)
For the position x = x1 = ( 2 – 1) d. Q = Q1 = – q(6 – 2)
and for x = x2 = – d ( 2 + 1) Q = Q2 = – q (6 + 4 2 )
Thus be two possibilities are shown in figure

Q1 Q2
A B
or b
A C B x2
x
d

Ex.13 Two identical pitch balls are charged by rubbing against each other. They are suspended from
a horizontal rod through two strings of length 20 cm each. The separation between the
suspension points being 5 cm. In equilibrium the separation between the balls is 3 cm. Find the
mass of each ball and the tension in the string. The charge on each ball has magnitude 2 × 10–8 C.
Sol. As the balls are rubbed against each other they will acquire equal and opposite charges. The FBD of
left ball is shown in figure which shows all the forces acting on ball in equilibrium position.
5cm
T
θ
θ
kq2
20cm
r2
3cm
mg
q = –2 × 10–8C q = 2 × 10–8C
Here for equilibrium of each bob. we have
kq2
T sin θ = ...(1)
r2
T cos θ = mg ...(2)
kq2 1 K(2 × 10–8 )2

or tan θ = or =
r2 mg (20)2 – 12 (3 × 10–2 )2 m × 10
or m = 7.96 gm
From equation (2)
mg 7.96 × 10–3 × 10 × 20
T= = = 7.72 × 10–2 N
cos θ (20)2 – 1
Ex.14 A particle A having a charge q = 5 × 10–7 C is fixed on a vertical wall. A second particle B of mass
100 g and having equal charge is suspended by a silk thread of length 30 cm from the wall. The
point of suspension is 30 cm above the particle A. Find the angle of thread with vertical when it
stays in equilibrium.
Sol. The situation shown in figure
Here the forces acting on bob B can be shown as 30
FBD of B is θ cm
30cm
Using Lami's theorem, we get

T Kq 2
π/2− θ/2
mg F F=
= ( AB )2
 π θ  sin(π – θ) B
sin  + 
2 2
r θ
mg Kq2 A
=
or θ θ q = 5 × 10–7C mg
cos 2 × 0.30 × sin × sin θ
2 2
T π θ
mg Kq2 +
= 2 2 F
or θ θ θ θ
cos 0.60 sin × 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2
π−θ B
2
θ Kq
or sin2 =
2 2mg(0.60)
On solving we get θ = 17° mg

2.2 Coloumb's law in a medium :

(i) Relative Permittivity
When two charges are placed in vacuum or when the same set of charges are placed in a medium, the
net force experienced by the charges will be different. The effect of presence of medium is accounted
in the proportionality constant K. This electrostatic constant K is defined as
1
K= where ∈ = ∈0 ∈r
4π ∈
where ∈ = absolute permittivity of medium
∈0 = permittivity of free space. having a constant value = 8.85 × 10–12 coul2/N-m2
∈
∈r =
∈0 = relative permittivity of medium with respect to free space, also termed as dielectric constant.
1 N – m2
For free space ∈r = 1 and K = = 9 × 109
4π ∈0 coul2
(ii) Force dependency on Medium

We can say that when two charges are placed in vacuum (or air) the force experienced by the charges
can be given as
1 q1q2
Fair =
4π ∈0 r 2
When these charges are submerged in a medium, having dielectric constant ∈r, the force becomes
1 q1q2
Fmed = 4π ∈ ∈ 2
0 r r
Fair
or Fmed = ∈ as ∈r > 1 ⇒ Fmed < Fair
r
Ex.15 Two identically charged spheres are suspended by

strings of equal length. The strings make an angle of
30° with each other. When suspended in a liquid of 30°
density 0.8 gm/cc the angle remains same. What is
the dielectric constant of liquid. Density of sphere 15°
= 1.6 gm/cc
Sol. When set up shown in figure is in air, we have
F
tan 15° =
mg
When set up is immersed in the medium as shown in figure, 30°
the electric force experienced by the ball will reduce and
F
will be equal to ∈ and the effective F
r
∈r
 ρ 
gravitational force will become mg 1 – ρ   ρ 
 s  mgeff = mg1– e 
 ρs 
F
Thus we have tan 15° =
 ρ 
mg ∈r 1 – 
 ρ s 
1
∈r = =2
ρ
1–
ρs

Ex.16 Find the total force on charge q due to a charge rod λc / m

having linear charge density λ C/m placed as shown q
in figure. ++++++++
λc / m λdx = dq
q kq.λdx l a
dF =
dx x2
Sol.
l a
x
a+ a+
kq' λ.dx  1 1 1 
force F = ∫ dF = ∫
a
x2
= kqλ – 
 x a
= kq λ  − 
a a + 
3. ELECTRIC FIELD :
The figure shown a charge q is lying in free space.
F F
q q'
Now a charge q′ is brought near it.

By columb's law we know that the charge q experiences a force and it exerts an equal force on q′.
How does q become aware of the presence of q′ ???
(We don't expect q to have sensory organs just as we have)
The answer is electric field !!!
Electric field is the space surrounding an electric charge q in which another charge q′ experiences a
(electrostatic) force of attraction, or repulsion.
q –q
Electric field for a positive charge Electric field for a negative charge
The direction of electric field is radially outwards for a positive charge and is radially inwards for a
negative charge as shown in the figure above. There are some points always to be kept in mind. These
are
(1) Electric field can be defined as a space surrounding a charge in which another static charge experiences
a force on it.
(2) In a region electric field is said to exist if an electric force is exerted on a static charge placed at that
point.
(3) It is important to note that with every charge particle, there is an electric field associated which
extends up to infinity.
(4) No charged particle experiences force due to its own electric field.
F
Ep = N/c
q0
A very small positive charge which does not produce its significant electric field is called a test charge.
Thus electric field strength at point can be defined generally as "Electric field strength at only point in
space to be the electrostatic force per unit charge on a test charge."

If a charge q0 placed at a point in electric field, experiences a net force F on it, then electric field
strength at that point can be

F
or E= ....(1) [q0 → test charge]
q0

(a) Electric Field Strength due to Point Charge :

As discussed earlier, if we find electric field due to a point charge at a distance x from it. Its magnitude
can be given as
Kq
E= ...(2)
x2
(b) Vector Form of Electric field due to a Point Charge : E
As shown in figure, the direction of electric field strength
p
at point P is along the direction of x . Thus the value of E
x
can be written as
Kq
ˆ
E = 2 .x q
x
Kq
or E = 3 .x ...(3)
x
It should be noted that the expression in equation (2) and (3) are only valid for point charges. We can
not find electric field strength due to charged extended bodies by concentrating their whole charge at
geometric centre and using the result of a point charge.
Ex.17 Four particles each having a charge q are placed on the four vertices of a regular pentagon. The
distance of each corner from the centre is 'a'. Find the electric field at the centre of pentagon.
q
Sol. We can calculate the electric field at centre by the
superposition method i.e., by adding vectorially the electric
field due to all the 4 charges at centre which will come out →
to be : → F net
q → F 2
→ → → → → F 1
Kq
F centre = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + F 4 = 2 →
a F3
In the direction of the vector with no charge as shown in a →
figure shown. F4
Alternate :
q q
Consider pentagon with charges on all vector.
Now, E.F. at centre must be zero due to symmetry
q
→
– F net
q
q q
→
F net
q q
(a) (b)
Thus E.F. due to 4 charge + E. F. due to 1 charge = 0

or E.F. due to 4 charges = – E.F. due to 1 charge
Where – sign denotes that both the forces are in opposite direction.
Kq
Thus E.F. dut to 4 charges = – E.F. due to 1 charge =
a2
[Another good example of superposition theorem]

Ex.18 Four equal positive charges each of value Q are arranged at the four corners of a square of side
a. A unit positive charge mass m is placed at P, at a height h above the centre of the square.
What should be the value of Q in order that this unit charge is in equilibrium.
Sol. The situation is shown in figure (a)
F cos θ
P F
θ
P F sin θ
l
B C θ
+ a2
2
Q Q
h2
h
a
A
D
a A O
Q Q a/ 2
(a)
(b)
Force experienced by unit positive charge placed at P due to a charge Q at A is given by
K(Q × 1)
F=
 2 a2 
 h + 
 2 
Similarly, equal forces act on unit positive charge at P due to charge at B, C and D. When these forces
are resolved in horizontal and vertical directions, the horizontal component (F sin θ) cancel each other
and the net vertical force is 4F cos θ.
4 KQ
Thus net upward force = .cos θ
 2 a2 
 h + 
 2 
For the equilibrium of unit positive charge at P,

Upward force = Weight of unit charge
4 KQ
.cos θ = mg
 2 a2 
 h + 
 2 
From figure (b)
 
 h 
cos θ =  
2 2
 (h + a / 2) 
4K Qh
3 /2
= mg
 2 a2 
or  h + 
 2 
3 /2
mg  2 a2 
or Q= h + 
4kh  2 

Ex.19 A particle of mass 9 × 10–31 kg and a negative charge of 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb projected horizontally
with a veloicty of 105 m/s into a region between two infinite horizontal parallel plates of metal.
The distance between the plates is 0.3 cm and the particle enter 0.1 cm below the top plate.
The top and bottom plates are connected respectively to the positive and negative terminals
of a 30 volt battery. Find the component of the velocity of the particle just before it hits one on
the plates.
Sol. We known that between two parallel plates electric field can be given as
V
E=
d
Here V = 30 volt and d = 0.3 cm = 3 × 10–3 m
30
Thus we have E= = 104 N/C
3 × 10–3
Force on the particle of negative charge moving between the plates
F = e × E = 1.6 × 10– 19 × 104 = 1.6 × 10–15 newton
The direction of force will be towards the positive plate i.e., upward.
Now acceleration of the particle is
eE
a=
m
or a = (1.6 × 10–15 ) / (9 × 10–31)
or a = 1.77 × 1015 m/sec2
As the electric intensity E is acting in the vertical direction the horizontal velocity v of the particle
remains same. if y is the displacement of the particle, in upward direction, we have
1 2
y= at
2
Here, y = 0.1 cm = 10–3 m, a = 1.77 × 1015 m/sec2
1
Thus 10–3 = × (1.77 × 10–15) (t2)
2
Solving we get t = 1.063 × 10–10 second
component of velocity in the direction of field is given by
vy = at
= (1.77 × 1015) (1.063 × 10–10)
= 1.881 × 104 m/s.
Ex.20 A particle having a charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C enters midway between the plates of a parallel plate
condenser. The initial velocity of particle is parallel to the plates. A potential difference of 300
volts is applied to the capacitor plates. If the length of the capacitor plates is 10 cm and they
are separated by 2cm. Calculate the greatest intial velocity for which the particle will not be
able to come out of the plates. The mass of the particle is 12 × 10–24 kg.
10cm
Here we know the electric field can be given as
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
V 300
= 15000 v / m
E=
d
=
2 / 100 m u
q E
As the particle does not come out, its maximum y=1cm
deflection in vertical direction can be
y = 1 cm = 10–2 m

2
1 1 qE  l  qE
we known that y = at2 = . [As a = and t = ]
2 2 m  u  m u
1 qE 2
or u2 = . .x
2 my
2
1 (1.6 × 10–19 )(15000)  1  8
=   = 10
2 (12 × 10–24 )(10–2 )  10 
u = 104 m/s
Ex.21 A uniform electric field E is created between two parallel charged plates as shown in figure
shown. An electron enter the field symmetrically between the plates with a speed u. The length
of each plate is , find the angle of deviation of the path of the electron as it comes out of the
field.
Here we know in X-direction speed of electron remains uniform
In X direction
uX = u
+ + + + + + + + +
In Y direction vy initial = 0 θ
Acceleration in y-direction of electron is E
eE
a=
m
u
vyfifnal = uyintial + at
– – – – – – – – –
 eE   
vy =    y
 m u
vy eE
tan θ = = u
vx mu
x
 eE 
θ = tan–1  2 
 mu 
Ex.22 A block of mass m containing a net positive charge q is placed on a smooth horizontal table
which terminates in a vertical wall as shown in figure. The distance of the block from the wall is
d. A horizontal electric field 'E' towards right is switched on. Assuming elastic collision (if any)
find the time period of resulting oscillatory motion. Is it a simple harmonic motion.
qE
Sol. Here acceleration of block is a =
m
Time taken by block to reach wall d
1  qE  2
t
2  m 
d= E
2dm m
t=
qE

Velocity at the time of impact is
2qEd
v= 2ad or v =
m
When the block will rebound time taken by block in coming to rest.
2qEd  qE 
0= – t
m m
2qEd
m = 2md
t= qE qE
m
Thus time period of oscillation of block is
2md
T = 2t = 2
qE
Since the restoring force is independent of x, the displacement from mean position, this is not a simple
harmonic motion
Ex.23 Find out the time period of oscillation when the bob is
slightly shift through an angle θ from it mean
position.
E
m,q
θ
T
Sol. qE
θ
mg
2
T  qE  l
geff = M.D. = (mg)2 + (qE)2 = g2 +   ⇒ T = 2π
m m geff
E
Ex.24
u
m,q
Find umin so that particle will complete vertical circle

Sol. Applying force balance

v mv2/R
mv2
T + mg + qE =
R
but for umin T = 0 mg+qE
E
mv2
∴ mg + qE = m,q
R
u
using energy conservation
wmg + wT + wE.f = ∆k
1 1
– mg.2R + 0 – qE. 2R = mv2 – mu2
2 2
– 4 R (mg + qE) = R (mg + qE) – mu2
 qE 
u = 5g + R
 m 
3.1 Graph of electric field due to binary charge configuration
E E
1. q 2. –q
q 4q
3. –q –q 4. –4q
q
3.2 Electric field Strength at a General Point due to a Uniformly Charged Rod :
As shown in figure, if P is any general point in the surrounding of rod, to find electric field strength at
P, again we consider an element on rod of length dx at a distance x from point O as shown in figure.
θ1 θ 2
O
L

Now if dE be the electric field at P due to the element, then it can be given as
Kdq dEcos θ
dE = 2 2
(x + r ) dE
θ
Q
Here dq = dx
L
dEsin θ
Now we resolve electric field in components.
Electric field strength in x-direction due to dq at P is θ
dEx = dE sin θ
Kdq r
or dEx = 2 2
sin θ
(x + r )
KQ sin θ
= dx dx
L(x2 + r2 ) x
Here we have x = r tan θ
and dx = r sec2 θdθ
KQ r sec2 θdθ
Thus we have dEx = sin θ
L r2 sec2 θ
KQ
Strength = sin θdθ
Lr
Net electric field strength due to dq at point P in x-direction is
+θ1
KQ
Ex = ∫ dEx =
Lr ∫ sin θdθ
–θ2
KQ +θ
or Ex = – cos θ –θ1
Lr  2
KQ
or Ex = cos θ2 – cos θ1 
Lr 
Similarly, electric field strength at point P due to dq in y-direction is
dEy = dE cos θ
KQdx
or dEy = × cos θ
L(r 2 + x2 )
Again we have x = r tan θ
and dx = r sec2 θ dθ
KQ r sec2 θ
Thus we have dEy = L cos θ × dθ = KQ cos θdθ
r2 sec2 θ Lr
Net electric field strength at P due to dq in y-direction is
+θ1
KQ
Ey = ∫ dEy =
Lr ∫ cos θdθ
–θ2
KQ +θ
or Ey =  + sin θ –θ1

Lr 2
KQ
or Ey = sin θ1 + sin θ2 
Lr 

Thus electric field at a general point in the surrounding of a uniformly charged rod which subtend
angles θ1 and θ2 at the two corners of rod can be given as
KQ kλ
in ||-direction Ex = (cos θ2 – cos θ1 ) = (cos θ2 – cos θ1 )
Lr r
KQ kλ
in ⊥ -direction Ey = (sin θ1 + sin θ2 ) = (sin θ1 + sin θ2 )
Lr r
r is the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire
θ1 and θ2 should be taken in opposite sense
Ex.25 In the given arrangement of a charged square frame find field at centre. The linear charged
density is as shown in figure
2Kλ 2 2Kλ
Sol. E.F. due to 1 = (sin 45° + sin 45°)iˆ = î

–3λ
4 2Kλ 3
E.F. due to 2 = – î

λ 1 2 2λ
6 2Kλ
E.F. due to 3 = ĵ

4
8 2Kλ 4λ
E.F. due to 4 = ĵ

Enet = Edue to 1 + Edue to 2 + Edue to 3 + Edue to 4
 2 2Kλ 4 2Kλ   6 2Kλ 8 2Kλ 

=  –  î +  +  ˆj
   
–2 2Kλ ˆ 14 2Kλ ˆ A
= i+ j

l l
Ex.26 Given an equilateral triangle with side . Find E at the λ λ*
centroid. The linear charge density is as shown in figure. C
–λ
B l C
Sol. The electric field strength due to the three rods AB, BC and CA are as shown in figure
y
–2Kλ
EAC = (2 sin30°)(cos θî + sin θˆj)
/ 3 A
2Kλ
EAB = (2 sin30°)(cos θî – sin θˆj)
/ 3
2Kλ λ λ
EBC = ˆ
(2 sin30°)j
/ 3 x
C 30°
Enet = EAC + EAB + EBC
–λ ˆ
Enet = j B C
2π ∈0 –λ

3.3 E l e c t r i c f i e l d (l >> r)
d u e t o i n f i n i t e w i r e
Here we have to find the electric field at point p due to the given
infinite wire. Using the formula learnt in above section which
kλ
E|| =
r
( cos θ2 − cos θ1 )
kλ P
E⊥ =
r
( sin θ2 + sin θ1 ) r
π
For above case, θ1 = θ2 =
2 Wire
kλ 2kλ
∴ Enet at P = (1 + 1) =
r r
3.4 Electric field due to semi infinite wire
For this case

π
θ1 = , θ2 = 0º
2
kλ kλ
∴ Er = ; E| | = r P
r r E1
Wire
2 kλ
Enet at P = s Enet
r E11
Ex.27 Consider the system shown below

If the charge is slightly displaced perpendicular to the wire from its equilibrium position then
find out the time period of SHM.
P
q,m
d
λ
Sol : At equilbrium position weight of the particle is balanced by the electric force
⇒ mg = qE
2 kλ
mg = q ....(1)
d
Now if the particle is slightly displaced by a distance xλ (where x << d) net force on the body,
2 kλ q
Fnet = − mg
d+ x
from (1)
2 kλ q 2 kλ q − 2 kλ q x
Fnet = − =
d+ x d d(d + x)
− 2 kλqx − 2 kλqx
As x << d Fnet ≈ ⇒ a=−
d2 md2
for SHM
a = – ω2x
2 kλ q 2 kλ q
∴ ω2 = 2 ⇒ ω=
md md2
2π md2
T = = 2π
ω 2kλq

3.5 Electric field due to Uniformly Charged Ring :

Case - I : At its Centre
Here by symmetry we can say that electric field strength at centre due to every small segment on ring
is cancelled by the electric field at centre due to the segment exactly opposite to it. As shown in
figure. The electric field strength at centre due to segment AB is cancelled by that due to segment CD.
This net electric field strength at the centre of a uniformly charged ring is zero
B
A + + + + + +
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
C
+ + R
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ + + + + +
D
C
Case II : At a Point on the Axis of Ring

For this look at the figure. There we'll find the electric field strength at point P due to the ring which is
situated at a distance x from the ring centre. For this we consider a small section of length dl on ring
as shown. The charge on this elemental section is
Q
dq = d [Q = total charge of ring]
2πR
dl
+ + +
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
α P
dE cos α
α
dE
+ +
dE sin α
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
Q
Due to the element dq, electric field strength dE at point P can be given as
Kdq
dE =
(R 2 + x2 )
The component of this field strength dE sin α which is normal to the axis of ring will be cancelled out
due to the ring section opposite to dl. The component of electric field strength along the the axis of
ring dE cosα due to all the sections will be added up. Hence total electric field strength at point P due
to the ring is
Ep = ∫ dE cos α
2 πR
Kdq x
= ∫
0
(R + x )2 2
×
R + x2
2
2kq
3 3R2
2 πR
KQx
or Ep = ∫
0
2πR(R 2 + x2 )3 / 2
dl
–
R
2
2 πR R
KQx
=
2πR(R 2 + x2 )3 / 2 ∫
0
d 2
KQx 2KQ
[2πR] –
= 2 2 3 /2 3 3R2
2πR(R + x )
KQx
EP =
(R + x2 )3 / 2
2
Ex.28 A thin wire ring of radius r carries a charge q. Find the magnitude of the electric field strength on
the axis of the ring as function of distance l from centre. Investigate the obtained function at l
>> r. Find the maximum strength magnitude and the corresponding distance .
Sol. See figure (Modify for maximum E)
(r 2 +
We know due to ring electric field strength at a 2)
distance from its centre on its axis can be given as r
P E
Kq
E= ....(1) O
(2 + r2 )3 / 2
1 q
For > > r, we have E = 4π ∈ × 2
0
Thus the ring behaves like a point charge.
dE
For Emax = O . From equation we get
d
 2 3 2 
(r + 2 )3 / 2.1 – (r + 2 )1 / 2 × 2 
dE q  2
=  =0
d 4π ∈0  (r2 + 2 )3 
 
3 2
or (r2 + 2)3/2 = (r + 2 )1 / 2 × 22
2
r
Solving we get, = ....(2)
2
Substituting the value of in equation (1) we get
kq(r / 2) 2kq
E= =
2 2
(r + r / 2) 3 /2
3 3 r2

Ex.29 A thin fixed ring of radius 1 meter has a positive charge 1 × 10–5 coulomb uniformly distributed
over it. a particle of mass 0.9 gm and having a negative charge of 1 × 10–6 coulomb is placed on
the axis at distance of 1 cm from the centre of the ring. Shown that the motion of the negatively
charged particle as approximately simple harmonic. Calculate the time period of oscillations.
Sol. Let us first find the force on a – q charge placed at +Q+
+
a distance x from centre of ring along its axis.
+ +
+ + + + +
Figure shows the respective situation. R
+ + + + + +
In this case force on particle P is F P
KQx x –q
FP = – qE = – q. 2 2 3 /2
(x + R )
+ +
For small x, x << R, we can neglect x, compared to R, we have
+
+
+ +
KqQx
F=–
R3
KqQ
Acceleration of particle is x a=–
mR 3
[Here we have x = 1 cm and R = 1 m hence x << R can be used]
This shows that particle P excutes SHM, now comparing this acceleration with a = –ω2x
KqQ
We get ω=
mR 3
2π mR 3 0.9 × 10–3 × (1)3 π

Thus time period of SHM is T = = 2π = 2π = sec onds
ω KqQ 9 × 109 × 10–5 × 10–6 5
Ex.30 A system consists of a thin charged wire ring of radius R and a very long uniformly charged
thread oriented along the axis of the ring with one of its ends coinciding with the centre of the
ring. The total charge of the ring is equal to q. The charge of the thread (per unit length) is
e q uλ. Find the interaction force between the ring and the thread.
a l t o

Sol. Force df on the wire = dq E
+
Kqx +
.λdx
=
(x2 + R 2 )3 / 2 + λ coul / m
+
∞ + dx
xdx
F = Kqλ ∫ (R 2
+ x2 )3 / 2
+
+ dq = λdx
0 x +
λq +
F = 4π ∈ R +
0
q + R
Alternate :
Due to wire electric field on the points of ring in y-direction is
Kλ
Ey =
R
Thus force on ring due to wire is
Kλ Kqλ λq
q = =
R R 4π ∈0 R
and Ex = 0 [As cancelled out]
(Here x components of forces on small elements of rings are cancelled by the x component of diametrically
opposite elements.)

Ex.31 A thin half-ring of radius R = 20 cm is uniformly charged with a total charge q = 0.70 nC. Find the
magnitude of the electric field strength at the curvature centre of this half-ring.
Sol. The situation is shown in figure ++
+ +
Here the semicircular wire subtend an angle π at the centre, +
+
we known that the electric field strength due to a circular
+
arc subtending an angle φ at at it centre can be given as dθ
+ + +

θ E
2Kq sin φ / 2 2Kq O
E= 2 = [Here φ = π] X
φR πR 2
+ +

dE
q
+
+
=
2π2 ∈0 R 2 +
+ + +
Substituting the value, we get
7 × 10–10
= = 100 V/m
2 × (3.14) × (8.85 × 10–12 ) × (0.2)2
2
3.6 Electric field Strength due to a Uniformly Surface Charged Disc :

If there is a disc of radius R, charged on its surface with surface charge density σ coul/m2, we wish to
find electric field strength due to this disc at a distance x from the centre of disc on its axis at point P
shown in figure.
σ coul / m2
dy
x
P dE
To find electric field at point P due to this disc, we consider an elemental ring of radius y and width dy
in the disc as shown in figure. Now the charge on this elemental ring dq can be given as
dq = σ 2π y dy [Area of elemental ring ds = 2πy dy]
Now we know that electric field strength due to a ring of radius R. Charge Q at a distance x from its
centre on its axis can be given as
KQx
E= 2 [As done earlier]
(x + R 2 )3 / 2
Here due to the elemental ring electric field strength dE at point P can be given as
Kdqx Kσ2πydyx
dE = 2 2 3 /2 =
(x + y ) (x2 + y2 )3 / 2
Net electric field at point P due to this disc is given by integrating above expression from O to R as
R
Kσ2πxydy
E= ∫ dE = ∫ (x
0
2
+ y2 )3 / 2
R
R  1 
2y dy
= Kσπx ∫ (x 2
+ y2 )3 / 2

= 2Kσπx –
x + y2
2


0  0
σ  x 
E = 2 ∈ 1 – 

0  x2 + R 2 

Case : (i) If x >> R
–1 / 2
σ x σ  R2 
E= [1 – ]= [1 – 1 + 2  ]
2ε0 2ε0  x 
R2 
x +1
x2
σ 1 R2
= [1 – 1 + + higher order terms]
2ε0 2 x2
σ R2 σπR 2 Q
= = =
4ε0 x2
4πε0 x2 4πε0 x2
i.e. behaviour of the disc is like a point charge.

Case (ii) : If x << R
σ σ
E= [1 – 0] =
2ε0 2ε0
i.e. behaviour of the disc is like infinite sheet.
3.7 Electric Field Strength due to a Uniformly charged Hollow Hemispherical Cup :
Figure shows a hollow hemisphere, uniformly charged with surface charge density σ coul/m2. To find
electric field strength at its centre C, we consider an elemental ring on its surface of angular width dθ
at an angle θ from its axis as shown. The surface area of this ring will be
ds = 2πR sin θ × Rdθ
Charge on this elemental ring is
y
dq = σds = σ. 2πR2 sin θ dθ R sin θ
2
l/m Rdθ
Now due to this ring electric field strength ou
σc
at centre C can be given as
Kdq(R cos θ)
dE = θ dθ
(R sin2 θ + R 2 cos2 θ)3 / 2
2
c x
Kσ.2πR 2 sin θdθ.R cos θ

= dε
R3
= πKσ sin 2θ dθ
π
Net electric field at centre can be obtained by integrating this expression between limits 0 to as
2
π /2 π /2
σ  cos 2θ  σ 1 1  σ
E0 = ∫ dE = πKσ ∫
0
sin 2θdθ =
4 ∈0 – 2 
 0
=
4 ∈0 2 + 2  = 4 ∈
  0

Ex.32 In the given arrangement find the electric field at C in the figure (a). Here the U-shaped wire is
uniformly charged with linear charge density λ.
1 2
Kλ Kλ
C C = Ex1 E x2 =
a a a
Kλ Kλ
= E y1 = Ey2
a a
(a) 2Kλ
Ey 3 =
a
3
(b)
Sol. The electric field due to the three parts of U-shaped wire are shown in figure (b). Thus we have
→
E net = (Ex1 + Ex2 )iˆ + (Ey1 + E y2 + Ey3 )iˆ
→  Kλ Kλ  ˆ  2Kλ Kλ Kλ  ˆ
E net =  – i + – – j=0
 a a   a a a 
Thus E.F. due to given arrangement at C = 0
4. CONSERVATIVE FORCE
A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body depends only
on the initial and final positions of the body and not on the nature of path followed between the initial
and final positions.
m m m
(f) (f) (f)
(i) m (i) m (i) m
(a) (b) (c)
Consider a body of mass m being raised to a height h vertically upwards as shown in above figure. The
work done is mgh. Suppose we take the body along the path as in (b). The work done during horizontal
motion is zero. Adding up the works done in the two vertical path of the paths, we get the result mgh
once again. Any arbitrary path like the one shown in (c) can be broken into elementary horizontal and
vertical portions. Work done along the horizontal path is zero. The work done along the vertical parts
add up to mgh. Thus we conclude that the work done in raising a body against gravity is independent
of the path taken. It only depends upon the intial and final positions of the body. We conclude from this
discussion that the force of gravity is a conservative force.

Examples of Conservative forces.

(i) Gravitational force, not only due to Earth due in its general form as given by the universal law of
gravitation, is a conservative force.
(ii) Elastic force in a stretched or compressed spring is a conservative force.
(iii) Electrostatic force between two electric charges is a conservative force.
(iv) Magnetic force between two magnetic poles is a conservative forces.
Forces acting along the line joining the centres of two bodies are called central forces. Gravitational
force and Electrosatic forces are two important examples of central forces. Central forces are
Properties of Conservative forces
• Work done by or against a conservative force depends only on the initial and final positions of
the body.
• Work done by or against a conservative force does not depend upon the nature of the path between
initial and final positions of the body.
If the work done by a force in moving a body from an initial location to a final location is independent of
the path taken between the two points, then the force is conservative.
• Work done by or against a conservative force in a round trip is zero.
If a body moves under the action of a force that does no total work during any round trip, then the
force is conservative; otherwise it is non-conservative.
The concept of potential energy exists only in the case of conservative forces.
• The work done by a conservative force is completely recoverable.
Complete recoverability is an important aspect of the work of a conservative force.
• Work done by conservative forces
Ist format : (When constant force is given)

Ex.33 Calculate the work done to displace the particle from (1, 2) to (4, 5). if F = 4 î + 3ˆj

Sol. dw = F.d r ( dr = dx i + dyj + dzk )
dw = ( 4 î + 3 ĵ ).(dx î + dy ĵ + dzk̂ ) ⇒ dw = 4dx + 3dy
w 4 5
∫
0
dw = ∫
1
4dx + ∫ 3dy
2
4
⇒ w = [4 x]1 + [3 y]2
5
w = (16 – 4) + (15 – 6) ⇒ w = 12 + 9 = 21 Joule
II format : (When F is given as a function of x, y, z)

If F = Fx i + Fy j + Fzk
then
dw = (Fx i + Fy j + Fzk ).( dx i + dyj + dzk ) ⇒ dw = Fxdx + Fydy + FZdz

Ex.34 An object is displaced from position vector r1 = (2 î + 3ˆj)m to r2 = (4 î + 6ˆj)m under a force

F = (3x 2 î + 2yˆj)N . Find the work done by this force.

r2
rf r2
∫ (3x dx + 2ydy) = [x
2 3
+ y 2 ](( 42,,36)) = 83 J Ans.
Sol.
∫
ri
∫
W = F.dr = (3 x 2 î + 2yĵ ) • (dx î + dy ĵ + dzk̂ ) =

r1

r1

IIIrd format
(perfect differential format)
Ex.35 If F = y i + xj then find out the work done in moving the particle from position (2, 3) to (5, 6)

Sol. dw = F. ds
dw = ( y i + xj ).( dxi + dyj )

dw = ydx + xdy
Now ydx + xdy = d(xy) (perfect differential equation)
⇒ dw = d(xy)
for total work done we integrate both side
∫ dw = ∫ d( xy)
Put xy = k
then at (2, 3) ki = 2 × 3 = 6
at (5, 6) kf = 5 × 6 = 30
30
30
then w= ∫ dk = [k]
6
6 ⇒ w = (30 – 6) = 24 Joule
4.1 NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES :
A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body depends
upon the path between the initial and final positions.
The frictional forces are non-conservative forces. This is because the work done against friction
depends on the length of the path along which a body is moved. It does not depend only on the initial
and final positions. Note that the work done by fricitional force in a round trip is not zero.
The velocity-dependent forces such as air resistance, viscous force, magnetic force etc., are non

Ex.36 Calculate the work done by the force F = y i to move the particle from (0, 0) to (1, 1) in the
following condition
(a) y = x (b) y = x2
Sol. We know that

dw = F.ds ⇒ dw = ( y i ) .(dx i )
dw = ydx ...(1)
In equation (1) we can calculate work done only when we know the path taken by the particle.
either
y = x or y = x2 so now
(a) when y = x
1 1
∫ dw = ∫ xdx 0
⇒ w=
2
Joule
(b) when y = x2
1
1
∫ dw = ∫ x dx
2
⇒ w= Joule
0 3

Difference between conservative and Non-conservative forces

S.
Conservative forces Non-Conservative forces
No.
Work done does not depend
1 Work done depends on path.
upon path
Work done in round trip is Work done in a rou nd trip is
2
zero. not zero.
Forces are velocity-
3 Central in nature. depen dent and retarding in
nature.
When only a conservati ve

force acts within a system,
the kinetic energy and Work done against a non-
4 potential energy can change. conservative force may be
However th eir sum, the dissipated as heat energy.
mech anical energy of the
system, does not change.
Work done is completel y Work done is not completely

5
recoverable. recoverable.
5. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY :

(a) Electrostatic Potential Energy :
Potential energy of a system of particles is defined only in conservative fields. As electric field is also
conservative, we define potential energy in it. Before proceeding further, we should keep in mind the
following points, which are useful in understanding potential energy in electric fields.
(i) Doing work implies supply of energy
(ii) Energy can neither be transferred nor be transformed into any other form without doing work
(iii) Kinetic energy implies utilization of energy where as potential energy implies storage of energy
(iv) Whenever work is done on a system of bodies, the supplied energy to the system is either used in
form of KE of its particles or it will be stored in the system in some form, increases the potential energy
of system.
(v) When all particles of a system are separated far apart by infinite distance there will be no
interaction between them. This state we take as reference of zero potential energy.
Now potential energy of a system of particles we define as the work done in assembling the system in
a given configuration against the interaction forces of particles.
• Electrostatic potential energy is defined in two ways.

(i) Interaction energy of charged particles of a system.
(ii) Self energy of a charged object (will be discussed later)
(b) Electrostatic Interaction Energy :

Electrostatic interaction energy of a system of charged particles is defined as the external work
required to assemble the particles from infinity to a given configuration.
When some charged particles are at infinite separation, their potential energy is taken zero as no
interaction is there between them. When these charges are brought close to a given configuration,
external work is required if the force between these particles is repulsive and energy is supplied to the
system hence final potential energy of system will be positive. If the force between the particles is
attractive work will be done by the system and final potential energy of system will be negative.
Let us take some illustrations to understand this concept in detail.

(c) Interaction Energy of a System of Two Charged Particles :

x
q1 r q2 dx F
Figure shows two +ve charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r. The electrostatic interaction
energy of this system can be given as work done in bringing q2 from infinity to the given separation
from q1. If can be calculated as
r r
→ → Kq1q2
W= ∫
∞
F .dx = –
∞
∫
x2
dx [–ve sign shows that x is decreasing]
Kq1q2
W= =U [Interaction energy]
r
If the two charges here are of opposite sign, the potential energy will be negative as
Kq1q2
U=–
r
Ex.37 Find out speed of particles when separation between them is r.
Released
+q –q
m 2m
2r
Sol. Energy conservation :
kq1q2 1 1 kq q
0− = mv12 + 2mv22 − 1 2
2r 2 2 r
Momentum conservation (as E.F is action-reaction pair)
v1
mv1 = 2mv2 ⇒ v2 =
2
Ex.38 A proton moves from a large distance with a speed u m/s directly towards a free proton originally
at rest. Find the distance of closest approach for the two protons in terms of mass of proton m
and its charge e.
Sol. As here the particle at rest is free to move, when one particle approaches the other, due to electrostatic
repulsion other will also start moving and so the velocity of first particle will decrease while of other will
increase and at closest approach both will move with same velocity. So if v is the common velocity of
each particle at closest approach, then by 'conservation of momentum' of the two protons system.
1
mu = mv + mvi.e., v= u
2
And by conservation of energy
1 1 1 1 e2
mu2 = mv2 + mv2 +
2 2 2 4πε0 r
2
1 u 1 e2 u
⇒ mu2 – m   = [as v = ]
2 2 4πε0 r 2
1 e2 e2
⇒ mu2 = ⇒ r=
4 4πε0r πmε0u2

Ex.39 Two fixed equal positive charges, each of magnitude 5 × 10–5 C are located at points A and B,
separated by a distance of 6 m. An equal and opposite charge moves towards them along the
line COD, the perpendicular bisector of the line AB. The moving charge, when it reaches the
point C at a distance of 4 m from O, has a kinetic energy of 4 joules. Calculate the distance of
the farthest point D which the negative charge will reach before returning towards C.
+q A
3m
–q
D x O 4m C
3m
+q B
Sol. The kinetic energy is lost and converted to electrostatic potential energy of the system as the
negative charge goes from C to D and comes to rest at D instantaneously.
Loss of K.E. = Gain in potential energy
4 = Uf – Ui
 q.q 2q(–q)   q.q 2q(–q) 

or, 4= + – + 
 4πε0 (6)2
4πε0 9 + x2   4πε0 (6)2
4πε0 9 + 16 
 
2q2 1 1 
or, 4=  – 
4πε0  5 9 + x2 
1 1 
or, 4 = 2 × (5 × 10–5)2 × (9 × 109)  5 – 
 9 + x2 
45
or, 4 = 9–
9 + x2
⇒ x = 72 = 8.48 m
5.1 Motion of a Charge Particle and Angular Momentum Conservation :

We know that a system of particles when no external torque acts, the total angular momentum of
system remains conserved. Consider following examples which explains the concept for moving charged
particles.
Ex.40 Figure shows a charge +Q fixed at a position in space. V

From a large distance another charge particle of charge +
+q and mass m is thrown toward +Q with an impact q,m
parameter d as shown with speed v. find d
the distance of closest approach of the two particles.
+
F Q
fixed
+
F v
+ rmin
Sol. q,m
d
+

Here we can see that as +q moves toward +Q, a repulsive force acts on –q radially outward +Q. Here
as the line of action of force passes through the fix charge, no torque act on +q relative to the fix
point charge +Q, thus here we can say that with respect to +Q, the angular momentum of +q must
remain constant. Here we can say that +q will be closest to +Q when it is moving perpendicularly to
the line joining the two charges as shown.
If the closest separation in the two charges is rmin, from conservation of angular momentum we can
write
mvd = mv0 rmin ...(1)
Now from energy conservation, we have
1 1 KqQ
mv2 = mv02 +
2 2 rmin
vd
Here we use from equation (1) v0 =
rmin
1 1 d2 KqQ
or mv2 = mv2 2 + ...(2)
2 2 rmin rmin
Solving equation (2) we'll get the value of rmin.
5.2 Potential Energy for a System of charged Particles :

q1
r3 r2
q2 r1 q3
When more than two charged particles are there in a system, the interaction energy can be given by
sum of interaction energy of all the pairs of particles. For example if a system of three particles having
charges q1, q2 and q3 is given as shown in figure. The total interaction energy of this system can be
given as
Kq1q2 Kq1q3 Kq2q3

U= + +
r3 r2 r1
• Derivation for a system of point charges :

(i) Keep all the charges at infinity. Now bring the charges one by one to its corresponding position
and find work required. PE of the system is algebric sum of all the works.
Let W1 = work done in bringing first charge
W2 = work done in bringing second charge against force due to 1st charge
W3 = work done in bringing third charge against force due to 1st and 2nd charge.
n(n – 1)
PE = W1 + W2 + W3 + .................. (This will contain = nC2 terms)
2
(ii) Method of calculation (to be used in problems)
U = sum of the interaction energies of the charges.
= (U12 + U13 + ........+ U1n) + (U23 + U24 + ..............+U2n) + (U34 + U35 + .........U3n) ........
(iii) Method of calculation useful for symmetrical point charge systems.
Find PE of each charge due to rest of the charges.

If U1 = PE of first charge due to all other charges.

= (U12 + U13 + .........+ U1n)
U2 = PE of second charges due to all other charges.
= (U21 + U23 + ..........+U2n)
U1 + U2 + .....
U = PE of the system =
2
6. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL :
Electric potential is a scalar property of every point in the region of electric field. At a point in electric
field, electric potential is defined as the interaction energy of a unit positive charge.
If at a point in electric field a charge q0 has potential energy U, then electric potential at that point
can be given as
U
V= joule/coulomb
q0
As potential energy of a charge in electric field is defined as work done in bringing the charge from
infinity to the given point in electric field. Similarly we can define electric potential as "work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the given point against the electric forces."
• Properties :
(i) Potential is a scalar quantity, its value may be positive, negative or zero.
joule
(ii) S.I. Unit of potential is volt = and its dimensional formula is [M1L2T–3I–1].
coulomb
(iii) Electric potential at a point is also equal to the negative of the work done by the electric field
in taking the point charge from reference point (i.e. infinity) to that point.
(iv) Electric potential due to a positive charge is always positive and due to negative charge it is
always negative except at infinity. (taking V∞ =0)
(v) Potential decreases in the direction of electric field.
(a) Electric Potential due to a Point Charge in its Surrounding :

We know the region surrounding a charge is electric field.
Thus we can also define electric potential in the surrounding P
of a point charge.
The potential at a point P at a distance x x
from the charge q can be given as
U
Vp = q q
0
Where U is the potential energy of charge q0, if placed at point P, which can be given as
Kqq0
U=
x
Thus potential at point P is
Kq
VP =
x
The above result is valid only for electric potential in the surrounding of a point charge. If we wish to
find electric potential in the surrounding of a charged extended body, we first find the potential due to
an elemental charge dq on body by using the above result and then integrate the expression for the
whole body.
(b) Electric Potential due to a Charge Rod :

Figure shows a charged rod of length L, uniformly charged with a charge Q. Due to this we will find
electric potential at a point P at a distance r from one end of the rod shown in figure shown.

x
dx
Q+ + + + + + + + ++ ++
r P
L
For this we consider an element of width dx at a distance x from the point P. Charge on this element is
Q
dq =dx
L
The potential dV due to this element at point P can be given by using the result of a point charge as
Kdq KQ
dV = = dx
x Lx
Net electric potential at point P can be given as
r +L
KQ KQ r + L 
V= ∫ dV = ∫
r
Lx
dx = KQ [n x]r +L =
L
r L
n 
 r 

(c) Electric Potential due to a Charged Ring : Q

Case I : At its centre + + + +
+ +
To find potential at the centre C of the ring, we first find + +
+
potential dV at centre due to an elemental charge dq on
+
+
ring which is given as
+ +
Kdq + + + R
+ + +
dV = dq
R C
+ +
Total potential at C is V= ∫ dV
+
+
+
+ +
+ + +
Kdq KQ + +
= ∫
R
=
R
As all dq's of the ring are situated at same distance R from the ring centre C, simply the potential due
to all is added as being a scalar quantity, we can directly say that the electric potential at ring centre
KQ
is . Here we can also state that even if charge Q is non-uniformly distributed on ring, the electric
R
potential at C will remain same.
+ +
Case II : At a Point on Axis of Ring +
+
If we wish to find the electric potential at a point P on the

+ +
+ + + + +
axis of ring as shown, we can directly state the result as

R
+ + + + +
here also all points of ring are at same distance x 2 + R2

x P
from the point P, thus the potential at P can be given as
+ +
KQ
VP =
+
+
R + x2
2 + +
GRAPH
v

(d) Electric Potential due to a Uniformly Charged Disc :

Figure shows a uniformly charged disc of radius R with surface charge density σ coul/m2. To find
electric potential at point P we consider an elemental ring of radius y and width dy, charge on this
elemental ring is
dq = σ. 2πy dy
σ coul / m2
Due to this ring, the electric potential at point P can be given as
Kdq K.σ.2πy dy
dV =
2 2 =
x +y x2 + y2 R
y x P
Net electric potential at point P due to whole disc can be given as
dy
R
σ ydy σ  2 R
V= ∫ dV = ∫ 2 ∈ 0 0
.
2
x +y 2 =
2 ∈0 
x + y2 
 0
σ
VP = [ x2 + R 2 – x]
2 ∈0
Ex.41 Consider the following rod & find the potential due to it at P
OP = d, x = d tan θ, dx = d sec2θ dθ
+π / 4 dx
kd sec2 dθλ x θ 45°
dV =
kλdx
d sec θ
⇒ ∫ dV = ∫ –π / 4
d sec θ O d 45°
P
λc / m
π/4
V = kλ ∫
–π / 4
sec θ dθ
V = kλ [l n(sec θ + tan θ)]–ππ/ /44
V = kλ [ln ( 2 + 1)] – kλ [ln ( 2 – 1)]
 2 + 1
V = kλ l n   = kλ ln( 2 + 1) 2
 2 –1
R
v0 P
Ex.42 qin
R
Find min velocity v0 such that particle cross the ring.

kQ
Sol. Potential at P =
2R
1 2 kQq kqQ
Applying energy conservation 2 mv 0 + =0+
R
2R
2kQq  1 
⇒ v0 = 1 − 
mR  2

Ex.43 A ring of radius R is having two charges q and 2q distributed on its two half parts. Find the
electric potential at a point on its axis at a distance 2 2 R from its centre.
q
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ + + + +
R
+ + + + +
2 2R P
Sol.
+ +
+
+
+ +
2q
Distance of P from periphery of ring is R 2 + (2 2R)2 = 3R
Electric potential = Potential due to upper half + Potential due to lower half
Kq 2Kq 3Kq Kq
= + ⇒ =
3R 3R 3R R
(e) Electric potential due to a closed disc at a point on the edge

Let us calculate the potential at the edge of a thin disc of radius 'R' carrying a uniformly distributed
charge with surface density σ.
Let AB be a diameter and A be a point where the potential is to be calculated. From A as centre, we
draw two arcs of radii r and r + dr as shown. The infinitesimal region between these two arcs is an
element whose area is dA = (2rθ) dr, where 2θ is the angle subtended by this element PQ at the point
A. Potential at A due to the element PQ is
σdA 2σrθdr 2σθdr

dV = = = P
4πε0r 4πε0r 4πε0
From ∆ APB, we have r

r = 2R cos θ θ
A B
or, dr = – 2R sin θ dθ
Hence
–4σθR sin θdθ Q

dV =
4πε0
0
σRθ sin θ
V=– ∫
π /2
πε0
dθ
σR σR
=– | – θ cos θ + sin θ |0π / 2 = ....(19C)
πε0 πε0

7. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL :

(a) For uniform electric field :
(i) Potential difference between two points A and B

→ →
VB – VA = – E . AB
(b) Non uniform electric field
∂V ∂V ∂V
(i) Ex = – , Ey = – ,Ez = –
∂x ∂y ∂z

⇒ ˆ
E = Exî + Eyˆj + Ezk
 ∂ ∂ ˆ ∂ V
= – î V + ˆj V +k 
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂z 
 ∂ ∂ ˆ ∂ V
= – î + ˆj +k  = – ∇ V = – grad V
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
∂V
Where = derivative of V with respect to x (keeping y and z constant)
∂x
∂V
= derivative of V with respect to y (keeping z and x constant)
∂y
∂V
= derivative of V with respect to z (keeping x and y constant)
∂z
(c) If electric potential and electric field depends only on one coordinate, say r :
∂V
(i) E=– ˆ
r
∂r
where r̂ is a unit vector along increasing r..

(ii) ∫ ∫
dV = – E.dr
B r

⇒ VB – VA = – ∫
E.dr
rA
dr is along the increasing direction of r..

(iii) The potential of a point
r

∫
V = – E.dr
∞
Area under E - x curve gives negative of change in potential.

Negative of slope of V - x curve gives the electric field at that point.


Ex.44 V = x2 + y, Find E .
∂V ∂V ∂V
Sol. = 2x , = 1 and =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂V ˆ∂V ˆ ∂V
E = – î +j +k  = –(2xî + ˆj)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Electric field is nonuniform.

Ex.45 For given E = 2x î + 3 yĵ find the potential at (x, y) if V at origin is 5 volts.
v x y

Sol. ∫
5
∫ ∫ ∫
dV = – E.dr = – Ex dx – Ey dy
0 0
2x2 3y2 2x2 3y2

⇒ V–5= – – ⇒ V =– – +5
2 2 2 2
Ex.46 The electric potential in a region is represented as

V = 2x + 3y – z. Obtain expression for the electric field strength.
Sol. We know
→  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ
E = – i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂V ∂
Here, = [2x + 3y – z] = 2
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂
= [2x + 3y – z] = 3
∂y ∂y
∂V ∂
= [2x + 3y – z] = –1
∂z ∂z
→
∴ E = –(2iˆ + 3j ˆ
ˆ – k)
8. ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

The idea of electric lines of force or the electric field lines introduced by Michael Faraday is a way to
visualize electrostatic field geometrically.
The properties of electric lines of force are the following :
(i) The electric lines of force are continous curves in an electric field starting from a positively
charged body and ending on a negatively charged body.
+ –
Electric lines of force due Electric lines of force due

to positive charge to negative charge

(ii) The tangent to the curve at any point gives the direction of the electric field intensity at that
point.
(iii) Electric lines of force never intersect since if they cross at a point, electric field intensity at the
point will have two directions, which is not possible.
(iv) Electric lines of force do not pass but leave or end on a charged conductor normally. Suppose
the lines of force are not perpendicular to the conductor surface. In this situation, the component
of electric field parallel to the surface would cause the electrons to move and hence conductor
will not remain equipotential which is an absurd as in electrostatics conductor is an equipotential
surface.
Fixed point charge near

infinite metal plate
(v) The number of electric lines of force that originate from or terminate on a charge is proportional
to the magnitude of the charge.
(vi) As number of lines of force per unit area normal to the area at point represents magnitude of
intensity, crowded lines represent strong field while distant lines weak field. Further, if the lines
of force are equidistant straight lines, the field is uniform
Magnitude is Direction is Both magnitude and Both magnitude and

not constant not constant direction not constant direction constant
+Q
O Q+
Electric lines of force due to two equal positive charges (field is zero at O). O is a null point
A charge particle need not follow an ELOF.
Electric lines of force produced by static charges do not form close loop.
Ex.47 If number of electric lines of force from charge q are 10 then find out number of electric lines of
force from 2q charge.
Sol. No. of ELOF ∝ charge
q' N ' 2q
= ⇒ N′ = × 10 = 20
q 10 q
So number of ELOF will be 20.

Ex.48 A solid metallic sphere is placed in a uniform electric field. Which of the lines A, B, C and D
shows the correct representation of lines of force and why ?
D
Sol. (D)
The line (A) is wrong as lines of force start or end normally on the surface of a conductor and here it
is not so. Line (B) and (C) are wrong as lines of force does not exist inside a conductor and here it is
not so. Also lines of force are not normal to the surface of the conductor. Line (D) represents the
correct situation, as here line of force does not exist inside the conductor and start and end normally
on its surface.
Ex.49 A metallic slab is introduced between the two charged parallel plates as shown below. Sketch
the electric lines of force between the plates.
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ – +
Sol. Keeping in mind that –
(i) Electric lines of force start from positive charge and – –
+ – + –
end on negative charge.
(ii) Electric lines of force start and end normally on the + – + –
surface of a conductor. –
+ –
(iii) Electric lines of force do not exist inside a conductor, +
the lines of force are shown in the adjacent figure. – –
+ +
– + –
9. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES :
As shown in figure if a charge is shifted from a point A to B on a surface. M which is perpendicular to
the direction of electric field, the work done in shifting will obviously, be zero as electric force is normal
to the direction of displacement.
As no work is done in moving from A to B, we can say that A and B are at same potetials or we can say
that all the points of surface M are at same potential or here we call surface M as equipotential
surface.
M
A
E

Following figures show equipotential surfaces in the surrounding of point charge and a long charged wire
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
q +
+
+
. +
+
+
+
Point charge
Line charge
Spherical equipotential surfaces
Cylindrical equipotential surfaces
Every surface in electric field in which at every point direction of electric field is normal to the surface
can be regarded as equipotential surface.
Figure shows two equipotential surfaces in a uniform electric field E. If we wish to find the potential
difference between two points A and B shown in figure, we simply find the potential difference between
the two equipotential surfaces on which the points lie, given as
VA – VB = Ed
d M1 M2
r2
+
+ Y
B +
+ x
+ E
+
A X
+ r1
E +
M1 M2 λ coul / m
Figure shows a line charge with linear charge density λ coul/m. Here we wish to find potential difference
between two points X and Y which lie on equipotential surfaces M1 & M2. To find the potential
difference between these surfaces, we consider a point P at a distance x from wire as shown. The
electric field at point P is
2Kλ
E=
x
Now the potential difference between surface M1 and M2 can be given as
r2 r2
2Kλ
Vx – Vy = ∫
r1
Edx = ∫
r1
x
dx
 r2 
VX – VY = 2Kλ n  
 r1 

40
20
A 0
60°
10cm
Ex.50
B
Write down the Electric field in vector form ?

400
Sol. vA – vB = E × 0.1 × cos 30° cos 30° = 200
3
3 400
20 = E × 0.1 × ⇒ E=
2 3 30°
200 400
= sin 30 °
3 3
ˆ 200 ˆj 400
E.F. = 200i −
3 3
Ex.51 Find out equipotential surface where potential is zero ?

(x,y,z)
(–a,0) (a,0)
–2q +q
–2kq kq kq 2kq
Sol. + =0 ⇒ =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(x + a) + y + z (x − a) + y + z (x − a) + y + z (x + a)2 + y 2 + z2
squaring both sides

1 4
=
(x − a)2 + y 2 + z2 (x + a)2 + y 2 + z2
10. ELECTRIC DIPOLE :

A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called electric dipole,
shown in figure. Every dipole has a characteristic property called dipole moment. It is defined as the
product of magnitude of either charge and the separation between the charges is given as.
p=qd
d
p
–q +q
Dipole moment is a vector quantity and convensionally its direction is given from negative pole to
positive pole.

(a) Electric field due to a Dipole

(1) At an axial point
Figure shows an electric dipole placed on x-axis at origin
kq kq
(r + a) 2 (r – a)2
–q +q
P
O
(–a, 0) (a, 0)
r
2a
Here we wish to find the electric field at point P having coordinates (r, o) (where r >> 2a). Due to
positive charge of dipole electric field at P is in outward direction & due to negative charge it is in
inward direction.
kq kq 4kqar
Enet at P = – =
(r – a)2 (r + a)2 (r2 – a2 )2
→
As P = 2aq
2kpr
∴ Enet at P =
(r 2 – a2 )2
As r >> 2a
∴ we can neglect a w.r.t. r
2kp
Enet at P =
r3
As we can observe that for axial point direction of field is in direction of dipole moment
→
→ 2k p
∴ Vectorially, E =
r3 kq
(2) At an equatorial point. r 2 + a2
Again we consider the dipole placed along the x-axis & we
wish to find, electric field at point P which is situated
equatorially at a distance r (where r >> 2a) from origin. θ
Enet P
Vertical component of the electric field vectors cancel out
kq
each other.
kq r 2 + a2
∴ Enet at P = 2 E cos θ [where E = 2 ]
r + a2
  r
2kq a a
Enet at P = r2 + a2 . 2 ∵ cos θ = 
r + a2  r 2 + a2 
–q θ q
2kqa kp O
Enet = = (As p = 2aq) (–a,0) (a,0)
(r2 + a2 )3 / 2 (r2 + a2 )3 / 2
As we have already stated that r > > 2a
kp
∴ Enet at P =
r3
We can observe that the direction of dipole moment & electric field due to dipole at P are in opposite
direction.
∴ Vectorially
→
→ –k P
E =
r3

(b) Electric field at a general Point due to a dipole

KP sinθ
Figure shows a electric dipole place on x-axis at origin &
we wish to find out the electric field at point P with r3
2KP cos θ
coordinate (r, θ) 3
P (r, θ) r
Enet at
2 2 P cos θ
 2KP cos θ   KP sin θ  kP
Enet =   +  = 1 + 3 cos2 θ θ
+q
 r3   r
3
 r3 –q
Psin θ
P
kp sin θ
r3
tanα = 2kp cos θ
Enet
r3
KP sinθ
tan θ
tanα = r3 2KP cos θ
2
α r3
 tan θ  θ
α = tan–1  
 2 
(c) Electric potential due to a dipole.

1. At an axial point
(–a,0) (a,0)
O P
–q q (r >> 2a)
r
We wish to find out potential at P due to dipole (with p = 2aq)
kq kq
Vnet = −
(r – a) (r + a)
2akq
Vnet =
(r2 − a2 )
kp
Vnet = (As P = 2aq)
r2
2. At a point on perpendicular bisector
At an equatorial point, electric potential due to dipole is always zero because potential due to +ve
charge is cancelled by –ve charge.
v=0
r
–q +q

(3) Potential due to dipole at a general Point

P
r
Pcos θ
θ
–q q

p Psinθ
kp cos θ
Potential at P due to dipole =
r2
• BASIC TORQUE CONCEPT

τ = r ×F
⇒ If the net transational force on the body is zero then the torque of the forces may or may not be zero
but net torque of the forces about each point of universe is same

⇒ If we have to prove that a body is in equilibrium then first we will prove Fnet is equal to zero & after that
we will show τnet about any point is equal to zero.
⇒ If the body is free to rotate then it will rotate about the axis passing through centre of mass & parallel
to torque vector direction & of the body is hinged then it will rotate about hinged axis.
11. DIPOLE IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD :
Figure shows a dipole of dipole moment p placed at an angle θ to the direction of electric field. Here the
charges of dipole experience forces qε in opposite direction as shown.
ε
+q
qε
d θ d sin θ
qε
–q
thus we can state that when a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, net forces on the dipole is
zero. But as equal and opposite forces act with a separation in their line of action, they produce a
couple which tend to align the dipole along the direction of electric field. The torque due to this couple
can be given as
τ = Force × separation between lines of action of forces
= qε × d sin θ
= pεsin θ
or vectorially we can write the torque on dipole is

τ = p×ε C F
Ex.52 Write down torque about A, B, C
A.O.R
Sol. τ A = 2Fl ⊗
τC = 2Fl ⊗ 2l
B
τB = Fl + Fl = 2Fl ⊗
F
A

11.1 Potential Energy of a Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
When a dipole in an electric field at an angle θ, the torque on it due to electric field is
τ = pε sin θ
In the figure shown, the torque is in clockwise direction. If we rotate the dipole in anticlockwise
direction from an angle θ1 and θ 2 slowly, we have to apply an anticlockwise equal torque, then the
work done in process will be given as
+q
W= ∫ dW = ∫ τdθ qε
θ2
θ2 qε
= ∫ pε sin θdθ
θ1
+q
θ1
θ qε
= pε[− cos θ]θ2
1
–q
= pε (cos θ1 − cos θ2 ) qε
Wexternal foce = –Welectricforce –q
∴ Welectric field = – pE (cos θ1 – cos θ2)
As we know that for conservative forces
W.D. = – ∆U
∆U = pE (cosθ1 – cos θ2)
Uθ2 – Uθ1 = (–pE cos θ2 – pE cos θ1 )
∴ We can generalise that

Uθ = – pE cos θ
In vector notation we can write potential energy of dipole in electric field is

U = –p.E
[where potential energy at θ = 90° = 0]
11.2 Stable and Unstable equilibrium of a Dipole in Electric Field :
We’ve discussed that when a dipole in an electric field E, the potential energy of dipole can be given as
U = − pε cos θ
We also know that the net torque on a dipole in electric field can be given as
τ = pε sin θ
It shows that net torque on dipole in electric field is zero in two situations when θ = 0º and θ = 180 º as
shown in figure
qE
+ qE –
– + + –
qE – + qE
(a) (b)

We can see that when θ = 0 as shown in figure(a) when torque on dipole is zero, the dipole is in
equilibrium. We can verify that here equilibrium is stable. If we slightly tilt the dipole from its equilibrium
position in anticlockwise direction as shown by dotted position. The dipole experiences a clockwise
torque which tend the dipole to rotate back to its equilibrium position. This shows that at θ = 0 , dipole
is in stable equilibrium. We can also find the potential energy of dipole at θ = 0 , it can by given as
U = −pε (minimum)
Here at θ = 0 , potential energy of dipole in electric field is minimum which favours the position of stable
equilibrium.
Similarly when θ = 180º, net torque on dipole is zero and potential energy of dipole in this state is given
as
U = pε (maximum)
Thus at θ = 180º, dipole is in unstable equilibrium. This can also be shown by figure(b). From
equilibrium position if dipole is slightly displaced in anticlockwise direction, we can see that torque on
dipole also acts in anticlockise direction away from equilirbium position. Thus here dipole is in unstable
equilibrium.
11.3 Angular SHM or Dipole

When a dipole is suspended in a uniform electric field, it will align itself parallel to the field.
Now if it is given a small angular displacement θ about its equilibrium, the (restoring) couple will be
C = – pE sinθ
or, C = – pE θ [as sinθ ≈ θ, for small θ]
d2 θ
or, I = −pEθ
dt2
d2 θ pE
or, 2
=− θ
dt I
d2 θ pE
or, 2
= −ω2 θ 2
where ω =
dt I
 2π 
This is standard equation of angular simple harmonic motion with time-period T  =  . So the dipole
 ω 
will execute angular SHM with time-period
I
T = 2π ...(33)
pE

+q
2l
37°
E
Ex.53
–q
Find out the angular frequency of the dipole when it crosses the mean position.
1 2
Sol. 0 – PE cos 37° = Iω
2
1 2 PE
Iω =
2 5
2ml 2 2 2ql.E 2qE

.ω = ⇒ ω=
2 5 5 ml
11.4 Force on an Electric Dipole in Non-uniform Electric Field :
If in a non-uniform electric field dipole is placed at a point where electric field is ε, the interaction
energy of dipole at this point can be given as

U = −p.ε
Now the force on dipole due to electric field can be given as
F = – ∆U
For unidirectional variation in electric field, we have
d
F=– (p . ε)
dx
If dipole is placed in the direction of electric field, we have
dε
F = –p
dx
Ex.54 A water molecule is placed at a distance from the line carrying linear charge density λ. Find the
maximum force exerted on the water molecule. The shape of water molecule and the partial
charges on H and O atoms as shown in figure.
+q
–2q
θ O
d
H
+q
Sol. The figure can be resolved as combination of 2 dipoles. d
Dipole moments of each p = qd.
Here that dipole moment of system is θ
Pnet = 2 qd cos θ/2
Now
d
dε
F = Pnet .
dx


dε
For maximum force, the angle between Pnet and is 0º +
dx
+
θ d  2kλ  +
Fmax = 2qd cos ×
2 dx  x  +
Pnet = 2qd cos θ / 2
λ +
θ  1  +
or Fmax = 2qd cos × 2k λ − 2  +
2  x  +
+
− 4 K q d λ cos θ / 2 +
=
x2
4 K q d λ cos θ / 2
| Fmax | =
x2
4 K q d λ cos θ / 2
Fmax =
2


1. A point charge 50µC is located in the XY plane at E E

the point of position vector r0 = 2iˆ + 3jˆ . What is the
(A) (B)
electric field at the point of position vector r = 8iˆ − 5j
ˆ x x
O L O L
(A) 1200 V/m (B) 0.04 V/m (C) 900 V/m(D) 4500 V/m E E
Sol.
L L x
(C) O x (D) O
Sol.

2. A point charge q is placed at origin. Let E A , EB and

EC be the electric field at three points A(1, 2, 3),
B(1, 1, –1) and C(2, 2, 2) due to charge q. Then
4. A particle of mass m and charge Q is placed in an
[i] EA ⊥ EB [ii] | EB | = 4 |EC | electric field E which varies with time t ass E = E0
sinωt. It will undergo simple harmonic motion of
select the correct alternative
amplitude
(A) only [i] is correct
(B) only [ii] is correct QE20 QE0 QE0 QE0
(C) both [i] and [ii] are correct (A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D)
mω mω mω mω
(D) both [i] and [ii] are wrong
Sol.
Sol.
5. Four charges are arranged at

the corners of a square ABCD, as B +q –q C
3. Two identical point charges are placed at a shown. The force on +ve charge
separation of l.P is a point on the line joining the kept at the centre of the square
charges, at a distance x from any one charge. The –2q +2q
is A D
field at P is E. E is plotted against x for values of x
from close to zero to slightly less than l. Which of the (A) zero (B) along diagonal AC
following best represents the resulting curve ? (C) along diagonal BD (D) perpendicular to the side AB

Sol.
Sol.
6. Two free positive charges 4q and q are a distance l 8. A charged particle of charge q and mass m is
apart. What charge Q is needed to achieve equilibrium released from rest in an uniform electric field E.
for the entire system and where should it be placed Neglecting the effect of gravity, the kinetic energy of
form charge q ? the charged particle after time 't' seconds is
4 l 4 l Eqm E2 q2 t2 2E2 t2 Eq2m

(A) Q = q(negative) at (B) Q = q(positive) at (A) (B) (C) (D)
9 3 9 3 t 2m mq 2t2
l l Sol.
(C) Q = q (positive) at (D) Q = q (negative) at
3 3
Sol.
9. Two identical positive charges are fixed on the y-

axis, at equal distances from the origin O. A particle
with a negative charge starts on the x-axis at a large
distance from O, moves along the +x-axis, passes
through O and moves far away from O. Its acceleration
a is taken as positive along its direction of motion.
The particle’s acceleration a is plotted against its x-
coordinate. Which of the following best represents the
plot ?
7. Six charges are placed at A B a a
–q 3q
the corner of a regular hexagon x x
–2q –2q (A) O (B) O
as shown. If an electron is
F
placed at its centre O, force a
q 2q a
on it will be E D x
(A) Zero (B) Along OF (C) O x (D) O
(C) Along OC (D) None of these

Sol. Sol.
10. Four equal positive charges are fixed at the

vertices of a square of side L. Z-axis is perpendicular
to the plane of the square. The point z = 0 is the
point where the diagonals of the square intersect each
other. The plot of electric field due to the four charges,
as one moves on the z-axis.
E E
11. A nonconducting ring of radius R has uniformly
distributed positive charge Q. A small part of the ring,
(A) (B) of length d, is removed (d<<R). The electric field at
O Z Z the centre of the ring will now be -
O L
2
(A) directed towards the gap, inversely proportional
to R3.
E E
(B) directed towards the gap, inversely proportional
to R2.
(C) (D) (C) directed away from the gap, inversely proportional
Z O Z to R3.
O L L
2 (D) directed away from the gap, inversely proportional
to R2.
Sol. 14. Two equal negative charges are fixed at the points
[0, a] and [0, –a] on the y-axis. A positive charge Q
is released from rest at the points [2a, 0] on the x-
axis. The charge Q will -
(A) execute simple harmonic motion about the origin
(B) move to the origin and remain at rest
(C) move to infinity
(D) execute oscillatory but not simple harmonic motion.
12. The charge per unit length of the four quadrant of
the ring is 2λ, –2λ, λ and –λ respectively. The electric
field at the centre is -
λ λ 2λ
(A) – î (B) ĵ (C) î (D) None
2πε0R 2πε0R 2πε0R
15. A small particle of mass m and
Sol. charge –q is placed at point P on the
axis of uniformly charged ring and
released. If R >> x, the particle will Q
R
undergo oscillations along the axis of P
symmetry with an angular frequency x
that is equal to -
qQ qQx
(A) 3 (B)
4πε0mR 4πε0mR 4
qQ qQx
→
(C) 3 (D)
13. The direction (θ) of E at point 4πε0mR 4πε0mR 4
P due to uniformly charged finite rod Sol.
will be -
(A) at angle 30° from x-axis
(B) 45° from x-axis
(C) 60° from x-axis
(D) none of these
Sol.
16. A charged particle having some mass is resting in

equilibrium at a height H above the centre of a uniformly
charged non-conducting horizontal ring of radius R.
The force of gravity acts downwards. The equilibrium
of the particle will be stable -
(A) for all values of H (B) only if H > R / 2
(C) only if H < R / 2 (D) only if H = R / 2

Sol. Sol.
18. Find the force experienced by the semicircular rod

charged with a charge q, placed as shown in figure.
Radius of the wire is R and the infinitely long line of
charge with linear density λ is passing through its
centre and perpendicular to the plane of wire.
λq λq λq λq
(A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) 4πε R
2π ε0R π ε0R 4π ε0R 0
Sol.
17. In space of horizontal EF(E = (mg)/q) exist as 1 A wheel having mass m has charges +q and –q on
9 .
shown in figure and a mass m attached at the end of diametrically opposite points. It remains in equilibrium
a light rod. If mass m is released from the position on a rough inclined plane in the presence of uniform
shown in figure find the angular velocity of the rod vertical electric field E =
when it passes through the bottom most position. +q
E
=45º mg –q
E= q
m
m
+q mg mg mg tan θ
(A) (B) (C) (D) none
g 2g 3g 5g q 2q 2q
(A) (B) (C) (D)
l l l l

Sol.
 
 
(A) 2π (B) 2π  
g
 g + qE 
 m 
 
 
(C) 2π   (D) 2π
 g – qE 
2
 qE 
 m  g2 +  
m
Sol.
20. An equilateral triangle wire frame of side L having

3 point charges at its vertices is kept in x-y plane as
shown. Component of electric field due to the
configuration in z direction at (0, 0, L) is [origin is
centroid of triangle]
q y
q –2q
9 3 kq 9 kq
(A) (B) zero (C) (D) None 22. The potential difference between points A and B
8L2 8 L2 in the given uniform electric field is :
Sol. a
C B
E b
A E
(A) Ea (B) E (a2 + b2 ) (C) Eb (D) (Eb/ 2 )
Sol.
21. A simple pendulum has a

length , mass of bob m. The bob
is given a charge q coulomb. The
pendulum is suspended in a uniform E
horizontal electric field of strength
E a s show n i n f i g ur e, t he n
cal cul ate the ti me period of
oscillation when the bob is slightly
q,m
displace from its mean position is

23. An equipotential surface and a line of force :

(A) never intersect each other (B) intersect at 45°
(C) intersect at 60° (D) intersect at 90°
Sol.
27. In a regular polygon of n sides, each corner is at a

distance r from the centre. Identical charges are
24. Which of the following is a volt - placed at (n – 1) corners. At the centre, the intensity
(A) Erg per cm (B) Joule per coulomb is E and the potential is V. The ratio V/E has magnitude.
(C) Erg per ampere (D) Newton / (coulomb × m2) (A) r n (B) r (n – 1) (C) (n–1)/r (D) r(n–1)/n
Sol. Sol.
25. An infinite nonconducting sheet of charge has a

surface charge density of 10–7 C/m2. The separation
28. In a certain region of space, the potential is given
between two equipotential surfaces near the sheet
b y : V
2
– y2 + z2]. The electric field at the point
= k [ 2 x
whose potential differ by 5V is
(1,1,1) has magnitude =
(A) 0.88 cm (B) 0.88 mm (C) 0.88 m (D) 5 × 10–7 m
(A) k 6 (B) 2k 6 (C) 2k 3 (D) 4k 3
Sol.
Sol.
26. In a uniform electric field, the potential is 10 V at

the origin of coordinates, and 8V at each of the points
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1). The potential at the
point (1, 1, 1) will be -
(A) 0 (B) 4 V (C) 8 V (D) 10 V
29. When the seperation between two charges is
Sol. increased, the electric potential energy of the charges
(A) increases (B) decresaes
(C) remains the same
(D) may increase or decrease

Sol. 32. Two identical thin rings, each of radius R meter

are coaxially placed at distance R meter apart. If Q1
and Q2 coulomb are respectively the charges uniformly
spread on the two rings, the work done in moving a
charge q from the centre of one ring to that of the
other is
(A) zero
(B) q( Q1 − Q 2 )( 2 − 1) / ( 2 .4 πε 0R)
(C) q 2 (Q1 + Q 2 ) / 4 πε 0R
(D) q( Q1 − Q 2 )( 2 + 1) / ( 2.4 πε 0R)
Sol.
30. When a negative charge is released and moves in

electric field, it moves toward a position of
(A) lower electric potential and lower potential energy
(B) lower electric potential and higher potential energy
(C) higher electric potential and lower potential energy
(D) higher electric potential and higher potential energy
Sol.
31. Four equal charges +q are placed at four corners

of a square with its centre of origin and lying in yz 33. Two positively charged particles X and Y are initially
plane. The electrostatic potential energy of a fifth far away from each other and at rest. X begins to
charge +q varies or x-axis as move towards Y with some initial velocity. The total
momentum and energy of the system are p and E.
U U
(A) If Y is fixed, both p and E are conserved
(A) (B) (B) If Y is fixed, E is conserved, but not p
–x x –x x (C) If both are free to move, p is conserved but not E
U U (D) If both are free, E is conserved, but not p
Sol.
(C) (D)
–x x –x x
Sol.

34. Two particles X and Y, of equal mass and with 36. Two identical particles of mass m carry a charge
unequal positive charges, are free to move and are Q each. Initially one is at rest on a smooth horizontal
initially far away from each other. With Y at rest, X plane and the other is projected along the plane directly
begins to move towards it with initial velocity u. After towards first particle from a large distance with speed
a long time, finally. v. The closed distance of approach be
(A) X will stop, Y will move with velocity u 1 Q2 1 4Q2
(B) X and Y will both move with velocities u/2 each (A) (B)
4πε0 mv 4πε0 mv2
(C) X will stop, Y will move with velocity < u
(D) both will move with velocities <u/2 1 2Q2 1 3Q2
Sol. (C) (D)
4πε0 mv2 4πε0 mv2
Sol.
35. A circular ring of radius R with uniform positive

charge density λ per unit length is located in the y-z
plane with its centre at the origin O. A particle of
mass m and positive charge q is projected from the
point P(R 3 , O, O) on the positive x-axis directly
λq
towards O, with an initial kinetic energy 4ε .
0
(A) The particle crosses O and goes to infinity
(B) The particle returns to P
(C) The particle will just reach O
(D) The particle crosses O and goes to −R 3 .
Sol.
37. The diagram shows a small bead of mass m carrying

charge q. The bead can freely move on the smooth
fixed ring placed on a smooth horizontal plane. In the
same plane a charge +Q has also been fixed as shown.
The potential at the point P due to +Q is V. The velocity
with which the bead should projected from the point
P so that it can complete a circle should be greater
than
g
X
+Q
P
a 4a
6qV qV 3qV
(A) (B) (C) (D) none
m m m

Sol.

38. Electric field given by the vector E = xi + yj is 39. A particle of mass 1 kg & charge 1/3µC is projected
present in the XY plane. A small ring carrying charge towards a non conducting fixed spherical shell having
+Q, which can freely slide on a smooth non conducting the same charge uniformly distributed on its surface.
rod, is projected along the rod from the point (0, L) Find the minimum initial velocity of projection required
such that it can reach the other end of the rod. What if the particle just grazes the shell.
minimum velocity should be given to the ring ? (Assume
zero gravity) V
from
0.5 mm
Y 1 mm
(0, L)
2 2 2
(A) m/s (B) 2 m / s (C) m / s (D) none
3 3 3
X
(L, 0)
Sol.
(A) (QL /m)
2 1/2
(B) 2(QL2/m)1/2
(C) 4(QL2/m)1/2 (D) (QL2/2m)1/.2
Sol.

40. The diagram shows three infinitely long uniform 42. Two point charges of +Q each have been placed
line charges placed on the X, Y and Z axis. The work at the positions (–a/2, 0, 0) and (a/2, 0, 0). The
done in moving a unit positive charge from (1, 1, 1) to locus of the points in YZ plane where –Q charge can
(0, 1, 1) is equal to - be placed such the that total electrostatic potential
energy of the system can become equal to zero, is
Y
represented by which of the following equations ?
(A) Z2 + (Y – a)2 = 2a (B) Z2 + (Y – a)2 = 27a2/4
(C) Z2 + Y2 = 15a2 / 4 (D) None
X Sol.
(A) (λ ln 2) / 2πε0 (B) (λ ln 2) / πε0

(C) (3λ ln 2) / 2πε0 (D) None
Sol.
43. Figure shows equi-potential surfaces for a two

charges system. At which of the labeled points point
41. A charged particle of charge Q is held fixed and will an electron have the highest potential energy ?
another charged particle of mass m and charge q (of
the same sign) is released from a distance r. The
impulse of the force exerted by the external agent on
the fixed charge by the time distance between Q and AA
q becomes 2r is -
(A) Point A (B) Point B (C) Point C (D) Point D
Qq Qqm Qqm Qqm
(A) 4π ∈ mr (B) Sol.
0 4π ∈0 r (C) π ∈0 r (D) 2π ∈0 r
Sol.

44. The equation of an equipotential line in an electric Sol.

field is y = 2x, then the electric field strength vector
at (1, 2) may be
(A) 4 i + 3 j (B) 4 i + 8 j (C) 8 i + 4 j (D) –8 i + 4 j
Sol.
48. Uniform electric field of magnitude 100 V/m in space

is directed along the line y = 3 + x. Find the potential
difference between point A(3, 1) & B(1, 3)
45. The electric field in region is given by : E = (A) 100 V (B) 200 2 V (C) 200 V (D) 0
(4axy z ) i + (2ax2 z ) j + (ax2y / z ) k , where a Sol.
is a positive constant. The equation of an equipotential
surface will be of the form -
(A) z = constant / [x3y2] (B) z = constant / [xy2]
(C) z = constant / [x y ]
4 2
(D) None
Sol.
49. A, B, C, D, P and Q are points

in a uniform electric field. The B C
0.2 m
potentials at these points are V(A)
P Q
46. A charge 3 coulomb experiences a force 3000 N =2 volt. V(P) = V(B) = V(D) = 5
volt. V(C) = 8 volt. The electric A D
when placed in a uniform electric field. The potential
difference between two points separated by a distance field at P is 0.2 m
of 1 cm along the field lines is (A) 10 Vm–1 along PQ (B) 15 2 Vm–1 along PA
(A) 10 V (B) 90 V (C) 1000 V (D) 9000 V (C) 5 Vm–1 along PC (D) 5 Vm–1 along PA
Sol.
Sol.

47. A uniform electric field having strength E is existing
in x - y plane as shown in figure. Find the p.d. between
origin O & A (d, d, 0)
y
0)
d,
50. A and B are two points on the axis and the

d,
A(
perpendicular bisector respectively of an electric dipole.

A and B are far away from the dipole and at equal

distance from it. The field at A and B are EA and EB .
O x

Z (A) EA = EB (B) EA = 2 EB (C) EA = –2 EB
1
(A) Ed(cosθ + sinθ) (B) –Ed (sinθ – cosθ) (D) | EB | = | EA |, and EB is perpendicular to EA
2
(C) 2Ed (D) None of these

Sol.
53. The dipole moment of a system of charge +q

distributed uniformly on an arc of radius R subtending
an angle π/2 at its centre where another charge –q is
placed is.
2 2qR 2qR qR 2qR
(A) (B) (C) (D)
51. Figure shows the electric field lines around an π π π π
electric dipole. Which of the arrows best represents Sol.
the electric field at point P ?
(A) (B) (C) (D)

Sol.
54. An electric dipole is kept on the axis of a uniformly

charged ring at distance R / 2 from the centre of
the ring. The direction of the dipole moment is along
the axis. The dipole moment is P, charge of the ring is
52. A dipole consists of two particles one with charge Q and radius of the ring is R. The force on the dipole is
+1µC and mass 1kg and the other with charge –1µC nearly
and mass 2kg separated by a distance of 3m. For
4kPQ 4 kPQ 2 kPQ
small oscillations about its equilibrium position, the (A) (B) (C) (D) zero
2 3
angular frequency, when placed in a uniform electric 3 3R 3 3R 3 3 R3
field of 20kV/m is Sol.
(A) 0.1 rad/s (B) 1.1 rad/s (C) 10 rad/s (D) 2.5 rad/s
Sol.

55. A large sheet carries uniform surface charge density Sol.

σ. A rod of length 2l has a linear charge density λ on
one half and –λ on the second half. The rod is hinged
at mid point O and makes an angle θ with the normal
to the sheet. The torque experienced by the rod is
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
σλl 2 σλl 2 σλl
(A) 0 (B) sin θ (C) sin θ (D) 58. 4 charges are placed each at a distance ‘a’ from
2ε0 ε0 2ε0 origin. The dipole moment of configuration is
Sol. y
3q
x
–2q –2q
q
ˆ
(A) 2qaj ˆ
(B) 3qaj (C) 2aq[iˆ + ˆj] (D) none
Sol.
56. Two short electric dipoles are placed as shown.

The energy of electric interaction between these
dipoles will be
P1
P2
2 kP1P2 cos θ −2 kP1P2 cos θ
(A) (B) REASONING TYPE
r3 r3
59. Statement - 1 : A positive point charge initially
−2 kP1P2 sin θ −4 kP1P2 cos θ at rest in a uniform electric field starts moving along
(C) (D)
r3 r3 electric lines of forces. (Neglect all other forces except
Sol. electric forces)
Statement - 2 : Electric lines of force represents path
of charged particle which is released from rest in it.
(A) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1.
(B) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
statement - 2 is NOT correct explanation for statement
- 1.
57. Point P lies on the axis of a dipole. If the dipole is

rotated by 90º anticlock wise, the electric field vector

E at P will rotate by
(A) 90º clock wise (B) 180º clock wise
(C) 90º anti clock wise (D) none

60. Statement - 1 : If electric potential while moving 62. Statement - 1 : The electric potential and the
in a certain path is constant, then the electric field electric field intensity at the centre of a square having
must be zero. four fixed point charges at their vertices as shown in
figure are zero.
∂V
Statement - 2 : Component of electric field E r = –
∂r +q –q
- 1.
–q +q
(D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true. Statement - 2 : If electric potential at a point is zero
Sol. then the magnitude of electric field at that point must
be zero.
- 1.
Sol.
61. Statement - 1 : For a non-uniformly charged thin

circular ring with net charge zero, the electric potential
at each point on axis of the ring is zero.
Statement - 2 : For a non-uniformly charged thin
circular ring with net charge zero, the electric field at
any point on axis of the ring is zero.
- 1.
Sol.


(A) The third charge experienced a net force inclined
1. Select the correct alternative :
to the line joining the charges
(A) The charge gained by the uncharged body from a (B) The third charge is in stable equilibrium
charged body due to conduction is equal to half of (C) The third charge is in unstable equilibrium
the total charge initially present. (D) The thi rd charge experiences a net force
(B) The magnitude of charge increases with the perpendicular to the line joining the charges
increase in velocity of charge Sol.
(C) Charge can not exist without matter although
matter can exist without charge
(D) Between two non-magnetic substances repulsion
is the true test of electrification (electrification means
body has net charge)
Sol.
4. A negative point charge placed at the point A is
a a
+2q A +2q
2. Two equal negative charges –q are fixed at the
point (0, a) and (0, –a) on the y-axis. A charge +Q is (A) in stable equilibrium along x-axis
released from rest at the point (2a, 0) on the x-axis. (B) in unstable equilibrium along y-axis
The charge Q will : (C) in stable equilibrium along y-axis
(A) Execute simple harmonic motion about the origin. (D) in unstable equilibrium along x-axis
(B) At origin velocity of particle is maximum Sol.
(C) Move to infinity

(D) Execute oscillatory but not simple harmonic motion.
Sol.
5. Two fixed charges 4Q (positive) and Q (negative)

are located at A and B, the distance AB being 3 m.
+4Q –Q
A 3m B
(A) The point P where the resultant field due to both
is zero is on AB outside AB.
(B) The point P where the resultant field due to both
is zero is on AB inside AB.
3. Mid way between the two equal and similar charges, (C) If a positive charge is placed at P and displaced
we placed the third equal and similar charge. Which of slightly along AB it will execute oscillations.
the following statements is correct, concerned to the (D) If a negative charge is placed at P and displaced
equilibrium along the line joining the charges ? slightly along AB it will execute oscillation.

Sol. Sol.
8. T he f i g ur e show s a
nonconducting ring which has + --
--
+
positive and negative charge -
+ + + ++ + + +
--
non uniformly distributed on it --
-
such that the total charge is
O --
zero. Which of the following ---
--
++
axis
statements is true ? ++ - --
(A) The potential at all the points on the axis will be zero.
(B) The electric field at all the points on the axis will
be zero.
6. Select the correct statement : (Only force on a (C) The direction of electric field at all points on the
particle is due to electric field) axis will be along the axis
(A) A charged particle always moves along the electric (D) If the ring is placed inside a uniform external electric
line of force. field then net torque and force acting on the ring
(B) A charged particle may move along the line of would be zero.
force Sol.
(C) A charge particle never moves along the line of
force
(D) A charged particle moves along the line of force
only if released from rest.
Sol.
9. If we use permittivity ε, resistance R, gravitational

constant G and voltage V as fundamental physical
quantities, then -
(A) [angular displacement] = ε0R0G0V0
7. Two infinite sheets of uniform (B) [Velocity] = ε–1R–1G0V0
charge density +σ and –σ are parallele (C) [dipole moment] = ε1R0G0V1
to each other as shown in the figure. (D) [force] = ε1R0G0V2
Electric field at the
Sol.
(A) points to the left or to the right
of the sheets is zero
(B) midpoint between the sheets is zero
(C) midpoint of the sheets is σ/ε0 and is directed
towards right
(D) midpoint of the sheets is 2σ/ε0 and is directed
towards right

10. A particle of mass m and charge q is thrown in a 12. An electric charge 10–8 C is placed at the point
region where uniform gravitational field and electric (4m, 7m, 2m). At the point (1m, 3m, 2m), the electric
field are present. The path of particle (A) potential will be 18 V
(A) may be a straight line (B) may be a circle (B) field has no Y-component
(C) may be a parabola (D) may be a hyperbola (C) field will be along Z-axis
Sol. (D) potential will be 1.8 V
Sol.
11. Two point charges Q and –Q/4 are separated by a

distance x. Then
13. Four identical charges are placed at the points
Q x –Q/4
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (–1, 0, 0) and (0, –1, 0).
(A) potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/ (A) The potential at the origin is zero.
3 on the right side of the charge –Q/4
(B) The field at the origin is zero.
(B) potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/
(C) The potential at all points on the z-axis, other
5 on the left side of the charge –Q/4 than the origin, is zero.
(C) electric field is zero at a point on the axis which is (D) The field at all points on the z-axis, other than
at a distance x on the right side of the charge –Q/4
the origin acts along the z-axis.
(D) there exist two points on the axis where electric Sol.
field is zero.
Sol.
14. A proton and a deuteron are initially at rest and

are accelerated through the same potential difference.
Which of the following is false concerning the final
properties of the two particles ?
(A) They have different speeds
(B) They have same momentum
(C) They have same kinetic energy
(D) None of these
Sol.

15. Which of the following is true for the figure showing 17. Potential at a point A is 3 volt and at a point B is
electric lines of force ? (E is electrical field, V is 7 volt, an electron is moving towards A from B.
potential) (A) It must have some K.E. at B to reach A
B (B) It need not have any K.E. at B to reach A
A (C) to reach A it must have more than or equal to 4eV
K.E. at B.
(D) when it will reach A, it will have K.E. more then or
(A) EA > EB (B) EB > EA (C) VA > VB (D) VB > VA at least equal to 4eV if it was released from rest at B.
Sol. Sol.
18. A particle of charge 1µC & mass 1 gm moving with

a velocity of 4m/s is subjected to a uniform electric
field of magnitude 300 V/m for 10 sec. Then it’s final
16. Three point charges Q, 4Q and 16Q are placed on speed cannot be :
a straight line 9cm long. Charges are placed in such a (A) 0.5 m/s (B) 4 m/s (C) 3 m/s (D) 6 m/s
way that the system has minimum potential energy. Sol.
Then
(A) 4Q and 16Q must be at the ends and Q at a
distance of 3 cm from the 16Q
(B) 4Q and 16Q must be at the ends and Q at a
distance of 6 cm from the 16Q
(C) Electric field at the position of Q is zero
Q
(D) Electric field at the position of Q is 4πε
0
Sol.
19. Two particles of same mass and charge are thrown

in the same direction along the horizontal with same
velocity v from two different heights h1 and h2 (h1 <
h2). Initially they were located on the same vertical
line. Choose the correct alternative.
(A) Both the particles will lie on a vertical line until
either of the ball hits the ground
(B) Acceleration of the centre of mass of two particles
will be g downwards
(C) Horizontal displacement of the particle lying at h1
is less and the particle lying at h2 is more than the
value, which would had been in the absence of charges
on them.
(D) All of these

Sol. 22Variation of electrostatic

potential along x-direction is v
show n i n t he g ra ph. The

correct statement about
A B C
electric field is x
(A) x component at point B is maximum

(B) x component at point A is towards positive x-axis
(C) x component at poin C is along negative x-axis
(D) x component at point C is along positive x-axis
Sol.
20. Let V be electric potential and E the magnitude of

the electric field. At a given position, which of the
statement is true ?
(A) E is always zero where V is zero
(B) V is always zero where E is zero
(C) E can be zero where V is non zero
(D) E is always nonzero where V is nonzero 23An electric dipole moment p = (2.0iˆ + 3.0j) ˆ µC . m is
Sol. p l a ce d in a uni form e l e ct ri c fi el d

ˆ × 10 N C .
E = (3.0iˆ + 2.0 k) 5 −1

(A) The torq ue t ha t E ex er ts on p i s
ˆ
(0.6iˆ − 0.4 ˆj − 0.9 k)Nm
(B) The potential energy of the dipole is –0.6 J.
(C) The potential energy of the dipole is 0.6 J
(D) If the dipole is rotated in the electric field, the
maximum potential energy of the dipole is 1.3 J.
Sol.
21. The electric potential decreases uniformly from V

to –V along X-axis in a coordinate system as we moves
from a point (–x0, 0) to (x0, 0), then the electric field
at the origin.
(A) must be equal to V/x0 (B) may be equal to V/x0
(C) must be greater than V/x0 (D) may be less than V/x0
Sol.

24. Three points charges are placed at the corners of

an equilateral triangle of side L as shown in the figure. 26. For the situation shown in the figure below (as-
–2q sume r >> lenth of dipole) mark out the correct
statement(s).
L L
p (Small dipole)
+q L +q Q
(A) The potential at the centroid of the triangle is zero.
(B) The electric field at the centroid of the triangle is zero. r
(A) Force acting on the dipole is zero
(C) The dipole moment of the system is 2 qL
pQ
(D) The dipole moment of the system is 3 qL (B) Force acting on the dipole is approximately
4πε 0r 3
Sol.
& is acting upward.
pQ
(C) Torque acting on the dipole is in clockwise
4πε 0r 2
direction
pQ
(D) Torque acting on the dipole is in anti-
4πε 0r 2
clockwise direction
Sol.
25. Particle A having positive charge is moving di-

rectly head-on towards initially stationary positively
charged particle B. At the instant when A and B are
closest together.
(A) the momenta of A and B must be equal
(B) the velocities of A and B must be equal
(C) B would have gained less kinetic energy than A
would have lost.
(D) B would have gained the same momentum as A
would have lost.
Sol.

1. The distance between two fixed positive charges

4e and e is . How should a third charge 'q' be arranged
for it to be in equilibrium ? Under what condition will
equilibrium of the charge 'q' be stable (for displacement
on the line joining 4e and e) or will it be unstable ?
Sol. 4. Two particles A and B each carrying a charge Q are
held fixed with a separation d between then A particle
C having mass m and charge q is kept at the midpoint
of line AB. If it is displaced through a small distance x
(x<<d) perpendicular to AB,
(a) then find the time period of the oscillations of C
for q < 0.
(b) If in the above question C is displaced along AB,
find the time period of the oscillations of C for q < 0.
Sol.
2. Two particles A and B, each having a charge Q are

placed a distance d apart. Where should a particle of
charge q be placed on the perpendicular bisector of
AB so that it experiences maximum force ? What is
the magnitude of the maximum force ?
Sol.
3. A negative point charge 2q and a positive charge q

are fixed at a distance l apart. Where should a positive
test charge Q be placed on the line connecting the
charge for it to be in equilibrium? What is the nature
of the equilibrium with respect to longitudinal motions?
Sol.

5. Draw E – r graph for 0 < r < b, 7. Six charges are placed at the vertices of a regular
if two point charges a & b are hexagon as shown in the figure. Find the electric field
located r distance apart, when 0 on the line passing through O and perpendicular to
a r b
(i) both are +ve plane of the figure as a function of distance x from
(ii) both are –ve point O. +Q –Q
(iii) a is +ve and b is –ve

(iv) a is –ve and b is +ve –Q +Q
O
Sol.
+Q –Q
a
Sol.
6. A charge + 10–9 C is located at the origin in free

space & another charge Q at (2, 0, 0). If the X-
component of the electric field at (3, 1, 1) is zero,
8. The figure shows three infinite non-conducting plates
calculate the value of Q. Is the Y-component zero at
of charge perpendicular to the plane of the paper
(3, 1, 1) ?
with charge per unit area +σ, +2σ and –σ. Find the
Sol.
ratio of the net electric field at that point A to that
at point B.
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ A + B
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
5m 5m
Sol.

9. A thin circular wire of radius r has a charge Q. If a

point charge q is placed at the centre of the ring, 11. In the following figures find the magnitude of
then find the increase in tension in the wire. electric field at a point 'P' on the axis of the square.
Sol. The distance of 'P' from the centre is 'x'.
q a q –q q –q –q
a
q q q –q q q
(i) (ii) (iii)
Sol.
10. In the figure shown S is a large nonconducting

sheet of uniform charge density σ. A rod R of length l
and mass ‘m’ is parallel to the sheet and hinged at its
mid point. The linear charge densities on the upper
and lower half of the rod are shown in the figure. Find
the angular acceleration of the rod just after it is
released.
R
s
Sol.

12. In the above question find electric field for two Sol.
cases
(a) x = 0 (b) x > > a
Sol.
14. A particle of mass m, charge q > 0 and initial

kinetic energy K is projected from infinity toward a
heavy nucleus of charge Q assumed to have a fixed
position.
(a) If the aim is perfect, how close to the centre of
the nucl eus i s t he p ar ti cl e when i t come s
instantaneously to rest ?
Sol.
(b) With a particular imperfect aim the particle's closest

approach to nucleus is twice the distance determined
in (a) Determine speed of particle at the closest
distance of approach.
Sol.
13. A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate

the work done by external agent in taking a small
charge of –2 × 10–9 C from a point A (0, 0, 0.03 m) to
a point B(0, 0.04m, 0) via a point C(0, 0.06m, 0.09m).

15. Three point charges are arranged at the three Sol.

vertices of a triangle as shown in figure. Given : q =
10–7C. Calculate the electrostatic potential energy of
the system.
–4q
10cm 10cm
+q 10cm +2q
Sol.
16. Eight equal point charges each of charge 'q' and

mass 'm' are placed at eight corners of a cube of side
'a'.
q a
q
q
q
q
q
q q
A
(i) Find out potential energy of charge system
(ii) Find out work done by external agent against
electrostatic forces and by electrostatic forces to
increase all sides of cube from a to 2a
(iii) If all the charges are released at rest then find out
their speed when they are at the corners of cube of
side 2a.
(iv) If keeping all other charges fix, charge of corner
'A' is released then find out its speed when it is at
infinite distance ?
(v) If all charges are released at rest then find out
their speed when they are at a very large distance
from each other.

17. A simple pendulum of length l and bob mass m is 19. A point charge +q & mass 100 gm experiences a
hanging in front of a large nonconducting sheet having force of 100 N at a point a distance 20 cm from a long
surface charge density σ. If suddenly a charge +q is infinite uniformly charged wire. If it is released find its
given to the bob & it is released from the position speed when it is at a distance 40 cm from wire
shown in figure. Find the maximum angle through which Sol.
the string is deflected from vertical.
+
+
+
+
l
+
+
+
Sol.
18. A charge +Q is uniformly distributed over a thin

ring with radius R. A negative point charge –Q and
mass m starts from rest at a point far away from the
centre of the ring and moves towards the centre.
Find the velocity of this particle at the moment it
passes through the centre of the ring.
Sol.
20. Consider the configuration of a system of four

charges each of value +q. Find the work done by
external agent in changing the configuration of the
system from figure (i) to fig (ii).
+q +q +q
a
a
+q +q
+q +q
a +q
fig(i) fig(ii)

Sol. 21. Two identical particles of mass m carry charge Q

each. Initially one is at rest on a smooth horizontal
plane and the other is projected along the plane directly
towards the first from a large distance with an initial
speed V. Find the closest distance of approach.
Sol.
22. A particle of mass m and negative charge q is

thrown in a gravity free space with speed u from the
point A on the large non conducting charged sheet
with surface charge density σ, as shown in figure.
Find the maximum distance from A on sheet where
the particle can strike.
Sol.

23. Three charges 0.1 coulomb each are placed on

the corners of an equilateral triangle of side 1 m. If
the energy is supplied to this system at the rate of 1
kW, how much time would be required to move one of
the charges onto the midpoint of the line joining the
other two ?
Sol.
26. A charge 'q' is carried from a point A (r, 135°) to
point B(r, 45°) following a path which is a quadrant of

circle of radius 'r'. If the dipole moment is P . then
find out the work done by external agent ?
A B
r 90° r
P
Sol.
24. Two identical nonconducting spherical shells having

equal charge Q are placed at a distance d apart. When
they are released find out kinetic energy of each sphere
when they are at a large distance.
Sol. 27. Find out force experienced by short dipole P0 is
following different arrangements as shown in figures.

[Assume point charge is Q, P0 = q0 (2a) and P = q(2a) ]
y
P0 Q
(i)
r axis x
P0 Q
(ii)
r equitorial
25. If E = 2x2î – 3y2ˆj then find v(x, y, z)
P0 P
Sol.
(iii)
r axial for P0
P0
P
(iv)
r equitorial for P0

Sol. 28. Find out the magnitude of electric field intensity

at point (2, 0, 0) due to a dipole of dipole moment,

P = î + 3j
ˆ kept at origin ? Also find out the potential
at that point.
Sol.
29. A dipole is placed at origin of coordinate system

as shown in figure, find the electric field at point P(0,
y).
y
P (0, y)
P 45° x
Sol.

Q.1 A rigid insulated wire frame in the form of a right Q.5 Two concentric rings of radii r and 2r are placed
angled triangle ABC, is set in a vertical plane as shown. with centre at origin. Two charges +q each are fixed
Two bead of equal masses m each and carrying charges at the diametrically opposite points of the rings as
q1 & q2 are connected by a cord of length l & slide shown in figure. Smaller ring is now rotated by an
without friction on the wires. Considering the case angle 90° about Z-axis then it is again rotated by 90°
when the beads are stationary, determine. about Y-axis. Find the work done by electrostatic
forces in each step. If finally larger ring is rotated by
A 90° about X-axis, find the total work required to
P perform all three steps.
q1 y
l q Q +q
2
30° 60° +q
B C
Horizon x
(a) The angle α. +q
z +q
(b) The tension in the cord &
(c) The normal reaction on the beads. If the cord is
Q.6 Two identical balls of charges q1 & q2 initially have
now cut, what are the values of the charges for which
equal velocity of the same magnitude and direction.
the beads continue to remain stationary.
After a uniform electric field is applied for some time,
the direction of the velocity of the first ball changes
by 60° and the magnitude is reduced by half. The
Q.2 A clock face has negative charges –q, –2q, –3q,
direction of the velocity of the second ball changes
..........., –12q fixed at the position of the corresponding
there by 90°. In what proportion will the velocity of
numerals on the dial. The clock hands do not disturb
the second ball changes ?
the net field due to point charges. At what time does
the hour hand point in the same direction is electric
Q.7 Small identical balls with equal charges are fixed
field at the centre of the dial.
at vertices of regular 2004 - gon with side a. At a
certain instant, one of the balls is released & a
Q.3 A circular ring of radius R with uniform positive
sufficiently long time interval later, the ball adjacent
charge density λ per unit length is fixed in the Y-Z
to the first released ball is freed. The kinetic energies
plane with its centre at the origin O. A particle of
of the released balls are found to differ by K at a
mass m and positive charge q is projected from the
sufficiently long distance from the polygon. Determine
point P ( 3R, 0, 0 ) on the positive X-axis directly the charge q of each part.
E x
towards O, with initial velocity v. Find the smallest Q.8The electric field in a region is given by E =
0
i.
value of the speed v such that the particle does not l
Find the charge contained inside a cubical volume
return of P.
bounded by the surfaces x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = a, z =
0 and z = a. Take E0 = 5 × 103 N/C, l = 2cm and a = 1
Q.4 2 small balls having the same mass & charge &
cm.
located on the same vertical at heights h1 & h2 are
thrown in the same direction along the horizontal at Q.9 2 small metallic balls of radii R1 & R2 are kept in
the same velocity v. The 1st ball touches the ground vacuum at a large distance compared to the radii.
at a distance l from the initial vertical. At what height Find the ratio between the charges on the 2 balls at
will the 2nd ball be at this instant? The air drag & the which electrostatic energy of the system is minimum.
charges induced should be neglected. What is the potential difference between the 2 balls ?
Total charge of balls is constant.

Q.10 A nonconducting ring of mass m and radius R is Q.11 Two spherical bobs of same mass & radius having
charged as shown. The charged density i.e. charge equal charges are suspended from the same point by
per unit length is λ. It is then placed on a rough strings of same length. The bobs are immersed in a
nonconducting horizontal surface plane. At time t = liquid of relative permittivity εr & density ρ0. Find the
density σ of the bob for which the angle of divergence
0, a uniform electric field E = E0 i is switched on and
of the strings to be the same in the air & in the liquid ?
the ring start rolling without sliding. Determine the
friction force (magnitude and direction) acting on the Q.12 Find the electric field at centre of semicircular
ring, when it starts moving. ring shown in figure.
y
++
++ Y
+ –q– – + +
-- x – ++q
-- ––
- - ––
– +
+ X
–
R

1. A metallic solid sphere is placed in a uniform electric (ii) A charge +q is fixed at each of the points x = x0, x
field. The lines of force follow the path (s) shown in = 3x0, x = 5x0, ......... ∞ on the x-axis & a charge –q is
figure as fixed at each of the points x = 2x0, x = 4x0, x = 6x0,
1 ........ ∞. Here x0 is a +ve constant. Take the electric
2 potential at a point due to a charge Q at a distance r
3 Q
from it to be 4π ∈ r . Then the potential at the origin
4 0
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D)4 due to the above system of charges is

[IIT-96,2] q q n2
(A) 0 (B) (C) ∞ (D)
Sol. 8π ∈0 x0 n2 4π ∈0 x0
Sol.
2. A non-conducting ring of radius 0.5 m carries a

total charge of 1.11 × 10–10 C distributed non-uniformly
on its circumference producing an electric field E every
=0
where in space. The value of the line integral ∫ –E. d
=∞
(l = 0 being centre of the ring) in volts is
[IIT-97,1]
(A) + 2 (B) – 1 (C) – 2 (D) zero
Sol.
(iii) A non-conducting solid sphere of radius R is

uniformly charged. The magnitude of the electric field
due to the sphere at a distance r from its centre.
(A) increases as r increases, for r < R
(B) decreases as r increases, for 0 < r < ∞
(C) decreases as r increases, for R < r < ∞
(D) is discontinuous at r = R
Sol.
3. Select the correct alternative : [IIT-98]
(i) A + ly charged thin metal ring of radius R is fixed in
the xy–plane with its centre at the origin O. A –ly
charged particle P is released from rest at the point
(0, 0, z0) where z0 > 0. Then the motion of P is
(A) periodic, for all values of z0 satisfying 0 < z0 < ∞ 1
(B) simple harmonic, for all values of z0 satisfying 0 < z0 ≤ R 4. (a) The dimension of   e0E2 (e0 : permittivity of
2
(C) approximately simple harmonic, provided z0 << R
free space; E : electric field) is [IIT-2000(Scr)]
(D) such that P crosses O & continues to move along
the –ve z-axis towards x = – ∞ (A) MLT–1 (B) ML2T–2 (C) MLT–2 (D) ML2T–
Sol. (E) ML T
–1 –2
Sol.

(b) Three charges Q, +q and +q are placed at the

5. Three positive charges of equal value q are placed
verticles of a right-angled isosceles triangle as shown.
at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The resulting
The net electrostatic energy of the configuration is
lines of force should be sketched as in
zero if Q is equal to [IIT-2001(Scr)]
Q
(A) (B)
+q +q
a
−q −2q
(A) (B) (C) –2q (D) +q (C) (D)
1+ 2 2+ 2
Sol.
Sol.
6. A small ball of mass 2 × 10–3 Kg having a charge of

(c) Four point charges + 8µC, –1µC, –1µC and + 8µC, 1µC is suspended by a string length 0.8m. Another
identical ball having the same charge is kept at the
27 3 3 point of suspension. Determine the minimum horizontal
are fixed at the points, – m, – m, + m and
2 2 2 velocity which should be imparted to the lower ball so
that it can make complete revolution.
27
+ m respectively on the y-axis. A particle of mass [IIT-2001]
2 Sol.
6 × 10–4 kg and of charge + 0.1µC moves along the –x
direction. Its speed at x = + ∞ is v0. Find the least
value of v0 for which the particle will cross the origin.
Find also the kinetic energy of the particle at the origin.
Assume that space is gratity free. (Given : 1/(4πε0) = 9
×109 Nm2/C2) [IIT-2000,10]
Sol.

7. Two equal point charges are fixed at x = –a and x 10. Six charges, three positive and three negative of
= +a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is placed equal magnitude are to be placed at the vertices of a
at the origin. The change in the electrical potential regular hexagon such that the electric field at O is
energy of Q, when it is displaced by a small distance x double the electric field when only one positive charge
along the x-axis, is approximately proportional to of same magnitude is placed at R. Which of the following
[JEE 2002 (Scr).] arrangements of charges is possible for P, Q, R, S, T
(A) x (B) x2 (C) x3 (D) 1/x and U respectively ? [JEE 2004 (SCR)]
Sol.
P Q
U R
O
T S
(A) +, –, +, –, –, + (B) +, –, +, –, +, –
(C) +, +, –, +, –, – (D) –, +, +, –, +, –
8. Charges +q and –q are located at the corners of a Sol.
cube of side a as shown in the figure. Find the work
done to separate the charges to infinite distance.
[JEE-2003]
–q +q
–q
+q
–q
+q
–q +q
Sol. 11. Two uniformly charged infinitely large planar sheet

S1 and S2 are held in air parallel to each other with
separation d between them. The sheets have charge
distribution per unit area σ1 and σ2 (Cm–2), respec-
tively, with σ1 > σ2. Find the work done by the electric
field on a point charge Q that moves from S1 towards
S2 along a line of length a (a < d) making an angle π/4
with the normal to the sheets. Assume that the charge
Q does not affect the charge distributions of the
sheets. [JEE 2004]
Sol.
9. A charge +Q is fixed at the origin of the co-ordinate

system while a small electric dipole of dipole-moment

p pointing away from the charge along the x-axis is
set free from a point far away from the origin.
(a) calculate the K.E. of the dipole when it reaches to
a point (d, 0) [JEE 2003]
(b) calculate the force on the charge +Q at this
moment.
Sol.

12. Which of the following groups do not have same q

dimensions - (A) The electric field at point O is directed
8 πε 0R 2
(A) Young’s modulus, pressure stress along the negative x-axis
(B) work, heat, energy (B) The potential energy of the system is zero
(C) electromotive force, potential difference, voltage (C) The magnitude of the force between the charges
(D) electric dipole, electric flux, electric field q2
Sol. at C and B is
54 πε 0R2
q
(D) the potential at point O is 12 π ε R
0
Sol.
13. Positive and negative point charges of equal

 a  a
ma gni tude ar e ke pt at  0, 0,  a nd  0, 0,–  ,
 2  2
respectively. The work done by the electric field when
another positive point charge is moved from (–a, 0, 0)
to (0, a, 0) is - 15. A few electric field lines for a system of two charges
Q1 and Q2 fixed at two different points on the x - axis
(A) positive (B) negative (C) zero
are shown in the figure. These lines suggest that
(D) depends on the path connecting the initial and
final positions [JEE 2007]
Sol.
Q1 Q2
(A) |Q1| > |Q2| (B) |Q1| < |Q2|

(C) at a finite distance to the left of Q1 the electric
field is zero.
(D) at a finite distance to the right of Q2 the electric
field is zero. [JEE 2010]
Sol.
q q 2q
14. Consider a system of three charges , and –
3 3 3
placed at points A, B and C, respectively, as shown in
the figure. Take O to be the centre of the circle of
radius R and angle CAB = 60° [JEE 2008]
Figure :
B
C
O x
60°
A

16. Under the influence of the Coulomb field of charge 18. Four point charges, each of +q are rigidly fixed at
+Q, a charge –q is moving around it in an elliptical the four corners of a square planar soap film of side
orbit. Find out the correct statement(s) 'a'. The surface tension of the soap film is γ . the
(A) The angular momentum of the charge –q is constant system of charges and planar film are in equilibrium,
(B) The linear momentum of the charge –q is constant 1/N
(C) The angular velocity of the charge –q is constant  q2 
and a = k   , where 'k' is a constant. Then N is
(D) The linear speed of the charge –q is constant  γ 
[JEE 2010] [JEE 2011]
Sol. Sol.
19. A wooden block performs SHM on a frictionless

17. A tiny spherical oil drop carrying a net charge q is surface with frequency, v0. The block carries a charge
balanced in still air with a vertical uniform electric
81π +Q on its surface. If now a uniform electric field E is
field of strength × 10 5 Vm −1 . When the field is switched-on as shown, then the SHM of the block will
7
be
switched off, the drop is observed to fall with termi-
nal velocity 2 × 10 –3 ms–1 Given g = 9.8 ms –2 , vis-
cosity of the air = 1.8 × 10–5 Ns m –2 and the den- E
sity of oil = 900 kg m –5 , the magnitude of q is : +Q
(A) 1.6 × 10–19C (B) 3.2 × 10–19C
(C) 4.8 × 10–19C (D) 8.0 × 10–19C
[JEE 2010]
Sol.
(A) of the same frequency and with shifted mean
position
(B) of the same frequency and with the same mean
position
(C) of changed frequency and with shifted mean po-
sition
(D) of changed frequency and with the same mean
position [JEE 2011]
Sol.

1. D 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. D
8. B 9. B 10. D 11. A 12. A 13. A 14. D
15. A 16. B 17. B 18. B 19. B 20. B 21. D
22. C 23. D 24. B 25. B 26. B 27. B 28. B
29. D 30. C 31. B 32. B 33. B 34. A 35. C
36. B 37. A 38. D 39. B 40. B 41. B 42. C
43. B 44. D 45. C 46. A 47. A 48. D 49. B
50. C 51. B 52. A 53. A 54. D 55. B 56. B
57. A 58. A 59. C 60. D 61. C 62. C
1. C,D 2. B,D 3. B 4. C,D 5. A,D 6. B 7. A,C
8. A 9. A,B,D 10. A,C 11. A,B,C 12. A 13. B,D 14. B
15. A,D 16. B,C 17. A,C 18. A 19. D 20. C 21. B
22. D 23. A,B,D 24. A,D 25. B,C,D 26. B,C
2
1. from charge 4e (If q is positive stable, If q is negative unstable)
3
d 4 Qq
2. , , 3. a = l(1 + 2 ), the equilibrium will be stable
2 2 3 3 πε0d2
m π 3 ε 0 d3 m π 3 ε 0 d3
4. a) (b)
Qq 2 Qq

E E E E
5. (i) a b r (ii) a b r (iii) a b r (iv) a b r
3/2
3 qQ
6. –   3 × 10–9C 7. 0 8. 0 9.
 11 8 π 2 ε 0r 2
3σλ 4Kqx 2Kqa

10. 2m ∈0 11.(i) 3/2 , along the axis, (ii) 0 (iii) 3/2
a2 
 a2 
 + x2   + x2 
 2   2 
4 2Kq 4Kq 2Kqa

12. (a) (i) 0 (ii) 0 (iii) , (b) (i) 2 (ii) 0 (iii)
a 2
x x3
1 1 Qq K
13. W = Kqq0  r – r  = 1.2 J 14. (a) 4 πε K (b) 15. –9.0 × 10–3 J
 B A 0 m
4Kq2  3 1  2Kq2  3 1  2Kq2  3 1 

16. (i) 3 + +  (ii) Wext = – 3 + +  , Wel = 3 + + 
a  2 3 a  2 3 a  2 3
Kq2  3 1  2Kq2  3 1  Kq2  3 1 

(iii) 3 + +  (iv) 3 + +  (v) 3 + + 
2ma  2 3 ma  2 3 ma  2 3
 σ q0  2kQ 2
17. 2 tan −1  18. 19. 20 ln 2
 2ε 0mg  mR
kq2 Q2 2ε 0 u 2 m
20. – (3 – 2 ) 21. 2 22.
a mπε 0 V qσ
1 Q2
23. 1.8 × 105 sec 24. K.E. =
2 4 πε 0 d
2x3 2qp
25. – + y3 + C 26.
3 4 πε 0 r 2
2KP0 Q KP0 Q 6KP0P 3KP0P

27. (i) (– i ) (ii) j (iii) i (iv) ( + ĵ )
r3 r3 r4 r4
7K K kP
28. |E| = ,V= [where K = 1/4 π∈0] 29. 3
(– i – 2 j )
8 4 2y

kq1q2
Q.1 (a) 60°(b) mg +
2
(c) 3 mg, mg. q1 & q2 should have unlike charges for the beads to remain stationaly & q2q2 = – mgl /k
2
λq 2
 
Q.2 9.30 Q.3 2ε 0 m Q.4 H2 = h1 + h2 – g  
 V
8 4  Kq2 v
Q.5 W first step =  –  , W second step = 0, W total = 0 Q.6 Q.7 4 πε 0Ka
3 5 r 3
Q 1 R1 ε r ρ0 4kq
Q.8 = Q.9 λ R E0 i Q.10 σ = Q.11 – i Q.12 A,D
Q 2 R2 εr – 1 πR2
1. D 2. A 3. (i) A, C, (ii) D, (iii) A, C
4. (a) E, (b) B, (c) v0 = 3 m/s ; K.E. at the origin = (27 – 10 6 ) × 10–4 J approx. 2.5 × 10–4 J
5. C 6. 5.86 m/s 7. B
1 q2 4 P Q QP
8. –
4 πε 0 a
.
6
[
3 3 –3 6 – 2 ] 9. (a) K.E. = 4 πε 2 , (b)
0 d 2πε 0 d3
along positive x-axis
(σ1 − σ2 ) Qa
10. D 11. 12. D 13. C 14. C 15. A,D
2 2 ε0
16. A 17. D 18. 0003 19. A

ELECTROST
ELECTROSTA
OSTATICS - 2
CONTENTS
1. Electric Flux .................................................................................................... 3 – 6
2. Concept of solid angle ..................................................................................... 7 – 8
3. Gauss’s Law ................................................................................................... 9 – 14
4. Conductor ...................................................................................................... 15 – 24
5. Charge Induction in Metal Cavity .................................................................... 25 – 36
6. Earthing ......................................................................................................... 37 – 38
7. Conducting Plates ......................................................................................... 39 – 43
8. Electrostatics Energy of a System ................................................................ 44 – 45
9. Exercise - I .................................................................................................... 46 – 56
10. Exercise - II.................................................................................................. 57 – 59
11. Exercise - III ................................................................................................. 60 – 63
12. Exercise - IV .................................................................................................... 64
13. Exercise - V ................................................................................................. 65 – 71
14. Answer key .................................................................................................. 71 – 72

JEE SYLLABUS :
Flux of electric field; Gauss’s law and its application in simple
cases, such as, to find field due to infinitely long straight wire,
uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged
thin spherical shell.

1. ELECTRIC FLUX :
Any group of electric lines of forces passing through a given surface, we call electric flux and it is denoted
by φ.
• Area as a Vector :
Till now we have considered area of a surface as a scalar quantity but for further analysis we treat area

of a surface as a vector quantity whose direction is along the normal to the surface. The area vector S
of a surface which has surface area S can be written as

S = Sˆ
n
Where n̂ is the unit vector in the direction along normal to the surface.
→
S n
If a surface is three dimensional we consider a small elemental area dS on this surface and direction of
this elemental area vector is along the local normal of the surface at the point where elemental area is
chosen as shown. Thus
→
dS = dS ˆ
a
Here â is the unit vector in the direction along the normal at elemental area dS.
a
dS
• Electric Field Strength in Terms of Electric Flux :

Earlier we’ve defined that the density of electric lines gives the magnitude of electric field strength.
Mathematically the numerical value of electric field strength at a point in the region of electric field can
be give as the electric flux passing through a unit normal area at that point.
→
Flux = φ = ∫ E.dA , If E is constant, φ = E. A
E
In a uniform electric field shown in figure. If φ be the flux passing
through an area S which is normal to the electric field lines, the
value of electric field strength at this surface can be given as
φ
E=
S
or flux through the surface can be given as area = S
φ = ES A B
If in an electric field, surface is not normal as shown in figure. Here
θ
the are ABCD is inclined at an angle θ from the normal to electric
field. Here we resolve the area ABCD in two perpendicular components
as shown in figure. One is S cos θ, which is area ABC′D′ normal to C'
electric field direction and other is S sin θ, which is area CDC′D′
C D D'
along the direction of electric field. area = S

Here the total flux passing through the given area ABCD is same
which is passing through its normal component S cos θ, thus here
A
the flux φ through the area can be given as B
φ = ES cos θ [S cos θ = area of ABC′D′]
θ
If we consider the direction of area vector normal to the area
E
surface, as shown in figure, θ would be the angle between S and θ

E . Thus flux through the surface ABCD can be given as →
S
D
φ = E.S C
(a) Electric Flux in Non-uniform Electric Field :

In non-uniform electric field, we can calculate electric flux through a given surface by integrating the
above expression for elemental surface area of the given surface.
For this consider the situation shown in figure. If we wish to calculate electric flux through the surface
M shown in figure.
For this we consider an elemental area dS on the surface M as
shown. At this position if electric field is E then the electric flux →
through this elemental area dS can be given as E dS
θ
dφ = EdS cos θ
Total flux through the surface M can be given as
φ = ∫ dφ = ∫ EdS cos θ
M
M
(b) Electric Flux Through a circular Disc :
φ

Figure shows a point charge q placed at a distance from a disc of radius R. Here we wish to find the
electric flux through the disc surface due to the point charge q. We know a point charge q originates
electric flux in radially outward direction. The flux of q which is originated in cone shown in figure passes
through the disc surface.
R E
θ →
dS
x
θ
q

To calculate this flux, we consider an elemental ring on disc surface of radius x and width dx as shown.
Area of this ring (strip) is
dS = 2πx dx
The electric field due to q at this elemental ring is given as
Kq
E= 2
(x + 2 )
If dφ is the flux passing through this elemental ring, we have
dφ = EdS cos θ
Kq 2πkql xdx
= × 2πx dx ×
(x2 + 2 ) 2 =
2
x + (l 2
+ x2 )3 / 2
Total flux through the disc surface can be given by integrating this expression over the whole area of
disc thus total flux can be given as
R
q x dx
φ = ∫ dφ = ∫2∈
O 0 (2 + x2 )3 / 2
R
q
R
x dx q  1  q  1 1 
=
2 ∈0 ∫O (2 + x2 )3 / 2 = 2 ∈0  − 2 + x2  = 2 ∈0  − 
2 + R 2 
 O
The above result can be obtained in a much simpler way by using the concept of solid angle and Gauss’s
Law, shortly we’ll discuss it.
(c) Electric Flux Through the Lateral Surface of a Cylinder due to a Point Charge :
Figure. shows a cylindrical surface of length L and radius R. On its axis at its centre a point charge q is
placed. Here we wish to find the flux coming out from the lateral surface of this cylinder due to the point
charge q.
For this we consider an elemental strip of width dx on the surface of cylinder as shown. The area of this
strip is
dS = 2πR . dx
The electric field due to the point charge on the strip can be given as →
dS
→
Kq E
E= θ
(x2 + R 2 )
If dφ is the electric flux through the strip, we can write θ

x C
dφ = E dS cos θ q dx
R
Kq R
= 2 2
× 2π Rdx ×
(x + R ) x + R2
2
L
dx
= 2π KqR 2 ×
(x2 + R 2 )3 / 2
Total flux through the lateral surface of cylinder can be given by integrating the above result for the
complete lateral surface, which can be given as
+L / 2
qR 2 dx
φ = ∫ dφ = ∫ 2 2 3/2
2 ∈0 −L / 2 (x + R )
q
or φ= .
∈0 2 + 4R 2
The solution of above integration is left for students as exercise. This situation can also be easily
handled by using the concepts of Gauss’s Law, we’ll discuss in next section.

(d) Electric flux Produced by a Point Charge :

The figure. shows a point charge placed at the centre of a
spherical surface of radius R from which electric lines are
originated and coming out of the surface of sphere. For clarity
and convenience only lower half of sphere is drawn in the picture.
As the charge q is inside the sphere, whatever flux it originates
will come out from the spherical surface. To find the total flux,
we consider an elemental area dS on surface. The electric field
on the points on surface of sphere can be given as
→
→ E
Kq dS
E= 2
R
The electric flux coming out from the surface dS is
→
dφ = E.dS = EdS [As θ = 0 shown in figure]
Kq
Thus dφ = dS
R2
Total flux coming out from the spherical surface is
Kq
φ = dφ =∫ R2
dS ∫
At every point of spherical surface, magnitude of electric field remains same hence we have
Kq
R2 ∫
φ= dS
Kq
× 4πR 2 ∫ dS = 4πR
2
or φ= [As ]
R2
q
φ=
∈0
q
Thus total flux, the charge q originates is ∈ . Similarly a
0
q
charge –q absorbs ∈ electric lines (flux) into it.
0
Figure shows a charge q enclosed in a closed surface S of

random shape. Here we can say that the total electric flux
emerging out from the surface S is the complete flux which
charge q is originating, hence flux emerging from surface is S
q
q
φS =
∈0
The above result is independent of the shape of surface it
only depends on the amount of charge enclosed by the sur- y
face.
(e) Flux Calculation in the Region of Varying Electric field :
In a region electric field depends on x dierection as
E = E0x2
E =
0
Ex2
In the cube of edge a shown in figure from front face electric φin φ out
flux goes in which can be given as a
φin = E0 (2a)2 . a2 = 4E0a4 2a x
From the other surface flux coming out can be given as O
a
φout = E0(3a)2 . a2 = 9 E0a4 a
Here φout > φin for the cubical surface hence net flux =φout – φin = 5E0a4

S
2. CONCEPT OF SOLID ANGLE :
Solid angle is the three dimensional angle enclosed by the lateral
surface of a cone at its vertex as shown in figure shown. Solid
angle can also be defined as the three dimensional angle
subtended by a spherical section at its centre of curvature. As R Solid angle Ω
in the figure shown point a is the centre of curvature of a
s p h e r i c a l s e c t i o n S o f ω r a d i u s R w h i c h s u b t e n d a s o l i d a n g l e
(omega) at point A.
A R dθ
(a) Relation in Half Angle of cone and Solid Angle at Vertex : Rsin θ
Consider a spherical section M of radius R, which subtend a half M
angle φ (radian) at the centre of curvature. To find the area of
this section, we consider an elemental strop on this section of
radius R sin θ and angular width dθ as shown in figure. The
surface area of this strip can be given as
dθ
dS = 2πR sin θ × Rdθ
θ
R
The total area of spherical section can be given by integrating
the area of this elemental strip within limits from O to φ. φ
Total area of spherical section is Ω
φ
O
∫ 2πR
2
S= ∫ dS = 0
sin θdθ
φ
= 2πR 2 – cos θ  0
= 2πR2 (1 – cos φ)
If solid angle subtended by this section at its centre O is Ω then its area can be given as
S = ΩR2
From equation (1) we have
ΩR2 = 2πR2 (1 – cosφ)
Ω = 2π (1 – cosφ)
Equation (2) gives the relation in half angle of a cone φ and the solid angle enclosed by the lateral
surface of cone at its vertex.
(b) Electric Flux Calculation due to a Point Charge Using solid Angle :
Figure shows a point charge q placed at a distance from the centre of a circular disc of radius R. Now
we wish to find the electric flux passing through the disc surface due to the charge q.
2 + R2
R
φ
q
Ω
q
We know from a point charge q, total flux originated is in all directions or we can say that from a
∈0
q
point charge q, flux is originated is 4π solid angle.
∈0
Here the solid angle enclosed by cone subtended by disc at the point charge can be given as
 
Ω = 2π(1 – cos φ) = 2π  1 – 2
 2
 +R 

Now we can easily calculate the flux of q which as passing through the disc surface as
q / ∈0 q / ∈0  
φdisc = ×Ω = × 2π  1 – 
4π 4π  2 2
 +R 
q  
or φdisc = 2 ∈  1 – 2
 2
0  +R 
Ex.1 Find the electric flux coming out from one face of a cube of edge a, centre of which a point
charge q is placed.
Sol. Here the total solid angle subtended by cube surface at the point charge q is 4π. As q is at centre of
cube, we can say the each face of cube subtend equal solid angle at the centre, thus solid angle
subtended by each force at point charge is
4π
Ω face = steradian
6
Thus electric flux through each face is

q
q / ∈0
φface = × Ω face
4π
q / ∈0 4π q
= × = 6∈
4π 6 0
Ex.2 A point light source of 100 W is placed at a distance x from the centre of a hole of radius R in a
sheet as shown in figure. Find the power passing through the hole in sheet.
R
x
100°W bulb
Sol.
From figure, the solid angle of cone shown in figure can be given as
 x 
Ω = 2π (1– cos θ) = 2π  1 – 
 R + x2
2
 θ
Ω
Power in hole = power given in solid angle Ω
100
P= ×Ω
4π
100  x 
= 4π × 2π  1 – 
 R + x2
2

 x 
= 50  1 –  watt
 R + x2
2


3. GAUSS’S LAW :
This law is the mathematical analysis of the relation between the electric flux from a closed surface and
its enclosed charge.
This law states that the total flux emerging out from a closed surface is equal to the product of sum of
1
enclosed charge by the surface and the constant ∈
0
Mathematically Gauss’s law is written as

→ → ∑ qencl
∫ E .dS =
M
∈0
Here the sign ∫ represents the integration over a closed surface M which encloses a total charge
∑ qencl
Let us consider a surface M shown in figure which encloses three charges q1 – q2 and q5. For the surface
→ →
∫ E .dS , it gives the total electric flux coming out from the
M if we find surface integral of electric field
M
surface, which can be given as

→ → q1 + q5 – q3
∫ E .dS =
M
∈0
[Gauss’s Law]
q2 q4
q1
q5
–q3
q7
M –q6
Here electric field →E is the net electric field at the points on the surface of M. Remember that the
electric field we use to find the flux must be the net electric field of the system due to all the charges
but the total flux coming out from the surface is the flux originated by the charges enclosed in the
closed surface.
Using Gauss law we can find electric field strength due to some symmetrical distribution of charges.
For appllication of Gauss’s Law, we choose a closed surface over which we apply Gauss law, called
Gaussian surface.
Gauss Law can be used to calculate electric field strength, for this we first choose a proper Gaussian
surface on which the electric field strength is to be calculated.
→ →
Some times a random Gaussion surface is chosen then the integral ∫ E .dS involves complex calcula-
tions. To make these calculations easier, we choose a Gaussian surface keeping following points in mind.
(i) The Gaussion surface should be chosen in such a way that at every point of surface the magnitude of
electric field is either uniform or zero.
(ii) The surface should be chosen in such a way that at every point of surface electric field strength is
either parallel or perpendicular to the surface.

Following example will illustrate the applications of Gauss’s Law in calculation of electric field in the
surrounding of some charge configurations.
Gauss Law is a very helpful tool in finding the electric field strength due to various distribution of
charges. We start with a very simple example. Now we try to find the electric field strength due to a
point charge q at a distance x, using Gauss’s law.
P
q x
To find electric field strength at P, we first consider a Gaussian surface so that point P will be on its
surface. But the question is what should be the shape of Gaussion surface. Look at the following figure
shown.
dS
E
P p
x q x q x
q
→ →
If we apply Gauss’s Law to the above two cases, it will require laborious calculations to find ∫ E .dS .
The Gaussion surface should be chosen in such a way to minimize the calculations. Now consider a
spherical surface shown in figure. at every point of this surface electric field due to the charge q is
kq
E=
x2
Here if we use Gauss Law for the spherical surface, we have
→ → q q
∫ E .dS = ∈
0
⇒ E∫ dS = ∈
0
q 1 q Kq
E . 4πx2 = ∈ or E= 2
= 2
0 4π ∈0 x x
→
Here we can see that at every point of sphere electric field vector is parallel to dS and also the
→ → →
magnitude of E is uniform at every point, thus the integral ∫ E .dS can be easily evaluted.
Basically flux is the count of number of lines of electric field crosing an area.
For open surface we choose one direction as a area vector & stick to it for the whole problem

Ex.3 In figure (a) a charge q is pla ed just outside the centre of a closed hemisphere. In figure (b)
the same charge q is placed just inside the centre of the closed hemisphere and in figure (c) the
charge is plced at the centre of hemisphere open from the base. Find the electric flux passing
through the hemisphere in all the three cases.
q
q
q
(a) (b) (c)
Sol. In figure (a) φ = 0

In figure (b) φ = q/ε0
In figure (c) φ = q/2ε0
Ex.4 A charge q is placed at point D of the cube. Find the electric flux passing through the face EFGH
and face AEHD.
B F
E
A
G
C
D H
Sol. φ = q/6ε0
(i) Electric field due to a point charge
The electric field due to a point charge is every where radial. We wish to find the electric field at a
distance r from the charge q. We select Gaussain surface, a sphere at distance r from the charge. At
every point of this sphere the electric field has the same magnitude E and it is perpendicular to the
surface itself. Hence we can apply the simplified form of Gauss law,
qin
ES =
ε0
q
Here, S = area of sphere = 4π r2 and E
r
qin = net charge enclosing the Gaussian surface = q
q
∴ E(4πr2 ) =
ε0
1 q
∴ E= . 2
4πε0 r

(ii) Electric Field Strength due to a Long Charged Wire :

If we wish to find electric field strength due to a long charged
wire having a linear charge density λ coul/m at a point P
situated at a distance x from the wire.
I
For this application of Gauss’s Law we consider a cylindrical II
Gaussian surface of length and radius x as shown in figure.
If we apply Gauss’s Law on this surface, we have P
→ → qencl
∫ E .dS = ∈0 ...(1)
III
Here the closed Gaussian surface is made of three parts, I,
II and III, two flat circular faces and one cylindrical lateral
surface. Here we split the closed surfae integration in three
parts as
λ coul / m
→ → → → → → → →
∫ E .dS = ∫ E .dS + ∫ E .dS +
I II
∫
III
E .dS
Here we know for part I and III, electric field strength vector is perpendicular to the area vector as
shown in figure hence no flux will come out of these parts. Thus we have
→ → → →
∫ E .dS = ∫ E .dS = 0
I III
Now from equation (1) we have

λ
E∫ dS =
II
∈0
[As enclosed charged is qencl = λ l ]

For lateral surface as E is parallel to ds is parallel
λl
E∫ ds =
II ε0
λ
or E.2πx =
∈0
λ 2kλ
or E = 2π ∈ x =
0 x
(iii) Electric Field Strength due to a Long Uniformly Charged Cylinder :

σ coul / m2
I
II
x
III
R

Case - I : Conducting Cylinder

Figure shows a long cylinder of radius R which is uniformly charged on its surface with surface charge
density σ coul/m2
We know at interior points of a metal body electric field strength is zero. For finding electric field
strength at outer points at a distance x from the axis of the cylinder, we consider a cylindrical Gaussian
surface of radius x and length as shown in figure. Now we apply Gauss’s Law on this surface we have
→ qencl
∫ E .dS = ∈0
Here enclosed charge in the cylindrical Gaussian surface can be given
qencl = σ . 2π R
Here also similar to previous case the electric flux through the circular faces is zero, hence according to
Gauss law, we have
→ → σ.2πR σ.2πR σR
∫II E .dS = ∈0 or E∫ dS =
II
∈0
or E=
∈0 x
Case II : Uniformly Charged Non-conducting Cylinder

Figure shows a long cylinder of radius R, charged uniformly with volume charge density ρ coul/m3. To find
electric field strength at a distance x from the cylinder axis we again consider a cylindrical Gaussian
surface shown in figure.
If we apply Gauss Law on this surface, we have
→ → qencl
∫ E .dS = ∈0
→ → ρ.πR 2
or ∫ E .dS = ∈0
II
[As qencl = ρ.πR2 ]
ρπR 2
or E∫ dS =
∈0
ρπR 2
or E.2πx =
∈0
To find electric field inside the cylinder at a distance x from
the axis, we consider a small cylindrical Gaussian surface of
radius x and length . If we apply Gauss Law for this surface,
I
we have
→ → q
∫ E .dS = ∈0 x II
encl
III
ρπx2
or E∫ dS =
II
∈0
ρπx2 ρ R2
or E.2πx = or E =
∈0 2ε0 x
ρx
or E=
2 ∈0

(iv) Electric field Strength due to a Non-conducting Uniformly Charged Sheet :

To find the electric field strength at a point P infront of the charged sheet we consider a cylindrical
Gaussian surface as shown in figure of face area S. If we apply Gauss law for this surface, we have
→ → qencl
∫ E .dS = ∈0
σ coul / m2
→ → → → → → σS
or ∫I E .dS + II∫ E .dS + III∫ E .dS = ∈0 [As here qencl = σS]
→ →
area S
In this case ∫ E .dS = 0
II
as the lateral surface of cylinder is
E II E
parallel to the direction of electric field strength, no flux is
coming out from the lateral surface, hence we have P
I x
III
σS
∫I EdS + II∫ EdS = 2 ∈0
σS
or 2ES = [As electric field is uniform on both sides]
∈0
σ
or E=
2 ∈0
(v) Electric field Stength due to a Charged Conducting Sheet :
Figure show a large charged conducting sheet, charged on both the surfaces with surface charge
density σ coul/m2. As we know in the metal sheet there is no charge within the volume of the sheet and
also the electric field inside the metal sheet is zero. To find electric field strength at a point P in front of
the sheet we consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface having one face at point P where electric field is
required and other face is within the volume of sheet. If we apply Gauss’s Law on this surface, we have
→ → qencl
∫ E dS = ∈0
→ → → → → → σS
or ∫ E .dS + ∫ E .dS + ∫ E .dS =
∈0 [As here qencl = σS]
I II III σ coul / m2
Here on surface I of the Gaussian surface E = 0 hence
→ → → →
∫ E .dS = 0 and ∫ E .dS = 0 as no electric flux is coming out
I II
I area S
from the lateral surface of cylinder ( E is perpendicular to
area vector of curved surface). Hence we have total flux II
P
coming out is E
→ → σS
∫II E .dS = ∈0
σS σ
or ES = or E=
∈0 ∈0

CONDUCTOR
TYPE OF MATERIALS
conductors Semi-conductors Insulators

(All electrons are free) (Some electrons are free) (all electrons are bounded)
4. CONDUCTORS :
A conductors contains free electrons, which can move freely in the material, but cannot leave it.
On applying an external electric field on a conductor charges of a conductor adjust themselves in such
a fashion that the net electric field inside the conductor is zero under electrostatics conditions.
– +
+
– +
+
– +
+
– +
– E E +
– inside outside +
– +
– +
– ++
→
Net E = 0 ⇒ Potential is constant
∴ Conductor behaves as an equipotential surface
Being an equipotential surface, electric field lines will terminate or originate perpendicularly
Let us now consider the interior of a charged conducting object. Since it is a conductor, the electric
field in the interior is everywhere zero. Let we analyse a Gaussian surface inside the conductor as

close as possible to the surface of the conductor. Since the electric intensity E is zero everywhere
inside the conductor, it must be zero for every point of the Gaussian surface. Hence the flux through
the surface.
q
(∫ E.dS = ) , the net charge inside the
∫ E.dS will be zero. Therefore, according to Gauss's law ε 0
Gaussian surface and hence inside the conductor must be zero. Since there can be no charge in the
interior of the conductor charge given to the conductor will reside on the surface of the conductor.
All the charge given to the conductor reside on the surface of the conductor
Q
+ +
+ + +
+
+
+
+ + +++
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+ ++
+ + +
Till now we have only discussed the case of uniform shaped bodies on which the charge distribute itself
uniformly.
But what about the charge distribution on irregular shaped bodies ?
Does in this case also uniform charge distribution take place ? .............. NO

++
++ +
+
+ +
+
+ ++
+ +
+ +
1 Q +
σ∝ +
In this case rC +
+
+
charge per radius of +
unit area curvature + +
+ + + + + + +
• Let us consider a random shaped body and find Electric field due to a small portion of this body.
++
However the σ is not uniform everywhere but for a small area + + +
+
+ +
dA, we can assume that σ is constant. Considering a cylindrical +
+ ++
gaussian surface, we will calculate flux pasing through the +
+ +
cross section dA. +
+ +
+
q +
+
φnet = ∫ E.ds = in +
ε0 +
+ + ++
+ + + +
E
φnet = φcurved surface + φouter flat surface + φ inner flat surface
φcurved surface = 0
because no flux is passing through lateral surface (electric field lines are perpendicular to area vector.)

E.ds = 0
φinner flat surface = 0

because E inside conductor = 0
qin
∴ ε = φouter flat surface
0
σdA σ
= E.dA ⇒ E= ε
ε0 0
5. ELECTRIC PRESSURE :
(a) Electric pressure on a Charged Metal Surface :
We know when some charge is given to a metal body it will spread
on the outer surface of the body due to mutual repulsion in the dS
M
charge. When on surface every charge experiences an outward A B
repulsive force due to remaining charges, every part of body
N
experiences an outward pressure. This pressure which acts on every
part of charged metal body surface due to remaining charges on the
body is called electric pressure.
To calculate this we consider a small segment AB on body surface of
C
area dS as shown. If σ be the surface charge density on AB, charge
on it is
dq = σdS
Now we consider two points M and N just outside and inside of section AB as shown in figure. At the
two point if E1 be the electric field due to section. AB then direction of the electric fields at M and N
can be given as shown in figure. If we remove section AB from the body then due to removing body
ACB, if E2 be the electric field strength at point M and N, the direction of E2 can be given as shown in
figure.

E2
AM B
E1
N E2
M
A B
N
E1
C
(a)
(b)
Due to complete body we know net electric fields at just outside and inside points can be given as
σ
EM = E1 + E2 = ...(1)
ε0
and EN = E1 – E2 = 0 ...(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) we get
E1 = E2
σ
and E1 = E2 =
2 ε0
σ
Thus electric field at the location of section AB due to remaining body ACB is , using which we can
2 ε0
find the outward force on section AB, due to the rest of the body ACB as
σ
Force on AB is dF = dq E2 = σ dS ×
2 ε0
Thus pressure experienced by the section AB can be given as
df σ2
Pe = =
ds 2ε0
As net electric field outside the surface is
σ
Enet =
∈0
(Enet )2
Thus we have Pe =
2 ∈0
1 2
Pe = ∈0 Enet
2
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL BODIES
Conducting Conducting Non Conducting Non Conducting

hollow sphere Solid sphere Hollow sphere Solid sphere
Will behave in the same fashion

because E & potential depends on
charge distribution & all the above
three spheres have same charge
distribution


(b) E due to conducting hollow sphere, conducting solid sphere & non conducting hollow sphere.
For the above mentioned bodies, any excess charge given to body gets distributed uniformly over its
outer surface. Since the charge lines must point radially outward & also the field strength will have the
same value at all points on any imaginary spherical surface concentric with the charged conducting
sphere or the shell this is the symmetry which leads us to choose the gaussian surface to be a sphere.

Any arbitrary element of area ds is parallel to the local E so E. ds = Eds at all points on the surface.
(c) Electric field Strength due to a Conducting (solid and hollow) Sphere, Non conducting hollow
sphere
Case I : x > R
To find electric field at an outer point at a distance x from the centre of sphere, we cosider a spherical
Gaussian surface of radius x. If electric field strength at every point of this surface is E, using Gauss’s
law we have
E dS
→ → q
∫ E .dS = ∈0
encl
P
Q
Here we have E∫ dS = + + +Q
∈0 +
+
+ + +
+ + +
Q
or E. 4πx2 = R
∈0
+
+
++ +
1 Q
E = 4π ∈ . 2
0 x
Simlarly for surface points we can consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius R which gives electric
field strength on the sphere surface as
1 Q
ES =
4π ∈0 x 2
To find electric field strength at an interior point of the sphere, we consider an inner spherical Gaussian
surface of radius x(x < R).
Here if we apply Gauss Law for this surface, we have
+ + + Q
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
C
+
P
x
+
+
+
R
+
+ +
+ + + +
→ → qencl
∫ E .dS = ∈0
= 0 [As all charge is on surface]
Thus E=0 [As dS ≠ 0]
For points outside the sphere, the field is same as that of a point charge at the centre of sphere.

Case II x < R
1 Q
4πε 0 R2
r=R
Non-conducting Uniformly Charged Sphere

For outer and surface points the electric field strength can be calculated by using Gauss Law similar to
the previous case of conducting sphere.
For interior points of sphere, we consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius x as shown. If we apply
Gauss Law for this surface, we have
ρcoul / m3
→ → q
∫ E .dS = ∈0
encl
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
Here enclosed charge can be given as + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
4 + + + + + + + + + + +
qencl = ρ × πx3 + + + + + + C + + + + ++
3
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
4 + + + + + + + + + +
ρ × πx3
3 + +R+ + + + + + +
Thus E. 4πx =2
∈0 + + + + + + +
ρx
or E = 3∈
0
Case II : At an external point (r > R)

To find the electric field outside the charged sphere, we use a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r(r
> R). This surface encloses the entire charged sphere. So, from Gauss's law, we have
Q
E(4πr2 ) =
ε0
1 Q
or, E= ...(13F)
4π ε 0 r 2
The field at points outside the sphere is the same as that of a point charge at the centre.
Variation of E with the distance from the centre (r)
1 Q
4π ε 0 R2
O r
r=R

• Electric Potential Inside a Metal Body :

As we've already discussed whenever charge is given to a metal body, it is distributed on its outer
surface in such a way that net electric field at every interior point of body is zero. Thus if inside a
metal body, a charge is displaced, no work is done in the process as electric field at every point is zero.
Hence we can say that the whole metal body is equipotential
On the basis of above explanation we can state that a region in which at every point electric field is
zero, can be regarded as equipotential region.
• Electric Potential due to a Charged Sphere :

Case I : Conducting Sphere Q
+ + +
As we know for outer points of a charged sphere we can + + +
+
assume whole charge is concentrated at its centre thus
+
electric potential at a distance x from the centre of sphere
+
+ + +
+ + + + +
outside can be given as
R
KQ
V=
x
+ +
+
+
At the points on surface of sphere, the potential can be given as + + + +
++ + +
KQ
Vs =
R
At the interior points of sphere as at every point electric field is zero, we can state that this is an
equipotential region thus at every interior point potential is same as that of its surface. Thus we have
KQ
Vin =
R
• Variation of Potential with Distance from centre of Sphere :
KQ 1
R V∝
x
x
O
Note : Above results are also valid for a uniformly charged hollow sphere.
Case II : Non-conducting Uniformly Charged Sphere
For outer and surface points here also we can say that the potnetial remains same as that of a
conducting sphere as
KQ
Vout = (for x > R)
x S
KQ + + + + +
VS = (for x = R) + + + + + + + +
R + + + + P+ + + + + +
For an interior point unlike to a conducting sphere, potential + + + + + + + + + +
will not remain uniform as electric field exists inside region. + + + + + + + + + + +
We known inside a uniformly charged sphere electric field is + + + + + + + + + + ++
in radially outward direction thus as we move away from + + + + + + + + +R+ + + Q
+ + + + + + + + + + +
centre, in the direction of electric field potential decreases. + + + + + + + + + + +
As shown in figure if there is a point P at a distance x from the + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
centre of sphere, the potential difference between points P + + + + + +
and S can be given as

R
KQx
Vp – VS = ∫
x R
3
dx
KQ KQ
or VP – = (R 2 – x2 )
R 2R 3
KQ KQ
or VP = 3
(R 2 – x2 ) +
2R R
KQ
Vp = (3R 2 – x2 )
2R 3
Here at x = 0, we have potential at centre of sphere is
3KQ 3
Vc = = Vs
2R 2
Thus at centre, potential is maximum and is equal to 3/2 times that on the surface.
• Variation of Potential in a Uniformly Charged Sphere with Distance :
3 kQ v
2 R
V KQ 1
R V∝
x
O x=R x
6. FIELD ENERGY OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

→
E
qE
m,q
Consider a situation shown in figure. A small body of mass m and charge q placed in an electric field E.
When the body is released it starts moving in the direction of electric field due to the electric field qE
acting on it. The body will gain some kinetic energy due to its motion. Who is giving energy to this
particle ? Answer is simple-electric field. This shows that electric field must posses some energy in the
region where field exist due to which it can do work on any charged body placed in it. This energy we
call field energy of electric field. Wherever electric field exist, field energy also exsit in space. Let us
calculate the amount of energy stored in the space where electric field exist.
(a) Field Energy Density of Electric field :
As discussed in previous section in every region where electric field is present, energy must exist. This
field energy we can calculate by an example given here.
Consider a charged conducting body shown in figure. Its surface M is having a charge distributed on it.
We know the electric field just outside the surface M at a point can be given as
σ
E=
ε0

M'
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ M +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + +
We also know that on the surface of metal body experience an outward electric pressure which is given
as
σ2 1
Pe = = ∈0 E2
2 ∈0 2
Now if we consider that the metal surface M is flexible and allowed to expand due to electric pressure
upto a small limit to M′. Here if we check electric field associated with the body, we known inside the
body there is no electric field. Initially electric field only exist from surface M to infinity. Hence the field
energy also exist from the surface M to infinity. When the surface expand to M′ then in the final stage
the electric field as well as field energy exist from surfaec M′ to infinity. This implies that during
expansion of surface field energy in the shaded volume (say dV) vanishes as before expansion there
was electric field in this region and after expansion electric field becomes zero in the region as there is
no electric field inside the body.
We also know that the expansion is done by electric force in the body (electric pressure) hence
the work done by electric field during expansion is equal to the loss in field energy in the shaded volume
dv.
If Pe is the electric pressure on the body surface then in the small expansion in body volume dV,
work done can be given as
dW = PedV
And if dU the field energy stored in this volume dV then we can use
dU = dW = PedV
dU
or = Pe
dV
σ2 1 2 3
u= = ∈0 E joul / m
2 ∈0 2
dU
Here u = is the field energy stored per unit volume in the space where electric field E exist and is
dV
called field energy density of electric field.
If in a region electric field is uniform, the total field energy stored in a given volume V of space can be
given as
1
U= ∈0 E2 × V
2
If electric field in a region is non-uniform, the total field energy stored in a given volume of space can
be calulated by integrating the field energy in an elemental volume dV of space as
1
dU = ∈0 E2 × dV
2
And total field energy in a given volume can be given as
1
U = ∫ dU = ∫2∈ 0 E2 dV

(b) Self energy of a Hollow, conducting, solid conducting & hollow non conducting sphere.
We’ve dicussed whenever a system of charges is assembled, some
work is done and this work is stored in the form of electrical potential dq
energy of the system. Now we consider an example of charging a q
conducting sphere of radius R.
In the process of charging we bring charge to the sphere from
infinity in steps of elemental charges dq. The charge on sphere
opposes the elemental charge being brough to it. Let us assume
that at an instant sphere has charge q, due to which it has a
potential given as R
Kq
V=
R
If now a charge dq is brought to its surface from infinity work done in this process can be given as
Kq
dW = dqV = dq
R
Total work done in charging the sphere can be given as
Q
Kq
W = ∫ dW = ∫ dq
0 R
KQ2
W= ...(1)
2R
Equation (1) gives the total work done in charging the sphere of radius R.
We’ve discussed that in space wherever electric field exist, there must be some field energy stored
which has energy density, given as
1
u= ∈0 E2 J / m3
2
Here we can see that when the sphere was uncharged, there dx
was no electric field in its surroundings. But when the sphere
is fully charged, electtric field exist in its surrounding from its +
Q +
surface to infinity. Let us calculate the field energy associated
+
+
with this charged conducting sphere.

R
+
We know electric field due to a sphere at outer points varies

+
+
+
with distance from centre as
KQ
E=
x2
To find the total field energy due to this sphere, we consider an elemental spherical shell of radius x
and width dx as shown in figure. The volume enclosed in this shell is
dV = 4πx2. dx
Thus the field energy stored in the volume of this elemental shell is
1
dU = ∈ E2 . dV
2 0
2
1  KQ  2 KQ2
= ∈0  2  × 4πx dx = dx
2 x  2x2

Thus total field energy associated with the sphere can be calculated by integrating this expression
from surface of sphere to infinity as electric field inside the sphere is zero.
Total field energy in the surrounding of sphere is
∞
KQ2
U = ∫ dU = ∫ 2x 2
dx
R
∞
KQ2  1 KQ2
=
2 – x  = ...(2)
 R 2R
Here we can see that this result is same as equation (1). We can conclude by this total whatever work
is done in charging a body is stored in its surrounding in the form of its field energy and can be regarded
as self energy of that body. Once a body is charged in a given configuration, its self energy is fixed, if
the body is now displaced or moved in any manner keeping its shape and charge distribution constant,
its self energy does not charge. as discussed above we can say that
“Self energy of a charged body is the total field energy, associated with the electric field due to
this body in its surrounding.
(c) Self Energy of a Uniformly Charged Non-conducting Sphere :

We know in outside region of a non-conducting uniformly charged + + + + + Q
+ + + + + + + +
sphere, every point is same as that of a conducting sphere of same + + + + + + + + + +
radius. Thus field energy in the surrounding of this sphere from + + + + + + + + + +
surface to infinity can be given as + + +dx + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + ++
KQ2 + + + + + + + + + +R+ +
UR →∞ = + + + + + + + + + + +
2R + + + + + + + + + + +
Unlike to the case of conducting sphere, in nonconducting sphere at + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
interior point E ≠ 0. Thus field energy also exist in the interior region.
This can be calculated by considering an elemental shell inside the
sphere as shown.
Here field energy in the volume of this elemental shell can be given as
2
1  KQx  KQx
dU = ∈0  3  × 4πx2 dx [As Ein = ]
2  R  R3
KQ2 4
= x dx
2R 6
Total field energy inside the sphere can be given as
R
KQ2  x5 
R
KQ2
U = ∫ dU = ∫ x dx ⇒ U =
4
 
2R 6 0 2R 6  5  0
KQ2
U0→R =
10 R
Thus total self energy of this sphere can be given as
U
self
= U0 →R
+ UR → ∞
KQ2 KQ2 3 KQ2

Uself = + ⇒ Uself =
10R 2R 5 R

7. CHARGE INDUCTION IN METAL CAVITIES :

We've discussed that there can never be any electric field inside a conductor due to static charges.
Hence no electric line of force can enter into a conducting body. Consider a point charge +q inside a
spherical cavity at centre within a metal body shown in figure.
q
The total electric flux originated by +q is ∈ . Due to this charge at the inner surface of cavity a
0
charge – q is induced on which this complete flux will terminate and no electric line of force exists into
the metal body. A point, A inside the metal volume we know net electric field is zero. Thus the electric
field at A due to the point charge +q is nullified by the electric field due to the negative induced
charges on the inner surface of cavity and the positive charge induced on outer surface is automati-
cally distributed on the surface in such a way that it does not produce any electric field with in the
metal body.
+ + + + + + +
+
+
A
+
+
– – ––
–– –
+
–
+
– +q
– –
– +q –– +
+
–
– –
+
–– –
+
––
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
From the above analysis we can conclude some points about the charge induction when a charge is
placed inside the cavity of a metal body. These are.
(1) Whenever a charge is placed inside a metal cavity, an equal and opposite charge is induced on the
inner surface of cavity.
(2) A similar charge is induced on the outer surface of body with surface charge density inversely
proportional to radius of curvature of body
(3) When the charge inside is displaced, the induced charge distribution on inner surface of body
changes in such a way that its centre of charge can be assumed to be at the point charge so as to
nullify the electric field in outer region.
(4) Due to movement in the point charge inside the body. The charge distribution on outer surface of
body does not change as shown in figure.
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ +
+
+ – – + – –
– – ––
+ + +
+ + +
– +q –– – –
– +q ––
+ +
– – – –
+ +
+ + – –
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
(5) If another charge is brought to the body from outside, it will only affect the outer distribution of
charges not on the charge distribution inside the cavity as shown in figure
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+
+ + – – + – –
+ + +
– –– – ––
+
– –
– – –
+q –––
+
++ +q
– – –––
+
– ––
+
+
+ + +
+ ++ + +
+ +

Now consider the situation shown in figure. Inside a

and outer radius + + +
c o n d u c t i n g s p h e
1
r i c a l s h e l l o f i n n e r r a d i u s R
+
R2, a point charge q is placed at a distance x from the +
+
centre as shown. The electric potential at centre due to
q
+
this system can be given as R1
C
+
r
+
kq Kq Kq
+
VC = r – R + R q R2
+
1 2
+
If we find electric field and potential at a distance r from + +
+
the centre outside the shell, it will be only due to the
+
charge on outer surface as induced charge on inner sur-
face of cavity always nullifies the effect of point charge
inside it. Thus it can be given as
kq kq
Eout = and VP =
r2 r + +
+ Q
+
Cavity in a conducting Material
+
+
consider the system shown in figure. As we know that when a R1
+
+
charge is given to a conductor it resides on its outer surface.
+
+
R2
+
Let us find E at a point distanced r +
+ +
Case I
where r < R1

E = 0[because net charge within this region = 0]
Case II
When R1 < r < R2
qin
E = 0 [qnet = 0, φ = ε = 0 ⇒ E = 0 ]
0
Case III
When r > R2
kQ
E = 2 [It is similar to case of hollow charged sphere] + +
+
r +
+
+
Now we consider a case when charge is placed inside a

QA B C
conductor. For such case charge distribution will be as
+
+
follows S1
+
+
For simplicity in the calculation, we could bifurgate the S2

+
+
above system as + +
• A point charge
• A hollow sphere S1 with charge –Q
• A hollow sphere S2 with charge +Q
electric field at A
KQ
Due to Q =
r2
Due to S1 = 0 [∵ Point lies inside the hollow sphere]
Due to S2 = 0 [∵ Point lies inside the hollow sphere]

Electric field at B
KQ
→
r2
D u e t o Q =
KQ
Due to S1 = ←
r2
Due to S2 = 0

Enet at B = 0
Electric field at C
kq
Due to Q = →
r2
kq
Due to S1 = ←
r2
kq
Due to S2 = →
r2
kq
Enet at C = 2 →
r

At point C, net E due to S1 & q is zero. E at C is only due to outside charge (S2). If we place an
external charge at point C, then effect of S1 & Q on external charge is zero or we can say that effect
of external charge on S1 & Q is zero.
Or we can say charge placed inside the conductor & the charge induced on the inner surface of the
conductor does not get affected by any external electric field this is known as electrostatic shielding
that is why, equipment sensitive towards electric field are placed inside a conductor. External electric
field only affects the charge distributed on the surface of conductor.
We again go back to the case when a charge was placed in the conductor
Potential at A + +
+
+
kQ
+
Due to Q =
+
r QA B C
+
+
–kQ
+
Due to S1 = R
+
S2
S1
+
1
+ +
+
kQ
due to S2 = R
2
1 1 1 
⇒ Vnet = kQ  – + 
 r R1 R 2 
Potential at B
kq
Due to Q =
r
–kQ
Due to S1 =
r
kQ kQ
Due to S2 = ⇒ Vnet =
R2 R2

Potential at C
kQ
Due to Q =
r
–kQ
Due to S1 = –
r
kQ
Due to S2 =
r
kQ
Vnet =
r
While writing potential at various points is case of cavity in a conducting material first distribute
charge on various surfaces & then the potential due to induced charges is also considered.
8. CAVITY IN A NON CONDUCTING SPHERE
(a) Electric field due to a Non-uniformly Radially Charged Solid Non-conducting Sphere :
If a sphere of radius R is charged with a non-uniform charge density
which varies with the distance x from centre x as P
r
ρ0
ρ= coul / m3
x dx
Here if we wish to find electric field strength at a point situated at a x

distance r from centre of sphere outside it, at point P shown in R
figure. This can be given as
KQ
Ep = (where Q is the total charge of sphere)
r2
For outer points we can assume whole charge of sphere to be at its centre. Now Q can be calculated
by integrating the charge of an elemental shell of radius x and width dx as shown in figure. The charge
dq in this shell can be given as
ρ0
dq = ρ. 4πx2 dx = × 4πx2dx = 4πρ0x dx
x
Total charge of sphere can be given as
R
R
 x2 
Q= ∫ dq = ∫0 0
4 πρ xdx = 4 πρ0   = 2πρ0 R2
 2 0
Thus electric field strength at outer points can be given as
K(2πρ0R 2 ) ρ0R 2
EP = =
r2 2 ∈0 r 2
To find electric field strength at an interior point at a distance r from the centre of sphere, we first find
the charge enclosed within the inner sphere of radius r of which point P is on the surface. Thus
enclosed charge can be given as
r
ρ0
∫ R .4πx dx = 2πρ r
2
qencl = 0
2
0
Here electric field strength at point P can be given as
Kqencl K(2πρ0r2 )
EP = 2 =
r r2
ρ0
EP =
2 ∈0
Here we can see that the above expression is independent of distance from centre.

Ex.5 Figure shows a uniformly charged sphere of radius R

Q
and total charge Q. A point charge q is situated outside
the sphere at a distance r from centre of sphere. Find R
out the following :
q
(i) Force acting on the point charge q due to the sphere.
(ii) Force acting on the sphere due to the point charge.
Sol. (i) Electric field at the position of point charge
KQ
E= 2 ˆ
r
r
KqQ KqQ
so, F = 2 ˆ r | F |= 2
r r
(ii) Since we know that every action has equal opposite reaction so
KqQ
Fsphere = – 2 ˆ r
r
KqQ
| Fsphere | = 2
r
Ex.6 Figure shows a uniformly charged thin sphere of total

A
charge Q and radius R. A point charge q is also situated
at the centre of the sphere. Find out the following : B
q
(i) Force on charge q C
(ii) Electric field intensity at A.
(iii) Electric field intensity at B.
Sol. (i) Electric field at the centre of the uniformly charged hollow sphere = 0
So force on charge q = 0
(ii) Electric field at A

EA = ESphere + Eq
Kq
= 0+ ; r = CA
r2
E due to sphere = 0, because point lies inside the charged hollow sphere.

(iii) Electric field EB at point B = E Sphere + E q
KQ Kq
= 2
ˆ
r+ 2 ˆ
r
r r
K(Q + q)
= .rˆ ; r = CB
r2
Here we can also assume that the total charge of sphere is concentrated at the centre, for calculation
of electric field at B.
Ex.7 Two concentric uniformly charged spherical shells of Q2
radius R and R (R > R ) have total charges Q and Q Q1
1 2 2 1 1 2
respectively Derive an expression of electric field as a
function of r for following positions. R1
(i) r < R1 (ii) R1 ≤ r < R2 (iii) r ≥ R2 R2

Sol. (i) for r < R1,

therefore point lies inside both the spheres
Enet = Einner + Eouter = 0
(ii) for R1 ≤ r < R2,
therefore point lies outside inner sphere but inside outer sphere :
KQ1 KQ1
Enet = Einner + Eouter = r̂ + 0 = r̂
r2 r2
(iii) for r ≥ R2
point lies outside inner as well as outer sphere therefore.
ENet = Einner + Eouter
KQ1 KQ K(Q1 + Q2 )
= 2
r + 22 ˆ
ˆ r = r̂
r r r2
Ex.8 A solid non conducting sphere of radius R and uniform volume charge density ρ has its centre at
origin. Find out electric field intensity in vector form at following positions :
R  R R 
(i) ( , 0, 0) (ii)  , , 0 (iii) (R, R, 0)
2  2 2 
2
R R  2 2 R
Sol. (i) at ( , 0, 0) : Distance of point from centre = 2 +0 +0 = < R, so point lies inside the
2   2
sphere so

ρr ρ Rˆ
E= = [ i]
3ε0 3ε0 2
2 2
 R R   R   R  2
(ii) At  , , 0  ; distance of point from centre =   +  +0 =R =R
 2 2   2  2
so point lies at the surface of sphere, therefore
4 3
KQ K πR ρ  R ρ  R ˆ R ˆ
E= 3 r = 3 î + R ˆj =  i+ j
3   3ε0  2 2 
R R  2 2 
(iii) The point is outside the sphere
4 3
KQ K πR ρ ρ
so, E = 3 r = 3 [Rî + Rj]
ˆ = [Rî + Rj]
ˆ
3
r ( 2R) 6 2 ε0

(b) Electric Field Inside a Cavity of Non-conducting Charged Body :

+ + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +E + + +
+ + + + + + + +2 + + E1
+ + + + + + +x + + + +
+ + + + +C + + + +P+y + +
+ + + + + + + + + +C1+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
Consider the sphere shown in figure charged uniformly with charge density ρ coul/m3. Inside the sphere
a spherical cavity is created with centre at C.
Now we wish to find electric field strength inside the cavity. For this we consider a point P in the cavity

at a position vector x from the centre of sphere and at a position vector y from the centre of cavity
as shown.

If E1 be the electric field strength at P due to the complete charge of the sphere (inside cavity also)
then we known electric field strength inside a uniformly charged sphere is given as

ρx
E1 =
3 ∈0
Similarly if we assume charge is only there in the region of cavity, this will also be a uniformly charged

small sphere. If E 2 be the electric field only due to the cavity charge, it can be given as

ρy
E2 = 3ε
0
Now the electric field due to the charged sphere in the cavity at point P can be given as

Enet = E1 – E2 [As now charge of cavity is removed]

ρa
= 3∈ [As x – y = a ] a
0
This shows that the net electric field inside the cavity is uniform
+ + +
+ + +
and in the direction of a i.e. along the line joining the centre ρcoul / m3 + + + + ++ ++
+ + + +
+ + ++ ++
of spheres and cavity. + + + +
+ + ++ ++
+ + + +
+ + ++ ++
Similarly we can find the electric field strength inside a + + + +
+ + ++ ++
+ + + +
cyclindrical cavity of a long uniformly charged cylinder. If cavity + + ++ ++
+ + + +
+
+ + ++ ++
axis is displaced from axis of cylinder by a displacement vector + + + + + ++
+ ++ ++
+ + + ++ ++
a , by the analysis we've done for a sphere, we can say that + +
+ + + + ++ ++
+ + + +
the electric field strength inside the cavity is also uniform and + + ++ ++
+ + +
+ + +
can be given as

ρa
E=
2 ∈0

(c) Some other important results for a closed conductor : +q
(i) If a charge q is kept in the cavity then –q will be –q

induced on the inner surface and +q will be induced on the q
outer surface of the conductor (it can be proved using
gauss theorem)
+q+Q
(ii) If a charge q is kept inside the cavity of a conductor
and conductor is given a charge Q then –q charge will be
induced on inner surface and total charge on the outer –q
surface will be q + Q. (it can be proved using gauss q
theorem)
(iii) Resultant field, due to q (which is inside the cavity) and induced charge on S1, at any point
outside S1 (like B, C) is zero. Resultant field due to q + Q on S2 and any other charge outside S2, at
any point inside of surface S2 (like A, B) is zero
S2
B C
S1 q+Q
q
A
–q
(iv) Resultant field in a charge free cavity in a closed conductor is zero. There can be charges outside
the conductor and on the surface also. Then also this result is true. No charge will be induced on the
inner most surface of the conductor.
No
charge
(v) Charge distribution for different types of cavities in conductors 0

S2
S2
S1 q
q
C S1
C
(A) (B)
charge is at the common centre charge is not at the common centre

(S1 S2 → spherical) (S1 S 2 → spherical)

S2
q
q S1
S1 C
C
(C) (D)
charge is at the centre of S2 charge is not at the centre of S2

( S 2 → spherical) ( S2 → spherical)
S2
S2
S1
q C
C q
S1
(E) (F)
charge is at the centre of charge not at the centre of S1 (spherical)

S1 (Spherical)
S2 S2
C
q q
S1 c S1
(G) (H)
charge is at the geometrical centre charge is not at the geometrical centre

Using the result that Eres in the conducting material should be zero and using result (iii) We can show
that
Case A B C D E F G H
S1 Un iform Nonuniform Nonu niform Nonuniform U niform Nonu niform Non uniform Nonuni form
S2 Un iform U niform Uniform Uni form Nonuni form Nonu niform Non uniform Nonuni form
In all cases charge on inner surface S1 = – q and on outer surface S2 = q. The distribution of charge on
'S1' will not change even if some charges are kept outside the conductor (i.e. outside the surface S2).
But the charge distribution on 'S2' may change if some charges(s) is/are kept outside the conductor.
Electric field due at 'A' due to –q of S1 and +q of S2 is zero individually because they are uniformly
distributed
At point B :
Kq K(–q) Kq Kq
VB = + + = , EB = 0
OB OB R2 R2
At point C :
Kq Kq
VC = , EC = OC
OC OC3
(ii) Force on point charge Q :
Here force on 'Q' will be only due to 'q' of S2 see result (iii)
KqQ
FQ = 2 ˆ r (r = distance of 'Q' from centre 'O')
r
Force on point charge q :

Fq = 0 (using result (iii) & charge on S1 uniform)

Ex.9 An uncharged conductor of inner radius R1 and B

outer radius R2 contains a point charge q placed A
at point P (not at the centre) as shown in figure? R1
P
Find out the following : C q
S1 R2
(i) VC (ii) VA (iii) VB S2 D
(iv) EA (v) EB (vi) force on charge Q if it is placed at B
Kq K(−q) Kq
Sol. (i) VC = CP + R +
R2
1
K(−q)
–q on S1 in nonuniformly distributed still it produces potential R1 at 'C' because 'C' is at distance 'R1'
from each points of 'S1'.
Kq Kq
(ii) VA = (iii) VB =
R2 CB
(iv) EA = O (point is inside metallic conductor)
Kq ^ KQq ^
(v) EB = CB (vi) FQ = CB
CB2 CB2
Combination of conducting spherical shells.
Let us consider a system of concentric conducting shelk with charge q1 on inner shell & q2 on outer
shell.
kq1 kq2 S2
Potential at A = R + R
1 2 S1
R1
kq1 kq2 q1 q2
Potential at B = r + R A
B
2
C
R2
kq1 kq2
Potential at C = +
r r
kq1 kq2
Potential of S1 = R + R
1 2
kq1 kq2
Potential of S2 = R + R
1 2
In case of combination of concentric conducting spherical shell, we do not consider the potential due
to induced charge distribution as we used to consider in the case of cavties in conducting materials.
Ex.10 Consier the following system & find VC – VA

C
B
A
2R 4q
R
q 2q
4R

R(4q) k(2q) k(q) 7kq

Sol. VC = + + =
4R 4R 4R 4R
kq k(2q) k(4q) 3kq

VA = + + =
R 2R 4R R
7kq 3kq 7kq – 12kq 5kq

VC – VA = – = =–
4r R 4R 4R
9. CONNECTION OF TWO CONDUCTING MATERIAL :
Two conducting hollow spherical shells of radii R1 and R2 having charges Q1 and Q2 respectively and
placed separately by large distance, are joined by a conducting wire
q1 q2
R1 R2
Let final charges on spheres are q1 and q2 respectively.

Potential on both spherical shell become equal after joining, therefore
Kq1 Kq2
=
R1 R2
q1 R
= 1 ....(i)
q2 R2
and by charge conservation, q1 + q2 = Q1 + Q2 ....(ii)
from (i) and (ii)
(Q1 + Q2 )R1 (Q1 + Q2 )R 2
q1 = , q2 =
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
q1 R σ1 4πR12 R
ratio of charges = 1 ⇒ 2
= 1
q2 R2 σ2 4πR 2 R2
σ1 R 2
ratio of surface charge densities σ = R
2 1
q1 R1
Ratio of final charges =
q2 R2
σ1 R 2
Ratio of final surface charge densities. σ = R
2 1
If two concentric hollow sphere are connected by a wire then all the charge from inner sphere will
reside to the outer sphere.
Ex.11 The two conducting spherical shells are joined by a Q –3Q

conducting wire and cut after some time when charge R
stops flowing. Find out the charge on each
sphere after that.
2R
Sol. After cutting the wire, the potential of both the shells is equal
Kx K(–2Q – x) k(x – 2Q)
Thus, potential of inner shell Vin = + = –2Q–x
R 2R 2R
Kx K(–2Q – x) –KQ x
and potential of outer shell Vout = + =
2R 2R R
As Vout = Vin
–KQ K(x – 2Q)
⇒ = ⇒ –2Q = x – 2Q ⇒ x = 0
R 2R
So charge on inner spherical shell = 0
and outer spherical shell = – 2Q.

Ex.12 Find charge on each spherical shell after joining the inner 5Q
most shell and outer most shell by a conducting wire. Also 3 –2Q
2 Q
find charges on each surface.
1 R
Sol. Let the charge on the innermost sphere be x.
Finally potential of shell 1 = Potential of shell 3 2R
6Q–x 3R
Kx K(–2Q) K(6Q – x) Kx K(–2Q) K(6Q – x) 3 –2Q
+ + = + + 2 x
R 2R 3R 3R 3R 3R 1 R
Q 2R
3x – 3Q + 6Q – x = 4Q ; 2x = Q ; x=
2 3R
Q Q
Charge on innermost shell = +3Q/2
2
–3Q/2
–Q/2
5Q Q/2
charge on outermost shell =
2
middle shell = – 2Q
Final charge distribution is as shown in figure.
Ex.13 Two conducting hollow spherical shells of radii R and 2R carry charges –Q and 3Q respectively.
How much charge will flow into the earth if inner shell is grounded ?
3Q
–Q
2R
Sol. When inner shell is grounded to the Earth then the 3Q

potential of inner shell will become zero because
potential of the Earth is taken to be zero. x
Kx K3Q R
+ =0
R 2R
–3Q
x= , the charge that has increased 2R
2
–3Q –Q Q
= – (–Q) = hence charge flows into the Earth =
2 2 2
Ex.14 An isolated conducting sphere of charge Q and radius R is connected to a similar uncharged
sphere (kept at a large distance) by using a high resistance wire. After a long time what is the
amount of heat loss ?
Sol. When two conducting spheres of equal radius are connected charge is equally distributed on them
(Result VI).So we can say that heat loss of system
∆H = Ui – Uf
 Q2   Q2 / 4 Q2 / 4  Q2
= – 0 –  + =
 8πε0R   8πε0R 8πε0R  16πε0R

10. EARTHING OF CHARGED OR UNCHARGED METAL BODIES :

In electrical analysis, earth is assumed to be a very large conducting sphere of radius 6400 kms. If
some charge Q is given to earth, its potential becomes
KQ
Vi =
Re
As Re is very large Ve comes out to be a negligible value. Thus for very small bodies whose dimensions
are negligible compared to earth we can assume that earth is always at zero potential
Keeping the above fact in mind if we connect a small body to earth, charge flow takes place between
earth and the body till both will be at same potential, zero potential as potential of earth will always
remain zero, no matter if charge flows into earth or from earth. This implies that if a body at some
positive potential is connected to earth, earth will supply some negative charge to this body so that
the final potential of body will become zero.
Consider a solid uncharged conducting sphere shown in figure. A point charge q is placed in front of the
sphere centre at a distance x as shown. Here due to q, the potential at sphere is
Kq
V=
x
x
C
+q
S
R
Here we ignore induced charges due to q because potential due to induced charges on sphere is zero.
If we close the switch S, earth supplies a charge qe on to the sphere to make its final potential zero.
Thus the final potential on sphere can be taken as
– – qe –
–
– –
– –
– –
–
x –
– C
+q –
– S
– –
– R –
– –
– – –
– – –
Here we ignore induced charges due to q because potential due to induced charges on sphere is zero.
It we close the switch S, earth supplies a charge qe on the the sphere to make its final potential zero.
Thus the final potential on sphere can be taken as
Kq Kqe qR
V= + =0 or qe = –
x R x
Here it is obvious that earth has supplied a negative charge to devlop a negative potential on sphere
to nullify the initial positive potential on it due to q.
Always remember whenever a metal body is connected to earth, we consider that earth suplies a
charge to it (say qe) to make its final potential zero due to all the charges including the charge on body
and the charges in its surrounding.

11. CONDUCTOR AND IT'S PROPERTIES [FOR ELECTROSTATIC CONDITION] :
(i) Conductors are materials which contains large number of free electrons which can move freely
inside the conductor.
(ii) In electrostatics conductors are always equipotential surfaces.
(iii) Charge always resides on outer surface of conductor.
(iv) If there is a cavity inside the conductor having no charge then charge will always reside only on
outer surface of conductor.
(v) Electric field is always perpendicular to conducting surface.
(vi) Electric lines of force never enter into conductors.
(vii) Electric field intensity near the conducting surface is given by formula
→ σ
E= n̂
ε0
A
→ σA σ σ
EA = ˆ
n ; EB = B nˆ and EC = C nˆ
C B ε0 ε0 ε0
(viii) When a conductor is grounded its potential becomes zero.

V=0
(ix) When an isolated conductor is grounded then its charge becomes zero.
(x) When two conductors are connected there will be charge flow till their potential becomes
equal.
σ2
(xi) Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is given by formula P =
2ε0
where σ is the local surface charge density.
Ex.14 There are 4 concentric shells A, B, C and D of radius of a, 2a, 3a, 4a respectively. Shells B and D
are given charges +q and –q respectively. Shell C in now earthed. Find the potential difference
VA – VC
Sol Let shell C acquires charge 'q' which will be such that final potential of C is zero.
kq kq '  –kq  –q
Vc = + + =0
3a 3a  4a 
C D
kq kq ' kq 1 1 +q
+ = ⇒ q′ = 3q  –  B q'
3a 3a 4a 4 3
q A
q′ = – a
4 2a
As Vc = 0
VA – VC = VA 3a
Now calculating VA we get
kq k(q / 4) kq kq 4a
VA = – – ⇒ VA =
2a 3a 4a 6a
kq
or VA – VC =
6a

Q1 A B
12. COMBINATION OF CONDUCTING PLATES : Q2
Let us consider two conducting plates placed parallel to each other.
I II
I plate is given a charge Q1 & II plate is given a charge Q2 which
distributes itself as shown in figure above E q1 q2 q3 E
q4
where q1 + q2 = Q1
q3 + q4 = Q2
Now we take a rectangular gaussian surface ABCD. D C
Among the four faces, two faces AD & BC of this closed surfaces lie completely inside the conductor
where the electric field is zero. The flux through these faces is, therefore, zero. The other parts of the
closed surface AB & CD which are outside the conductor are parallel to the electric field i.e. their area

vector is perpendicular to E & hence the flux through these parts is also zero. The total flux of the
electric field through the closed surface is therefore zero. From gauss's law, the total charge inside the
closed surface should be zero. The charge on the inner surface of I should be equal & opposite to that
on the inner surface of II.
So q2 = – q3
Now to find further relations between the charges distributed we find electric field at point P
Electric field at point P

 As E due to a single layer of charge 
q1  
(towards right)  σ q1 
due to q1 charge ayer = 2Aε0
is 2e = 2Aε 
 0 0 
q1
due to q2 charge layer = 2Aε  towards left 
0
q3
due to q3 charge layer = 2Aε  towards left 
0
q4
due to q4 charge layer = 2Aε  towards left 
0
q1 q2 q3 q4
Enet at P = 2Aε – 2Aε – 2Aε – 2Aε [Towards right]
0 0 0 0
As the point P lies inside the conductor the field should be zero
Hence
q1 q + q3 + q4
= 2
2Aε0 2Aε0
q1 = q2 + q3 + q4 (But q2 = – q3)
q1 = q4
Q1 + Q2
Puting in equation above we get q1 = q4 =
2

Ex.15 Two large parallel conducting sheets (placed at Q 2Q

finite distance) are given charges Q and 2Q
respectively. Find out charges appearing on all
the surfaces.
P Q
Sol. Let there is x amount of charge on left side of first
plate, so on its right side charge will be Q – x,
similarly for second plate there is y charge on left
side and 2Q – y charge is on right side of second
plate x Q–x y 2Q –y
Ep = 0 (By property of conductor)
P Q
x  Q − x y 2Q − y 
⇒ − + + =0
2Aε0  2Aε0 2Aε0 2Aε0 
we can also say that charge on left side of P = charge on right side of P
x = Q – x + y + 2Q – y
3Q −Q
⇒ x= , Q−x =
2 2 +3Q −Q Q +3Q
Similarly for point Q: 2 2 2 2
x + Q – x + y = 2Q – y
⇒ y = Q/2, 2Q – y = 3Q/2
So final charge distribution of plates is :
Ex.16 Figure shows three large metallic plates with –Q 3Q Q

charges –Q, 3Q and Q respectively. Determine
the final charges on all the surfaces.
Sol. We assume that charge on surface 2 is x. Following conservation of charge, we see that surfaces 1
has charge (–Q – x). The electric field inside the metal plate is zero so fields at P is zero.
Resultant field at P -
EP = 0
−Q − x x + 3Q + Q 3Q Q
⇒ = 1 2 3 4 5 6
2Aε0 2Aε0
–Q–x x
⇒ –Q –x = x + 4Q P
−5Q
⇒ x=
2
We see that charges on the facing surfaces of the

plates are of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
This can be in general proved by gauss theorem 3Q −5Q 5Q +Q −Q +3Q
also. Remember this it is important result. Thus the+
2 2 2 2 2 2
final charge distribution on all
the surface is as shown in figure :

Ex.17 An isolated conducting sheet of area A and Q

carrying a charge Q is placed in a uniform electric
field E, such that electric field is perpendicular
to sheet and covers all the sheet. Find out
charges appearing on its two surfaces. E
Sol. Let there is x charge on left side of plate and Q – x

charge on right side of plate
EP = 0
x Q−x
+E =
2Aε0 2Aε0 x Q–x
x Q Q−x x
⇒ = −E +E
A ε0 2Aε0 2Aε 0 P 2Aε 0
Q Q
⇒ x= − EAε0 and Q − x = + EAε0
2 2
Q Q
So charge on one side is − EAε0 and other side + EAε0
2 2
Solve this question for Q = 0 without using the above answer and match that answers with the
answers that you will get by putting Q = 0 in the above answer.
(a) Earthing of a System of Parallel Plates :
Consider a large plate shown in figure charged with a charge Q. This is connected to earth with a
switch S as shown. If switch S is closed, whole charge will flow to earth and the plate will become
neutral as in the surrounding of a single earthed body no electric field exist.
Now consider the system of two plates A and B shown here. Plate A is given a charge Q and plate B is
neutral the charge distribution on plates is as shown in figure. If the switch S is now closed the total
charge on outer surface of the system of plates after earthing should become zero hence whole
charge on plate A will transfer to its inner surface and hence on the inner surface of plate B an equal
and opposite charge –Q is developed which is given by earth as shown in figure
Q –Q
+Q
– + – +
+ –
– + Q Q – + Q
Q + –
– – + 2 – – + 2
2 – 2 – + –
+ + –
– – P +
+ + – P
– – +
+ + –
– – +
+ + → –
– – + E
+ + + –
– + – +
+ –
– + – + –
– – +
+ + + –
– + – + –
+
A d B
d
S S
(b)
(a)
If area of plates is A, the electric field between the system of plates can be given as
Q
Ef =
A ∈0
Before earthing this electric field was
Q E
Ei = = f
2A ∈0 2

Thus just after earthing the electric field between the plates is doubled and the potential difference
between the two plates will also be doubled. as plate B is earthed, its potential is zero. The potential
of plate. A can be given as
Q
VA = A ∈ d
0
Now consider another example shown in figure. In a system of three parallel plates A, B and C the
middle plate B is given a charge Q due to which charges are induced on plates A and C as shown. On
the basis of discussion done in the previous section we can say that if switch S1 is closed whole charge
of plate B will shift on its left surface and a charge –Q is flown through S1 toward plate A and final
situation will be as shwon in figure (a)
Q Q
+ – + + – +
+ + – +
+ – –
d1 + + d2 – +
+ –
Q + – ++ Q
+ – Q Q+ + Q
–
Q –
2 + – – + + + + – + 2
2+ 2 2 –
+ – 2 + – +
+ – → + + – +
E –
+ – + + – +
+ – + + – +
–
+ – + + – +
– + + – +
+ –
+ – + + – +
S1 + + – +
A B C S2
–Q Q
+ Q –Q
–
+ – +
–
d1 d2 – +
– + d1 d2
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
–
+ – +
S1 A B C S2 +
S1 S2
(A) (B) (C)
(b)
(a)
If instead of switch S1, S2 is closed in the beginning the distribution of charges on the system will be
obviously as shown according to the figure (b) and a charge –Q now flows through switch S2 from earth to
plate C.
If we close both the switches simultaneously, the situation will be according to shown in figure. Now
the charge on plate B is distributed on the two surface as shown and equal and oppsoite charges –q1
and –q2 are developed on the inner surfaces of plates A and C.

Here charges q1 and q2 can be calculated by equating the potential difference of plates A and B and C
and B as
VB – VA = VB – VC –q1 q1 q2 –q2
Here the electric field between plates can be given as – + + –
– + + –
– + + –
q1 + +
E1 = – –
Between plates A and B A ∈0 – + +
← → –
– E1 + + E2 –
– + + –
q2 – + + –
Between plates B & C E2 = Aε – + + –
0 – + + –
– + + –
Now we have VBA = VBC – + + –
S1 + +
A B C S2
q1 q2 d1 d2
d1 = A ∈ d2
A ∈0 0
or q1d1 = q2d2
And we have q1 + q2 = Q
Qd2
Thus on solving we get q1 =
d1 + d2
Qd1
and q2 =
d1 + d2
Thus if both the switches are closed simultaneously, charges –q1 and –q2 will flow through the switches
S1 and S2 from each of plates A and C.
Ex.18 When a charge is given to a conducting plate, the charge distributes itself on two surface.
+ +
+ + σ
+ + 2ε 0 = σ
+ + +
σ ε0
+ +
+ + 2ε 0
+ +
σ
2ε 0 is the E due to a single layer of charge but as in the case of conducting sheet there is generation
of two surfaces or two layers of charges.
σ
∴ electric field outside the conducting plate is ε
0
Ex.19 When a charge Q is given to a non conducting plate & conducting plate. Find the ratio of electric
field produced by them ?
Sol. For non conducting plate For conducting plate
Q
Q
+ + + Q
+ Q
σ= + + σ = 2A Q
+ A + + 2Aε0
+ + + =1:1
+ σ Q Ratio Q
+ + ε=
+ E= σ = Q
=
+ + ε 0 2Aε 0 2Aε0
+ 2ε 0 2Aε 0
+ +

13. (A) TOTAL ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES :

Total electrostatic potential energy of system of charges can be given as
U = ∑ self energy of all charged bodies + ∑ Interaction energy of all pairs of charged bodies
Let us consider some cases to understand this concept. Figure shows two uniformly charged non
c o n d u c t i n g s p
1
and R2 and charged with charges Q1 and Q2 respectively separated by
h e r e s o f r a d i u s R
a distance r. If we find the total electrostatic energy of this system, we can write as
r
U = Uself + Uinteraction
+ +
+ + + +
3KQ12 3KQ22 KQ1Q2 + + + + + +
U= + + + + + + + +
5R1 5R 2 r + +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ R1 + + R2 +
+ + + +
Q Q1
(B) ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CONCENTRIC SHELLS :

Figure shown two concentric shells of radii a and b charged
uniformly with charges q1 and q2. Here the total energy of this
system can be given as
Utotal = self energy of inner shell + self energy of outer shell + a q2
interaction energy of the two shell q1
Kq12 Kq22 Kq1q2 b

= + +
2a 2b b
We know that the total electrostatic energy of a system in
stored in the form of field energy of the system hence here
we can calculate the total electrostatic energy of the sys-
tem by integrating the field energy density in the space
surrounding the shells where electric field exist.
Total field energy in the electric field associated with the b a
x
system shown in figure can be given as dx
b 2 2
1  Kq1  ∞
1  K(q1 + q2 ) 
∫2∈ ∫2∈
2 2
U= 0  2  4πx dx + 0   4πx dx
0  x  0  r2 
x
1 2 1 1  1 2 1 
= Kq1  –  + K(q1 + q2 )  
2 a b 2 b  dx
2 2 2 2 2
1 Kq1 Kq1 Kq1 Kq2 Kq2 Kq12 Kq22 Kq1q2
= – + + + = + +
2 a 2b b 2b b 2b 2b b
Ex.20 Figure shows a shell of radius R having charge q1
uniformly distributed over it. A point charge q is
R1
placed at the centre of shell. Find work required to R
increase radius of shell from R to R1 as shown in
R +q
fiugre(b)
q1
Sol. Work = Ui – Uf +q
q1
Kq12 Kq1q
U1 = SEq + SEq1 + IE = SEq + +
2R R (a) (b)
2
Kq Kq1q 1
Uf = SEq + +
2R1 R1

Kq12 Kq1q Kq12 Kq1q

work done = Ui – Uf = + – –
2R R 2R1 R1
(Try this problem yourself using the energy density formula)

Ex.21 A point charge q = 3 µC is located at the centre of the spherical layer of uniform isotropic dielec-
tric with relative permittivity k = 3. The inside radius of the layer is equal to a = 250 mm and
k=a
the outside radius is b = 500 mm. Find the electrostatic energy inside the dielectric layer.
Sol. Consider a small elemental shell of thickness dx.
Volume = dV = 4πx2dx
Kq
Electric field at x =
x2k
a
1 2 1 K2q2 b
electric energy density = ∈0 E = ∈0 4 2 x
2 2 xk q
Thus energy content in the element shell is dx
2 2
1 K q
= dE = ∈0 4 2 4πx2dx
2 xk
b
4 K2 πq2 2
E= ∫a 2 0 k2x4 x dx
∈
b
q2 K 1 Kq2  1 1  Kq2  1 1 
=
2 R2 ∫x
a
2
dx = – = –
2R 2  b a  2R 2  b a 
Ex.22 Find the electrostatic energy stored in a cylindircal shell of length , inner radius a and outer
radius b, coaxial with a uniformly charged wire with linear charge density λ C/m.
Sol. For this we consider an elemental shell of radius x and width dx. The volume of this shell dV can be
given as
dV = 2πx.dx
The electric field due to the wire at the shell is
2Kλ
E=
x
The electrostatic field energy stored in the volume of this shell is
1
dU = ∈0 E2.dV
2
2
1  2Kλ 
or dU = ∈0   .2πxλ.dx
2  x 
The total electrostatic energy stored in the above mentioned volume can be obtained by integrating
the above expression within limits from a to b as
a 2
1  2Kλ 
U = ∫ dU = ∫2∈ 0   2πx.dx
b  x 
b
λ2 1
or U=
4π ∈0 ∫ x dx
a
b
λ2 1
or U=
4π ∈0 ∫ x dx
a
2
λ b 
or U= n  
4π ∈0 a

Sol.
1. In a region of space, the electric field is in the x

direction and is given as E = E0 xi . Consider an
imaginary cubical volume of edge a, with its edges
parallel to the axes of coordinates. The charge inside
this volume is
1 3 1
(C) ε E0 a
2
(A) zero (B) ε 0E0 a3 (D) ε 0E0 a
0 6
Sol.
4. The volume charge density as a function of distance

X from one face inside a unit cube is varying as shown
in the figure. Then the total flux (in S.I. units) through
the cube if (ρ0 = 8.85 × 10–12 C/m3) is :
density
ρ0
2. Electric flux through a surface of area 100 m2 lying x

1/4 3/4 1 (in m)
in the xy plane is (in V-m) if E = i + 2 j + 3 k
(A) 1/4 (B) 1/2 (C) 3/4 (D) 1
(A) 100 (B) 141.4 (C) 173.2 (D) 200
Sol.
Sol.
3. An infinite, uniformly charged sheet

with surface charge density σ cuts
through a spherical Gaussian surface
of radius R at a distance x from its R
x
center, as shown in the figure. The
electric flux Φ through the Gaussian
surface is
πR2 σ 2π (R2 − x2 )σ
(A) (B)
ε0 ε0
π(R − x ) 2 σ π (R2 − x2 )σ
(C) (D)
ε0 ε0

5. Figure shows two large cylindrical shells having Sol.

uniform linear charge densities +λ and –λ. Radius of
inner cylinder is 'a' and that of outer cylinder is 'b'. A
charged particle of mass m, charge q revolves in a
circle of radius r, Then its speed 'v' is : (Neglect gravity
and assume the radii of both the cylinders to be very
small in comparison to their length.)
–λ +λ 7. A hollow metal sphere of radius 5 cm is charged

such that the potential on its surface is 10 V. The
r potential at the centre of the sphere is
v (A) 0 V
a (B) 10 V
b (C) same as at point 5 cm away from the surface out
side sphere
(D) same as a point 25 cm away from the surface
λq 2λq Sol.
(A) 2π ∈0 m (B) π ∈0 m
λq λq
(C) π ∈0 m (D) 4 π ∈0 m
Sol.
8. Two spherical, nonconducting, and very thin shells

of uniformly distributed positive charge Q and radius d
are located a distance 10d from each other. A positive
point charge q is placed inside one of the shells at a
distance d/2 from the center, on the line connecting
the centers of the two shells, as shown in the figure.
What is the net force on the charge q ?
Q Q
d
o
}
d/2
10 d
6. An uncharged sphere of metal is placed in a uniform qQ qQ
electric field produced by two large conducting parallel (A) 2 to the left (B) to the right
36 lπε 0 d 36 lπε 0 d2
plates having equal and opposite charges, then lines
of force look like : 362 qQ 360 qQ
(C) to the left (D) to the right
+ + + + ++ + + + + ++ 36 lπε 0 d2 36 lπε 0 d2
Sol.
(A) (B)
––––––– – – – ––
+ + + + + + + + +
+
(C) (D)
– – – – – –
– – – –

9. Potential difference between centre & the surface

of sphere of radius R and uniform volume charge
density ρ within it will be -
ρR2 ρR2 ρR2
(A) (B) (C) 0 (D)
6 ∈0 4 ∈0 2 ∈0
Sol.
12. n small drops of same size are charged to V volts

each. If they coalesce to form a signal large drop,
then its potential will be -
(A) V/n (B) Vn (C) Vn1/3 (D) Vn2/3
Sol.
1 0A solid sphere of radius R is charged uniformly. At

.
what distance from its surface is the electrostatic

potential half of the potential at the centre ?
(A) R (B) R/2 (C) R/3 (D) 2R
Sol.
13. 1000 identical drops of mercury are charged to a

potential of 1 V each. They join to form a single drop.
The potential of this drop will be -
(A) 0.01 V (B) 0.1 V (C) 10 V (D) 100 V
Sol.
11. Two similar conducting spherical shells having

charges 40 µC and –20µC are some distance apart.
Now they are touched and kept at same distance.
The ratio of the initial to the final force between them
is :
(A) 8 : 1 (B) 4 : 1 (C) 1 : 8 (D) 1 : 1
Sol.

14. A bullet of mass m and charge q is fired towards a Sol.

solid uniformly charged sphere of radius R and total
charge +q. If it strikes the surface of sphere with
speed u, find the minimum speed u so that it can
penetrate through the sphere. (Neglect all resistance
forces or friction acting on bullet except electrostatic
forces)
q
+q u
m R
q q
(A) (B)
2πε 0 mR 4 πε 0 mR
q 3q
(C) (D)
8 πε 0 mR 4 πε 0 mR
Sol.
16. A positively charged body ‘A’ has been brought

near a neutral brass sphere B mounted on a glass
stand as shown in the figure. The potetial of B will be:
B
+
+ ++
+ +
++ + ++
+
A ++
(A) Zero (B) Negative

(C) Positive (D) Infinite
Sol.
15. A unit positive point charge of mass m is projected

with a velocity V inside the tunnel as shown. The
tunnel has been made inside a uniformly charged
nonconducting sphere. The minimum velocity with
which the point charge should be projected such it 17. A charge ‘q’ is placed at the centre of a conducting
can it reach the opposite end of the tunnel, is equal spherical shell of radius R, which is given a charge Q.
to - An external charge Q′ is also present at distance R′ (R′
R/2
> R) from ‘q’. Then the resultant field will be best
represented for region r < R by :
[where r is the distance of the point from q]
Q
(A) [ρR2/4mε0]1/2
(B) [ρR2/24mε0]1/2 R’
q Q’
(C) [ρR2/6mε0]1/2
(D) zero because the initial and the final points are at R
same potential.

(A) Force on Q due to E is zero

(B) Net force on Q is zero
E E (C) Net force acting on Q and conducting shell
considered as a system is zero
(A) (B) (D) Net force acting on the shell due to E is zero.
Sol.
R r R r
E E
(C) (D)
R r R r 20. The net charge given to an isolated conducting

Sol. solid sphere :
(A) must be distributed uniformly on the surface
(B) may be distributed uniformly on the surface
(C) must be distributed uniformly in the volume
(D) may be distributed uniformly in the volume.
Sol.
18. In the above questins, if Q’ is removed then which

option is correct :
21. The net charge given to a solid insulating sphere:

E E
(A) must be distributed uniformly in its volume
(A) (B) (B) may by distributed uniformly in its volume.
(C) must be distributed uniformly on its surface.
R r R r (D) the distribution will depend upon whether other
charges are present or not.
Sol.
E E
(C) (D)
R r R r
Sol.
22. A dipole having dipole moment p is placed in front
of a solid uncharged conducting sphere as shown in
the diagram. The net potential at point. A lying on the
surface of the sphere is ;
A
r
19. A positive point charge Q is kept ( as shown in
the figure) inside a neutral conducting shell whose φ
centre is at C. An external uniform electric field E is P
applied. Then :
E
kp cos φ kp cos 2 φ
(A) (B)
r2 r2
C
2kp cos 2 φ
Q (C) zero (D)
r2

Sol. 25. Both question (a) and (b) refer to the system of
charges as shown in the figure. A spherical shell with
an inner radius ‘a’ and an outer radius ‘b’ is made of
conducting material. A point charge +Q is placed at
the centre of the spherical shell and a total charge –
q is placed on the shell.
Q a
–q
(i) charge –q is distributed on the surfaces as

(A) –Q on the inner surface, – q on outer surface
(B) –Q on the inner surface, – q + Q on the outer
23. Three concentric conducting spherical shells carry surface
charges as follows +4Q on the inner shell, –2Q on the
(C) +Q on the inner surface, – q – Q on the outer
middle shell and –5Q on the outer shell. The charge surface
on the inner surface of the outer shell is : (D) The charge –q is spread uniformly between the
(A) 0 (B) 4 Q (C) –Q (D) –2Q inner and outer surface
Sol. Sol.
(ii) Assume that the electrostatic potential is zero at

an infinite distance from the spherical shell. The
electrostatic potential at a distance R(a < R < b) from
the centre of the shell is
24. Three concentric metallic spherical shell A, B and KQ Q−q
(A) 0 (B) (C) K
C or radii a, b and c (a < b < c) have surface charge a R
densities –σ, +σ, and –σ respectively. The potential of
shell A is - Q−q 1
(D) K (where K = )
(A) (σ/ε0)[a + b – c] (B) (σ/ε0)[a – b + c] b 4 πε 0
(C) (σ/ε0)[b – a – c] (D) none Sol.
Sol.

26. A positive charge q is placed in a spherical cavity Sol.

made in a positively charged sphere. The centres of
sphere and cavity are displaced by a small distance

l . Force on charge q is :

(A) in the direction parallel to vector l
(B) in radial direction
(C) in a direction which depends on the magnitude of
charge density in sphere
(D) direction can not be determined
Sol.
29. Two uni form l y c harg ed non-c onduct i ng

hemispherical sheels each having uniform charge
27. If the electric potential of the inner metal sphere d e nσ and radius R form a complete sphere (not
s i t y
is 10 volt & that of the outer shell is 5 volt, then the stuck together) and surround a concentric spherical
potential at the centre will be -
conducting shell of radius R/2. If hemispherical parts
are in equilibrium then minimum surface charge density
a of inner conducting shell is :
b (A) –2σ (B) –σ/2 (C) –σ (D) 2σ
Sol.
(A) 10 volt (B) 5 volt (C) 15 volt (D) 0
Sol.
30. A point charge q is borught from infinity (slowly so

that heat developed in the shell is negligible) and is
placed at the centre of a conducting neutral spherical
28. An infinite number of concentric rings carry a charge shell of inner radius a and outer radius b, then work
Q each alternately positive and negative. Their radii done by external agent is:
are 1, 2, 4, 8... meters in geometric progression as
shown in the figure. The potential at the centre of
the rings will be b
4
Q 3 q a
Q 2
Q 1
Q Q Q k q2 k q2 k q2 k q2 k q2
(A) 0 (B) (C) − (D) −
(A) zero (B) 12πε (C) 8 πε (D) 6 πε 2b 2b 2a 2a 2b
0 0 0

Sol. Sol.
31. A charge Q is kept at the centre of a conducting

sphere of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2. A point 33. Two identical conducting spheres, having charges
charge q is kept at a distance r ( > R2) from the of opposite sign, attract each other with a force of
centre. If q experiences an electrostatic force 10 N 0.108 N when separated by 0.5 m. The spheres are
then assuming that no other charges are present, connected by a conducting wire, which is then
electrostatic force experienced by Q will be : removed, and thereafter, they repel each other with a
(A) – 10 N (B) 0 force of 0.036 N. The initial charges on the spheres
(C) 20 N (D) none of these are
Sol. (A) ± 5 × 10–6 C and ∓ 15 × 10–6 C
(B) ± 1.0 × 10–6 C and ∓ 3.0 × 10–6 C
(C) ± 2.0 × 10–6 C and ∓ 6.0 × 10–6 C
(D) ± 0.5 × 10–6 C and ∓ 1.5 × 10–6 C
Sol.
32. A solid metallic sphere has a charge +3Q.

Concentric with this sphere is a conducting spherical
shell having charge –Q. The radius of the sphere is a
and that of the spherical shell is b (>a). What is the
electric field at a distance r (a < r < b) from the
centre ? 34. Two small conductors A and B are given charges
q1 and q2 respectively. Now they are placed inside a
1 Q 1 3Q hollow metallic conductor (C) carrying a charge Q. If
(A) (B)
4πε0 r 4πε0 r all the three conductors A, B and C are connected by
a conducting wire as shown, the charges on A, B and
1 3Q 1 Q C will be respectively.
(C) (D)
4πε0 r2 4πε0 r2

Q 36. You are travelling in a car during a thunder storm.

In order to protect yoursefl from lightening, would
C
A you prefer to :
q1 (A) Remain in the car
B (B) Take shelter under a tree
q2
(C) Get out and be flat on the ground
(D) Touch the nearest electrical pole
q1 + q2 q1 + q2 Sol.
(A) , ,Q
2 2
Q + q1 + q3 Q + q1 + q2 Q + q1 + q2
(B) , ,
3 3 3
q1 + q2 + Q q1 + q2 + Q
(C) , ,0
2 3
(D) 0, 0, Q + q1 + q2
Sol.
COMPREHENSION
A solid conducting sphere of radius ‘a’ is surronded by
a thin uncharged concentric conducting shell of radius
2a. A point charge q is placed at a distance 4a from
common centre of conducting sphere and shell. The
inner sphere is then grounded.
2a
4a
a q
35. There are four concentric shells A, B, C and D of

radii a, 2a, 3a and 4a respectively. Shells B and D are
37. The charge on solid sphere is :
given charges +q and –q respectively. Shell C is now
earthed. The potential difference VA – VC is : q q q q
(A) – (B) – (C) – (D) –
Kq Kq Kq Kq 2 4 8 16
(A) (B) (C) (D) Sol.
2a 3a 4a 6a
Sol.

38. Pick up the correct statement : REASONING TYPE QUESTION

(A) Charge on surface on inner sphere is non-uniformly 40. Statement - 1 : If a concentric spherical Gaussian
distributed surface is drawn inside thin spheical shell of charge,
(B) Charge on inner surface of outer shell in non- electric field (E) at each point of surface must be
uniformly distributed. zero.
(C) Charge on outer surface of outer shell is non- Statement - 2 : In accordance with Gauss's law
uniformly distributed. Qnet enclosed
(D) All the above statement are false. φE = ∫ E.dA =
ε0
Sol.
Qnet enclosed = 0 implies φE = 0
statement - 2 is NOT correct explanation for state-
ment - 1.
Sol.
41. Statement - 1 : Electric field of a dipole can't be

found using only Gauss law. (i.e. without using super-
position principle)
Statement - 2 : Gauss law is valid only for symmetri-
39. The potential of outer shell is :
cal charge distribution
q q (A) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
(A) 32 πε a (B) 16 πε a statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1.
0 0
q q statement - 2 is NOT correct explanation for state-
(C) 8 πε a (D) 4 πε a ment - 1.
0 0
Sol. (D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true.
Sol.
42. Statement - 1 : In a given situation of arrange-

ment of charges, an extra charge is placed outside
the Gaussian surface. In the Gauss Theorem
Q
∫ E.dA = ∈0
in

Qin remains unchanged whereas electric field E at the
site of the element is changed.

Statement - 2 : Electric field E at any point on the
Gaussian surface is due to inside charge only.

(A) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and 45. When two charged concentric spherical conduc-
statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1. tors have electric potential V1 and V2 respectively
(B) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and Statement - 1 : The potential at centre is V1 + V2
statement - 2 is NOT correct explanation for state- Statement - 2 : Potential is scalar quantity.
ment - 1. (A) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
(C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false. statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1.
(D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true. (B) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
Sol. statement - 2 is NOT correct explanation for state-
ment - 1.
Sol.
43. Statement - 1 : The flux crossing through a closed

surface is independent of the location of encloses
charge.
Statement - 2 : Upon the displacement of charges 46. Statement - 1 : A point charge q is placed inside
a cavity of conductor as shown. Another point charge
within a closed surface, the E at any point on sur-
Q is placed outside the conductor as shown. Now as
face does not change.
the point charge Q pushed away from conductor, the
potential difference (VA – VB) between two point A
and B within the cavity of sphere remains constant.
Statement - 2 : The electric field due to charges on
outer surface of conductor and outside the conduc-
ment - 1.
tor is zero at all points inside the conductor.
Sol.
A B Q
q
44. The electrostatic potential on the surface of a (A) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
charged solid conducting sphere is 100 volts. Two statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement -
statements are made in this regard 1.
Statement - 1 : At any point inside the sphere, elec- (B) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and
trostatic potetial is 100 volt. statement - 2 is NOT correct explanation for state-
Statement - 2 : At any point inside the sphere, elec- ment - 1.
tric field is zero. (C) Statement - 1 is true, statement - 2 is false.
(A) Statement - 1 is true, Statement - 2 is true and (D) Statement - 1 is false, statement - 2 is true.
statement - 2 is correct explanation for statement - 1. Sol.
ment - 1.
Sol.

EXERCISE - II
1. Units of electric flux are - 4. Mark the correct options -
(A) Gauss’s law is valid only for uniform charge
N – m2 N distributions.
(A) (B)
Coul 2
Coul2 – m 2 (B) Gauss’s law is valid only for charges placed in
(C) volt-m (D) Volt-m3 vacuum.
Sol. (C) The electric field calculated by Gauss’s law is the
field due to all the charges.
(D) The flux of the electric field through a closed
surface due to all the charges is equal to the flux due
to the charges enclosed by the surface.
2. An electric dipole is placed at the centre of a sphere. Sol.
Mark the correct answer
(A) the flux of the electric field through the sphere is
zero
(B) the electric field is zero at every point of the
sphere.Ex
(C) the electric potential is zero everywhere on the
sphere.
(D) the electric potential is zero on a circle on the
surface.
Sol.
5. Charges Q 1 and Q 2 l ies i nsi de and outsi de

respectively of a closed surface S. Let E be the field
at any point on S and φ be the flux of E over S.
(A) If Q1 changes, both E and φ will change.
(B) If Q2 changes, E will change but φ will not change.
(C) If Q1 = 0 and q2 ≠ 0 then E ≠ 0 but φ = 0.
(D) If Q1 ≠ 0 and Q2 = 0 then E = 0 but φ ≠ 0.
Sol.
3. Which of the following statements are correct?

(A) Electric field calculated by Gauss law is the field
due to only those charges which are enclosed inside
the Gaussian surface.
(B) Gauss law is applicable only when there is a
symmetrical distribution of charge.
(C) Electric flux through a closed surface will depends
only on charges enclosed within that surface only. 6. An electric field converges at the origin whose
(D) None of these magnitude is given by the expression E = 100rNt/Coul,
Sol. where r is the distance measured from the origin.
(A) total charge contained in any spherical volume
with its centre at origin in negative.
(B) total charge contained at any spherical volume,
irrespective of the location of its centre, is negative.
(C) total charge contained in a spherical volume of
radius 3 cm with its centre at origin has magnitude 3
× 10–13C.
(D) total charge contained in a spherical volume of
radius 3 cm with its centre at origin has magnitude 3 ×
10–9 Coul.

Sol.
9. At distance of 5cm and 10cm outwards from the

surface of a uniformly charged solid sphere, the
potentials are 100V and 75V respectively. Then
(A) potential at its surface is 150V
(B) the charge on the sphere is (5/3) × 10–10 C
7. A conducting sphere of radius r has a charge. Then (C) the electric field on the surface is 1500 V/m
(A) The charge is uniformly distributed over its surface, (D) the electric potential at its centre is 225 V
if there is an external electric field. Sol.
(B) Distribution of charge over its surface will be non
unifrom if no external electric field exist in space.
(C) Electric field strength inside the sphere will be
equal to zero only when no external electric field exists.
(D) Potential at every point of the sphere must be
same
Sol.
8. For a spherical shell

(A) If potential inside it is zero then it necessarily
electrically neutral 10. A thin-walled, spherical conducting shell S of radius
(B) electric field in a charged conducting spherical R is given charge Q. The same amount of charge is
shell can be zero only when the charge is uniformly also placed at its centre C. Which of the following
distributed statements are correct ?
(C) electric potential due to induced charges at a (A) On the outer surface of S, the charge density is
point inside it will always be zero Q
.
(D) none of these 2πR2
Sol. (B) The electric field is zero at all points inside S.
(C) At a point just outside S, the electric field is double
the field at a point just inside S.
(D) At any point inside S, the electric field is inversely
proportional to the square of its distance from C.

Sol.
12. A and B are two conducting concentric spherical

shells. A is given a charge Q while B is uncharged. If
now B is earthed as shown in figure. Then :
B
++
++
A
++
++
(A) The charge appearing on inner surface of B is –Q

(B) The field inside the outside A is zero.
(C) The field between A and B is not zero.
(D) The charge appearing on outer surface of B is
zero.
Sol.
11. A hollow closed conductor of irregular shape is given

some charge. Which of the following statements are
correct ?
(A) The entire charge will appear on its outer surface.
(B) All points on the conductor will have the same
potential
(C) All points on its surface will have the same charge
density.
(D) All points near its surface and outside it will have
the same electric intensity.
Sol.

1. What do you predict by the given statement about Sol.

the nature of charge (positive or negative) enclosed
by the close surface. "In a close surface lines which
are leaving the surface are double then the lines which
are entering in it."
Sol.
2. The length of each side of a cubical closed surface

is l. If charge q is situated on one of the vertices of
the cube, then find the flux passing through shaded
face of the cube.
q
Sol.
4. A charge Q is uniformly distributed over a rod of

length l. Consider a hypothetical cube of edge l with
the centre of the cube at one end of the rod. Find the
minimum possible flux of the electric field through the
entire surface of the cube.
Sol.
3. A point charge Q is located on the axis of a disc of

radius R at a distance a from the plane of the disc. If
one fourth (1/4th) of the flux from the charge passes
through the disc, then find the relation between a &
R.
R

5. A very long uniformly charged thread oriented along Sol.

the axis of a circle of radius R rests on its centre with
one of the ends. The charge on the thread per unit
length is equal to λ. Find the flux of the vector E
through the circle area.
Sol.
8. There are two concentric metal shells of radii r1

and r2 (> r1). If initially the outer shell has a charge q
and the inner shell is having zero charge. Now inner
shell is grounded. Find :
(i) Charge on the inner surface of outer shell.
(ii) Final charges on each sphere.
(iii) Charge flown through wire in the ground.
Sol.
6. A particle of mass m and charge –q moves along a

diameter of a uniformly charged sphere of radius R
and carrying a total charge +Q. Find the frequency of
S.H.M. of the particle if the amplitude does not exceed
R.
Sol.
9. A point charge ‘q’ is within an electrically neutral

conducting shell whose other surface has spherical
shape. Find potential V at point P lying outiside shell
at a distance ‘r’ from centre O of outer sphere.
O P
q r
Sol.
7. There are 27 drops of a conducting fluid. Each has

radius r and they are charged to a potential V0. They
are then combined to form a bigger drop. Find its
potential.

10. Consider two concentric conducting spheres of

radii a & b (b > a). Inside sphere has a positive charge
q1. What charge should be given to the outer sphere
so that potential of the inner sphere becomes zero?
How does the potential varies between the two
spheres & outside ?
Sol. 12. Consider three identical metal spheres A, B and C.
Spheres A carries charge +6q and sphere B carries
charge –3q. Sphere C carries no charge. Spheres A
and B are touched together and then separated.
Sphere C is then touched to sphere A and separated
from it. Finally the sphere C is touched to sphere B
and separated from it. Find the final charge on the
sphere C.
Sol.
11. Two thin conducting shells of radii R and 3R are

shown in figure. The outer shell carries a charge +Q
and the inner shell is neutral. The inner shell is earthed
with the help of switch S. Find the charge attained by
the inner shell.
+Q
3R
R S
1 3A metal sphere of radius r1 charged to a potential

.
V1 is than placed in a thin-walled uncharged conducting

Sol. spherical shell of radius r2. Determine the potential
acquired by the spherical shell after it has been
connected for a short time to the spher by a
conductor.
r2
r1
φ1

Sol.
E
14. Two thin conducting plates (very
large) parallel to each other carrying
tota l char ge s σ A and –2σ A
respectively (where A is the area of
each plate), are placed in a uniform
external electric field E as shown.
Find the surface charge on each
surface. σA −2σA
Sol.

1. A positive charge Q is uniformly distributed 4. A solid non conducting sphere of radius R has a
throughout the volume of a dielectric sphere of radius non-uniform charge distribution of volume charge
R. A point mass having charge +q and mass m is fired r
density, ρ = ρ0 , where ρ0 is a constant and r is the
towards the centre of the sphere with velocity v from R
distance from the centre of the sphere. Show that -
a point at distance r (r > R) from the centre of the
(a) the total charge on the sphere is Q = πρ0R3 and
sphere. Find the minimum velocity v so that it can
(b) the electric field inside the sphere has a magnitude
penetrate R/2 distance of the sphere. Neglect any
resistance other than electric interaction. Charge on KQr 2
given by, E = .
the small mass remains constant throughout the motion. R4
5. An electron beam after being accelerated from rest
through a potential difference of 500 V in vacuum is
2. A cavity of radius r is present inside a solid dielectric
allowed to impinge normally on a fixed surface. If the
sphere of radius R, having a volume charge density of
incident current is 100 µA, determine the force exerted
ρ. The distance between the centres of the sphere
on the surface assuming that it brings the electrons
and the cavity is a. An electron e is kept inside the
to rest. (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C; m = 9.0 × 10–31 kg)
cavity at an angle θ = 45° as shown. How long will it
take to touch the sphere again ?
6. A cone made of insulating material has a total charge
Q spread uniformly over its sloping surface. Calculate
e
the energy required to take a test charge q from infinity
r
a
to apex A of cone. The slant length is L.
A
3. Figure shows a section through two long thin AB=L
B
concentric cylinders of radii a & b with a < b. The
cylinders have equal and opposite charges per unit
length λ. Find the electric field at a distance r from 7. Two concentric rings, one of radius ‘a’ and the other
the axis for - of radius ‘b’ have the charges +q and –(2/5)–3/2 q
respectively as shown in the figure. Find the ratio b/a
if a charge particle placed on the axis at z = a is in
equilibrium.
b a
–3/2
qB=–(2/5) q
b
(A) r < a (B) a < r < b (C) r > b a z=a

qA=+q


1. The magnitude of electric field E in the annular
region of charged cylindrical capacitor
(A) Is same throughout [IIT-96,2]
(B) Is higher near the outer cylinder than near the
inner cylinder
(C) Varies as (1/r) where r is the distance from the
axis
(D) Varies as (1/r2) where r is the distance from the
axis
Sol.
2. A conducting sphere S1 of radius r is attached to

an insulating handle. Another conducting sphere S2 of 3. A n ellipsoidal cavity is carved within a perfect
radius R is mounted on an insulating stand. S2 is initially conductor. A positive charge q is placed at the center
uncharged. S1 is given a charge Q, brought into contact of the cavity. The points A & B are on the cavity
with S2 & removed, S1 is recharged such that the surface as shown in the figure. Then [IIT-99,3]
charge on it is again Q & it is again brought into contact
with S2 & removed. This procedure is repeated n times. A
[IIT-98] B
(a) Find the electrostatic energy of S2 after n such
q
contacts with S1
(b) What is the limiting value of this energy as n → ∞ ? (A) electric field near A in the cavity = electric field
near B in the cavity
Sol. (B) charge density at A = charge density at B
(C) potential at A = potential at B
(D) total electric field flux through the surface of the
c a v ε0
i t y i s q /
Sol.

(ii)A non-conducting disc of radius a and uniform 4. A point charge ‘q’ is placed at a point inside a
positive surface charge density σ is placed on the hollow conducting sphere. Which of the following
ground, with its axis vertical. A particle of mass m & electric force pattern is correct ?
positive charge q is dropped, along the axis of the
disc, from a height H with zero initial velocity. The
q 4ε 0 g
particle has = [IIT-99]
m σ
(i) Find the value of H if the particle just reaches the (A) (B)
disc.
(ii) Sketch the potential energy of the particle as a
function of its height and find its equilibrium position.
Sol.
(C) (D)
Sol.
5. Three large parallel plates have uniform surface

charge densities as shown in the figure. What is the
electric field at P. [JEE’ 2005 (Scr)]
z=a
P
z=–a
z=–2a
4σ 4σ
(A) – ∈ k (B) ∈ k
0 0
2σ 2σ
(C) – ∈ k (D) ∈ k
0 0
Sol.
6. A conducting liquid bubble of radius a and thickness

t (t<<a) is charged to potential V. If the bubble
collapses to a droplet, find the potential on the droplet.
[JEE2005]

Sol. 8. A long, hollow conducting cylinder is kept coaxially

inside another long, hollow conducting cylinder of larger
radius. Both the cylinders are initially electrically
neutral. [JEE 2007]
(A) A potential difference appears between the two
cylinders when a charge density is given to the inner
cylinder
(B) A potential difference appears between the two
cylinders when a charge density is given to the outer
cylinder
(C) No potential difference appears between the two
cylinders when a uniform line charge is kept along the
axis of the cylinder
(D) No potential difference appears between the two
cylinders when same charge density is given to both
the cylinders.
Sol.
7. The electrostatic potential (φr) of a spherical

symmetric system, kept at origin, is shown in the
adjacent figure, and given as [JEE 2006]
R0 r
q 9. Consider a neutral conducting sphere. A positive

φ = 4 π ∈ r (r ≥ R0 ) point charge is placed outside the sphere. The net
0
charge on the sphere is then, [JEE 2007]
q (A) negative and distributed uniformly over the surface
φr = 4 π ∈ R (r ≤ R0 )
0 0 of the sphere
Which of the following option(s) is / are correct ? (B) negative and appears only at the point on the
(A) For spherical region r ≤ R0 , total electrostatic sphere closest to the point charge
energy stored is zero. (C) negative and distributed non-uniformly over the
(B) Within r = 2R0, total charge is q. entire surface of the sphere
(C) There will be no charge anywhere except at r = R0. (D) Zero
(D) Electric field is discontinuous at r = R0 Sol.
Sol.
10. A spherical portion has been removed from a solid

sphere having a charge distributed uniformly in its
volume as shown in the figure. The electric field inside
the emptied space is - [JEE 2007]

Sol.
(A) zero everywhere (B) non-zero and uniform

(C) non-uniform (D) zero only at its center
Sol.
11. STATEMENT-1
For practical purposes, the earth is used as a refrence
at zero potential in electrical circuits. [JEE 2008]
and
STATEMENT-2
The electrical potential of a sphere of radius R with
charge Q uniformly distributed on the surface is given
Q 13. For a = 0, the value of d (maximum value of ρ as
by 4 πε R . shown in the figure) is
0
3 Ze 3 Ze 4 Ze Ze
(A) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True; (A) (B) (C) (D)
3
STATEMENT-2 is a correct explanation for STATEMENT-1 4 πR 3
πR 3 3 πR 3 πR3
(B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True’ Sol.
STATEMENT-1
Sol.
Paragraph for Question No. 12 to 14

The nuclear charge (Ze) is non-uniformly distributed
within a nucleus of radius R. The charge density ρ (r)
[charge per unit volume] is dependent only on the
radial distance r from the centre of the nucleus as
shown in figure The electric field is only along the
radial direction. [JEE 2008]
Figure :
O a R r
12. The electric field at r = R is 14. The electric field within the nucleus is generally
(A) independent of a observed to be linearly dependent on r. This implies.
(B) directly proportional to a R 2R
(C) directly proportional to a2 (A) a = 0 (B) a = (C) a = R (D) a =
2 3
(D) inversely proportional to a

Sol. Sol.
15. Three concentric metallic spherical shells of radii

R, 2R, 3R, are given charge Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , respectively.
It is found that the surface charge densities on the
outer surfaces of the shells are equal. Then, the ratio
of the charges given to the shells Q1 : Q2 : Q3 , is
(A) 1 : 2 : 3 (B) 1 : 3 : 5
(C) 1 : 4 : 9 (D) 1 : 8 : 18 [JEE 2009]
Sol.
17. A disk of radius a / 4 having a uniformly distributed

charge 6 C is placed in the x–y plane with its centre
at (–a / 2, 0, 0). A rod of length a carrying a uniformly
distributed charge 8 C is place on the x-axis from x =
a / 4 to x = 5a / 4. Two point charges –7 C and 3 C
are placed at (a / 4, – a / 4, 0) and (–3a / 4, 3a / 4,
0), respectively. Consider a cubical surface formed by
six surfaces x = ± a / 2, y = ± a / 2, z = ± a / 2. The
electric flux through this cubical surface is
16. A solid sphere of radius R has a charge Q distributed

in its volume with a charge dinsity ρ = Kra , where K
–2C 2C
and a are constants and r is the distance from its (A) (B) ε
ε0 0
R 1
centre. If the electric field at r = is times that
2 8 10C 12C
at r = R, find the value of a. [JEE 2009] (C) ε (D) [JEE 2009]
0 ε0

Sol.
19. Consider an electric field E = E0 x̂ , where E0 is a
constant. The flux through the shaded area (as shown
in the figure) due to this field is [JEE 2011]
z
(a,0,a) (a,a,a)
y
(0,0,0) (0,a,0)
x
E0 a2
(A) 2E0a2 (B) 2 E0a
2 (C) E0a2 (D)
2
Sol.
18. A uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R

carries uniform surface charge density of σ per unit
area. It is made of two hemispherical shells, held
together by pressing them with force F (see figure). F
is proportional to
F F
1 2 2 1 2 20. A spherical metal shell A of radius RA and a solid

(A) ε σ R (B) ε σ R metal sphere B of radius RB (<RA) are kept far apart
0 0
and each is given charge '+Q'. Now they are con-
1 σ2 1 σ2 nected by a thin metal wire. Then [JEE 2011]
(C) (D) [JEE 2010]
ε0 R ε0 R2 (A) Einside
A
=0 (B) QA > QB
Sol. σA RB
(C) σ = R (D) Eon
A
surface
< EBon surface
B A

21. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? Sol.

(A) If the electric field due to a point charge varies as
r–2.5 instead of r–2, then the Gauss law will still be
valid
(B) The Gauss law can be used to calculate the field
distribution around an electric dipole
(C) If the electric field between two point charges is
zero somewhere, then the sign of the two charges is
the same
(D) The work done by the external force in moving a
unit positive charge from point A at potential VA to
point B at potential VB is (VB – VA).
1. B 2. C 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. B
8. A 9. A 10. C 11. A 12. D 13. D 14. B
15. A 16. C 17. A 18. A 19. D 20. A 21. B
22. B 23. D 24. C 25. (i) B, (ii) D 26. A 27. A 28. D
29. A 30. C 31. B 32. C 33. B 34. D 35. D
36. A 37. B 38. C 39. A 40. D 41. C 42. C
43. C 44. A 45. D 46. A
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - I I
1. C 2. A,C 3. C 4. C,D 5. A,B,C 6. A,B,C 7. D 8.

D
9. A,C,D 10. A,C,D 11. A,B 12. A,C,D
ANSWER KEY EXERCISE - I II
q R Q Rλ
1. There is a positive charge in the close surface. 2. 24 ∈ 3. a = 4. 2ε 5. 2ε
0 3 0 0
1 qQ
6. 7. 9V0
2π 4πε0mR 3

 r1  r 
8. (i)  r q (ii) Charge on inner shell = –  1  q and charge on the outer shell = q
 2  r2 
r 
(iii) Charge flown in to the earth =  1  q
 r2 
 q1  1 1 
Vr =  –  ; a≤r ≤b
 4 πε 0  r a 
kq b  q1  1 1 
9. v= 10. (i) q2 = – q1 ; (ii) Vb =  –  ; r =b 11. –Q/3 12. 1.125 q
r a  4 πε 0  b a 

Vr = 1  q1 + q2  ; r ≥ b
 4 πε 0  r r 
v 1r1
13. v2 = 14. (σ – x) A , x A, – x A, (x – 2 σ) A, where x = (2ε0 E + 3 σ) / 2
r2
1/ 2
 2KQq  r – R 3   6 2mr ∈0 2Kλ
1.   +  2. 3. 0, ,0 4.
 mR  r 8 e ρa r
Qq
5. 7.5 × 10–9 N 6. 2π ∈0 L 7. 2
2
a 2 Q 2  1 − an  R RQ 2
C 2. (a) U2 =   where a = , (b) U2 (n → ∞) =
8 π ∈0 R  1 − a 
1.
r +R 8π ∈0 r 2
4a 2 h 2 + a 2 – h  a
3. (i) C, (ii) (a) H = , (b) U = mg   equilibrium at h = 3 ,
3 U
2mga
mga
a/ 3 h
1/ 3
 a
4. A 5. C 6. V' =   .V 7. A,B,C,D 8. A 9. D
 3t 
10. B 11. B 12. A 13. B 14. C 15. B 16. 2
17. A 18. A 19. C 20. A,B,C,D 21. C, D

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
CAPACITANCE
CONTENTS
1. Introduction ................................................................ 3– 4
2. Capacitor ................................................................... 4 – 6
3. Energy stored in a charged capacitor .............................. 6 – 9
4. Distribution of Charges ................................................ 9 – 12
5. Capacitor circuits ....................................................... 12 – 14
6. Combination of Capacitors ......................................... 14 – 27
7. R.C circuit ................................................................. 27 – 30
8. Charging and Discharging of Capacitor .......................... 30 – 37
9. Force between Plates of Capacitor ............................... 37 – 38
10. Capacitors with di-electric ......................................... 38 – 47
11. Exercise - 1 ............................................................ 48 – 56
12. Exercise - 2 ............................................................ 57 – 61
13. Exercise - 3 ............................................................ 62 – 63
14. Exercise - 4 ............................................................ 64 – 65
15. Exercise - 5 ........................................................... 66 – 68
16. Answer key ............................................................ 69 – 70

IVRS No : 0744-2439051, 52, 53, www.motioniitjee.com , info@motioniitjee.com
Page # 2 CAPACITANCE
SYLLABUS
Capacitance; Parallel plate capacitor with and without
dielectrics; Capacitors in series and parallel; Energy stored in
a capacitor.

CAPACITANCE Page # 3
1. INTRODUCTION
A capacitor can store energy in the form of potential energy in an electric field. In this
chapter we'll discuss the capacity of conductors to hold charge and energy.
1.1 Capacitance of an isolated conductor

When a conductor is charged its potential increases. It is found that for an isolated conductor
(conductor should be of finite dimension, so that potential of infinity can be assumed to be
zero) potential of the conductor is proportional to charge given to it.
q
q = charge on conductor
V = potential of conductor Isolated conductor
qV
 q = CV
Where C is proportionally constant called capacitance of the conductor.
1.2 Definition of capacitance :

Capacitance of conductor is defined as charge required to increase the potential of conductor
by one unit.
1.3 Important point about the capacitance of an isolated conductor :

• It is a scalar quantity.
• Unit of capacitance is farad in SI unis and its dimensional formula is M–1L–2 I2 T4
• 1 Farad : 1 Farad is the capacitance of a conductor for which 1 coulomb charge
increases potential by 1 volt.
1Coulomb
1 Farad = 1 Volt
1 F = 10–6 F, 1nF = 10–9 F or 1 pF = 10–12 F

• Capacitance of an isolated conductor depends on following factors :
(a) Shape and size of the conductor :
On increasing the size, capacitance increase.
(b) On surrounding medium :
With increase in dielectric constant K, capacitance increases.
(c) Presence of other conductors:
When a neutral conductor is placed near a charged conductor capacitance of conductors
increases.
• Capacitance of a conductor does not depend on
(a) Charge on the conductor
(b) Potential of the conductor
(c) Potential energy of the conductor.
1.4 Capacitance of an isolated Spheical Conductor.

Ex.1 Find out the capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor of radius R.
Sol. Let there is charge Q on sphere.
KQ
 Potential V 
R
Hence by formula : Q = CV

CKQ
Q
R
C = 40R
(i) If the medium around the conductor is vacuum or air.:

Cvacuum = 40R
R = Radius of spherical conductor. (may be solid or hollow)
(ii) If the medium around the conductor is a dielectric of constant K from surface of
sphere to infinity then
Cmedium = 40KR
Cmedium
(iii) Cair / vaccum = K = dielectric constant.
2. CAPACITOR :
A capacitor or condenser consists of two coductors separated by an insulator or dielectric.
(i) When uncharged conductor is brought near to a charged conductor, the charge on
conductors remains same but its potential dcreases resulting in the increase of capacitance.
(ii) In capacitor two conductors have equal but opposite charges.
(iii) The conductors are called the plates of the capacitor. The name of the capacitor depends
on the shape of the capacitor.
(iv) Formulae related with capacitors:
(a) Q = CV
Q QA QB
 C  
V VA – VB VB – VA
Q = Charge of positive plate of capacitor.

V = Potential difference between positive and negative plates of capacitor
C = Capacitance of capacitor.
(v) The capacitor is represented as following :
(vi) Based on shape and arrangement of capacitor plates there are various types of capacitors:
(a) Parallel plate capacitor
(b) Spherical capacitor.
(c) Cylindrical capacitor
(v) Capacitance of a capacitor depends on
(a) Area of plates.
(b) Distance between the plates.
(c) Dielectric medium between the plates.
2.1 Parallel Plate Capacitor
Two metallic parallel plates of any shape but of same size and separated by small distance
constitute parallel plate capacitor. Suppose the area of each plate is A and the separation
between the two plates is d. Also assume that the space between the plates contains
vacuum.

We put a charge q on one plate and a charge –q on the other. This can be done either by
connecting one plate with the positive terminal and the other with negative plate of a
battery (as shown in figure a ) or by connecting one plate to the earth and by giving a charge
+q to the other plate only. This charge will induce a charge – q on the earthed plate. The
charges will appear on the facing surfaces. The charges density on each of these surfaces
has a magnitude  = q/A.
+q –q
+ –
+ – +q –q
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – +
or –
+ – + –
+ –
+ –
(a) (b)
If the plates are large as compard to the separation between them, then the electric field
between the plates (at point B) is uniform and perpendicular to the plates except for a small
region near the edge. The magnitude of this uniform field E may be calculated by using the
fact that both positive and negative plates produce the electric field in the same direction
(from positive plate towards negative plate) of magnitude /20 and therefore, the net elec-
tric field between the plates will be,
  
E  
2 0 2 0  0
Outside the plates (at point A and C) the field due to positive sheet of charge and negative
sheet of charge are in opposite directions. Therefore, net field at these points is zero.
The potential difference between the plates is,
   qd
 V  E.d   d 

 0  A 0
 The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is,
q A 0 0 A
C  or C
V d d
2.2 Cylindrical Capacitor
Cylindrical capacitor consists of two co-axial cylinders of radii a and b and length l. If a
charge q is given to the inner cylinder, induced change –q will reach the inner surface of the
outer cylinder. By symmetry, the electric field in region between the cylinders is radially
outwards.
By Gauss’s theorem, the electric field at a distance r from the axis of the cylinder is
given by
1 q A
E
2 0 l r – + + –B
The potential difference between the cylinders is given by – + + –
a a
– + + –
  1 dr q  a – + + –
–
V   E dr  
 q   In  l – b
2 0 l r 2 0 l  b  + +
b b –
+ a + –
– –
– + + –
– + + – –
q 2 0 l
or, C  – –
V  a
 In 
 b

2.3 Spherical Capacitor

A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spheres of radii a and b as shown. The inner
sphere is positively charged to potential V and outer sphere is at zero potential.
The inner surface of the outer sphere has an equal negative charge.
The potential difference between the spheres is
– –
Q Q –
V – +
40a 40b + +
–
Hence, capacitance + b +
+ +
–
–
C
Q 40ab + a +
V (b  a) – +
–
–
Ex.2 Find capacitance of the given system.

2Q Q
A=Area
d
Sol. Arranging charges
   Q
 E   
2 0 2 0  0 2A 0 3Q Q Q 3Q
Qd 2 2 2 2
Now, V = Ed =
2A 0
Q / 2 A 0
 C 
V d
3. ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR
Q –Q q –q
dq
initially Finally middle state
Work has to be done in charging a conductor against the force of repulsion by the already
existing charges on it. The work is stored as a potential energy in the electric field of the
conductor. Suppose a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V0 and let q0 be the
charge on the conductor at this instant. The potential of the conductor when (during charg-
ing) the charge on it was q (< q0) is,
q
V
C
Now, work done in bringing a small charge dq at this potential is,
q
dW  Vdq   dq
C
 total work done in charging it from 0 to q0 is,

q0 q0
q 1 q02
W  dW   dq 
C 2 C
0 0
This work is stored as the potential energy,
1 q02
 U
2 C
Further by using q0 = CV0 we can write this expression also as,
1 1
U CV02  q0 V0
2 2
In general if a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V by giving it a charge q,
1 1 q2 1
then U CV 2   qV
2 2 C 2
3.1 Energy Density of a Charged Capacitor

This energy is localized on the charges or the plates but is distributed in the field. Since in
case of a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field is only between the plates, i.e., in a
volume (A × d), the energy density
1
CV 2
U 2 1  A  V2
UE     0 
volume Ad 2  d  Ad
2
1 V 1  v 
or UE   0     0E 2  d  E
2 d 2  
3.2 Calculation of Capacitance

The method for the calculation of capacitance involves integration of the electric field be-
tween two conductors or the plates which are just equipotential surfaces to obtain the
potential difference Vab. Thus,
a
 
Vab  – E . dr

b
q q
C  a
Vab  
 – E . dr

b
3.3 Heat Generated :
(1) Work done by battery
W = QV
Q = charge flow in the battery
V = EMF of battery
(2) W = +Ve (When Battery discharging)
W = –Ve (When Battery charging)
(3)  Q = CV (C = equivalent capacitance)
so W = CV × V = CV2
1
Now energy on the capacitor  CV 2
2
 Energy dissipated in form of heat (due to resistance)
H = Work done by battery – {final energy of capacitor - initial energy of capacitor}

Ex.3 At any time S1 switch is opened and S2 is

closed then find out heat generated in circuit. S1
S2
initially finally
2V
CV –CV 2CV –2CV
Sol.
+ – + –
V
V 2V
Charge flow through battery = Qf – Qi
= 2CV – CV = CV
1 2 1 2 2  2 1 2
H = (CV × 2V) –  C(2 V )  CV   2CV  2CV  CV 
2 2   2 
1 0V
H CV 2
2
2F
Ex.4 (a) Find the final charge on each capacitor if they are + +
20V 5F 2 F 5V
connected as shown in the figure. – –
Sol. Initially
0c 0c
C1
+ 100C + 10C
C3 C2
– 100C – 10C
Finally let q charge flows clockwise then +q –q
Now applying KVL

+ (100  q) C + (10  q) C
 q (10  q) (100  q)
  0 – (10  q) C
C1 C2 C3 – (100  q) C
q 10  q 100  q
   0
2 2 5
5q + 50 + 5q – 200 + 2q = 0
75
12 q – 150 = 0  q  C
6
so finally
75 / 6 C
+ –
C1
+ + 135
525 C
C C3 C2 6
6 – –

(b) Find heat loss in the above circuit.

H = Energy [initially – finally] on capacitor
 1 2 2 2
1   1  525  1 1  75  1 1  135  1 
   5  (20 )2   2  (5)2             
6
    10 J
 2 2  

2  6  5 2  6  2 2 6  2 


4. DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED CAPACITORS :

When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected as shown in figure
+Q1 –Q1  Q1' – Q1'
A B A B
C1 C1
+Q2 –Q2  Q'2 – Q'2

C D C D
C2 C2
Initially Finally
Before connecting the ca pa citors
Para meter I st Capacitor II n d Capacitor

Capacitance C1 C2
Charge Q1 Q2
Potential V1 V2
After connecting the capacitors
Pa ra me te r I st Capacitor II nd Ca pa citor
Capacitance C1 C2
Charge '
Q 1' Q2
Potential V1 V2
(a) Common potential :

By charge conservation on plates A and C before and after connection.
Q1 + Q2 = C1V + C2V
Q1  Q 2 C1V1  C 2 V2 Total ch arg e
 V  =
C1  C 2 C1  C 2 Total capaci tan ce
C1
(b) Q1'  C1V  (Q1  Q 2 )
C1  C 2
C2
Q'2  C 2 V  (Q1  Q 2 )
C1  C 2
(c) Heat loss during redistribution :
1 C1C 2
H  Ui – Uf  ( V1 – V2 )2
2 C1  C 2
The loss of energy is in the form of Joule heating in the wire.

• When plates of similar charges are connected with each other (+with + and – with –)
then put all values (Q1, Q2, V1, V2) with positive sign.
• When plates of opposite polarity are connected with each other (+ with –) then take
charge and potential of one of the plate to be negative.
Derivation of above formulae :
C1V
A + – B
V1 V2 C1
+ – + – V 0
A B C D C2
C1 C2
+ – D
C C2V
Let potential of B and D is zero and common potential on capacitors is V, then at A and C it
will be V.
C1V + C2V = C1V1 + C2V2
C1V1  C 2 V2
V
C1  C 2
1 1 1
H C1V12  C 2 V22 – (C1  C 2 )V 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 (C1V1  C 2 V2 )2
= C1V12  C 2 V22 –
2 2 2 (C1  C 2 )
1  C12 V12  C1C 2 V12  C 2C1V22  C 22 V22 – C12 V12 – C2 V22 – 2C1C 2 V1V2 
  
2  C1  C 2 
1 C1C 2
 ( V1 – V2 )2
2 C1  C 2 + –
A B
C1
1 C1C 2 V 0
2
H = 2 C  C ( V1 – V2 ) C2
1 2
D + –
when oppositely charged terminals are connected then C
 C1V + C2V = C1V1 – C2V2
C1V1 – C 2 V2
V
C1  C 2
1 C1C 2
H ( V1  V2 )2
2 C1  C 2
Ex.5 Find out the following if A is connected with C and B is connected with D.
(i) How much charge flows in the circuit.
(ii) How much heat is produced in the circuit.
2F 3F
+ – B + – D
A C
20V 10V

Sol. Let potential of B and D is zero and common A B

potential on capacitors is V, then at A and C it will be V. + –
Q1=2V
By charge conservation, V 0
3V + 2V = 40 + 30
+ –
5V = 70  V = 14 volt C D
Q2=3V
Charge flow = 40 – 28 = 12 C
Now final charges on each plate is shown in the figure.
A + – B
28C –28C
12C 12C
+ –
C 42C –42C D
1 1 1
(ii) Heat produced = × 2 × (20)2 + × 3 × (10)2 – × 5 × (14)2
2 2 2
= 400 + 150 – 490
= 550– 490 = 60 J
• When capacitor plates are joined then the charge remains conserved.
• We can also use direct formula of redistribution as given above.
Ex.6 Repeat above question if A is connected with D and B is connected with C.
Q1=2V
4C –4C
A B A B
V 0
36C 36C
+ – D C
D C 6C –6C
Q2=3V
Initial Final
Sol. Let potential of B and C is zero and common potential

on capacitors is V, then at A and D it will be V
2V + 3V = 10  V = 2 volt
Now charge on each plate is shown in the figure.
1
Heat produced = 400 + 150 – × 5×4
2
= 550 – 10 = 540 J
• Here heat produced is more. Think why ?
Ex.7 Three capacitors as shown of capacitance 1F, 2F and 2F are charged upto potential
difference 30 V, 10 V and 15V respectively. If terminal A is connected with D, C is
connected with E and F is connected with B. Then find out charge flow in the circuit
and find the final charges on capacitors.

30V 10V 15V

+ – + – + –
A B C D E F
1F 2F 2F
Sol. Let charge flow is q. 30–q q–30 –q–30 30+q
Now applying Kirchhoff's voltage low + – – +
A B F
( q – 20 ) (30  q) 30 – q 1F 2F E
– –  0 q
2 2 1
– 2q = – 25 2F
q = 12.5 C
D C
Final charges on plates –20+q 20–q
 17. 5C – 17 .5C
+ – – +
–42.5C  42.5C
12.5C
–7.5C 7.5C
– +
5. CAPACITOR CIRCUITS
Ex.8 Find charge on each capacitor.
4F
2F 2F
20V 10V 20V

5V 10V
20V +
Sol. Charge on C1 = C1V1 = 2 × (20 – 5)C + + – C3
– 10V
= 30 C –
C1 C2 –10
Charge on C2 = C2V2 = 2 × (20 – (–10))C 20V
= 60 C 5V
Charge on C3 = C3V3 = 4 × (20 – 10)C O O O O
= 40 C
2F 2F
4F
Ex.9 Find charge on each capacitor.

10V 20V
Sol. Charge on C1 = (x – 10) C1 x x

Charge on C2 = (x – 0) C2
Charge on C3 = (x – 20) C3 C3
C1 C2
Now from charge conservation at node x 10V 20V
(x – 10)C1 + (x – 0)C2 + (x – 20)C3 = 0
 2x – 20 + 2x + 4x – 80 = 0
 x = 25/2
O O O
 25 
so Q C1    10  2C  5C
 2 

25 5 C – 30 C
Q C2   2C  25 C 25 C
2 – 5 C +30 C
–25 C
QC3  ( 25 / 2  40)  4 C  30 C
Ex.10 In the given circuit find out the charge on each capacitor. (Initially they are uncharged)
10V E 30V
1F 2 F F + – × – + D
+
2F 30V
10V G –25V
10V 30V 25V
25V
A B C
0
Sol. Let potential at A is 0, so at D it is 30 V, at F it is 10 V and at point G potential is –25V. Now
apply Kirchhoff's Ist law at point E. (total charge of all the plates connected to 'E' must be
same as before i.e. 0)
 (x – 10) + (x – 30) 2 + (x + 25) 2 = 0
10 + – 4 – + 30
5x = 20
6C –6 C –52 C 52 C
x=4
58C
Final charges : –58 C –25
Q2F = (30 – 4) 2 = 52 C
5C
Q1F = (10 – 4) = 6 C
0 0 0
Q2F = (4 – (–25)) 2 = 58 C
2F
C1
2F 2F 2F
2F
Ex.11 4V 4V
2V
Find voltage across capacitor C1.

C3
x y
C4
C1 C2
2V C5
4V –4V
Sol.
O O O O
Now from charge conservation at node x and y

for x
(x – 4)C1 + (x – 2)C2 + (x – y)C3 = 0  2(x – 4) + 2(x – 2) + (x – y) 2 = 0
6x – 2y – 12 = 0 .....(1)
For y
(y – x)C3 + [y –(–4)]C4 + (y – 0)C5 = 0  (y – x)2 + (y + 4) 2 + y 2 = 0

= 6y – 2x + 8 = 0 .....(2)
eq. (1) & (2)
y = – 3/4 x = 7/4
7  3 5
So potential difference = x – y =      volt
4  4 3
6. COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS :
6.1 Series Combination :
(i) When initially uncharged capacitors are
Q Q Q
connected as shown, then the combination is + – + – + –
called series combination C1 C2 C3
V1 V2 V3
.
(ii) All capacitors will have same charge but

different potential difference across then.
(iii) We can say that +–
Q
V1 
C1
V1 = potential across C1
Q = charge on positive plate of C1
C1 = capacitance of capacitor similarly
Q Q
V2  , V3  .........
C2 C3
1 1 1
(iv) V1 : V2 : V3 = C : C : C
1 2 3
We can say that potential difference across capacitor is inversely proportional to its capacitance
in series combination.
1
V
C
Note : • In series combination the smallest capacitor gets maximum potential.
1 1 1
C1 C2 C3
V1  V V2  V V3  V
(v) 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 1
   ......    ......    ......
C1 C 2 C 3 C1 C 2 C 3 C1 C 2 C 3
Where V = V1 + V2 + V3
(vi) Equivalent Capacitance :
Equivalent capacitance of any combination is that capacitance which when connected
in place of the combination stores same charge and energy as that of the combination
In series :
1 1 1 1
   ........................
C eq C1 C 2 C 3
• In series combination equivalent is always less then smallest capacitor of combination.
(vii) Energy stored in the combination
Q2 Q2 Q2
Ucombination =  
2C1 2C 2 2C3

Q2
Ucombination = 2C
eq
Energy supplied by the battery in charging the combination

Q Q2
Ubattery = Q × V = Q . C = C
eq eq
Ucombination 1

Ubattery 2
• Half of the energy supplied by the battery is stored in form of electrostatic energy and half of
the energy is converted into heat through resistance.
Derivation of Formulae :
C1 C2 C3
Meaning of equivalent capacitor

C1 C2 C3 Ceq
B A B
A
V V
Q
C eq 
V
Now,
Initially, the capacitor has no charge. Applying kirchhoff's voltage law
–Q – Q – Q C1 C2 C3
  V 0 B
C1 C 2 C 3 A
+Q –Q +Q –Q +Q –Q
 1 1 1  Q Q Q
V  Q     –  –  –
C C C C1 C2 C3
 1 2 3
V 1 1 1
  
Q C1 C 2 C 3 Q
V
1 1 1 1
  
C eq C1 C 2 C 3
in general
n
1 1
C eq
 C
n 1 n
Ex.12 Three initially uncharged capacitors are connected in series as shown in circuit with a
battery of emf 30V. Find out following : 2F 3F 6F
(i) charge flow through the battery,
(ii) potential energy in 3 F capacitor.
(iii) Utotal in capacitors
(iv) heat produced in the circuit
30V

1 1 1 1 3  2 1
Sol.     1
C eq 2 3 6 6
Ceq = 1 F.
(i) Q = Ceq V = 30 C
(ii) charge on 3F capacitor = 30 C
Q 30  30
energy = = = 150 J
2C 23
30  30
(iii) Utotal = J = 450 J
2
(iv) Heat produced = (30 C) (30) – 450 J = 450 J
Ex.13 Two capacitors of capacitance 1 F and 2F are charged to potential difference 20 V
and 15 V as shown in figure. If now terminal B and C are connected together terminal
A with positive of battery and D with negative terminal of battery then find out final
charges on both the capacitor.
1F 2F
A + – B C + – D
20V 15V
20  q 30  q
 –  –
1 2
A B C D
20+q + – + –
–20+q 30+q –30+q
q
30V
Now applying kirchoff voltage law
–( 20  q) 30  q
–  30  0
1 2
– 40 – 2q – 30 – q = – 60
3q = – 10
10
Charge flow = – C.
3
50
Charge on capacitor of capacitance 1F = 20 + q =
3
80
Charge on capacitor of capacitance 2F = 30 + q =
3
6.2 Parallel Combination :
(i) When one plate of one capacitor is connected with one plate of the other capacitor, such
combination is called parallel combination.
(ii) All capacitors have same potential difference but different charges.
Q1
(iii) We can say that : + –
C1
Q1 = C1V Q2
+ –
C2
Q1 = Charge on capacitor C1 Q3
+ –
C1 = Capacitance of capacitor C1
C3

V = Potential across capacitor C1

(iv) Q1 : Q2 : Q3 : C1 : C2 : C3
The charge on the capacitor is proportional to its capacitane Q  C
C1
(v) Q1  Q
C1  C 2  C3
C2
Q2  Q
C1  C 2  C3
C3
Q3  Q
C1  C 2  C3
Where Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ..............
• Maximum charge will flow thorugh the capacitor of largest value.

(vi) Equivalent capacitance of parallel combination
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
• Equivalent capacitance is always greater then the largest capacitor of combination.
(vii) Energy stored in the combination :
1 1
Vcombination  C1V 2  C 2 V 2  .............
2 2
1 1
 (C1  C 2  C 3 ........) V 2 = C eq V 2
2 2
Ubattery  QV  CV 2
Ucombination 1

Ubattery 2
• Half of the energy supplied by the battery is stored in the form of electrostatic energy and
half of the energy is converted into heat through resistance.
Formulae Derivation for parallel combination : C1
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Q1
= C1V + C2V + C3V V 0
= V(C1 + C2 + C3) Q Q2 C2
Q Q3 C
 C1  C 2  C 3 3
V
V
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 V 0
In general Q
n
C eq  C n
n 1
Ex.14 Three initially uncharged capacitors are connected to a battery of 10 V in parallel

combination. Find out the following ?
1F
(i) charge flow from the battery
(ii) total energy stored in the capacitors 2F
(iii) heat produced in the circuit
3F
(iv) potential energy in the 3F capacitor.
Sol. (i) Q = (30 + 20 + 10) C = 60 C
10V
1
(ii) Utotal = × 6 × 10 × 10 = 300 J
2
(iii) Heat produced = 60 × 10 – 300 = 300 J
1
(iv) U3F = × 3 × 10 × 10 = 150 J
2
6.3 Mixed Combination :

The combination which contains mixing of series combinations or other complex combinations
fall in mixed category.
There are two types of mixed combinations
(i) Simple (ii) Complex.
Ex.15 Two capacitors of capacitances C1 = 6F and C2 = 3F are connected in series across
a cell of emf 18 V. Calculate
(i) the equivalent capacitance,
(ii) the potential difference across each capacitor,
(iii) the charge on each capacitor.
1 1 1 C1 C2
Sol. (i)  
C C1 C 2 Q1 Q2
C1C 2 63
 C   2F V1 V2
C1  C 2 6  3
V
(ii)  C2   6 
V1   V  
   18  12 V
 C1  C 2  63
(iii) v2 = 18 – v1 = 6v
(iv) Q1 = Q2 = C1V1 = C2V2 = CV
C1
Ex.16 In the circuit shown the capacitors are C3

C1 = 15F ; C2 = 10F and C3 = 25F. Find
(i) the equivalent capacitance of the circuit, C2

(ii) the charge on each capacitor and
(iii) the potential difference across each capacitor.
10V
(C1  C 2 ) C 3  25  25 
Sol. (i)   F  12.5 F
(C1  C 2 )  C 3  25  25 
C1
Q
Q1
Q2
C3
C2
10V

(ii) Q = Total charge supplied by the cell = CV = (12.5 × 10) C = 125 C
 C1   15 
Charge on C1  Q1    Q     125  75 C
C
 1  C 2   15  10 
 C2   10 
Charge on C 2  Q 2  
 C  C  Q   15  10   125  50 C

 1 2   
Charge on C3 = Q = 125 C
(iii) p.d. across C1  V1  Q1  75  5 V

C1 15
p.d. across C2 = V2 = V1 = 5 V
Q 3 125
p.d. across C 3  V3    5V
C3 25
Ex.17 In the given circuit find out charge across 6F and 1F capacitor.
1F
6F
2F
Sol.
30V
It can be simplified as
3F 6F
18
Ceq = = 2F
9
Charge flow through the cell = 30 × 2 C
Q = 60 C
30V
Now charge on 3F = Charge on 6F = 60 C
Potential difference across 3F
60
  20 V
3
 Charge on 1F = 20 C
6.4 Series-Parallel
8F 6F
2F
Ex.18 3F
4F
Find equivalent capacitance of the circuit

63 8F
8F  2F
63
 88 
  40   F
Sol. 2F (2+2+4)F  8F 88 
4F
Ex.18 Find charge in each capacitor:

Sol. In series charge will be same on all capacitors and in parallel charge will be propotional to
capacitane.
32C – 32C 8C –8C
32C
8C 8C
16C
–8C – 8C
–16C
Ex.19 Find out the Relation between C1, C2, C3 and C4 such that point A and B are equipoten-
tial. [Balanced wheat stone bridge]
A
C1 C2
C5
C3 C4
B A
C1 q1
C2
Sol. When A and B are equipotential then there will be q1
no charge on capacitor C5. So remove it. Now C1,
C2 are in series and C3, C4 are in series so they
will have same charges respectively. q1
q1 q C3
 2 q2 C4
 C1 C 3 ...(1)
B
q1 q
and  2 ...(2)
C2 C4
C2 C4
  C2C3 = C1C4
C1 C 3
6.5 Ladder Problems

C C
A
C C
Ex.20
B
Find equivalent capacitance between point A and B.

C
C C
A
C C
Sol.
B
D
Let Capacitance is Ceq then after line CD capacitance again will be equal to C eq , because
circuit is infinite. Then
C
A
Ce q C Ceq
B
(C eq  C)  C 5 –1
 C eq   C eq  C
C  C  C eq 2
Ex.21 Find equivalent capacitance between points A and B.
C 2C 4C
A 
C 2C 4C
B –
C 2C 4C
C
A
C 2C 4C
Sol.
B
D
Let equivalent capacitance x then capacitance after C,D point will be 2x because every
capacitance becomes 2 times as compared to A, B.
C
C
A
C 2x
x
So
B D
(2x  C)C C
 x  x=
( 2 x  C  C) 2
6.6 Symmetric Circuits :
C
C C
C C
C
A D B
Ex.22

Find equivalent Capacitance between A and B.

Sol. Because line CD is symmetric about A and B so we remove it then
C C
C C
A B  C e q  2C
C
C
C C
C C
A B
C
Ex.23 C
C
D
Find equivalent Capacitance between A and B.
Sol. Because line CD is symmetric about points A and B so we remove it.
C C
C C
A B
Now C
C
3C
So Ceq 
2
1 2 3 4 n
A
Ex.24 B
Find equivalent Capacitance between point A and B if Capacitance between any two
plates is C.
Sol. There are total (n – 1) capacitors which are in series.
1 1 1
so    ........(n – 1) times
C eq C C
1 (n – 1) C
  C eq 
C eq C n –1
Ex.25 Find out equivalent capacitance between A and B.
A
B

Sol. Put numbers on the plates The charges will be as shown in the figure.
V12 = V32 = V34
So all the capacitors are in parallel combination.
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
O
1
+ +
A 2 –
–
+ –
+ 3 B
4 –
O
d
A B
d
0
1
+
d C1
–
A+ 0 2 –B
d
Sol. 0 3
–
d
+ C2
0 4
There are only two capacitors. Ceq = C1 + C2
0
1
–
A+ d +
2
d +
3 –
+
d
– –B
4
0
The modified circuit is
A C C
C B 2C
C C eq 
3
Other method :
1
–x
2 +x
A
+x
3 –x
+2x
4 –2x
B

Q 2 xA
C eq  
V V
xd 2xd 3 xd
V = V2 – V4 = (V2 – V3) + (V3 – V4)   
0 0 0
2 Ax 0 2 A 0 2C
 C eq   
3 xd 3d 3
Area A
–
d
+
–
d C
+ +
A +
d
–
+
d
– –
B
A 0
Sol. C C C
d A C
B
1 1 2 5 3C 3 A 0
    C eq   C C
C eq C 3C 3C 5 5d
D
Alternative method : 1 0
Q xy –x x
C  2 +x Ae 0
V VAB –x x
O
Q xy + 3 +x Ae 0
C  A +y y
V VAB
4 –y Ae 0
Potential of 1 and 4 is same + (x+y) xy
5 – (x+y) Ae 0 –
y 2x B
 y = 2x 0
A 0 A  0
 2y  x  ( x  2 x ) A 0 3 A  0
V   d
 C 
 A 0  (5 x )d 5d
Ex.29 Five similar condenser plates, each of

area A, are placed at equal distance d
apart and are connected to a source of
e.m.f. E as shown in the following 1 2 3 4 5
diagram. The charge on the plates 1 –
V
and 4 will be +
 0 A  2 0 A  0 AV 2 0 AV
(A) , (B) ,
d d d d
 0 AV 3 0 AV  0 AV 4 0 AV
(C) , (D) ,
d d d d
Sol. From equivalent circuit diagram Charge on first plate

1 2
 AV 3 2
Q = CV  Q 0
d
Charge on fourth plate 3 4
 AV
Q'  0
Q' = C(–V)
d 5 4
As plate 4 is repeated twice, hence charge on 4 will be Q'' = 2Q'
2 0 AV V
Q' '   + –
d
Hence the correct answer will be(B).
2F
S
1
2
Ex.30
10V 5V
When switch is shifted from 1 to 2 then find charge flown in circuit and heat gener-
ated.
Sol. Initially
q –q1
+ –
10V 5V
q
1 – 5  10  0  q1 = 10 F
C
Finally q2 –q2
 q2 = 10 × 2 C = 20 C
So charge Flown (Q) = (q2 – q1) = 10 C
Work done by battery = QV = 10 × 10 = 100 J
So Heat = [ W.DB – {final initial}energy of capacitor ]
 1 1 
 100 –   2  (0 )2 –  2  5 J
 2 2  10V
 100 – {100 – 25} J = 25 J
Ex.31 Find charge flown through battery and heat

2C C
generated in the circuit after shifting switch C
from S1 to S2.
Sol. Initially
S1 S2

V
O
V
For node x
(x – v) 2c + (x – v) c + (x + 0) c = 0
3v
 4x = 3v  x
4
3V/4 x'
– 2C
V C 2C C
– + 4 + 3VC
CV + – 4
4
( x  0) C  ( x  0) 2C  ( x  V ) C  0
V
O V O
V V
V
 x 
4
3CV – + 2VC + VC
So now charge on capacitor – 4
4 + – 4
So charge flow from battery

 3CV CV  CV
Q  
 4 4  2
Q
So heat generated
  1  3 V  2 1 V
2
1
2
 V    1  V 
2
1 V
2
1
2
 3 V  
H  QV    C    ( 2C)    C       C    (2C)    C    
  2  4  2 4 2  4    2  4  2 4 2  4  

CV 2
H  QV 
2
Ex.32 Find the charge flown through the path 1, 2, 3 as shown in figure after closing switch S
and heat generated in the circuit.
20V 6F
2
S
10V 3F

+
+ 60C 120C
20V –
20V – 6F 2
+ 60C
10V 10V +
Sol. – 3F 30C
–
3
initial finally
So charge flow in path 1 = 120 – 60 = 60C

So charge flow in path 2 = 60 + (60 – 30) = 90C
So charge flow in path 3 = (60 – 30) = 30C
So work done by battery of 20 V = 60 × 20 J
= 1200J
Wwork done by battery of 10 V = – 30 × 10 J
= –300J
 1 (60)2 1 (60)2 
Initial energy of capacitors =   J
 2 6 2 3 
= 900 J
1 2 1 2
Final energy of capacitor =  6  ( 20 )   3  (10 )   J = 1350 J
 2 2 
So heat loss = (1200 – 300) – (1350 – 900) J = 450 J
7. CIRCUIT SOLUTION FOR R – C CIRCUIT AT T = 0 (INITIAL STATE) AND T =  (FINAL STATE)

Note :
• Charge on the capacitor does not change instantaneously or suddenly if there is a
resistance in the path (series) of the capacitor.
• When an uncharged capacitor is connected with battery then its charge is zero
initially hence potential difference across it is zero initially. At this time the capacitor
can be treated as a conducting wire
R R
C E
E
Before connection Just after connection at t = 0

• The current will become zero finally (that means in steady state) in the branch which
contains capacitor.
R E R E
i=0
+
C E
E –
0 0
Before connection After connection at t = 

Ex.33 Find out current in the circuit and charge on capacitor which is initially uncharged in
the following situations.
2
10V 3F
(a) Just after the switch is closed 2

(b) After a long time when switch was closed. +10 0
Sol. (a) For just after closing the switch :
Potential difference across capacitor = 0 10V
10
 QC = 0  i=  5A
2 0 0
2
+10 0
(b) After a long time i=0
At steady state current i = 0
10V +
and potential difference across capacitor = 10 V
–
 QC = 3 × 10 = 30 C
0 0
Ex.34 Find out current I1, I2, I3, charge on capacitor
R I1 I2
dQ
and of capacitor in the circuit when it is
dt R
initially uncharged in the following situations  R
(a) Just after the switch is closed I3 C
(b) After a long time when switch is closed.
Sol. (a) Initially the capacitor is uncharged so its behaviour is like a conductor
Let potential at A is zero so at B and C also zero and at F it is . Let potential at E is x so at
D also x. Apply Kirchoff's I st law at point E :
x– x–0 x–0
  0
R R R
3x 

R R

x Qc = 0
3
– / 3   2
 I1  =
R 3R
dQ  
I2   , I3 
dt 3R 3R
Alternatively
  2
i1   
R eq R 3R
R
2

i1 
i 2  i3  
2 3R
(b) at t =  (finally)
Capacitor is completely charged. So their will be no current through it.

I2 = 0, I1 = I3 = R
2R F E /2 D
/2
I2=0
  
R 
 R
VE – VB = VD – VC =   R
 2R  2
C dQ C
 QC  , = I2 = 0 A B
2 dt
I1 I2 I3 Q dQ/dt
Time t = 0 2   
0
3R 3R 3R 3R
  C
Finally t = 0 2
0
2R 2R
Ex.35 At t = 0 switch S1 is closed and remains closed for a long time and S2 remains open.
Now S1 is opened and S2 is closed. Find out
S1 R S2 R
 2
C
(i) The current through the capacitor immediately after that moment
(ii) Charge on the capacitor long after that moment.
(iii) Total charge flown through the cell of emf 2 after S2 is closed.
Sol. (i) Let Potential at point A is zero. The potential at point B and C will be  (because current
 S2
through the circuit is zero.) C i=0 B D
VB – VA = ( – 0)
 C
 Charge on capacitor = C ( – 0) = C  2
C
– C
Now S2 is closed and S1 is open.
0
(p.d. across capacitor and charge on it will not change suddenly) 0A
Potential at A is zeo so at D it is –2
 current through the capacitor
 – (–2 ) 3
  (B to D)
R R
(ii) after a long time, i = 0
VB – VA = VD – VA = – 2
 Q = C(–2 – 0) = – 2C


C i=0 –2
B D
 +
2
–
0
0A
(iii) The charge on the lower plate (which is connected to the battery) changes from –C to
2C.
 this charge will come from the battery,
 charge flown from that cell is 2C downward.
C –2 –2
B D
 –2C
2
2C
0
0 0
8. CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

8.1 Charging of a condenser :
• In the following circuit. If key 1 is closed then the R
condenser gets charged. Finite time is taken in the
charging process. The quantity of charge at any instant C
2
of time t is given by
1
–( t / RC ) R
q  q0 [1 – e ] B
Where q0 = maximum final value of charge at t = . E
According to this equation the quantity of charge on the condenser increases exponentially
with increase of time.
• If t = RC =  then
 1
q = q0 [1 – e–(RC/RC)] = q0 1 – 
 e
or q = q0 (1 – 0.37) = 0.63 q0
= 63% of q0
• Time t = RC is known as Time Constant.
i.e. the time constant is that time during which the charge rises on the condenser plates to
63% of its maximum value.
• The potential difference across the condenser plates at any instant of time is given by
V  V0 [1 – e –( t / RC) ] volt
• The potential curve is also similar to that of charge. During charging process an electric
current flows in the circuit for a small interval of time which is known as the transient current.
The value of this current at any instant of time is given by
I  I0 [e –( t / RC) ] ampere

According to this equation the current falls in the circuit exponentially (Fig.)
• If t = RC =  = Time constant
I
I0 During
charging
0 t
During
discharging
I0
I
I0
I  I0 [e – (RC / RC )   0.37 I0 = 37% of I
e 0
i.e. time constant is that time during which current in the circuit falls to 37% of its maximum
value.
Derivation of formulae for charging of capacito :

It is given that initially capacitor is uncharged. Let at any time t
Applying Kirchoff voltage law
q C – q R
 – iR – 0  iR 
C C
t=0
C – q dq C – q  C
i  
CR dt CR
dq C – q CR
  .dq  dt q
dt CR C – q
q t C
dq dt t
 C – q =  RC
0
 – ln (C – q) + ln C =
RC
0
0.63 C
C t
ln 
C – q RC
t
O t=RC
– t / RC
C – q = C. e q  C(1 – e – t / RC )

RC = time constant of the RC series circuit.
After one time constant
i
 1
q  C 1 –  = C (1 – 0.37) = 0.63 C
 e  /R
Current at any time t
dq   1  0.37

i  C – e – t / RC  –  
dt  RC   R

t

 – t / RC
e O t=RC
R
Voltage across capacitor after one time constant V = 0.63 

Q = CV Vc
VC  (1 – e – t / RC ) 
Voltage across the resistor

VR = iR 0.63 
= e – t / RC
t
By energy conservation, O t=RC
Heat dissipated = work done by battery – U capacitor
1 1
 C(  ) – ( C 2 – 0) = C 2
2 2
Alternatively :
VR

0.37
t
O t=RC

Heat = H  i2Rdt

0
Vc
 2 –2 t 2 
 RC  – 2 t / RC
 R 2
e Rdt  e dt 
R
0 0
1
0.63  2

 2t 
–
2  e RC  t
  
R  – 2 / RC 
 0 In the figure time constant of (2) is more than (1)

2t
 2RC  – RC   2C
–  e  
2R   2
 0
Ex.36 In the figure shown below, find out the current as function of time and charge on
capacitor C1 and also plot the graph of charge on plate A and B of capacitor C2 as a
function of time.
C1=C
+ –
q/C
R
A –
 C2=C 2
B +
Sol. Let at any time charge on C1 = q
Now apply, K.V.L
q ( q – 2C)
–iR– – +=0
c C
2q +q –q
3   iR  3C = 2q + iRC + –
c q/C
i R
q t
dq dt
3C = 2q + iRC   3C – 2q   RC  A –2C  q
C2=C
0 0 B 2C – q
q
– n(3C – 2q) t  3  C – 2q  – 2 t
  n 
2 0 RC  3c  RC
3C
3C – 2q = 3Ce–2t/RC  q (1 – e – 2t / RC )
2
dq 3 – 2 t / RC
i  e 2C
dt R q
At plate A, B
3 C / 2
Charge qA = q – 2C = C (1 – e–2t/RC) – 2C
2
t
c 3c – 2t / RC
=– – e
2 2 –C / 2
c
qA = – (1  3e – 2t / RC ) A
2 –2C
c
qB = (1  3e – 2t / RC )
2
Ex.37 Without using the formula of equivalent find out the charge on capacitor and current
in all the branches as a function of time.
B + iR –  – iR
i R i
q D
+q/2
q/2 + q
 C C –
–q/2 –q/2 2C
q
E q
A q O
Sol. Applying KVL in ABDEA
q  q 2C – q
 – iR =  i – =
2C R 2CR 2CR
q
dq dt dq t

2C – q 2CR
  (2C – q)  2CR
0
2C – q
 e – t / 2RC  q  2C(1  e – t / 2RC )
2C
q  – t / 2RC
q1   C(1 – e – t / RC )  i1  e
2 2R
q  – t / RC
q2   C(1 – e – t / 2RC )  i2 = e
2 2R

Alternate solution
By equivalent
Time constant of circuit = 2C × R = 2RC
maximum charge on capacitor = 2C ×  = 2C
Hence equations of charge and current are as given below
q  2C(1 – e – t / 2RC ) B + iR –  – iR
i R D i
q
q1   C(1 – e – t / 2RC ) q i
2 q
 2C
 – t / 2RC –q
 i1  e
2R q E q
q A O
q2 = = C (1 – e–t/2RC) q
2
 – t / RC
 i2  e
2R
Ex.38 A capacitor is connected to a 12 V battery through a resistance of 10 . It is found

that the potential difference across the capacitor rises to 4.0 V in 1s. Find the
capacitance of the capacitor.
Sol. The charge on the capacitor during charging is given by Q  Q 0 (1 – e – t / RC )
Q Q0
Hence, the potential difference across the capacitor is V  (1 – e – t / RC )
C C
Here, at t = 1 s, the potential differences is 4V whereas the steady potential difference is
Q0
 12 V . So,
C
4V = 12V (1 – e–t/RC)
1 2
or, 1 – e – t / RC  or, e – t / RC 
3 3
t 3 t 1s
or,  n   0.405 or, RC = = = 2.469 s
RC 2 0.405 0.405
2.469 s
or, C = 0.25 F..
10 
Ex.39 Initially the capacitor is uncharged find the charge on capacitor as a function of time,
if switch is closed at t = 0.
R R
 R C
Sw
Sol. Applying KVL in loop ABCDA
 – iR – (i – i1) R = 0
 – 2iR + i1R = 0

R C i1 R
Applying KVL in loop ABCEFDA
B i E
q q +
 – iR – i1R – =0 q/C
C R
 –q –
i–i1
2 –  – i1R – 2i1R q A
 D F
2 C
C – 3i1RC = 2q
dq
C – 2q = 3 .RC
dt
q t
dq dt 1 C – 2q t
   3RC  – ln 
C – 2q 2 C 3RC
0 0
C
q (1 – e – 2t / 3RC )
2
Method for objective :
In a circuit when there is only one capacitor then
q  Q st (1 – e – t /  ) : Qst = steady state change on capacitor
  R eff C
Reffective is the resistance between the capacitor when battery is replaced by its internal
resistance.
8.2 Discharging of a condenser :

(i) In the given circuit if key 1 is opened and key 2 is closed then the condenser gets
discharged.
(ii) The quantity of charge on the condenser at any instant of time t is given by q =q0 e–(t/RC)
i.e. the charge falls exponentially.
R
C
2
1
R B
E
q0
(iii) If t = RC =  = time constant, then q = = 0.37 q0 = 37% of q0
e
i.e. the time constant is that time during which the charge on condenser plates falls to
37%
q
q0
q0
q  0.37q 0
e
t  RC   t
1
(iv) The dimensions of RC are those of time i.e. M°L°T1 and the dimensions of are those
RC
of frequency i.e., M°L°T–1

(v) The potential difference across the condenser plates at any instant of time t is given by
V  V0 e –( t / RC) volt
(vi) The transient current at any instant of time is given by I  –I0 e –( t / RC) ampere. i.e. the
current in the circuit decreases exponentially but its direction is opposite to that of
charging current.
Derivation of equation of discharging circuit :
+ V–
V q q
+ – i i
+Q C –Q +q/c –
R
i + iR –
Initially At any time t
q q
Applying K.V.L.  – iR  0  i=
C CR
q t
– dq dt q t
   CR  – ln 
q Q RC
Q 0
q  Q.e – t / RC
dq Q – t / RC
i–  e
dt RC
i q
 /R qmax
 0.37 qmax
0.37
R
t t
O t=RC O t=RC
C1=C Sw
Ex.40 At t = 0 Sw is closed, if initially C1 is uncharged and C2
is charged to a potential difference 2 then find out
R
following

(Given C1 = C2 = C) A–
C2 2
(a) Charge on C1 and C2 as a function of time. B+
(b) Find out current in the circuit as a function of time.
(c) Also plot the graphs for the relations derived in part (a)
Sol. Let q charge flow in time 't' from the battery as shown. The charge on various plates of the
capacitor is as shown in the figure.
Now applying KVL
q q – 2C
– – iR – 0
C C

+q/C
i
q q
– –  2 – iR  0 q –q
C C +
q iR
2q –
3   iR 
– q – 2C
C q – 2C
2C – q + C
2q
3 – iR 
C
3 – iRC = 2q
dq
RC  3C – 2q
dt
q dq t dt
  
0 2C – 2q 0 RC
1  3C – 2q  t
– n 
2  3C  RC
 3C – 2q  2t
ln  –
 3 C  RC
3C – 2q = 3C e–2t/RC

3C (1 – e–2t/RC) = 2q
3
q C (1  e  2t / RC ) Ans.
2
dq 3  2 t / RC
i  e Ans. q'
dt R
2C
On the plate B
q' = 2C – q
C
3 3 2
 2C  C  Ce  2t / RC t
2 2
q
C 3
  C e 2 t / RC 3C
2 2 2
C
 1  3 e  2t / RC
 
2
t
9. FORCE BETWEEN THE PLATES OF A CAPACITOR

In a capacitor as plates carry equal and opposite charges, there is a force of attraction
between the plates. To calculate this force, we use the fact that the electric field is conser-
dU
vative and in a conservative field F   . In case of parallel plate capacitor:
dx
q2 1 q2 x 0 A
U  [as C  ]
2C 2  0 A x

d  q2   1 q2
So, F  x 
dx  2 0 A  2 0 A
The negative sign implies that the force is attractive.
10. CAPACITORS WITH DIELECTRIC :

(i) In absence of dielectric


0


E
0
(ii) When a dielectric fills the sapce between the plates then molecules having dipole moment
align themselves in the direction of electric field.
+ + + + + +
E(extenal)
+ + + + + +
no-effect + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + molecules of
polar material
effective
s
–sb
s sb
e0 e0
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + –sb
–s
b = induced charge density (called bound charge because it is not due to free electrons).
* For polar molecules dipole moment  0
* For non-polar molecules dipole meomet = 0
(iii) Capacitance in the presence of dielectric
A A AK 0 AK 0
C   
V  d d d K
.d
K 0
Here capacitance is increased by a factor K.
AK 0
C
d
(iv) Polarisation of material :
When a nonpolar substance is placed in an electric field then dipole moment is induced in the
molecule. This induction of dipole moment is called polarisation of material. The induced
charge also produces electric field.


–b
E Eind
++++++++++++++++++ b
–
b = induced (bound) charge density.
 b
Ein  E  Eind  
0 0
It is seen the ratio of electric field between the plates in absence of dielectric and in
presence of dielectric is constant for a material of dielectric. This ratio is called 'Dielectric
constant' of that material. It is represented by r or k.
  1
Ein    b   1  
K 0  K
(v) If the medium is not filled between the plates completely then electric filed will be as
shown in figure. 
Case : (1)
The total electric field produced by bound induced charge K

on the dielectric outside the slab is zero because they
cancel each other. K 0
Case : (2) –


K1 t1
K1 0
d
 t2
K1
K 2 0
–
so potential difference between plates

  
v =  [d – t 1 – t 2 ]  k  t 1  k  t 2
0 1 0 2 0
so equivalent capacitance
Q
C=
v
A
C
  t1 t 2 
d – t 1 – t 2   
0  k1 k 2 
A 0
C
 1  1 
d – t 11 –  – t 2 1 – 
 k1   k 2 

10.1 Introduction of a Dielectric slab of dielectric constant K between the plates

(a) When the battery is disconnected
q0
K
C0, V0, E0, U0
Let q0, C0, V0, E0 and U0 represents the charge, capacity, potential difference, electric field
and energy associated with charged air capacitor respectively. With the introduction of a
dielectric slab of dielectric constant K between the plates and the battery disconnected.
(i) Charge remains constant, i.e., q = q0, as in an isolated system charge is conserved.
(ii) Capacity increases, i.e., C = KC0, as by the presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K
times.
V 
(iii) Potential difference between the plates decreases, i.e., V   0  , as
 K 
q q V
V  0  0 [ q = q and C = KC ]
C KC 0 K 0 0
E0
(iv) Field between the plates decreases, i.e., E  , as
K
V V0 E 0 V0
E   [as V  ]
d Kd K K
V0
and E0 
d
(v) Energy stored in the capacitor decreases i.e.
U 
U 0  , as
 K 
q2 q02 V
U   0 (as q = q0 and C = KC0]
2C 2KC 0 K
(b) When the battery remains connected (potential is held constant)

(i) Potential difference remains constant, i.e., V = V0, as battery is a source of constant
potential difference.
(ii) Capacity increases, i.e., C = KC0, as by presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K
times.
(iii) Charge on capacitor increases, i.e., q = Kq0, as
q = CV = (KC0)V = Kq0 [ q0 = C0V]
(iv) Electric field remains unchanged, i.e., E = E0, as
V V0 V
E   E 0 [as V = V0 and 0  E 0 ]
d d d
(v) Energy stored in the capacitor increases, i.e., U = KU0, as

1 1 1 1
U CV 2  (KC 0 ) ( V0 )2  KU0 [as C = KC0 and U0  C 0 V02 ]
2 2 2 2
Ex.41 A parallel plate air capacitor is made using two square plates each of side 0.2 m,
spaced 1 cm apart. It is connected to a 50V battery.
(a) What is the capacitance ?
(b) What is the charge on each plate ?
(c) What is the energy stored in the capacitor ?
(d) What is the electric field between the plates ?
(e) If the battery is disconnected and then the plates are pulled apart to a separation
of 2 cm, what are the answers to the above parts ?
 0 A (8.85  10 12 )  0.2  0.2

Sol. (a) C0    3.54  10 5 F
d 0.01
(b) Q0 = C0V0 = 3.54 × 10–5 × 50 = 1.77 × 10–3 C
1 1
(c) U0  C0 V02   (3.54  1011) (50)2  4.42  108 J
2 2
V0 50
(d) E0    5000 V / m
d 0.01
(e) If the battery is disconnected the charge on the capacitor plates remains constant
while the potential difference between the plates can change.
0 A C0
C   1.77  10 5 F
d 2
Q = Q0 = 1.77 × 10–3 C
Q Q0
V   2V0
C C0 / 2
1
U CV 2  C 0 V02  8.84  10 8 J
2
V 2V0
E   E 0  5000 V / m
d 2d0
Ex.42 In the last illustration, suppose that the battery is kept connected while the plates are
pulled apart. What are the answers to the parts (a), (b), (c) and (d) in that case ?
Sol. If the battery is kept connected, the potential difference across the capacitor plates always
remains equal to the emf of battery and hence is constant.
V = V0 = 50V
0 A 0 A C0
C    1.77  10 5 F
d' 2d 2
C 0 V0 Q 0
Q  CV    8.85  10  4 C
2 2
1 1 C  U
U CV 2   0  V02  0  2.21 10 8 J
2 2 2  2
V V E
E  0  0  2500 V / m
d 2d0 2

Ex.43 A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 4 m2 separated by distance of 0.5 mm.
The capacitor is connected across a cell of emf 100 V.
(a) Find the capacitance, charge and energy stored in the capacitor.
(b) A dielectric slab of thickness 0.5 mm is inserted inside this capacitor after it has
been disconnected from the cell. Find the answers to part (a) if K = 3.
 0 A 8.85  10 12  4
Sol. (a) C0    7.08  10  2 F
d 0.5  10 3
Q0 = C0V0 = (7.08 × 10–2 × 100)C = 7.08 C
1
U0  C 0 V02  3.54  10  4 J
2
(b) As the cell has been disconnected
Q = Q0
K 0 A
C  KC 0  0.2124 F
d
Q Q V 100
V  0  0  V
C KC 0 K 3
Q02 Q 02 U
U   0 = 118 × 10–6 J
2C 2KC0 K
Ex.44 If a dielectric slab of thickness t and area A is inserted in between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and distance between the plates d (d > t) then
find out capacitance of system. What do you predict about the dependence of
capacitance on location of slab ?
A 
Sol. d K t

Q A
C 
V V
t 1 t t
V   2 ( t1 + t2 = d – t)
 0 K 0 0

 [t1  t 2  t / k ]
0
  t  Q A 0 A
 V d  t  k   C  C  C
0   d  t  t /K
* Capacitance does not depend upon the position of dielectric (it can be shifted up or down &
still capacitance does not change).
* If the slab is of metal then
A 0
C
dt

Ex.45 Find out capacitance between A and B if two dielectric slabs of dielectric constant K1
and K2 of thickness d1 and d2 and each of area A are inserted between the plates of
parallel plate capacitor of plate area A as shown in figure.
A

K1 d1
K2 d2
–
B
A d1 d 2   d1 d2  A
Sol. C ; V  E1 d1  E 2 d2  K   K     k  k 
V 1 0 2 0 0  1 2  K 1 0 A
C1 
d1
A 0
 C 1 d1 d2 K 2 0 A
d1 d2    C2 
 C AK 1 0 AK 2  0 d2
K1 K 2
B
This formula suggests that the system between A and B can be
considered as series combination of two capacitors.
Ex.46 Find out capacitance between A and B if two dielectric slabs of dielectric constant K1
and K2 of area A1 and A2 and each of thickness d are inserted between the plates of
parallel plate capacitor of plate area A as shown in figure.
A
A1 1 2 A2 A
K1 K2 d C1 C2

Sol.
B B
A 1K 1 0 A 2K 2  0
C1  , C2  1 2
d d
–1b – 2 b
V  V 2
E1   1 ; E2  
d K 1 0 d K 2 0  1b  2b
 1  2
K V K  V
1  1 0 2  2 0 A
d d
Q1  Q 2 1A 1   2 A 2 K 1 0 A 1 K 2  0 A 2
C    C1 C2
V V d d
The combination is equivalent to :
 C = C1 + C2 B
Ex.47 Find out capacitance between A and B
if three dielectric slabs of dielectric
constant K1 of area A1 and thickness d1 A
K2 of area A2 and thickness d2 and K3 of A1 A2
area A2 and thickness d3 are inserted d1
K2
between the plates of parallel plate
K1
capacitor of plate area A as shown in d2
K3
figure. (Given distance between the
two plates d = d1 + d2)
B
Sol. It is equivalent to
C 2C 3 A
C  C1 
C 2  C3
C2
A 2K 2  0 A 2K 3  0 C1
.
A 1K 1 0 d1 d2 C3
C 
d1  d2 A 2K 2  0 A 2K 3  0

d1 d2 B
A1K1 0 A 22K 2K 3  02
 
d1  d2 A 2K 2  0 d2  A 2K 3  0 d1
A 1K 1 0 A 2K 2K 3  0
 
d1  d2 K 2 d 2  K 3 d1
Ex.48 A dielectric of constant K is slipped between the plates of parallel plate condenser in
half of the space as shown in the figure. If the capacity of air condenser is C, then new
capacitance between A and B will be
A
B
C C 2 [1 K] C
(A) (B) (C) [1  K ] (D)
2 2K C 2
A
Sol. This system is equivalent to two capacitors in parallel with area of each plate .
2
C' = C1 + C2
 0 A  0 AK 0 A C
   [1  K ]  [1  K ]
2d 2d 2d 2
Hence the correct answer will be (C)
k1
Ex.49
k2
Find the equivalent capacitance of the given figure.

1 y d –y
Sol.   0 dx
dc  0k 1bdx  0k 2b dx
1 d k  y(k 2 – k 1 )
 0 1
dc  0k 1k 2b dx k1
y
 0k1k 2b dx k2
dc 
d0k 1  y(k 2 – k 1 ) d0-y
All these capacitors (small) are parallel x
C eq a
 0k 1k 2b dx dx
so C eq   dC   d0k 1  y(k 2 – k 1 )
0 0

d0 y
Now 
a x
a
 0k 1k 2b dx
C eq  d k d0
0 0 1 x(k 2 – k 1 )
a
a  0k 1k 2b  (k 2 – k 1 ) 
C eq  ln 
d0 (k 2 – k 1 )  k 1 
• Breakdown voltage
The voltage across the capacitor at which the current starts flowing through capacitor is
called Breakdown voltage.
2f 4f
Breakdown voltage Breakdown voltage

= 20v = 30V
Ex.50 Find the break down voltage for the capacitors if they are connected in series
2f 4f
C1 C2
max. charge max. charge
= 20 × 2C = 40 C = 30 × 4 c = 120 C
Charge will be same on both the capacitors so 2F capacitor will reach at breakdown voltage
first, so maximum charge possible = 40 C
Q1 Q1
So Breakdown voltage = VC1  VC2 = C  C
1 2
40 40
V= + volt
2 4
120
V volt = 30 volt
4
Leakage current :
C
A
k 

R
d
 0 kA
here C
d
d
Resistance (R) =
A
Theoritically after disconnection from battery charge should remain as it is but due to the
material's resistance discharging takes place. This discharging current is called leakage cur-
rent. So R should be high for a good capacitor so that leakage current is minimum.

imax
RC t
(viii) Force on a dielectric due to charged capacitor
+
– – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + +
–
If dielectric is completely inside the capacitor then force is equal to zero.
+
– – – – – – – – – –
F
+ + + + + + + + + +
–
Case I Voltage source remains connected 

V = constant. b b
1 +
U CV 2
2
F d
 dU  v 2 dC
F 
 dx  2 dx
–
x
xb 0K  0 ( – x )b
where C = 
d d
 0b
 C [Kx   – x ]
d
dC  0b
 (K – 1)
dx d
 0b(K – 1)V 2
 F = constant (does not depends on x)
2d
Case II : When charge on capacitor is constant

xb 0 x  0 ( – x )b Q2
C  , U
d d 2C
2
 dU  Q dC dC  0b
F  . [where,  (K –  ) ]
 dx  2C 2 dx dx d
Q 2 dC
 . (here force 'F' depends on x)
2C 2 dx


1. The capacitance (C) for an isolated conducting (d) Find out final charges on each conductor.
sphere of radius (a) is given by 4  0 a . If the
sphere is enclosed with an earthed concentric 80 150 80 160
(A) , C (B) , C
sphere. The ratio of the radii of the spheres being 3 3 3 3
n 80 60 80 90
then the capacitance of such a sphere
(n  1) (C)
3
,
3
C (D)
3
,
3
C
will be increased by a factor
n 4. A capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a
(n  1)
(A) n (B) (C) (D) a . n potential difference V from a cell and then dis-
(n  1) n
connected from it. A charge +Q is now given to
its positive plate. The potential difference across
2. Three long concentric conducting cylindrical the capacitor is now
shells have radii R, 2R and 2 2 R. Inner and Q
(A) V (B) V +
outer shells are connected to each other. The C
capacitance across middle and inner shells per Q Q
unit length is: (C) V + (D) V – , if V < CV
2C C
1
0 6  0
(A) 3 (B) 5. A conducting body 1 has some initial charge
ln2 ln2 Q, and its capacitance is C. There are two other
conducting bodies, 2 and 3, having capacitances:
 0 C2 = 2C and C3  . Bodies 2 and 3 are initially
(C) (D) None
2 ln2 uncharged. “Body 2 is touched with body 1. Then,
body 2 is removed from body 1 and touched with
3. When 30 C charge is given to an isolated body 3, and then removed. ”This process is
conductor of capacitance 5 F. Find out following repeated N times. Then, the charge on body 1 at
(i) Potential of the conductor the end must be
(A) 6V (B)7V (C)8V (D)9V (A) Q/3N (B) Q/3N-1
3
(ii) Energy stored in the elecric field of conductor (C) Q/N (D) None
(A) 90 J (B) 50 J
6. A capacitor of capacitance C is initially charged
(C) 60 J (D) 70 J
to a potential difference of V volt. Now it is
(iii) It this conductor is now connected to an-
connected to a battery of 2V with opposite
other isolated conductor by a conducting wire
polarity. The ratio of heat generated to the final
(at large distnace) of total charge 50 C and
energy stored in the capacitor will be
capacity 10 F then
(A) 1.75 (B) 2.25
(C) 2.5 (D) 1/2
(a) Find out common potential of both the con-
ductors. 7. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is
(A)17/3 (B)16/3 connected to a battery and is charged to a
(C)14/3 (D)none of these potential difference V. Another capacitor of
capacitance 2C is similarly charged to a potential
(b) Find out heat dissipated during the process difference 2V. The charging battery is now
of charge distribution. disconnected and the capacitors are connect in
(A) 5/3 J (B) 16/3 J parallel to each other in such a way that the
(C) 14/3 J (D) none of these positive terminal of one is connected to the
negative terminal of the other. The final energy
(c) Find out ratio of final charges on conductors. of the configuration is
(A)1:2 (B)2:1
3 25 9
(C)1:4 (D)1:3 (A) zero (B) CV2 (C) CV2 (D) CV2
2 6 2

8. A 2  F capacitor is charged to a potential = 10 12. Five capacitors are connected as shown in

the figure. Initially S is opened and all capaci-
V. Another 4  F capacitor is charged to a potential
tors are uncharged. When S is closed, steady
= 20V. The two capacitors are then connected in state is obtained. Then find out potential
a single loop, with the positive plate of one difference between the points M and N.
connected with negative plate of the other. What S
M
heat is evolved in the circuit?
(A) 300  J (B) 600  J 4F 2F 4F
31V
(C) 900  J (D) 450  J 7V
6F 1.2F
9. In the circuit shown in figure charge stored in
the capacitor of capacity 5  f is N
2f 2f 2f 5f 3f 4f (A) 14 (B) 12 (C) 10 (D) 15
13. Find the potential difference Va – Vb between
the points a and b shows in each parts of the
figure.
100 V 2V a 2V
6V 4F
(A) 60  C (B) 20  C
a 12V 2F b
(C) 30  C (D) zero
10. Plate A of a parallel air filled capacitor is con- 2F b 2F 24V 1F
(b)
nected to a spring having force constant k and (a)
plate B is fixed. If a charge +q is placed on plate 7
A and charge –q on plate B then find out exten- (A) zero, – V = –10.3 V
72
sion in spring in equilibrim. Assume area of plate
72
is ‘A’ (B) one, – V = –10.3 V
7
7
AB (C) one, – V = –10.3 V
+ – 72
+ –
72
(D) zero, – V = –10.3 V
7
Q Q 14. Each plate of a parallel plate air capacitor
(A) (B)
k 0 A 4k 0 A has an area S. What amount of work has to be
performed to slowly increase the distance be-
Q tween the plates from x1 to x2 If :
2k 0 A (i) the charge of the capacitor, which is equal to
q or
11. Three uncharged capacitors of capacitane
C1 = 1F, C2 = 2F and C3 = 3F are connected as q 2 ( x 2  x1 ) q2 ( x 2 – x 1 )
(A) (B)
shown in figure to one another and to points A, B 2 0 S 2 0 S
and D potential A = 10V, B = 25V and D = 20 V,
q2 ( x 2 – x 1 ) q2 ( x 1 – x 2 )
Determine the potential (0) at point O. (C) (D)
A 0 S 2 0 S
(ii) the voltage across the capacitor, which is
equal to V, is kept constant in the process.
C1
 1 1   1 1
0 SV 2  –  0 SV 2  – 
C2 O C3 (A)  x1 x 2  (B)  x 2 x1 
2 4
D
B  1 1  1 1
0 SV 2  –  0 SV 2   
(A) 20 V (B) 30 V (C) x
 2 x 1 (D) x
 2 x 1
(C) 40 V (D) 10 V 2 2
15. If charge on left plane of the 5  F capacitor (A) 4/5 (B) 3/5
in the circuit segment shown in the figure is- (C) 3/8 (D) 1/2
20  C, the charge on the right plate of 3  F
capacitor is 20. In the circuit shown, a potential difference
of 60V is applied across AB. The potential
3F
difference between the point M and N is
5F 2F
2C
A M
4 F
60V C C
(A) +8.57  C (B) -8.57  C
(C) + 11.42  C (D) -11.42  C
B N
2C
16. In the circuit shown, the energy stored in
(A) 10 V (B) 15 V
1  F capacitor is (C) 20 V (D) 30 V
3F 5F
21. Find the equivalent capacitance across A & B
23F 7F
1F
4 F A 13F 1F B
24V 12F
(A) 40  J (B) 64  J
(C) 32  J (D) none 10 F 1F
28 15
17. What is the equivalent capacitance of the (A) F (B) F
system of capacitors between A & B 3 2
(C) 15  F (D) none
A
C C 22. Find equivalent capacitance across AB (all

capacitances in  F)
C C C
10
17
B
A B
7
(A) C (B) 1.6 C 1
6 13 5
(C) C (D) None 1
6
18. From a supply of identical capacitors rated
8  F ,250 V, the minimum number of capacitors 20
(A) F (B) 9  F
required to form a composite 16  F,1000 V is: 3
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 48  F (D) None
(C) 16 (D) 32
23. V C2 C3
19. In the circuit shown in figure, the ratio of C1
charges on 5  F and 4  F capacitor is :
(i) Find the charges on the three capacitors
2F connected to a battery as shown in figure. Take
3 F C1 = 2.0 F, C2 = 4.0 F, C3 = 6.0 F and V = 10
5 F volt.
(A) 20 C, 40 C, 60 C
4 F (B) 40 C, 20 C, 60 C
(C) 60 C, 40 C, 20 C
(D) 40 C, 60 C, 20 C
6V

(ii) Find out work done by the battery during (A) +20  C (B) +40  C
the process of charging (C) +60  C (D) +80  C
(A) 1500 J (B) 1200 J
(C) 1600 J (D) 1300 J
27. Three plates A, B and C each of area 0.1 m2
(iii) Find out total energy stored in the capacitors.
are separated by 0.885mm from each other as
(A) 500 J (B) 300 J
shown in the figure. A 10 V battery is used to
(C) 600 J (D) 800 J
charge the system. The energy stored in the
system is
24. Three large plates are arranged as shown.
How much charge will flow through the key k if it A
is closed? B
Q 2Q C 10V
d 2d
(A) 1  J (B) 10-1  J
(C) 10-2  J (D) 10-3  J
5Q 4Q 28. Four metallic plates arearranged as shown in

(A) K (B) the figure. If the distance between each plate
6 3 then capacitance of the given system between
3Q points A and B is (Given d <<A)
(C) (D) none
2
d
25.Five conducting parallel plates having area A
d
and separation between them d, are placed as
A B
shown in the figure. Plate number 2 and 4 are d
connected wire and between point A and B, a ell
of emf E is connected. The charge flown through 0A 2 0 A
(A) (B)
the cell is E d d
3 0 A 4 0 A
A B (C) (D)
d d
1 2 3 4 5
29. Consider the situatino shown in the figure.
The switch S is open for a long time and then
closed.
C C
3  0 AE 2  0 AE
(A) (B) s
4 d 3 d
4  0 AE  0 AE 
(C) (D)
d 2d
(a) Find the charge flown through the battery
26. Five identical capacitor plates are arranged when the switch S is closed.
uch that they make capacitors each of 2  F. The (A) C/2 (B) C/4
(C) C (D) none of these
plates are connected to a source of emf 10 V.
The charge on plate C is
(b) Find the work done by the battery.
(A) C2 (B) C2/2
10V 2
(C) C /4 (D) none of these
A
(c) Find the change in energy stored in the
B
capacitors.
C (A) C2 (B) C2/2
2
D (C) C /4 (D) none of these
E

(d) Find the heat developed in the system. (i) In steady state, find the charge on the ca-
(A) C2 (B) C2/2 pacitor shown in figure.
(C) C2/4 (D) none of these (A) 4 C (B) 5 C
(C) 6 C (D) 7 C
30. Find the potential difference between the (ii) Find out values of i1, i2 and i3
points A and B and between the points B and C (A) 0, 1/15A, 1/15A (B) 1/15A, 0, 1/15A
figure in steady
(C) 0, 1/15A, 0 (D) 1/15A, 1/15A, 0
3F B 1F
34. A capacitor of capacitance 100 F is con-
1F nected across a battery of emf 6.0 V through a
3F
resistance of 20 k for 4.0s. The battery is then
1F replaced by a thick wire. What will be the charge
on the capacitor 4.0 s after the battery is
C diconnected ?
A 20 10
100V (A) 70 C (B) 80 C
(C) 60 C (D) none of these
(A) 75 V and 25 V (B) 35 V and 65 V
(C) 25 V and 75 V (D) 65 V and 35 V 35. The electric field between the plates of a
paallel-plate capacitance 2.0 F drops to one third
31. Find heat produced in the capacitors on of its initial value in 4.4 s when the plates are
closing the switch S connected by a thin wire. Find the resistance of
the wire.
4F 5 F
(A) 3.0  (B) 2.0 
(C) 4.0  (D) 1.0 
20 V 2
R 2 36. A 5.0 F capacitor having a charge of 20 C
S is discharged through a wire of resistance of 5.0
. Find the heat dissipated in the wire between
4 25 to 50 s after the capactions are made.
(A) 0.0002 J (B).0005 J (A) 4.7 J (B) 3.7 J
(C) 0.00075 J (D) zero (C) 5.7 J (D) 2.7 J
32. In the circuit shown, the cell is ideal, with 37. A charged capacitor is allowed to discharge
emf=15 V. Each resistance is of 3  . The potential through a resistance 2  by closing the switch S
difference across the capacitor is at the instant t = 0. At time t = ln2  s, the
reading of the ammeter falls half of its initial value.
R  3 C  3F
The resistance of the ammeter equal to
R R 0.5 F
R R
+ –
S
+ – 15 V
A
(A) zero (B) 9 V 2
(C) 12 V (D) 15 V
(A) 0 (B) 2 
(C)  (D) 2 M 
i1 6F
38. A capacitor C =100  F is connected to three

i2
resistor each of resistance 1 k and a battery of
33. 10 20 emf 9V. The switch S has been closed for long
time so as to charge the capacitor. When switch
i3 S is opened, the capacitor. Discharges with time
2V
constant
C
42. In the R-C circuit shown in the figure the
1k  initial charge on the capacitor is
1k  S
S
1k  2F 10
9V
(A) 33 ms (B) 5 ms (A) 60  C (B) 120  C

(C) 3.3 ms (D) 50 ms
60
(C) 60 2  C (D) C
39.In the transient shown the time constant of 2
the circuit is :
R C
43. The distance between plates of a parallel
plate capacitor is 5d. Let the positively charged
V1 V2 plate is at x=0 and negatively charged plate is at
R
x=5d.Two slabs one of conductor and other of a
2R R dielectric of equal thickness d are inserted
between the plates as shown in figure. potential
5 5 versus distance graph will look like:
(A) RC (B) RC
3 2
Cond. Diele.
7 7
(C) RC (D) RC
4 3
40. In the circuit shown in figure C1 =2C2 . Switch

S is closed at time t=0. Let i1 and i2 be the
currents flowing through C1 and C2 at any time t,
then the ratio i1 / i2 x=0 x=d x=2d x=3d x=4d x=5d
R v v
C1 R
C2 (A) (B)
S
x x
V
(A) is constant
(B) increases with increase in time t v v
(C) decreases with increase in time t.
(D) first increases then decreases
(C) (D)
41. In the circuit shown, when the key k is pressed
at time t =0, which of the following statements x x
about current I in the resistor AB is true 44. A parallel plate capacitor has two layers of
dielectric as shown in figure. This capacitor is
K A B connected across a battery. The graph which
2V 1000 shows the variation of electric field (E) and
1000 distance (x) from left plate.
y
(A) I = 2mA at all t k=2 k=4
(B) I oscillates between 1 mA and 2mA
(C) I = I mA at all t x
(D) At t=0, I=2mA and with time it goes to 1 mA (d,0) (3d,0)

y y
48. Two parallel plate air capacitors each of ca-
pacitance C were connected in series to a bat-
tery with e.m.f . Then one of the capacitors
(A) (B) was filled up with uniform dielectric with relative
permittivity k. What amount of charge flows
(d,0) (3d,0) x (d,0) (3d,0) x
through the battery ?
y y 1 k 1 1 k –1
(A) q  CE (B) q  CE
2 k –1 2 k 1
1 k 1
(C) (D) (C) q  CE (D) none of these
2 k 1
(d,0) (3d,0) x (d,0) (3d,0) x
49. A parallel-plate capacitor of plate area A and
plate separation d is charged to a potential dif-
45. The parallel plates of a capacitor have an ference V and then the battery is disconnected.
area 0.2 m 2 and are 10–2 m apart. The original A slab of dielectric constant K is then inserted
potential difference between them is 3000 V, and between the plates of the capacitor so as to fill
it decreases to 1000 V when a sheet of dielectric the whole space between the plates. Find the
is inserted between the plates filling the full space. work done on the system in the process of in-
Compute : (0  9  10 –12 S.I. units) serting the slab.
 0 AV 2  1   0 AV 2  1 
(i) Permittivity  of the dielectric. (A)  – 1 (B)  – 1
(A) 25 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2 2d  K  d K 
2 2
(B) 37 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2  0 AV  1   0 AV  1 
(C)   1 (D)   1
(C) 27 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2 2d  K  d K 
(D) 28 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2
50. Two capacitor having capacitances 8  F and
46. A parallel plate isolated condenser consists
16  F have breaking voltages 20 V and 80 V..
of two metal plates of area A and separation ‘d’.
They are combined in series. The maximum charge
A slab of thickness ‘t’ and dielectric constant K is
they can store individually in the combination is
inserted between the plates with its faces paral-
lel to the plates and having the same surface (A) 160  C (B) 200  C
area as that of the plates. Find the capacitance (C) 1280  C (D) none of these
of the system. If K = 2, for what value of t/d will
the capacitance of the system be 3/2 times that 51. A capacitor of capacitance 1  F withstands
of the condenser with air filling the full space ? the maximum voltage 6 kV while a capacitor of
1 2 3 2  F withstands the maximum voltage 4 kV. What
(A) (B) (C) (D) 3
3 3 2 maximum voltage will the system of these two
capacitor withstands if they are connected in
series?
47. Hard rubber has a dielectric constant of 2.8
(A) 10 kV (B)12 kV
and a dielectric strength of 18 × 108 volts/meter.
(C) 8 kV (D) 9 kV
If it is used as the dielectric material filling the
full space in a parallel plate capacitor. What mini-
52. The diagram shows four capacitors with
mum area may the plates of the capacitor have
capacitances and break down voltages as
in order that the capacitance be 7.0 × 10–2 f
mentioned. What should be the maximum value
and that the capacitor be able to withstand a
of the external emf source such that no capacitor
potential difference of 4000 volts.
breaks down?[Hint: First of all find out the break
(A) 0.62 m–2 (B) 0.32 m–2
–2 down voltages of each branch. After that
(C) 0.42 m (D) 0.52 m–2
compare them.]

(A) 1 (B) 2
3C;1kV 2C;2kV (C) 3 (D) None
57. In the above question, if the initial

capacitance of the capacitor was 2  F, the amount
7C;1kV 3C;2kV
of heat produced when the dielectric is inserted.
(A) 3600  J (B) 2700  J

(C) 1800 J (D) none
(A) 2.5 KV (B) 10/3 KV
(C) 3 KV (D) 1 KV
58. Condenser A has a capacity of 15  F when
53. Three capacitors 2  F, 3  F and 5  F can it is filled with a medium of dielectric constant
withstand voltages to 3 V, 2V and 1V respectively. 15. Another condenser B has a capacity 1  F
Their series combination can withstand a maximum with air between the plates. Both are charged
voltage equal to separately by a battery of 100 V. After charging,
(A) 5 Volts (B) (31/6) Volts both are connected in parallel without the battery
(C) (26/5) Volts (D) None and the dielectric material being removed. The
common potential now is
54. Two identical capacitors 1 and 2 are connected (A) 400 V (B) 800 V
in series to a battery as shown in figure. Capacitor (C) 1200 V (D) 1600 V
2 contains a dielectric slab of dielectric constant
k as shown. Q1 and Q2 are the charges stored in 59. In the adjoining figure, capacitor (1) and (2)
the capacitors. Now the dielectric slab is removed have a capacitance ‘C’ each When the dielectric
and the corresponding charges are Q’1 and Q’2. of dielectric constant K is inserted between the
Then plates of one of the capacitor, the total charge
flowing through battery is
1 2
E
B C
E
C C C
Q '1 K  1 Q'2 K 1 A D
(A)
Q1
=
K
(B) Q =
2 2 1 2
Q'2 K 1 Q '1 K KCE

(C) Q = 2 K (D) = (A) from B to C
2 Q1 2 K 1
KCE
55. The area of the plates of a parallel plate (B) from C to B
K 1
capacitor is A and the gap between them is d.
The gap is filled with a non homogeneneous (K  1)CE
dielectric whose dielectric constant varies with (C) from B to C
2(K  1)
the distance ‘y’ from one plate as: K =  sec(  y/
2d), where  is a dimensionless constant. The (K  1)CE
(D) from C to B
capacitance of this capacitor is 2(K  1)
(A)  0  A/2d (B)  0  A/d 60. The distance between the plates of a charged
(C) 2  0  A/d (D) none parallel plate capacitor is 5 cm and electric field
inside the plates is 200 Vcm -1 . An uncharged
metal bar of width 2 cm is fully immersed into the
56. A capacitor stores 60  C Charge when capacitor. The length of the metal bar is same as
connected across a battery. When the gap that of plate of capacitor. The voltage across
between the plates is filled with a dielectric, a capacitor after the immersion of the bar is
charge of 120  C flows through the battery. The (A) zero (B) 400 V
dielectric constant of the material inserted is (C) 600 V (D) 100 V
61. The plates S and T of an uncharged parallel

plate capacitor are connected across a battery . 1
The battery is then disconnected and the 2
charged plates are now connected in a system
as shown in the figure. The system shown is in 3
equilibrium . All the strings are insulating and 4
massless. The magnitude of charge on one of the
capacitor plates is: [Area of plates=A] 5
(A) (B) 1
k S T 3
5
(C) 3/5 (D)
7
m
63. A parallel plate capacitor has an electric field
4mgA 0 of 105V/m between the plates. If the charge on
(A) 2mgA 0 (B) the capacitor plate is 1  C, then the force on
k
each capacitor plate is
2mgA 0 (A) 0.1Nt (B) 0.05 Nt
(C) mgA 0 (D) (C) 0.02 Nt (D) 0.01 Nt
k
62. Four identical plates 1, 2, 3 and 4 are placed
64. A capacitor is connected to a battery. The
parallel to each other at equal distance as shown
force of attraction between the plates when the
in the figure. Plates 1 and 4 are joined together
separation between them is halved
and the space between 2 and 3 is filled with a (A) remains the same
dielectric of dielectric constant k = 2. The (B) becomes eight times
capacitance of the system between 1 and 3 & 2 (C) becomes four times
and 4 are C1 and C2 respectively. (D) becomes two times
C1 Sol.
The ratio C is :
2

1. The two plates X and Y of a parallel plate (A) net charge on connected plates is less than
capacitor of capacitance C are given a charge of the sum of initial individual charges.
amount Q each. X is now joined to the positive (B) net charge on connected plates equals the
terminal and Y to the negative terminal of a cell sum of initial charges.
of emf E = Q/C.
(C) the net potential difference across them is
(A) Charge of amount Q will flow from the negative different from the sum of the individual initial
terminal to the positive terminal of the cell inside potential differences.
it.
(D) the net energy stored in the two capacitors
(B) The total charge on the plate X will be 2Q is less than the sum of the initial individual
(C) The total charge on the plate Y will be zero energies.
(D) The cell will supply CE2 amount of energy
6. Two thin conducting shells of radii R and 3R
2. Two capacitors of capacitances 1F and 3F are shown in the figure. The outer shell carries a
are charged to the same voltages 5V. They are charge +Q and the inner shell is neutral. The inner
connected in parallel with oppositely charged shell is earthed with the help of a switch S.
plates connected together. Then
(A) Final common voltage will be 5V
(B) Final common voltage will be 2.5 V 3R
(C) Heat produced in the circuit will be zero R
(D) Heat produced in the circuit will be 37.5J S
3. Each plate of a parallel plate capacitor has a

charge q on it. The capacitor is now connected (A) With the switch S open, the potential of the
to a battery. Now, inner sphere is equal to that of the outer
(A) the facing surfaces of the capacitor have (B) When the switch S is closed, the potential of
equal and opposite charges the inner sphere becomes zero
(B) the two plates of the capacitor have equal (C) With the switch S closed, the charge attained
and opposite charges by the inner sphere is –q/3
(C) the battery supplies equal and opposite (D) By closing the switch the capacitance of the
charges to the two plates system increases
(D) the outer surfaces of the plates have equal
charges 7. Two capacitors of 2F and 3F are charged to
150 volt and 120 volt respectively. The plates of
4. When a parallel plates capacitor is connected capacitor are connected as shown in the figure.
to a source of constant potential difference, A discharged capacitor of capacity 1.5 F falls to
(A) all the charge drawn from the source is stored the free ends of the wire. Then
in the capacitor.
(B) all the energy drawn from the source is stored 15
. F
in the capacitor.
(C) the potential difference across the capacitor
grows very rapidly initially and this rate decreases –
+ 120V
to zero eventually. 150V – 2F 3F +
(D) the capacity of the capacitor increases with A
the increase of the charge in the capacitor
(A) charge on the 1.5 F capacitor is 180 C
5. When two identical capacitors are charged (B) charge on the 2 F capacitor is 120 C
individually to different potentials and connected (C) charge flows through A from right to left
parallel to each other, after disconnecting them (D) charge flows through A from left to right
from the source :

8. In the circuit shown initially C 1, C 2 are

uncharged. After closing the switch 12F
E
7F
12V 3.9 F
C 2  8 F 3F
C 1  4 F
6V (A) potential difference across the 3F capacitor
is 10 V
(A) The charge on C2 is greater that on C1 (B) charge on the 3F capacitor is 42C
(C) e.m.f. of the battery is 30V
(B) The charge on C1 and C2 are the same
(C) The potential drops across C1 and C2 are the (D) potential difference across the 12F capacitor
same is 10V
(D) The potential drops across C2 is greater than Question No.12 to 15 (4 questions)
that across C1 The figure shows a diagonal sym metric
arrangement of capacitors and a battery
9. A circuit shown in the figure consists of a
12. Identify the correct statements.
battery of emf 10V and two capacitance C1 and
C2 of capacitances 1.0F and 2.0F respectively. 4F 2F
The potential difference VA – VB is 5V B
2F
A B
 A C
C1 C2 2F D 4F
(A) charge on capacitor C1 is equal to charge on + –
capacitor C2
E=20V
(B) Voltage across capacitor C1 is 5V
(C) Voltage across capacitor C2 is 10 V (A) Both the 4F capacitors carry equal charges
in opposite sense
(D) Energy stored in capacitor C1 is two times
the energy stored in capacitor C2 (B) Both the 4F capacitors carry equal charges
in same sense
10. Two capacitors of equal capacitance (C1 =
(C) VB – VD > 0
C2) are shown in the figure. Initially, while the
(D) VD – VB > 0
switch S is open, one of the capacitors is
13. If the potential of C is zero, then
uncharged and the other carries charge Q0. The
(A) VA = + 20V
energy stored in the charged capacitor is U0.
(B) 4(VA – VB) + 2(VD – VB) = 2VB
Sometimes after the switch is colsed, the
capacitors C1 and C2 carry charges Q1 and Q2, (C) 2(VA – VD) + 2(VB – VD) = 4VD
respectively, the voltages across the capacitors (D) VA = VB + VD
are V1 and V2, and the energies stored in the 14. The potential of the point B and D are
capacitors are U1 and U2. Which of the following (A) VB = 8V (B) VB = 12V
statements is INCORRECT ? (C) VD = 8V (D) VD = 12V
15. The value of charge q1, q2 and q3 as shown in
S the figure are
q1 q2
C1 C2 + – B + –
+q
3
–
A + – + – C
1 q2 D q1
(A) Q 0  (Q1  Q 2 ) (B) Q1 = Q2
2
+ –
(C) V1 = V2 (D) U1 = U2
(E) U0 = U1 + U2 E=20V
(A) q1 = 32 C ; q2 = 24 C ; q3 = – 8 C
11. Four capacitors and a battery are connected
(B) q1 = 48 C ; q2 = 16 C ; q3 = + 8 C
as shown. The potential drop across the 7F
(C) q1 = 32 C ; q2 = 24 C ; q3 = + 8 C
capacitor is 6V. Then the
(D) q1 = 3 C ; q2 = 4 C ; q3 = + 2 C

16. A parallel-plate capacitor is connected to a 19. In the circuit shown in the figure, the switch
cell. Its positive plate A and its negative plate B S is initially open and the capacitor is initially
have charges +Q and –Q respectively. A third uncharged. I1, I2 and I3 represent the current in
plate C, identical to A and B, with charge +Q, is
the resistance 2, 4 and 8 respectively.
now introduced midway between A and B, parallel 4F
to them. Which of the following are correct ? 2 I1
(A) The charge on the inner face of B is now S
3Q 6V 8 2F 4
 I3 I2
2
(B) There is no change in the potential difference
between A and B (A) Just after the switch S is closed, I1 = 3A, I2 =
(C) The potential difference between A and C is 3A and I3 = 0
one-third of the potential difference between B (B) Just after the switch S is closed, I1 = 3A, I2 =
and C 0 and I3 = 0
(D) The charge on the inner face of A is now Q/2 (C) long time after the switch S is closed, I1 =
0.6A, I2 = 0 and I3 = 0
17. Two capacitors C1 = 4F and C2 = 2F are
charged to same potential V = 500 Volt, but with (D) long after the switch S is closed, I1 = I2 = I3 =
opposite polarity as shown in the figure. The 0.6A
switches S1 and S2 are closed.
20. The circuit shown in the figure consists of a
+ –
S1 C1 S2 battery of emf  = 10 V; a capacitor of capacitance
C = 1.0F and three resistor of values R1 = 2, R2
= 2 and R3 = 1. Initially the capacitor is
– + completely uncharged and the switch S is open.
C2 The switch S is closed at t = 0.
(A) The potential difference across the two R1

capacitors are same and is given by 500/3V S
(B) The potential difference across the two
capacitors are same and is given by 1000/3V
 R2 R3 C
(C) The ratio of final energy to initial energy of
the system is 1/9
(D) The ratio of final energy to initial energy of
(A) The current through resistor R3 at the moment
the system is 4/9
the switch closed is zero
(B) The current through resistor R3 a long time
18. In the circuit shown, each capacitor has a after the switch closed is 5A
capacitance C.The emf of the cell is E. If the (C) The ratio of current through R1 and R2 is always
switch S is closed constant
S (D) The maximum charge on the capacitor during
C
the operation is 5C
C
C
21. In the circuit shown in figure C1 = C2 =
+ – 2F. Then charge stored in
E
(A) positive charge will flow out of the positive 1 2 3
terminal of the cell
(B) positive charge will enter the positive terminal C1 C2
of the cell
(C) the amount of charge flowing through the 2 1 3
cell will be CE
(D) the amount of charge flowing through the
120V
cell will be 4/3 CE

(A) capacitor C1 is zero (A) Charge from the battery flows into the
capacitor after reconnection
(B) capacitor C2 is zero
(B) Charge from capacitor flows into the battery
(C) both capacitor is zero after reconnection
(D) capacitor C1 is 40C (C) The potential difference between the plates
increases when the plates are pulled apart
(D) After reconnection of battery potential
22. A capacitor of capacity C is charged to a difference between the plate will immediately
steady potential difference V and connected in becomes half of the initial potential difference.
series with an open key and a pure resistor ‘R’. At (Just after disconnecting the battery)
time t = 0, the key is closed. If I = current at
time t, a plot of log I against ‘t’ is as shown in (1) 26. A capacitor C is charged to a potential
in the graph. Later one of the parameters i.e. V, difference V and battery is disconnected. Now if
R or C is changed keeping the other two constant, the capacitor plates are brought close slowly by
and the graph (2) is recorded. Then some distance
(A) some + ve work is done by external agent
(B) energy of capacitor will decrease
(2) (C) energy of capacitor will increase
log I (D) none of the above
(1)
27. The separation between the plates of a
O t isolated charged parallel plate capacitor is
increased. Which of the following quantities will
(A) C is reduced (B) C is increased
change ?
(C) R is reduced (D) R is increased
(A) charge on the capacitor
Question No. 23 to 24 (2 question) (B) potential difference across the capacitor
The charge across the capacitor in two different (C) energy of the capacitor
RC circuits 1 and 2 are plotted as shown in figure. (D) energy density between the plates
q
28. A parallel plate capacitor is charged and then
qmax disconnected from the source of potential
1 difference. If the plates of the condenser are
2 then moved farther apart by the use of insulated
handle, which one of the following is true?
O t (A) the charge on the capacitor increases
23. Choose the correct statement (s) related to (B) the charge on the capacitor decreases
the two circuits (C) the capacitance of the capacitor increases
(A) Both the capacitors are charged to the same (D) the potential difference across the plate
charge increases
(B) The emf’s of cells in both the circuit are equal
29. A parallel plate capacitor A is filled with a
(C) The emf’s of the cells may be different dielectric whose dielectric constant varies with
(D) The emf E1 is more than E2 applied voltage as K = V. An identical capacitor B
of capacitance C 0 with air as dielectric is
24. Identify the correct statement(s) related to connected to voltage source V0 = 30 V and then
the R1, R2, C1 and C2 of the two RC circuits. connected to the first capacito r af ter
(A) R1 > R2 if E1 = E2 (B) C1 < C2 if E1 = E2 disconnecting the voltage source. The charge
R1 C 2 and voltage on capacitor.
(C) R1C1 > R2C2 (D) R  C (A) A are 25 C0 and 25 V
2 1
(B) A are 25 C0 and 5 V
25. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by (C) B are 5c0 and 5V
connecting it to a battery. The battery is (D) B are 5C0 and 25 V
disconnected and the plates of the capacitor are
pulled apart to make the separation between the 30. A parallel plate air-core capacitor is connected
plates twice. Again the capacitor is connected across a source of constant potential difference.
to the battery (with same polarity) then When a dielectric plate is introduced between
the two plates then :

(A) some charge from the capacitor will flow back 35. Following operations can be performed on a
into the source capacitor X – connect the capacitor to a battery
(B) some extra charge from the source will flow of emf E Y – disconnect the battery
back into the capacitor Z – reconnect the battery with polarity reversed
(C) the electric field intensity between the two W – insert a dielectric slab in the capacitor
plate does not change (A) In XYZ (perform X, then Y, then Z) the stored
(D) the electric field intensity between the two electric energy remains unchanged and no thermal
plates will decrease energy is developed
(B) The charge appearing on the capacitor is
31. A parallel plate capacitor has a parallel sheet greater after the action XWY than after the action
of copper inserted between and parallel to the XYW.
two plates, without touching the plates. The (C) The electric energy stored in the capacitor is
capacity of the capacitor after the introduction greater after the action WXY than after the action
of the copper sheet is : XYW.
(A) minimum when the copper sheet touches one (D) The electric field in the capacitor after the
of the plates action XW is the same as that after WX
(B) maximum when the copper sheet touches one
of the plates
36. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and
(C) invariant for all positions of the sheet between
plate seperation d is charged to potential
the plates difference V and then the battery is disconnected.
(D) greater than that before introducing the sheet
A slab of dielectric constant K is then inserted
32. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor with between the plates of the capacitor so as to fill
no dielectric are connected to a voltage source. the space between the plates. If Q, E and W
Now a dielectric of dielectric constant K is inserted denote respectively, the magnitude of charge on
to fill the whole sapce between the plates with each plate, the electric field between the plates
voltage source remaining connected to the (after the slab is inserted) and the work done on
capacitor. the system, in question, in the process of inserting
(A) the energy stored in the capacitor will become the slab, then
K-times  0 AV  0KAV
(A) Q  (B) Q 
(B) the electric field inside the capacitor will d d
decrease to K-times V  0 AV 2  1
(C) the force of attraction between the plates (C) E  (D) W   1  
Kd 2d  K
will increase to K2 - times
(D) the charge on the capacitor will increase to
K-times 37. A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a
battery. The quantities charge, voltage, electric
33. The capac field and energy associated with the capacitor
itance of a parallel plate capacitor is C when the are given by Q0, V0, E0 and U0 respectively. A
region between the plate has air. This region is dielectric slab is introduced between plates of
now filled with a dielectric slab of dielectric capacitor but battery is still in connection. The
constant k. The capacitor is connected to a cell corresponding quantities now given by Q, V, E
of emf E, and the slab is taken out and U related to previous ones are
(A) charge CE(k –1) flows through the cell (A) Q > Q0 (B) V > V0
(B) energy E2C(k – 1) is absorbed by the cell (C) E > E0 (D) U < U0
(C) the energy stored in the capacitor is reduced 38. If Q is the charge on the plates of a capacitor
by E2C(k – 1) of capacitance C, V the potential difference
1 2
(D) the external agent has to do E C(k  1) between the plates, A the area of each plate
2 and d the distance between the plates, the force
amount of work to take the slab out
34. A dielectric slab is inserted between the plates of attraction between the plates is
of an isolated charged capacitor. Which of the
1  Q2  1  CV 2 
following quantities will remain the same ? (A) 2   A  (B) 2  d 
(A) the electric field in the capacitor  0   
(B) the charge on the capacitor
(C) the potential difference between the plates 1  CV 2  1  Q2 
(C) 2  A  (D) 4  
2
(D) the stored energy in the capacitor  0    0d 

1. A solid conducting sphere of radius 10 cm is + –

enclosed by a thin metallic shell of radius 20 cm.
A charge q = 20 C is given to the inner sphere. b
Find the heat generated in the process, the inner a c c2
1
sphere is connected to the shell by a conducting
p
wire - q
c1 c2
2. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 6. Find the equivalent capacitance of the
given charges +4Q and –2Q. The capacitor is circuit between point A and B.
then connected across an uncharged capacitor
C 2C 4C 8C
of same capacitance as first one (= C). Find the
final potential difference between the plates of
C C C C
the first capacitor. A Infinite B
section
C 2C 4C 8C
3. Three capacitors of 2F, 3F and 5F are
independently charged with batteries of emf’s 5V,
20V and 10V respectively. After disconnecting 7. In the following circuit, the resultant
from the voltage sources. These capacitors are capacitance between A and B is 1F. Find the
connected as shown in figure with their positive value of C.
polarity plates are connected to A and negative
polarity is earthed. Now a battery of 20V and an C
uncharged capacitor of 4F capacitance are
connected to the junction A as shown with a
switch S. When switch is closed, find :
S
8. The figure shows a circuit consisting of four
A capacitors. Find the effective capacitance
20V
between X and Y.
(a) the potential of the junction A. X Y

(b) final charges on all four capacitors.
4. Find the charge on the capacitor C = 1F in

the circuit shown in the figure. 9. Five identical capacitor plates, each of area
10V A, are arranged such that adjacent plates are at
a distance ‘d’ apart, the plates are connected to
a source of emf V as shown in figure. The charge
on plate 1 is ____________ and that on plate 4
is ____________.
5. In the given network if potential difference 1 2 3 4 5 –

V
between p and q is 2V and C2 = 3C1. Then find +
the potential difference between a & b.

10. The two identical parallel plates are given 14. In the circuit shown in figure, find the amount
charges as shown in figure. If the plate area of of heat generated when switch s is closed.
either face of each plate is A and separation
between plates is d, then find the amount of S
heat liberate after closing the switch.
5V 10V
+3q +q
15. A 10F and 20F capacitor are connected to

a 10V cell in parallel for some time after which
the capacitors are disconnected from the cell and
S reconnected at t = 0 with each other, in series,
through wires of finite resistance. The +ve plate
11. Find heat produced in the circuit shown in of the first capacitor is connected to the –ve
figure on closing the switch S. plate of the second capacitor. Draw the graph
which best describes the charge on the +ve plate
of the 20F capacitor with increasing time.
16. Find the capacitance of the system shown in
S figure.
Plate area = A
d k=1 k=2
12. The capacitor each having capacitance C =
2F are connected with a battery of emf 30 V d k=3 k=4
as shown in figure. When the switch S is
closed. Find
17. The two parallel plates of a capacitor have
S equal and opposite charges Q. The dielectric has
a dielectric constant K and resistivity . Show
C that the “leakage” current carried by the dielec-
C C Q
tric is given by the relationship i  K  
0
30V
(A) the amount of charge flown through the

battery
(B) the heat generated in the circuit
(C) the energy supplied by the battery
(D) the amount of charge flown through the
switch S
13. In the circuit shown in the figure, initially SW

is open. When the switch is closed, the charge
passing through the switch _____________ in the
direction ____________ to __________.
60V
A SW B
60V

1. The gap between the plates of a plane 5. When the switch S in the figure is thrown to
capacitor is filled with an isotropic insulator whose the left, the plates of capacitors C1 acquire a
di-electric constant varies in the direction potential difference V. Initially the capacitors C2C3
perpendicular to the plates according to the law are uncharged. The switch is now thrown to the
   right. What are the final charges q1, q2 & q3 on
K  K 1 1  sin X  , where d is the separation,
 d  the corresponding capacitors.
between the plates & K1 is a constant. The area

of the plates is S. Determine the capacitance of
the capacitor. S
C2
V C1
2. Five identical conducting plates 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 C3
are fixed parallel to and equdistant from each
other (see figure). Plates 2 & 5 are connected by
a conductor while 1 & 3 are joined by another
conductor. The junction of 1 & 3 and the plate 4 6. An insolated conductor initially free from charge
are connected to a source of constant e.m.f. V0. is charged by repeated contacts with a plate
Find : which after each contact has a charge Q due to
some mechanism. If q is the charge on the
5
conductor after the first operation, prove that
4 –
3 the maximum charge which can be given to the
2
+ Qq
1 conductor in this way is .
Qq
(i) the effective capacity of the system between
the terminals of the source.
(ii) the charges on plates 3 & 5 Given d = distance 7. A parallel plate capacitor is filled by a di-electric
between any 2 successive plates & A = area of whose relative permittivity varies with the applied
either face of each plate. voltage according to the law = V, where  = 1
3. A potential difference of 300 V is applied per volt. The same (but containing no di-electric)
between the plates of a plane capacitor spaced capacitor charged to a voltage V = 156 volt is
1cm apart. A plane parallel glass plate with a connected in parallel to the first “non-linear”
thickness of 0.5 cm and a plane parallel paraffin uncharged capacitor. Determine the final voltage
plate with a thickness of 0.5 cm are placed in the Vf across the capacitors.
space between the capacitor plates find :
(i) Intensity of electric field in each layer.
8. A capacitor consists of two air spaced
(ii) The drop of potential in each layer.
concentric cylinders. The outer of radius b is fixed,
(iii) The surface charge density of the charge on
and the inner is of radius a. If breakdown of air
capacitor the plates. Given that : kglass = 6, kparaffin
occurs at field strengths greater than Eb, show
=2
that the inner cylinder should have
4. A parallel plate capacitor has plates with area (i) radius a = b/e if the potential of the capacitor
A & separation d. A battery charges the plates is to be maximum
to a potential difference of V0. The battery is
then disconnected & a di-electric slab of constant (ii) radius a  b / e if the energy per unit length
K & thickness d is introduced. Calculate the of the system is to be maximum.
positive work done by the system (capacitor +
slab) on the man who introduces the slab.

9. Find the charge flown through the switch from 13. Find the charge which flows from point A to
A to B when it is closed. B, when switch is closed.
3F A B
3F 10V 6F
5V 3F
5F 5F 5F 5F 5F
A B 5V 6F
6F 10V
20V
10. Figure shows three concentric conducting
spherical shells with inner and outer shells earthed 14. Two parallel plate capacitors of capacitance
and the middle shell is given a charge q. Find the C and 2C are connected in parallel then following
electrostatic energy of the system stored in the steps are performed.
region and II. (i) A battery of voltage V is connected across
3.5r the capacitors.
(ii) A dielectric slab of relative permittivity k is
q
I
2.5
r slowly inserted in capacitor C.

II
r
III (iii) Battery is disconnected.

(iv) Dielectric slab is slowly removed from
capacitor.
11. The capacitors shown in figure has been
Find the heat produced in (i) and work done by
charged to a potential difference of V volts, so
external agent in step (ii) & (iv).
that it carries a charge CV with both the switches
S1 and S2 remaining open. Switch S1 is closed at
t = 0. At t = R1C switch S1 is opened and S2 is
closed. Find the charge on the capacitor at t =
2R1C + R2C.
+ –
C
R1
S1
R2
E S2
12. In the figure shown initially switch is open for

a long time. Now the switch is closed at t = 0.
Find the charge on the rightmost capacitor as a
function of time given that it was initially
unchanged.
R S
V R C C

3
1. Two parallel plate capacitors A & B have the (A) zero (B) CV 2
same separation d = 8.85 × 10–4 m between the 2
25 9
plates. The plate areas of A & B are 0.04 m2 & (C) CV 2 (D) CV
2
6 2
0.02 m2 respectively. A slab of di-electric constant 4. Two capacitors A and B with capacities 3 F
(relative permittivity) K = 9 has dimensions such and 2 F are charged to a potential difference of
that it can exactly fill the space between the 100 V and 180 V respectively. The plates of the
plates of capacitor B. capacitors are connected as shown in figure with
A B A B one wire from each capacitor free. The upper
plate of a is positive and that of B is negative. an
uncharged 2F capacitor C with lead wires falls
10V
(i) the di-electric slab is placed inside A as shown on the free ends to complete the circuit. Calculate
in the figure (i) A is then charged to a potential
difference of 110 volt. Calculate the capacitance C 2F
of A and the energy stored in it.
+ –
3F 2F
(ii) the battery is disconnected & then the di- A 100V B180V
electric slab is removed from A. Find the work
done by the external agency in removing the slab
from A. (i) the final charges on the three capacitors
(iii) the same di-electric slab is now placed inside
B, filling it completely. The two capacitors A & B (ii) The amount of electrostatic energy stored in
are then connected as shown in figure (iii). the system before and after the completion of
Calculate the energy stored in the system. the circuit. [JEE’ 97 (cancelled)]
[JEE ‘93, 7]
2. Two square metallic plates of 1 m side are 5. An electron enters the region between the
kept 0.01 m apart, like a parallel plate capacitor, plates of a parallel plate capacitor at a point
in air in such a way that one of their edges is equidistant from either plate. The capacitor plates
perpendicular, to an oil surface in a tank filled are 2 × 10–2m apart & 10–1m long. A potential
with an insultating oil. The plates are connected difference of 300 volt is kept across the plates.
to a battery of e.m.f 500 volt. The plates are then Assuming that the initial velocity of the electron
lowered vertically into the oil at a speed of 0.001 is parallel to the capacitor plates, calculate the
m/s. Calculate the current drawn from the battery largest value of the velocity of the electron so
during the process. [JEE ‘94, 6] that it does not fly out of the capacitor at the
[di-electric constant of oil = 11, 0 = 8.85 × 10– other end. [JEE’97,5]
12
C2/N2m2]
6. For the circuit shown, which of the following
3. A parallel plate capacitor C is connected to a statements is true ? [JEE ‘99, 2]
V1=30V V2=20V
battery & is charged to a potential difference V. S1 S2 S
Anohter capacitor of capacitance 2C is similarly + – + – 3
charged to a potential difference 2V volt. The C1=2pF C2=3pF
charging battery is now disconnected & the
capacitors are connected in parallel to each other (A) with S1 closed V1 = 15 V, V2 = 20 V
in such a way that the positive terminal of one is (B) with S3 closed, V1 = V2 = 25 V
connected to the negative terminal of other. The (C) with S1 & S2 closed, V1 = V2 = 0
final energy of the configuration is : [JEE ‘95,1] (D) with S1 & S2 closed, V1 = 30 V, V2 = 20 V

7. Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate 11. An uncharged capacitor of capacitance 4F,
condenser, with plate area A and distance a battery of emf 12 volt and a resistor of 2.5 M
between plates d, when filled with a medium whose are connected in series. The time after which vC
permittivity varies as : [REE 2000, 6] = 3vR is (take ln 2 = 0.693)
d (A) 6.93 sec. (B) 13.86 sec
 (x) = 0 +  x for 0 < x < & (x) =
2 (C) 20.52 sec. (D) none of these
d d [JEE’ 2005 (Scr)]
0 +  (d – x) for <x<
2 0
12. Given : R1 =- 1, R2 = 2, C1 = 2 F, C2 =
4F The time constants (in S) for the circuits I,
8. Two identical capacitors, have the same
II, III are respectively
capacitance C. One of them is charged to potential
V1 and the other to V2. The negative ends of the
C1 C2 C1
capacitors are connected together. When the
positive ends are also connected, the decrease C2
in energy of the combined system is - V R1 R2
[JEE 2002 (Scr), 3]
1 2 2 1 2 2 R1
(A) C V1 – V2
  (B) C V1  V2   V
4 4 R2
1 2 1 2
(C) C V1 – V2  (D) C V1  V2 
4 4
(I) (II)
9. In an RC circuit while charging, the graph of ln

R1 R2
I versus time is as shown by the dotted line in
the adjoining diagram where I is the current. When C1 C2
the value of the resistance is doubled, which of
the solid curves best represents the variation of V
ln I versus time? [JEE’ 2004 (Scr)] (III)

(A) 18, 8/9, 4 (B) 18, 4, 8/9
(C) 4, 8/9, 18 (D) 8/9, 18, 4
ln I S
[JEE 2006]
R
Q 13. A circuit is connected as shown in the figure

P with the switch S open. When the switch is closed,
t
the total amount of charge that flows from Y to
X is
(A) P (B) Q (C) R (D) S
3 F 6 F
10. In the given circuit, the switch S is closed at X
time t = 0. The charge Q on the capacitor at any
()
instant t is given by Q(t) = Q0(1 – e–t). Find the S

3 6
value of Q0 and  in terms of given parameters
Y
shown in the circuit. [JEE’ 2005 (Scr)]
9V
R1
(A) 0 (B) 54 C
s
R2 (C) 27 C (D) 81 C
C
+ [JEE 2007]
– v

14. A parallel plate capacitor C with plates of (A) 0% (B) 20%

unit area and separation d is filled with a liquid of
d (C) 75% (D) 80%
dielectric constant K = 2. The level of liquid is
3
initially. Suppose the liquid level decreases at a 17. In the given circuit a charge of +80 C is
constant speed V, the time constant as a func- given to the upper plate of the 4F capacitor.
tion of time t is Then in the steady state, the charge on the upper
plate of the 3 f capacitor is. [JEE 2012]
C
d d R
3
[JEE 2008]
6  0R (15 d  9 Vt ) 0R
(A) (B)
5d  3 Vt 2d2 – 3dVt – 9 V 2 t 2
6  0R (15d  9 Vt ) 0R
(C) (D)
5d  3 Vt 2d2  3dVt – 9 V 2 t 2
(A) +32C (B) +40C
15. At time t = 0, a battery of 10 V is connected (C) +48C (D) +80C
across point A and B in the given circuit. It the
capacitors have no charge initially, at what time
(in seconds) does the voltage across them be-
come 4 V ? [JEE 2010]
2M 2F
2M 2F
[Take : n 5 = 1.6, n 3 = 1.1]
16. A 2 F capacitor is charged as shown in fig-

ure. The percentage of its stored energy dissi-
pated after the switch S is turned to position 2 is
[JEE 2011]
1 2
s

Exercise-I
1. A 2. B 3. (i) A (ii) A (iii) (a) B (b) A (c) A (d) B
4. C 5. A 6. B 7. B 8. B 9. D 10. C
11. A 12. B 13. D 14. (i) B (ii) C 15. A 16. C
17. D 18. D 19. C 20. D 21. B 22. B
23. (i) A (ii) B (iii) C 24. A 25. B 26. B 27. B 28. B
29. (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) C 30. C 31. D 32. C
33. (i) A, (ii) A 34. A 35. B 36. A 37. A 38. D
39. C 40. B 41. D 42. B 43. B 44. A 45. C
46. B 47. A 48. B 49. A 50. A 51. D 52. A
53. B 54. C 55. A 56. C 57. C 58. B 59. D
60. C 61. A 62. B 63. B 64. C
Exercise-II
1. A,B,C,D 2. B,D 3. A,C,D 4. A,C 5. B,C,D 6. A,B,C,D

7. A,B,C 8. B 9. A,D 10. E 11. B,C,D 12. B,C
13. A,B,C,D 14. B,C 15. C 16. A,B,C,D17. A,C 18. A,D
19. B 20. A,B,C,D 21. B,D 22. B 23. A,C 24. D
25. B,C 26. B 27. B,C 28. D 29. B,C 30. B,C
31. C,D 32. A,C,D 33. A,B,D 34. B 35. B,C,D 36. A,C,D
37. A 38. A,B
Exercise-III
100
1. 9J 2. 3Q/2C 3. (a) volts ; (b) 28.56 C, 42.84 C, 71.4 C, 22.88 C
7
32 8
4. 10 C 5. 30 V 6. C 7. F 8. F
23 3
A 0 V 2 A 0 V 1 q2 d
9. , – 10. 11. 0
d d 2 0 A
12. (a) 20 C, (b) 0.3 mJ, (c) 0.6 mJ. (d) 60 C 13. 60 c, A to B 14. 150 J
q(C)
200
25  0 A
15. 16. 17. Proof
24 d
O t

Exercise-IV
 SK 1 5  0 A  4  0 AVa  2  0 AVa 

1. C  2. (i)   ; (ii) Q3 =   , Q5 =  
2d 3 d  3 d  3 d 
3. (i) 1.5 × 104 V/m, 4.5 × 104 V/m, (ii) 75 V, 225 V, (iii) 8 × 10– 7 C/m2
1  1 C12 V(C 2  C 3 ) C1C 2 C 3 V

4. W = C0 V02  1 –  5. q1 = q2 = q3 C C  C C  C C
2 K C1C 2  C 2 C 3  C1C 3 1 2 2 3 3 1
3kq12 4q
7. 12 volt 9. 69 C 10. UI = where q1 = – ; UII = 2K( q  q1 ) 2 / 35 r
10 r 25
 1 CV CV  1 – t /RC  400
11. q = CE  1   + 2 12. q  1 – e  13. – C
e e 2  2  7
3 1 1
14. (i) CV 2 ; (ii) – CV 2 (K – 1) ; (K + 2) (K – 1) CV2 ;
2 2 6
Exercise-V
1. (i) 0.2 × 10–8 F, 1.2 × 10–5 J ; (ii) 4.84 × 10–5 J ; (iii) 1.1 × 10–5 J 2. 4.425 × 10–9 Ampere
3. B 4. QA = 90 C, QB = 150 C, QC = 210 C, Ui = 47.4 mJ, Uf = 18 mJ
4.8 A  2 0 d 
5.  10 8 m / s 6. D 7. 2 n  8. C 9. B
2 9.1  2 0 
CVR 2 R1  R 2
10. Q0 = R  R and a = CR R 11. B 12. D 13. C 14. A
1 2 1 2
15. 2 sec 16. D 17. C

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CONTENTS
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 3
2. Electric current and current density ................................................................ 3
3. Drift Current .................................................................................................... 4 – 6
4. Ohm's law ....................................................................................................... 6 – 9
5. Battery and EMF .......................................................................................... 10 – 12
6. Kirchhoff's Laws ........................................................................................... 12 – 17
7. Combination of Resistance ......................................................................... 17 – 22
8. Wheaststone's Bridge .................................................................................. 22 – 29
9. Combination of Cells ................................................................................... 29 – 32
10. Electrical Power ......................................................................................... 33 – 36
11. Instruments ................................................................................................. 36 – 45
12. Exercise - I .................................................................................................. 46 – 57
13. Exercise - II ................................................................................................. 58 – 59
14. Exercise - III ................................................................................................ 60 – 62
15. Exercise - IV ................................................................................................ 63 – 64
16. Exercise - V ................................................................................................ 65 – 68
17. Answer key ................................................................................................. 69 – 70

Page # 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Syllabus
Ohm's law; Series and parallel arrangements of resistances and
cells; kirchhoff's laws and simple applications.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY Page # 3
1. INTRODUCTION
• Conductor
In some materials, the outer electrons of each atoms or molecules are only weakly bound to it. These
electrons are almost free to move throughout the body of the material and are called free electrons.
They are also known as conduction electrons. When such a material is placed in an electric field, the
free electrons move in a direction opposite to the field. Such materials are called conductors.
• Insulator :
Another class of materials is called insulators in which all the electrons are tightly bound to their
respective atoms or molecules. Effectively, there are no free electrons. When such a material is placed
in an electric field, the electrons may slightly shift opposite to the field but they can't leave their
parent atoms or molecules and hence can't move through long distances. Such materials are also
called dielectrics.
• Semiconductor :
In semiconductors, the behaviour is like an insulator at low levels of temperature. But at higher
temperatures, a small number of electrons are able to free themselves and they respond to the applied
electric field. As the number of free electrons in a semiconductor is much smaller then that in a
conductor, its behaviour is in between a conductor and an insulator and hence, the name semiconductor.
A freed electron in a semiconductor leaves a vacancy in its normal bound position. These vacancies
also help in conduction.
2. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY
When there is a transfer of charge from one side of an area to the other, we say that there is an
electric current through the area. If the moving charges are positive, the current is in the direction of
motion, if they are negative, the current is opposite to the direction of motion. If a charge Q crosses
an area in time t, we define the average electric current through the area during this time as
Q
i
t
The current at time t is
Q dQ
i  lim 
t  0 t dt
Thus, electric current through an area is the rate of transfer of charge from one side of the area to the
other. The SI unit of current is ampere. If one coulomb of charge crosses an area in one second, the
current is one ampere. It is one of the seven base units accepted in SI.
Ex.1 If q = 2t2 + 3, find current at t = 2 sec ?
dq
Sol. i
dt
i = 4t
 i at 2 sec = 4 × 2 = 8 A
We shall now define a vector quantity known as electric current density at a point. To define the
current density at a point P, we draw a small area S through P perpendicular to the flow of
charges(shown in figure) If i be the current through the area S, the average current density is
 i
j 
S
The current density at the point P is
i di
j  lim 
S  0 S dS
The direction of the current density is the same as the direction of the current. Thus, it is along the
motion of the moving charges, if the charges are positive and opposite to the motion of the charges, if

the charges are negative. If a current i is uniformly distributed over an area S and is perpendicular to
it,
i
j
S
Q
P S cos 

j

Q S
 i
t S n̂
(a)
Now let us consider an area S which is not necessarily perpendicular to the current (figure shown) If
the normal to the area makes an angle  with the direction of the current, the current density is,
i
j
S cos 
or, i = j S cos 

where i is the current through S, If S be the area vector corresponding to the area S, we have
 
i  j.S
For a finite area,
 
i  j.dS
Note carefully that an electric current has direction as well as magnitude but it is not a vector
quantity. It does not add like vectors. Therefore current is neither a vector quantity nor a scalar
quantity but a tensor quantity. The current density is a vector quantity.
Ex.2 An electron beam has an aperature 1.0 mm2. A total of 6.0 × 1010 electrons go through any
perpendicular cross-section per second. Find (a) the current and (b) the current density in the
beam.
Sol. The total charge crossing a perpendicular cross-section in one second is
q = ne
= 6.0 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10–19 C
= 9.6 × 10–3 C
The current is
q 9.6  10 –3 C
i = = 9.6 × 10–3 A
t 1s
As the charge is negative, the current is opposite to be direction of motion of the beam.
(b) The current density is
i 9.6  10 –3 A 9.6  10 –3 A
j    9.6  10 3 A / m 2
S (1.0mm )2 1.0  10 – 6 m 2
3. DRIFT SPEED
A conductor contains a large number of loosely bound electrons which we call free electrons or
conduction electrons. The remaining material is a collection of relatively heavy positive ions which we
call lattice. These ions keep on vibrating about their mean positions. The average amplitude depends

on the temperature. Occasionally, a free electron collides or interacts in some other fashion with the
lattice. The speed and direction of the electron changes randomly at each such event. As a result, the
electron moves in a zig-zag path. As there is a large number of free electrons moving in random
directions, the number of electrons crossing an area S from one side very nearly equals the number
crossing from the other side in any given time interval. The electric current through the area is,
therefore, zero.
When there is an electric field inside the conductor, a force acts on each electron in the direction
opposite to the field. The electrons get biased in their random motion in favour of the force. As a
result, the electrons drift slowly in this direction. At each collision, the electron starts afresh in a
random direction with a random speed but gains an additional velocity v' due to the electric field. This
velocity v' increases with time and suddenly becomes zero as the electron makes a collision with the
lattice and starts afresh with a random velocity. As. the time ,t between successive collisions is small,
the electron "slowly and steadily drifts opposite to the applied field (shown figure). If the electron
drifts a distance  in a long time t, we define drift speed as
l
vd 
t
If  be the average time between successive collisions, the distance drifted during this period is
1 1  eE  2
l (  ) 2   ( )
2 2 m 
l 1  eE 
The drift speed is vd    
 2 m 
It is proportional to the electric field E and to the average collision-time .
The random motion of free electrons does not contribute to the drift of these electrons. Also, the
average collision-time is constant for a given material at a given temperature. We, therefore, make the
following assumption for our present purpose of discussing electric current.
When no electric field exists in a conductor, the free electrons stay at rest (Vd = 0) and when a field E
exists, they move with a constant velocity
e
vd  E  kE ...(1)
2m
opposite to the field. The constant k depends on the material of the conductor and its temperature.
E
A vd
v d t
Let us now find the relation between the current density and the drift speed. Consider a cylindrical
conductor of cross-sectional area A in which an electric field E exists. Consider a length vd t of the
conductor (figure shown). The volume of this portion is Avdt. If there are n free electrons per unit
volume of the wire, the number of free electrons in this portion is nAvdt. All these electrons cross the
area A in time t. Thus, the charge crossing this area in time t is
Q = nAvd t e
Q
or, i = nAvde
t
i
and j=  nev d ...(2)
A
Ex.3 Calculate the drift speed of the electrons when 1 A of current exists in a copper wire of cross-
section 2 mm2. The number of free electrons in 1 cm3 of copper is 8.5 × 1022.
Sol. We have
j = nevd
j i 1A
or, vd   =  0.036 mm / s
ne A ne (2  10 m )(8.5  10  10 6 m – 3 )(1.6  10 –19 C )
–6 2 22
We see that the drift speed is indeed small.

4. OHM'S LAW
Using equations (1) and (2)
ne 2 
j  nev d  E
2m
or, j  E ...(3)
ne 2 
where  =
2m
where  depends only on material of the conductor and its temperature. This constant is called the
electrical conductivity of the material. Equation (3) is known as Ohm's law.
The resistivity of a material is defined as
1 2m
 = ...(4)
 ne 2 
Ohm's law tells us that the conductivity (or resistivity) of a material is independent of the electric field
existing in the material. This is valid for conductors over a wide range of field.
Suppose we have a conductor of length l and uniform cross-sectional area A (figure shown) Let us apply
a potential difference V between the ends of the conductor. The electric field inside the conductor is
V i
E . If the current in the conductor is i, the current density is j  . Ohm's law j = E then becomes
l A
v
i
A
E
l
(a) (b)
i V

A l
1 l l
or, V i i ...(5)
A A
or, V=Ri ...(6)
R is called the resistance of the given conductor. The quantity 1/ R is called conductance.
Equation (5) is another form of Ohm's law which is widely used in circuit analysis. The unit of resistance
is called ohm and is denoted by symbol . An object of conducting material, having a resistance of
desired value, is called a resistor.
From equation (5) and (6)

R ...(7)
A
From equation (7), the unit of resistivity  is ohm-metre, also written as -m. The unit of conductivity
() is (ohm-m) written as mho/m.
from eq. (4) & (7)

2 m 
R 2

ne A A
 2 m 
where  = resistivity  where   ne 2  

 
 = length along the direction of current

A = Area of the cross section perpendicular to direction of current
n = no. of free charges per unit volume.
 = relaxation time
m = mass of electron
Ex.4 Calculate the resistance of an aluminium wire of length 50 cm and cross-sectional area 2.0
mm2. The resistivity of aluminium is  = 2.6 × 10–8 -m


Sol. The resistance is R = 
A
( 2.6  10 –8   m)  (0.50 m)
  0.0065 
2  10 – 6 m 2
We arrived at Ohm's law by making several assumptions about the existence and behaviour of the free
electrons. These assumption are not valid for semiconductors, insulators, solutions etc. Ohm's law
cannot be applied in such cases.
Ex.5 The dimensions of a conductor of specific resistance  are shown below. Find the resistance of
the conductor across AB, CD and EF.
A D
c F
E
b
a
C
B
c b a
Sol. R AB  , R CD  , R EF 
ab ac bc
Ex.6 A portion of length L is cut out of a conical solid wire. The two ends of this portion have circular
cross-sections of radii r1 and r2 (r2 > r1). It is connected lengthwise to a circuit and a current i
is flowing in it. The resistivity of the material of the wire is . Calculate the resistance of the
considered portion and the voltage developed across it.
Sol. If follows from the figure, that
r2 – r1
tan = i r2
L r1
 r2 – r1  l
r L  x(r2 – r1 )
 r = r1 + x tan  = r1 + x   = 1
 L  L

2 
 A  r  [r1L  (r2 – r1 )x ]2
L2
dx dxL2 L2

L
dx
dR    R  dR 
r 2 [r1L  (r2 – r1 ) x ] 2    [r L  (r – r1 )x ] 2
0 1 2
L2 L I 
 {r1L  (r2 – r1 )x } –1 0  –
  
  (r2 – r1 ) 
– L  1 1  L IL
  – 
(r2 – r1 )  r2 r1  (r1r2 )  V  IR  r r
12
Ex.7 The space between two coaxial cylinders, whose radii are a and b (where a < b as in (figure
shown) is filled with a conducting medium. The specific conductivity of the medium is .

a
b
(a) Compute the resistance along the length of cylinder.

(b) Compute the resistance between the cylinders in the radial
direction. Assume that the cylinders are very long as compared to
their radii, i.e., L >> b, where L is the length of the cylinders.
l l l l
Sol. (a) R = = A  2 2
 2
A ( b – a ) (b – a2 )
(b) From Ohm's law, we have
 
J  E

Assuming radial current density. J becomes
 I
J r̂ for a < r < b
2rL
 I
and, therefore, E r̂
2rL
 
Here we have used the assumption that L >> b so that E and J are in cylindrically symmetric form.
The potential drop across the medium is thus :
a a
  I dr I b
Vab   E(r ). dr = –
 r  ln  
2L 2L  a 
b b
The resistance
b
In 
Vab a
R ab    
I 2L

Method 2 : We split the medium into differential cylindrical shell elements of width dr, in series. The current
flow is cylindrically symmetric (L >> b). The area through which the current flows across a shell of
radius r is A(r) = 2rL. The length the current flows, passing through a shell of radius r is dr. Therefore,
the resistance of the shell of radius r is :
1 dr
dR 
 2rL
Since the shells are connected in a series, we have
b
b ln 
a
R ab  dR   
 2L
a
Effect of Temperature on Resistance

(a) Resistance of Pure Metals
 2m  l
(i) We know that R 2 
 ne   A
For a given conductor, l, A and n are constant, hence R  (1/)
If  represents the mean free path (Average distance covered between two successive collisions) of
the electron and vrms, the root-mean-square speed, then
 Vrms
 , Hence R 
v rms 
Now,
(a)  decreases with rise in temperature because the amplitude of vibrations of the +ve ions of the metal
increases and they create more hindrance in the movement of electrons and,
(b) (i) vrms increases because vrms   T. Therefore, Resistance of the metallic wire increases with rise
in temperature. As  R and   (1/), hence resistivity increases and conductivity decreases with
rise in temperature of the metallic of the metallic wires.
(ii) If R0 and Rt represent the resistances of metallic wire at 0°C and t°C respectively then Rt is given by
the following formula :
Rt = R0(1 +  t)
where  is called as the Temperature coefficient of resistance of the material of the wire.
 depends on material and temperature but generally it is taken as a constant for a particular material
for small change.
Rt – R0 = R0  t
for very small change in temperature dR = R0  dt
(c) Resistance of semiconductors

(i) There are certain substances whose conductivity lies in between that of insulators and conductors,
higher than that of insulators but lower than that of conductors. These are called as semiconductors,
e.g., silicon, germanium, carbon etc.
(ii) The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature i.e.,  for semiconduc-
tors is –ve and high.
(iii) Though at ordinary temperature the value of n (no. of free electrons per unit volume) for these
materials is very small as compared to metals, but increases very rapidly with rise in temperature (this
happens due to breaking of covalent bonds). Though  decreases but factor of n dominates. There-
fore, the resistance
ml
R goes on decreasing with increase in temperature.
ne2 A

5. BATTERY AND EMF

A battery is a device which maintains a potential difference between its two terminals A and B. Figure
shows a schematic diagram of a battery. Some internal mechanism exerts forces on the charges of the
battery material. This force drives the positive charges of the battery material towards A and the

negative charges of the battery material towards B. We show the force on a positive charge q as Fb .
As positive charge accumulates on A and negative charge on B, a potential difference develops and

grows between A and B. An electric field E is developed in the battery material from A to B and exerts
  
a force Fe  qE on a charge q. The direction of this force is opposite to that of Fb In steady state, the
charge accumulation on A and B is such that Fb  Fe . No further accumulation takes place.
+ –
Fb B
A
If a charge q is taken from the terminal B to the terminal A , the work done by the battery force Fb is
W = Fb d where d is the distance between A and B. The work done by the battery force per unit charge
is
W Fb d
E 
q q
This quantity is called the emf of the battery. The full form of emf is electromotive force. The name is
misleading in the sense that emf is not a force, it is work done/charge. We shall continue to denote this
quantity by the short name emf. If nothing is connected externally between A and B,
Fb = Fe = qE
or, Fbd = qEd = qV
where V = Ed is the potential difference between the terminals. Thus,
Fb d
E V
q
Thus, the emf of a battery equals the potential difference between its terminals when the terminals
are not connected externally.
Potential difference and emf are two different quantities whose magnitudes may be equal in certain
conditions. The emf is the work done per unit charge by the battery force Fb which is non-electrostatic
in nature. The potential difference originates from the electrostatic field created by the charges
accumulated on the terminals of the battery.
A battery is often prepared by putting two rods or plates of different metals in a chemical solution.
Such a battery, using chemical reactions to generate emf, is often called a cell.

E
A B
Now suppose the terminals of a battery are connected by a conducting wire as shown in above figure.
As the terminal A is at a higher potential than B, there is an electric field in the wire in the direction
shown in the figure. The free electrons in the wire move in the opposite direction .and enter the
battery at the terminal A. Some electrons are withdrawn from the terminal B which enter the wire
through the right end. Thus, the potential difference between A and B tends to decrease. If this
potential difference decreases, the electrostatic force Fe inside the battery also decreases. The force

Fb due to the battery mechanism remains the same. Thus, there is a net force on the positive charges
of the battery material from B to A. The positive charges rush towards A and neutralise the effect of
the electrons coming at A from the wire. Similarly, the negative charges rush towards B. Thus, the
potential difference between A and B is maintained.
For calculation of current, motion of a positive charge in one direction is equivalent to the motion of a
negative charge in opposite direction. Using this fact, We can describe the above situation by a simpler
model. The positive terminal of the battery supplies positive charges to the wire. These charges are
pushed through the wire by the electric field and they reach the negative terminal of the battery. The
battery mechanism drives these charges back to the positive terminal against the electric fIeld existing
in the battery and the process continues. This maintains a steady current in the circuit
Current can also be driven into a battery in the reverse direction. In such a case, positive charge enters
the battery at the positive terminal, moves inside the battery to the· negative terminal and leaves the
battery from the negative terminal. Such a process is called charging of the battery. The more common
process in which. the positive charge comes out of the battery from the positive terminal is called
discharging of the battery.
i =2A
A B
Ex.8 vA R  2 vB
E = 10 V
Find vA – vB
Sol. vA – iR – E = vB
vA – vB = iR + E = 4 + 10 = 14 volt
Ex.9 Shown in the figure. Find out the current in the wire BD
5
C B
20v 10v
D A
2
Sol. Let at point D potential = 0 and write the potential of
10
other points then current in wire AD = = 5A from A to D
2
v=+20 5 v=0
20 C B
current in wire CB = = 4A from C to B 4A
5 5A
4A
 current in wire BD = 1 A from D to B 10v
20v 1A + 10v
Ex.10 Find the current in each wire
H G F E v=0 A
D 5A 2
10v 30v 40v
50v
1 2
2
A B C D

Sol. Let potential at point A is 0 volt then potential of other points is shown in figure.
40 – 0 +10V
Current in BG = = 40 A from G to B G10V 35A F
H
1 E
10V 5A 10V 20A
30V 50V
0 – (–30 ) 40V
Current in FC = = 15A from C to K 40V –30V –40V
2
10V
1 2 2
0 – (–40) 5A
current in DE =  20 A from D to E 40A 15A 20A
2
0V 0V
current in wire AH = 40 – 35 = 5 A from A to H A B C 20V D
0V 0V
6. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Before moving on to the statement of Kirchhoff's law, we state some conventions to be followed in
circuit analysis :
(1) Direction of conventional current is from high potential to low potential terminal.
(2) Current flows from high potential node A to low potential node B. if we traverse from point A to B,
there is drop of potential; similarly from B to A, there is gain of potential.
If we traverse from point A to B, there is drop of potential; similarly from B to A, there is gain of
potential. If a source of emf is traversed from negative to positive terminal, the change in potential is
+E.
Potential gain
VA – VB = + E
High Potential Low potential
A B
Final Initial
Potential drop potential potential
While discharging, current is drawn from the battery, the current comes out from positive terminal
and enters negative terminal, while charging of battery current is forced from positive terminal of the
battery to negative terminal. Irrespective of direction of current through a battery the sign conven-
tion mentioned above holds.
The positive plate of a capacitor is at high potential and negative plate at low potential. If we
traverse a capacitor from positive plate to negative plate, the change in potential is –Q/C
i + –
VB – VA = –Q/C
A B
Discharging Battery
i + – High Low
A B potential potential
Charging Battery
If we traverse a resistor in the direction of current, the change in potential is –IR.

High Potential Low Potential
+ –
A B VB – VA = –IR
Direction of traverse
Final Initial
Drop of potential
potential potential
Gain of potential
If we traverse a resistor in the direction opposite to the direction of current, the change in potential
is +IR.

Potential gain
Potential drop VA – VB = +IR
High Potential Low Potential Final Initial

+ – potential potential
VA VB
Positive terminal of source of emf is at high potential and negative terminal at low potential.
If we traverse a source of emf from the positive terminal to negative terminal, the change in
potential is –E.
VB – VA =–E
VB – VA = – E
Direction of traverse Final Initial

potential potential
VA – VB = + E
If a capacitor is traversed from negative plate to positive plate, the change in potential is
+Q/C.
VA – VB = + Q/C + –
High Low
potential potential
A B
(a) The Kirchhoff's Current Law

The Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum
of the currents entering the junction must equal to sum of the I1 I2
O
currents leaving the junction. From the standard point of phys- I3
ics, KCL is a statement of charge conservation. I6
I4
The KCL applied to junction O yields.
I1 + I5 + I3 = I2 + I4
Outgoing Incoming
current current
2A
5A
3A

20V
2
15V
1 2
–50 V
+10 V xA
Ex.11 Find the potential at point A 20V 5V
1
–30V
Sol. Let potential at A = x, applying kirchhoff current law at junction A
x – 20 – 10 x – 15 – 20 x – 5  50 x  30
   0
1 2 2 1
2x – 60  x – 35  x  45  2x  60
 0
2
 6x + 10 = 0
5
 x–
3
–5
Potential at A = V
3
2 2 2
Ex.12
5V 10V 20V
Find the current in every branch ?

Sol. Let we assume x potential at the top junction & zero potential at lower junction
i1 x i3
As from KCL,net current on a junction is O
i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 i2
x – 5 x – 10 x – 20
  0 2 2 2
2 2 2
35 10V
3x = 35  x  5V 20V
3
0 0 0
35
–5
10 A
 i1  3 
2 3
5 25
Similarly, i2 = A ; i3 = – A.
6 6

2
4V 4
2V 4V
2
Ex.13 2V
4

Sol. Assume x potential at the upper junction & zero potential at the lower junction.
By KCl, we know that net current on a junction is zero. x i4 2
 i1 + i2 + i3 + i4 = 0
i3
i2
x–4 x–2 x2 x–4 4V
i1
   0 4
4V
2 4 4 2 2V
2x – 8 + x – 2 + x + 2 + 2x – 8 = 0 2
2V
4
8
6x – 16 = 0  x V
3
O O O O
2 1 7 2
 i1  – A, i2   A, i3  A, i 4  – A
3 6 6 3
2
2 2 2 2
Ex.14
4V 2V 2V

Sol. The above question could be solved by assuming potential x & y at the top junctions & zero potential at
lower junctions
At the junction 1 applying KCL, i1 x i3 2 i4 y i6
i1+ i2 + i3 = 0 1
i2 2 i5
x–4 x–2 x–y 2 2
  0 2  2 
2 2 2
 3x – y = 6 ...(1) 4 2 2
At the junction 2 applying KCL, 4V 2V 2V
i4 + i5 + i6 = 0
y–x y–2 y O O O O
  0
2 2 2
 3y – x = 2 ...(2)
Solving (1) & (2)
9x – 3y = 18  3y – x = 2
 8x = 20
5 3
x= , y=
2 2
Just put the values of x & y & then the evaluate the current in every branch

(b) The Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

The Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the potential difference around any
closed loop of an electric circuit is zero. The KVL is a statement of conservation of energy. The KVL
reflects that electric force is conservative, the work done by a conservative force on a charge taken
around a closed path is zero.
We can move clockwise or anticlockwise, it will make no difference because the overall sum of the
potential difference is zero.
We can start from any point on the loop, we just have to finish at the same point.
An ideal battery is modelled by an independent voltage source of emf E and an internal resistance r as
shown in figure A real battery always absorbs power when there is a current through it, thereby
offering resistance to flow of current.
b c
Applying KVL around the single loop in anticlockwise
direction, starting from point A, we have
+ IR + Ir – E = 0 r
R
In the In the opposite From positive Real
opposite direction to to negative Battery
direction current terminal E
to current
a d
E
Hence, I
Rr
Ex.15 Find current in the circuit
1
20 V 15 V
4
2
10 V
3 30 V 20 V – i
D +
C
Sol.  all the elements are connected in series + 1 15 V
 current in all of them will be same 4i 4  –
– 2 2i
let current = i 10 V +
Applying kirchhoff voltage law in ABCDA loop 3 i
A + – B
10 + 4i – 20 + i + 15 + 2i – 30 + 3i = 0 i
3i 30 V
10 i = 25  i = 2.5 A
Ex.16 Find the current in each wire applying only kirchhoff voltage law
10 50V
F E D
2 2
1
30V
A B C

Sol. Applying kirchhoff voltage law in loop ABEFA

i1 + 30 + 2 (i1 + i2) – 10 = 0
3i1 + 2i2 + 20 = 0 ...(i)
Applying kirchhoff voltage law in BCDEB
+ 30 + 2(i1 + i2) + 50 + 2i2 = 0
4i2 + 2i1 + 80 = 0
2i2 + i1 + 40 = 0 ...(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) 10V 50V
F E D
3[–40 –2i2] + 2i2 + 20 = 0 i1 i2 i2
i1
–120 – 4i2 + 20 = 0 +
– 2(i1+i2) 2  –
i2 = – 25 A 1 i1 – 2i 2 2
and i1 = 10 A + 30V +
i1 i1+i2 i2
 i1 + i2 = – 15 A
current in wire AF = 10 A from A to E A B i2 C
current in wire EB = 15 A from B to E
current in wire DE = 25 A from D to C
7. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE
A number of resistance can be connected in a circuit and any complicated combination can be, in
general, reduced essentially to two different types, namely series and parallel combinations.
(a) Resistance in Series
R1 R2 R3 R
V1 V2 V3
V V
(i) In this combination the resistance are joined end to end. The second end of each resistance is
joined to first end of the next resistance and so on. A cell is connected between the first end of
first resistance and second end of last resistance. Figure shows three resistances R1, R2 and R3
connected in this way. Let V1, V2 and V3 are the potential differences across these resistances.
(ii) In this combination current flowing through each resistance will be same and will be equal to
current supplied by the battery.
(iii) As resistances are different and current flowing through them is same, hence potential differ-
ences across them will be different. Applied potential difference will be distributed among three
resistances directly in their ratio.
As i is constant, hence V  R
i.e., V1 = iR1, V2 = iR2, v3 = iR3
(iv) If the potential difference between the points A and D is V, then
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = i (R1 + R2 + R3)
(v) If the combination of resistances between two points is replaced by a single resistance R such
that there is no change in the current of the circuit in the potential difference between those
two points, then the single resistance R will be equivlaent to combination and V = i R i.e.,
iR = i (R1 + R2 + R3) or R = R1 + R2 + R3

(v) Thus in series combination of resistances, important conclusion are

(a) Equivalent Resistance > highest individual resistance
(b) Current supplied by source = Current in each resistance
V V1 V2 V3
or R  R  R = R = R = R
1 2 3 1 2 3
(c) The total potential difference V between points A and B is shared among the three resistances
directly in their ratio
V1 : V2 : V3 = R1 : R2 : R3
(b) Resistance in Parallel

i1 R1
i A i2 R2 B
i R
i3 R3
V
(i) When two or more resistance are combined in such a way that their first ends are connected to
one terminal of the battery while other ends are connected to other terminal, then they are
said to be connected in parallel. Figure shows three resistances R1, R2 and R3 joined in parallel
between two points A and B. Suppose the current flowing from the battery is i. This current
gets divided into three parts at the junction A. Let the currents in three resistance R1 , R2 and
R3, are i1, i2, i3 respectively.
(ii) Suppose potential difference between points A and B is V. Because each resistance is con-
nected between same two points A and B, hence potential difference across each resistance
will be same and will be equal to applied potential difference V.
(iii) Since potential difference across each resistance is same, hence current approaching the
junction A is divided among three resistances reciprocally in their ratio.
As V is constant, hence i  (1/R) i.e.,
V V V
i1  , i2  and i3 
R R2 R3
(iv) Because i the main current which is divided into three parts i1, i2 and i3 at the junction A.
 1 1 1 
hence, i  i1  i 2  i3  V  R  R  R 
 1 2 3
V
If the equivalent resistance between the points A and B is R, then i =
R
V  1 1 1  1 1 1 1
Thus, R  V  R  R  R  or R  R  R  R
 1 2 3  1 2 3
(v) Thus in parallel combination of resistance important conclusion are :

(a) Equivalent resistance < lowest individual resistance
(b) Applied potential difference = Potential difference across each resistance.
or iR = i1R1 = i2R2 = i3R3
(c) Current approaching the junction A = Current leaving the junction B and current is shared
among the three resistances in the inverse ratio of resistances
1 1 1
i1 : i2 : i3 = R : R : R
1 2 3

(i) If two or more resistance are joined in parallel then i1R = i1R2 = i3R3............
i.e., iR = constant i.e., a low resistance joined in parallel always draws a higher current.
(ii) When two resistance R1 and R2 are joined in parallel, then
i1R1 i12R12 i12R1t R2 H1 R 2

 1 or  1 or 2
 or H  R
i2R 2 i22R22 i2 R2t R1 2 1
i.e., heat produced will be maximum in the lowest resistance.
Ex.17 Find current which is passing through battery.

2
3
6
30V 1
Sol. Here potential difference across each resistor is not 30 V
 battery has internal resistance here the concept of combination of resistors is useful.
Req = 1 + 1 = 2
30
i  15 A
2
Ex.18 Find equivalent Resistance
A × × B
R R R
R R
Sol. A B
VA R VB VA VB
Here all the Resistance are connected between the terminals A and B. So, Modified circuit is
A R
R B
So Req=
3
R
Ex.19 Find the current in Resistance P if voltage supply between A and B is V volts
R
P R R
A B
R
3R
Sol. Req =
5

R
A B
VA VB C
P
5V C
I= Modified circuit R R
3R A B
5V R
R 2V
Current in P  3R =
1.5R  R 3R
R R/2
P
A B
R
4 2
120V 6
Ex.20 Find the current in 2  resistance. 3 1
4 4
4
Sol. 2, 1 in series = 3
12A 12A
18
3, 6 in parallel =  2 2
9
2, 4 in series = 6
6, 3 is parallel = 2 4 12A
Req = 4 + 4 + 2 = 10 
120
i  12 A
10
8
So current in 2 Resistance = A
3
4 8
2 A A
12A 4A 3 3 3
3 6
8A
4

3
r r
1 6
r r r
r
A B
4 r
• SPECIAL PROBLEMS
r r r
2 7
r r
5
We wish to determine equivalent resistance between A and B. In figure shown points (1,2) (3, 4, 5) and (6,
7) are at same potential Equivalent circuit can be redrawn as in figure shown.
The equivalent resistance of this series combination is
r r r r 3r
R eq.     
2 4 4 2 2
r 1,2 r 3,4,5 r 6,7 r
r r
A B
r r r r
r r
In the figure shown, the resistances specified are in ohms. We wish to determine the equivalent resistance
between point A and D. Point B and C, E and F are the the same potential so the circuit can be redrawn
as in figure shown.
Thus the equivalent resistance is 1 .
A
2
D 2
1 1
1 1 1 2 1
E 1 F A 1 2 1
2 2 B,C E,F D
B C
1
In the network shown in figure shown all the resistances are equal, we wish to determine equivalent
resistance between A and E. Point B and D have same potential, similarly F and H have same potential.
The equivalent circuit is shown in figure shown. The equivalent resistance of network is 7R/2.
B
R R
R
F R
R R
R E G R R
A C
R R R R
R R E
A R R C R G R R
H B,D
R R F,H
R
R
D

Ex.21 In the circuit shown in figure. (a) find the current flowing through the 100  resistor connecting
points U and S.
Sol. Figure (b) shows simplified circuit. The battery is directly attached to resistor 90hence current in it is
2 A, see figure (c), The total resistance of second branch is also 90 , hence current divides equally.
Now current through 45  resistor is 2 A and it is a combination of two equal 90  resistors. Once
again current divides equally. 90  resistor is a series combination of 40  and 50 , hence current
through them is equal, i.e.,
1 A. As 50  resistor is a parallel combination of two equal 100  resistors, they must have the same
current i.e., 0.5 A
8. WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE B
i1 – i g
P ig Q
i1
A C
G
i2
K2 i2+ig
R S
i1+i2 D
i1+i2
+ –
K1
E
(i) Wheatstone designed a network of four resistances with the help of which the resistance of a given
conductor can be measured. Such a network of resistances is known as Wheastone's bridge.
(ii) In this bridge, four resistance P, Q, R and S are so connected so as to form a quadrilateral ABCD. A
sensitive galvanometer and key K2 are connected between diagonally opposite corners B and D, and a
cell and key K1 are connected between two other corners A and C (figure shown)
(iii) When key K1 is pressed, a current i flows from the cell. On reaching the junction A, the current i gets
divided into two parts i1 and i2. Current i1 flows in the arm AB while i2 in arm AD. Current i1, on reaching
the junction B gets further divided into two parts (i1 – ig) and ig, along branches BC and BD respectively.
At junction D, currents i2 and ig are added to give a current (i2 + ig), along branch DC. (i2 – ig) and (i2
+ ig) add up at junction C to give a current (i1 + i2) or i along branch CE. In this way, currents are
distributed in the different branches of bridge. In this position, we get a deflection in the galvanometer.
(iv) Now the resistance P,Q,R and S are so adjusted that on pressing the key K2, deflection in the galvanom-
eter becomes zero or current ig in the branch BD becomes zero. In this situation, the bridge is said to
be balanced.

(v) I n this balanced position of bridge, same current i1 flows in arms AB and BC and similarly same current i2
in arms AD and DC. In other words, resistances P and Q and similarly R and S, will now be joined in
series.
(vi) Condition of balance : Applying Kirchhoff's 2nd law to mesh ABDA, i1P + igG – i2R = 0...(1)
Similarly, for the closed mesh BCDB, we get, (i1 – ig) Q – (i2 + ig)S – igG = 0 ...(2) When
bridge is balanced, ig = 0. Hence eq. (1) & (2) reduce to
i1P – i2R = 0 or i1P = i2R ....(3)
i1Q – i2S = 0 or i1Q = i2S ...(4)
P R
Dividing (3) by (4), we have,  ....(5)
Q S
This is called as condition of balanced for Wheatstone's Bridge.
(vii) It is clear from above equation that if ratio of the resistance P and Q, and the resistance R are known,
then unknwon resistance S can be determined. This is the reason that arms P and Q are called as ratio
arms, arm AD as known arm and arm CD as unknown arm.
(viii) When the bridge is balanced then on inter-changing the positions of the galvanometer and the cell there
is no effect on the balance of the bridge. Hence the arms BD and AC are called as conjugate arms of
the bridge.
(ix) The sensitivity of the bridge depends upon the value of the resistances. The sensitivity of bridge is
maximum when all the four resistances are of the same order.
Ex.22 Find equivalent resistance of the circuit between the terminals A and B.
10 6
A 20 B
5 3
Sol. Since the given circuit is wheat stone bridge and it is in balance condition.
 10 × 3 =30 = 6× 5
hence this is equivalent to
16  8 16
R eq   
16  8 3
10 6
A B
5 3
Ex.23 Find the equivalent resistance between A and B
R R
A B
R

Sol. This arrangement can be modified as shown in figure since it is balanced wheat stone bridge.
2R  2R
R eq  R
2R  2R
C
R R
A R B
R R
D
8.1 Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge
10 B(x) 5
A C
i1 i5 i3
i i
v 2 0
i2 i4
D F
5 E(y) 10
Ex.24
v 0
v
Find equivalent resistance ?

Sol. Let potential at point B is x and E is Y
v
R eq 
i
Applying KCl at point B
x–v x–y x–0

  0
10 2 5
8x – 5y = v ...(1)
Applying KCL at point E
y–v y–x y–0

  0
5 2 10
 8y – 5x = 2v ...(2)
6v 7v
solving x & y x , y
13 13
current from branches BC & EF adds up to give total current (i) flowing in the circuit.
x–0 y–0 19v

i = i3 + i4 =  =
5 10 130
V 130
i  Req. =
 R eq 19

Ladder Problem :
R R R R R
A 
R R R R R
B 
Find the effective resistance between A & B ?

Sol. Let the effective resistance between A & B be RE since the network is infinite long, removal of one cell
from the chain will not change the network. The effective resistance between points C & D would also
be RE.
The equivalent network will be as shown below
R C
A
R RE
B D
The original infinite chain is equivalent to R in series with R & RE in parallel.
RRE
RE  R 
R  RE
RER + RE2 = R2 + 2RRE  RE2 – RRE – R2 = 0
R(1  5 )
RE 
2
R kR k2R k3R
A
R kR k2R k3R
Ex.25
B
Find the equivalent resistance between A & B ? R C
Sol. As moving rom one section to next one, resistance is increasing A
by k times. Since the network is infinitely long, removal of one R kRE

section from the chain will bring a little change in the network.
The effective resistance between points C & D would be kRE (where B
RE is the effective resistance) D
 Effective R between A & B.
R(kR E )
RE  R 
kR E  R
On solving we get
2kR – R  (R – 2kR)2  4kR 2

RE 
2k
15. Symmetrical Circuits :

Some circuits can be modified to have simpler solution by using symmetry if they are solved by traditional
method of KVL and KCL then it would take much time.
Ex.26 Find the equivalent Resistance between A and B
C
R R
R
R R
A B
R
R R
D
Sol. I Method : MIRROR SYMMETRY
The branches AC and AD are symmetrical
 current through them will be same.
The circuit is also similar from left side and right side like mirror images with a mirror placed alone CD
therefore current distribution while entering through B and an exiting from A will be same. Using all
these facts the currents are as shown in the figure. It is clear that current in resistor between C and
E is 0 and also in ED is 0. It's equivalent is shown in figure (b)
C
R R
R R R
i i1 i–2i1 i1
A B R R
i–2i1 E i1 i
A B
i1 R R i R
R R
D
(fig.a) (fig.b)
2R
R eq 
3
II Method : FOLDING SYMMETRY
 The potential difference in R between (B, C) and between (B, D) is same VC = VD
Hence the point C and D are same hence circuit can be simplified as
R E R
A B
R R/2
R R
R R
C,D
This called folding.
Now , it is Balanced Wheatstone bridge
R E R
A B
R/2 R/2
R/2
(C,D)
2R  R 2R
R eq  
2R  R 3

In II Method it is not necessary to know the currents in CA and DA

C
R 2R
R
R 2R
A B
E
R
R 2R
D
Sol. In this case the circuit has symmetry in the two branches AC and AD at the input
 current in them are same but from input and from exit the circuit is not similar
( on left R and on right 2R) C
 on both sides the distribution of current will not be similar.
R 2R
Here Vc = Vd
R
hence C and D are same point x y
R 2R
So, the circuit can be simplified as A B
i i–2x E
y
Now it is balanced wheat stone bridge. R R 2R
x
R E 2R
A B D
R/2
R/2 R
C,D
3R 9
3R  R
R eq  2 2 R
3R = 9
3R 
2 2
R
R R R
R
R R
A B
R R
R R
R
A R B
R R R
R
x R R x
A x i–2x B
i R i–2x x
Sol.
R R R
C R D
Here VA = VC and VB = VD

Here the circuit can be simplified as
y R R y
A B
i i–y i–y
R/2
R/2 R/2 R/2
R/2
R R
4R A B
2R 
R eq 3 4R R/2 R/2
10R = Ans. R/2 R/2
5
3 R/2
2R 2R
A B A B
R/2 R/2
4R/3
R/3
5 6
Ex.29 Twelve equal resistors each R  are connected to form the
edges of a cube. Find the equivalent resistances of
8 7
the network.
(a)When current enters at 1 & leaves at 6 (body diagonal)
Sol. Here 2, 4, 8 are equipotential points (if we move from 1 4 3
 2, 4, 8 it comes along the edge & 6  2, 4, 8 it comes
along face diagonal). Similarly 3, 5, 7 are equipotential 2
points. 1
1 6
2,4,8 3,5,7
R/3 R/6 R/3.
5R
R eq 
6
(b) When current enters at 1 and leaves at 2
Sol. Here 3, 7 are equipotential surface (if we move from 1  3, 7 we have along face and 2,  3, 7 we
move along edge) similarly 4, 8 are equipotential surface.
1 2
3, 7 4,8
5 6

7R
R eq 
12
(c) When current enters at 1 and leaves at 3
Sol. If we cut the cube along the plane passing through 2, 4, 5, 7 then by mirror symmetry, the final
configuration will be
5 6 5 6
8 7 8 7
3R
R eq 
4 3 4 3 4
2 2
1 1
9. COMBINATIONS OF CELLS
A cell is used to maintain current in an electric circuit. We cannot obtain a strong current from a single
cell. Hence need arises to combine two or more cells to obtain a strong current. Cells can be combined
in three possible ways :
(A) In series, (B) In parallel, and (C) In mixed grouping.

(A) Cells in Series
1 2 n nE
r r r nr
......
E E E I
I
R
R
In this combination, cells are so connected that –ve terminal of each cell is connected with the +ve
terminal of next and so on. Suppose n cells are connected in this way. Let e.m.f and internal resis-
tance of each cell are E and r respectively.
Net e.m.f of the cells = nE. Total internal resistance = nr. Hence total resistance of the circuit = nr +
R.
net e.m.f nE
If total current in the circuit is I, then I   ...(1)
Total Resistance nr  R
Case (i) : If nr < < R, then I  n E / R i.e., if total internal resistance of the cells is far less than external
resistance, then current obtained from the cells is approximately equal to n times the current ob-
tained from a single cell. Hence cells, whose total internal resistance is less than external resistance,
just be joined in series to obtain strong current.
nE E
Case (ii) : If nr >> R, then I   i.e., if total internal resistance of the cells is much greater than the
nr r
external resistance, then current obtained from the combination of n cells is nearly the same as
obtained from a single cell. Hence there is no use of joining such cells in series.

(B) Cells in Parallel
1 E r
E E r/n
2 r
......
I
n E r
R
R
(I) When E.M.F's and internal resistance of all the cells are equal : In this combination, positive termi-
nals of all the cells are connected at one point and negative terminals at other point. Figure shown
such cells connected in parallel across some external resistance R. Let e.m.f and internal resistance of
each cell are E and r respectively.
Because all the cells are connected in parallel between two points, hence e.m.f of battery = E.
Total internal resistance of the combination of n cells = r/n
Because external resistance R is connected in series with internal resistance, hence total resistance of
the circuit = (r/n) + R
If current in external resistance is I, then
net E.M.F E nE
I = 
Total resistance (r / n)  R r  nR
nE E
Case (I) : If r << R, the I   i.e., if internal resistance of the cells is much less than external resis-
nR R
tance, then total current obtained from combination is nearly equal to current given by one cells
only. Hence there is no use of joining cells of low internal resistance in parallel.
nE
Case (II) : If r >> R, then I  i.e., if the internal resistance of the cells is much higher than the external
r
resistance, then total current is nearly equal to n times the current given by one cell. Hence cells of
high internal resistance must be joined in parallel to get a strong current.
(II) When emf's and internal resistance of all the cells connected in parallel are different.
In this case, total current in external resistance is obtained with the help of Kirchhoff's laws. Figure
shows three cells of e.m.f E1, E2 and E3 and internal resistances r1, r2 and r3 connected in parallel across
some external resistance R. Suppose currents given by three cells are i1, i2 and i3. Hence according to
Kirchhoff's first law, total current I in external resistance R, is given by
I = i1 + i2 + i3 ...(1) E1 r1
i1
Applying Kirchhoff's 2nd law to closed mesh ABEF we get F E
 (E1 – IR )  i2 E2 r2
IR + i1r1 = E1 or i1 =  r1
 ...(2) G D
 
Similarly, for closed meshes ABDG and ABCH, we get i3 E3 r3
H C
E 2 – IR
i2  ....(3) I
r2 R
A B
E – IR
and i3  2 ....(4)
r3

Substituting eq. (2), (3) and (4) in eq. (1), we have
E1 – IR E 2 – IR E 3 – IR E1 E 2 E 3 1 1 1
I      – IR   
r1 r2 r3 r1 r2 r3  r1 r2 r3 
  1 1 1  E E E (E1 / r1 )  (E 2 / r2 )  (E 2 / r3 )
or I 1  R     1  2  3 or I 
 r r
 1 2 r3 
 r1 r2 r3 1  R(1/ r1  1/ r2  1/ r3 )
Ei Ei
ri i
r i 1
If n cells are joined in parallel, then I  and Eeq.  , req. 
1 1 1
1 R r r
i i
r i i
(C) Cells in Mixed Grouping
(1) (1) (2) (n)

.......
(2)
.......
.....
.....
.......
(m)
In this combination, a certain number of cells are joined in series in various rows, and all such rows are
then connected in parallel with each other.
Suppose n cells, each of e.m.f E and internal resistance r, are connected in series in every row and m
such rows are connected in parallel across some external resistance R, as shown in figure.
Total number of cells in the combination = mn. As e.m.f. of each row = nE and all the rows are connected
in parallel, hence net e.m.f of battery = nE.
Internal resistance of each row = nr. As m such rows are connected in parallel, hence total internal
 nr 
resistance of battery =  
m
 nr  
Hence total resistance of the circuit =  m   R
  
If the current in external resistance is I, then
net e.m.f nE mnE

I  
Total resistance (nr / m)  R nr  mR
mnE
 2
 nr – mr   2 nmrR
It is clear from above equation that I will be maximum when
[(nr – mR)2 + 2  nmrR] is minimum.
This will be possible when the quantity [nr – mR]2 is minimum. Because this quantity is in square, it can
not be negative, hence its minimum value will be equal to zero, i.e.,
nr
mR = nr or R=
m
i.e., In mixed grouping of cells, current in external resistance will be maximum when total inter-
nal resistance of battery is equal to external resistance.
Because power consumed in the external resistance or load = I2R, hence when current in load is
maximum, consumed power in it is also maximum, Hence consumed power in the load will
nr
also be maximum when R = .
m
mnE mnE nE mE
Imax  or  or
2mR 2nr 2R 2r
Ex.30 Find the current in the loop.

1 40v, 2 
4 2
15v, 1 10v
1
3 10 35 v, 5 
20v,1
Sol. The given circuit can be simplified as
35 35
i 
10  5 15
7 7
= A  I A
3 3
Ex.31 Find the emf and internal resistance of a single battery which is equivalent to a combination of
three batteries as shown in figure.
10V 2
6V 1
4V 2
10V 2
6V 1
B
Sol.
A
C 4V 2
Battery (B) and (C) are in parallel combination with opposite polarity. So, their equivalent
10 –4

BC  2 2  5 – 2  3V
1 1 1

2 2
rBC = 1 
6V 1 3V 1
Now, ABC  6 – 3  3 V
rABC = 2 Ans.

10. ELECTRICAL POWER

The energy liberated per second in a device is called its power, the electrical power P delivered by an
electrical device is given by
dq
P= V = VI
dt
Power consumed by a resistor.

V2
P = VI = I2R = watt
R
The power P is in watts when I is in amperes, R is in ohms and V is in volts.
The practical unit of power is 1 kW = 1000 W.

V2
The formula for power P = I2R = VI = is true only when all the electrical power is dissipated as heat
R
and not converted into mechanical work, etc. simultaneously.
If the current enters the higher potential point of the device then electric power is consumed by it (i.e.
acts as load). If the current enters the lower potential point then the device supplies power (i.e. acts
as source.)
(A). JOULE'S LAW OF ELECTRICAL HEATING
When an electric current flows through a conductor electrical energy is used in overcoming the
resistance of the wire. If the potential difference across a conductor of resistance R is V volt and if a
current of I ampere flows the energy expanded in time t seconds is given by
W = VIt joule
V2
= I2Rt joule = t
R
The electrical energy so expanded is converted into heat energy and this conversion is called the
heating effect of electric current.
The heat generated in joules when a current of I amperes flows through a resistance of R ohm for t
seconds is given by
I2Rt
H = I2Rt joule = cal.
4.2
This relation is known as Joule's law of electrical heating.
Ex.32 If bulb rating is 100 watt and 220 V then determine
(a) Resistance of filament
(b) Current through filament
(c) If bulb operate at 110 volt power supply then find power consume by bulb.
Sol. Bulb rating in 100 W and 220 V bulb means when 220 V potential difference is applied between the two
ends then the power consume is 100 W
Here V = 220

P = 100
V2
 100
R
So R = 484 
Since Resistance depends only on material hence it is constant for bulb

V 220 5
I   Amp.
R 22  22 11
power consumed at 110 V
110  110
 power consumed =  25 W
484
Ex.33 In the following figure, grade the bulb in order of their brightness :
50W, 220V
100W, 220V
20W, 220V
B1 B2 B3
220V
2
Vrated
Sol. Prated 
R
2
Vrated
R
Prated
 R 3  R 2  R1
Power = i2R
As current passing through every bulb is same
 Brightness order is B3 > B2 > B1
B1 B2
B3
Ex.34
V
The above configuration shows three identical bulbs, Grade them in order of their brightness.

Sol. B1 & B2 withdraw less current as compared to B3 because in series they give 2R resistance where as R
is the resistance dut to B3.
Power = i2 R
 Brightness order : B3 > B2 = B1.
B6
B5 B4 B3
B1 B2
Ex.35
V
Grade the bulbs in order of their brightness (All bubls are identical)
B6
1
Sol. As i
R
3 1 B5 B3
i1 : i 2  : =6:5 i4 B4
5R 2R
6i 5i i1 i3
 i1  , i2  B1 B2
11 11
1 1 i2
i3 : i 4  : i
2R R = 1 : 2
As i3 + i4 = i1
V
2i 4i
 i3 ; i4 
11 11
power = i2R
 Order of Brightness : B5 > B1 = B2 > B6 > B4 = B3
(B) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Let E be emf and r internal resistance of the battery. It is supplying current to an external resistance
R
E
current in circuit I =
(R  r )
The power absorbed by load resistor R is

2
 E 
P=IR =  2  R
R r 
For maximum power transfer we take the derivative
of P w.r.t R, set it equal to zero and solve the equation
for R.
dP
0
dR

R
dP (R  r )2 – R[2(R  r )]
 E2 0
dR (R  r )2
Solving for R, we have
(R + r)2 – R (2) (R + r) = 0 E
(R + r) – 2R = 0 r battery
R=r
For a given real battery the load resistance maximizes the power if it is equal to the internal resistance
of the battery.
P
 E 
2 R
P(R)    R
Rr 
r R R
E
O r
The maximum power transfer theorem in general, holds for any real voltage source. The resitance R
may be a single resistor or R may be the equivalent resistance of a collection of resistors.
11. INTRUMENTS
(A) AMMETER
It is a device used to measure current and its always connected in series with the 'element' through
which current is to be meaured, e.g., in figure (A) ammeter A1 will measure the current (I1) through
resistance R1, A2 measures current (I2) through R2 and R3 while A, measures current I( I1 + I2).
Regarding an ammeter it is worth noting that :
(1) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual current in the circuit, e.g., true current in
V
the resistance R in the circuit shown in figure (B) is I =
R
However, when an ammeter of resistance r is used to measure current as shown in figure (C), the
reading will be
V  V
I'   I  
(R  r )  R 
I
– A +
I V V
R1 I1
+A –
1 –
I I I' I' A r
+
I2
R2 I2 R3 R R
A2
+ –
(B) (C)
(A)
(2) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate will be its reading. An ammeter is said to be
ideal if its resistance (r) is zero. However, as practically r  0, ideal ammeter cannot be realised
in practice.

(3) To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter of a certain range say I, a small resistance S (called
shunt) is connected in parallel with the galvanometer so that the current passing through the
galvanometer of resistance G becomes equal to its full scale deflection value Ig. This is possible
only if
IgG = (I – Ig)S (i – iG ) S
Ig i ig
i.e., S = (I – I ) G G
g
external
resistance
Ammeter
Ex.36 What is the value of shunt which passes 10% of the main current through a galvanometer of
99 ohm ?
Rg
Sol. As in figure RgIg = (I – Ig)S I Ig
G
I  I 
 99   I – S
10  10 
(I–Ig) S
 S = 11 
For calculation it is simply a resistance
A
Resistance of ammeter
R G .S
RA 
RG  S
for S << RG  RA = S
Ex.37 Find the current in the circuit also determine percentage error in measuring in current through
an ammeter (a) and (b).
2 2
A 0.5 
10V 10V
(a) (b)
10
Sol. In A I   5A
2
10
In B I   4A
2 .5
i – i'
Percentage error is =  100 = 20% Ans.
i
Here we see that due to ammeter the current has reduced. A good ammeter has very low resistance as
compared with other resistors, so that due to its presence in the circuit the current is not affected.

Ex.38 Find the reading of ammeter. Is this the current through 6  ?

3
A
6
18V 1
36
Sol. R eq   1  3
36
Current through battery
18
I  6A
3
So, current through ammeter
6
 6  4A
9
No, it is not the current through the 6 resistor.
Ideal ammeter is equivalent to zero resistance wire for calculation potential difference across
it is zero.
(B) VOLTMETER
It is a device used to measure potential difference and is
I
I
R1 R2 I' +
V v r
R R
–
V1 V2
+ – + – I
V
+ –
(B)
(A)
always put in parallel with the 'circuit element' across which potential difference is to be measured e.g.,
in Figure (A) voltmeter V1 will measure potential difference across resistance R1, V2 across resistance
R2 and V across (R1 + R2) with V = V1 + V2
Regarding a voltmeter it is worth noting that :
(1)The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value, e.g., if a current I is passing through a
resistance R [Fig. (B)], the true value V = IR. However, when a voltmeter having resistance r is
connected across R, the current through R will become
r V
I'  I and so V'  I' R 
(R  r ) [1  (R / r )]
and as voltmeter is connected across R its reading V' is lesser than V.
(2) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will be its reading. A voltmeter is said to be
ideal if its resistance r is infinite, i.e., it draws no current from the circuit element for its operation.
Ideal voltmeter has been realised in practice in the form of potentiometer.
(3) To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter of certain range say V, a high resistance R is connected
in series with the galvanometer so that current passing through the galvanometer of resistance G
becomes equal to its full scale deflection value Ig. This is possible only if

v
Ig
G
R
V
V = Ig (G + R) i.e., R –G
Ig
Ex.39 A voltmeter has a resistance of G ohm and range of V volt. Calculate the resistance to be used
in series with it to extend its range to nV volt.
V
Sol. Full scale current ig =
G
to change its range
V1 = (G +Rs) ig
V
 nV = (G + Rs)
G
Rs = G(n – 1) Ans.
Ex.40 Find potential difference across the resistance 300  in A and B.
200  200 
100 V 300  100 V 300  v 600 
(A) (B)
100
Sol. In (A) : Potential difference =  300 = 60 volt
200  300
100  300  600 

In (B) Potential difference =   50 volt
300  600  300  600 
200 
300  600
We see that by connected voltmeter the voltage which was to be measured has charged. Such voltmeters
are not good. If its resistance had been very large than 300  then it would have not affected the
voltage by much amount.
(C) METRE-BRIDGE
Metre-bridge is a sensitive device based on the principle of wheatstone-bridge, for the determination of
the resistance of a conductor (wire). Its sensitivity is much more than that of the post-office box.

Metre-bridge is shown in figure AC is one metre long wire of manganin or constantan which is fixed along
a scale on a wooden base. The area of cross-section of the wire is same at all places. The ends A and
C of the wire are joined to two L-shaped copper strips carrying binding-screws as shown. In between
these strips, leaving a gap on either side, there is a third copper strip having three binding screws. The
middle screw D is connected to a sliding jockey B through a shunted - galvanometer G. The knob of the
jockey can be made to touch at any point on the wire.
To measure the unknown resistance, the connection as shown in figure are made.
A resistance R is taken out from the resistance box and the key K is closed. Now the jockey is slided
along the wire and a point is determined such that, on pressing the jockey on the wire at that point
there is no deflection in the galvanometer G. In this position the points B and D are at the same
potential. The point B is called 'null-point'. The lengths of both the parts AB and BC of the wire are read
on the scale. Suppose the resistance of the length AB of the wire is P and that of the length BC is Q.
Then, by the principle of Wheastone-bridge. We have,
P R

Q S
Let the length AB be l cm. Then the length BC will be = (100 – l) cm.
l
 resistance of AB, i.e. P = , and resistance of BC, Q =  (100 – l)/A
A
where  is the specific resistance of the material of the wire and 'A' is the area of cross-section of the
wire. Thus
P l
 ...(i)
Q (100 – l )
P
Substituting this value of in eq. (i), we get
Q
l R R(100 – l)
 or S
(100 – l ) S l
R is the resistance taken in the resistance box and l is the length measured. Hence, the value of
resistance S can be determined from the above formula.
A number of observations are taken for different resistances in the resistance box and for each
observation the value of S is calculated.
Finally, the experiment is repeated by interchanging the unknown resistances S and the resistance
box. The mean of the values of S is then obtained.
Ex.41 In a meter bridge experiment, the value of unknown resistance is 2. To get the balancing
point at 40 cm distance from the same end, then what will be the resistance in the resistance
box ?
Sol. Apply condition for balance wheat stone bridge,
P  P 100 – 40
  
Q 100 –  2 40
P=3 Ans.
(D) POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer is used to compare e.m.fs. of two cells or to measure internal resistance of a cell.
Principle : The potentiometer is based upon the principle that when a constant current is passed
through a wire of uniform area of cross-section, the potential drop across any portion of the wire is
directly proportional to the length of that portion.
Construction : A potentiometer consists of a number of segments of wire of uniform area of cross

section stretched on a wooden board between two thick copper strips. Each segment of wire is 100 cm
long. The wire is usually of constantan or manganin. A metre rod is fixed parallel to its length. A battery

connected across the two end terminals sends current through the wire, which is kept constant by
using a rheostat.
Theory : Let V be potential difference across certain portion of wire, whose resistance is R. If I is the
current through the wire, then V = IR
l
We know that R =  ,
A
where l, A and  are length, area of cross-section and resistivity of the material of wire respectively.
l
 V  I
A
If a constant current is passed through the wire of uniform area of cross-section, then I and A are
constants. Since, for a given wire,  is also constant, we have
V = constant × l
or Vl
Hence, if a constant current flows through a wire of uniform area of cross-section, then potential drop
along the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire.
Applications of a potentiometer. A potentiometer can be put to following uses :
1. To compare e.m.fs. of two cells : Two cells, whose e.m.fs. are E1 and E2, can be compared by making
use of the ciruit as shown in figure. The positive poles of both the cells are connected to the terminal
A of the potentiometer. The negative poles of the two cells are connected to terminals 1 and 2 of a
two way key. while its common terminal is connected to a jockey j through a galvanometer G. An
auxiliary or driver battery of e.m.f E, an ammeter A, rheostat Rh and a one way key K are connected
between the end terminals A and B of the potentiometer. Thus, the positive poles of the two cells as
well as the positive pole of auxiliary battery are connected at the common point A. It may be pointed
that the e.m.f of auxiliary battery should always be greater than the e.m.f of either of the two cells.
K
– + + E' –
A
Rh
B
200 300
200
100
A
E1 1
+ –
G
+ –
3
E2
2
To compare the e.m.fs of the two cells, a constant current is passed through the potentiometer wire
between points A and B. The current is kept constant by using the rheostat.
When the plug is put in the gap between the terminals 1 and 3 of the two way key, the cell of e.m.f. E1
will come in the ciruit. Suppose the balancing length (between points A and J) is l1. If x is the
resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire and I, the constant current flowing through it,
then

E1 = (xl1) I
When the key is put in the gap between the terminals 2 and 3 and removed from the gap between 1
and 3, the cell of e.m.f E2 wil be included in the circuit. Let the balancing length be l2 in this case.
Then,
E2 = (x l2) I
Dividing above equation
E1 l1

E 2 l2
Note : It may be pointed out that the e.m.f of auxiliary battery should always be greater than the
e.m.f. of the either of the two cells.
2. To measure internal resistance of a cell. The internal resistance of a cell may be found by using a
potentiometer by setting up the circuit as shown in figure.
A constant current I is maintained through the potentiometer wire with the help of the rheostat.
Plug in the key K2 is kept out and the jockey is moved over the potentiometer wire so as to balance the
e.m.f. E of the cell, whose internal resistance is to be found. Let l1 be the balancing length of the
potentiometer wire between point A and jockey J. If x is resistance per unit length of the wire, then
E = (x l1) I
Rh
– + + E' –
A K1
B
J
E
G R
+ –
S
K2
With the help of resistance box S, introduce resistance say S and then put the plug in key K2. Now find
the balance point for the terminal potential difference V between the two poles of the cell. If l2 is the
balancing length, then
V = (x l2) I
Dividing above equation , we have
E1 l1

E 2 l2
The internal resistance* of the cell is given by
E 
r   – 1 S
V 
Using above equation , we have
l  l1 – l2
r   1 – 1 S or r S
l
 2  l2
Knowing the values of l1, l2 and S, the internal resistance r of the cell can be found.
Note : Apart from uses, a potentiometer can be used to compare unknown resistances and to calibrate
a voltmeter or an ammeter.
We use potentiometer for two tasks :
(i) to find emf of a cell
(ii) to find internal resistance of a celll
We will first analyse the first task  to find emf of a cell through some examples

50V
Ex.42
10m
A
x
G
r
20V
Find the value of x if A is the null point ?
50
O
50V
Sol.
10m
50 O
30 G
20V
50
Potential gradient = = 5 V/m
10
 For 20V potential difference
20
  4m  x  10  4  6m
5
25 
200V
75 
10m
P
Ex.43 x
200V
25 
2 G 150 O
–50
120V
Find the value of x if P is a null point.
75 
Sol. Current in the main circuit 10m
P
200 – 25 i – 75 i = 0 150 O
x
i=2A
G
150 V
Potential gradient = 10 m  15 V / m
120V 30

120 V / m
For 120 V   8m
15 V
 x = 10 – 8 = 2m E1
O E1
Now we will analyse the other task
to find internal resistance of the cell
using potentiometer.
The main key point is that first analyse the

main circuit then the auxillary circuit x P
O E1
(supplementary circuit)
E G null deflection
E1
Potential gradient = r
 ER
Now for the auxillary circuit E Rr
E
i
Rr R
Er ER ER E1
E  ir  E     x
Rr Rr Rr 
Let we take some examples to understand the topic in better way.
90V 10
10cm 20
P
x
Ex.44
G
2
20V 2
Find x if P is a null point?

Sol. First analysing the main circuit, 90V 10
90 – 10i1 – 20 i1 = 0 0 60
i1 = 3 A. 90
60 V 10cm
Potential gradient = = 6V/m. 20
10m
0
Now analysing the auxillary circuit 60
G
20 – 2i2 – 2i2 = 0
i2 = 5 A. 20 2 10
0
10 5 20V 2
For 10 Ve  = m
6 3
5 25
 x = 10 – = m
3 3

100V
5
10m 20
0 P 80V
x
G
Ex.45 2V 2
8V 2
Find x if P is a null point ?

Sol. 100 – 5i1 – 20 i1 = 0 100V
i1 = 4 A 0 80
100 5
80
Potential gradient = = 8V/m
10 10m
8 – 2i2 – 2i2 – 2 = 0
0 P 80
3 G
i2 = A
2 20
2V 2 2
5v 5 0 5
for 5 volts  = m
8v / m 8
8
0
5 8V 2 5
 x= m
8


1. A wire of cross-section area A, length L1, resistiv- 6. Two wires each of radius of cross section r but of
ity 1 and temperature coefficient of resistivity 1 is different materials are connected together end to end
connected to a second wire of length L2, resistivity (in series). If the densities of charge carriers in the
2, temperature coefficient of resistivity 2 and the
two wires are in the ratio 1 : 4, the drift velocity of
same area A, so that wire carries same current. Total
electrons in the two wires will be in the ratio.
resistance R is independent of temperature for small
temperature change if (Thermal expansion effect is (A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1
negligible) (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
(A) 1 = –2 (B) 1L11 + 2L22 = 0 7. In a wire of cross-section radius r, free electrons
(C) L11 + L22 = 0 (D) None travel with drift velocity v when a current  flows
2. In order to increase the resistance of a given wire through the wire. What is the current in another wire
of uniform cross section to four times its value, a of half the radius and of the same material when the
fraction of its length is stretched uniformly till the full drift velocity is 2v ?
3 (A) 2I (B) I
length of the wire becomes times the original length
2 (C) I/2 (D) I/4
what is the value of this fraction ?
8. Read the following statements carefully :
1 1
(A) (B) Y : The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with
4 8
increases of temperature.
1 1
(C) (D) Z : In a conducting solid, the rate of collision between
16 6
free electrons and ions increases with increase of tem-
3. A conductor with rectangular cross section has perature.
dimensions (a × 2a × 4a) as shown in figure. Resis-
Select the correct statement from the following
tance across AB is x, across CD is y and across EF is
(A) Y is true but Z is false
z. Then
(B) Y is false but Z is true
C F (C) Both Y and Z are true
(D) Y is true and Z is the correct reason for Y
2a 9. A piece of copper and another of germanium are

B
A 4a a cooled from room temperature to 80K. The resistance
of
(A) each of them increases
E D (B) each of them decreases
(A) x = y = z (B) x > y > z (C) copper increases and germanium decreases
(C) y > z > x (D) x > z > y (D) copper decreases and germanium increases
4. A brass disc and a carbon disc of same radius are 10. An insulating pipe of cross-section area ‘A’ contains
assembled alternatively to make a cylindrical conduc- an electrolyte which has two types of ions  their charges
tor. The resistance of the cylinder is independent of being –e and +2e. A potential difference applied be-
the temperature. The ratio of thickness of the brass tween the ends of the pipe result in the drifting of the
disc to that of the carbon disc is [ is temperature two types of ions, having drift speed = v (–ve ion) and
coefficient of resistance & Neglect linear expansion] v/4 (+ ve ion). Both ions have the same number per unit
 C C  C B volume = n. The current flowing through the pipe is
(A)   (B)   (A) nev A/2 (B) nev A/4
B B B C
(C) 5nev A/2 (D) 3nev A/2
 B C  B B 11. Current density in a cylindrical wire of radius R is
(C)   (D)  
C B C C
 x  R
5. A current of (2.5 ± 0.05) A flows through a wire J0   1 for 0  x 
 R 2
and develops a potential difference of (10 ± 0.1) volt. given as J   . The current
Resistance of the wire in ohm, is J x R
for  x  R
(A) 4 ± 0.12 (B) 4 ± 0.04  0 R 2
(C) 4 ± 0.08 (D) 4 ± 0.02
flowing in the wire is

7 1 17. A rectangular carbon block has dimensions 1.0

(A) J0 R2 (B) J0 R2
24 6 cm × 1.0 cm × 50 cm. Resistances are measured,
first across two square ends and then across two
7 5
(C) J0 R 2 (D) J0 R 2 rectangular ends, respectively. If resistivity of carbon
12 12 is 3.5 × 10–5 -m, then values of measured resistances
respectively are :
12. A current I flows through a uniform wire of diam-
eter d when the mean electron drift velocity is V. the
same current will flow through a wire of diameter d/2
made of the same material if the mean drift velocity
of the electron is
(A) v/4 (B) v/2 50 cm
(C) 2v (D) 4v 1cm
1cm
13. The current in a metallic conductor is plotted 35 2 5
(A)  10 , 7  10 
against voltage at two different temperatures T1 and 2
T2. Which is correct
5 15
T1 (B) 7  10  ,  10 2 
Current
2
T2 35
(C)  10  4 , 7  10 7 
2
15
Voltage (D) , 7  10 2 
2
(A) T1 > T2 (B) T1 < T2
(C) T1 = T2 (D) none
18. A storage battery is connected to a charger for
charging with a voltage of 12.5 Volts. The internal
14. A uniform copper wire carries a current i amperes
resistance of the storage battery is 1 . When the
and has p carriers per metre3. The length of the wire charging current is 0.5 A, the emf of the storage bat-
is  metres and its cross-section area is s metre2. If tery is :
the charge on a carrier is q coulombs, the drift veloc- (A) 13 Volts (B) 12.5 Volts
ity in ms–1 is given by (C) 12 Volts (D) 11.5 Volts
(A) i/  sq (B) i/psq
(C) psq/i (D) i/ps  q 19. The terminal voltage across a battery of emf E
can be
 (A) 0 (B) > E
15. In the presence of an applied electric field (E ) in (C) < E (D) all of above
a metallic conductor.

(A) The electrons move in the direction of E 20. In order to determine the e.m.f of a storage bat-
 tery it was connected in series with a standard cell in
(B) The electrons move in a direction opposite to E
(C) The electrons may move in any direction ran- a certain circuit and a current I1 was obtained. When
 the battery is connected to the same circuit opposite
domly, but slowly drift in the direction of E
to the standard cell a current I2 flow in the external
(D) The electrons move randomly but slowly drift in a
 circuit from the positive pole of the storage battery
direction opposite to E was obtained. What is the e.m.f 1 of the storage
battery? The e.m.f of the standard cell is 2.
16. A wire has a non-uniform cross-section as shown
in figure. A steady current flows through it. The drift I1  I2 I1  I2
(A)  1  I – I  2 (B)  1  I – I  2
speed of electrons at points P and q is vp and vQ. 1 2 2 1
I1 – I2 I2 – I1
(C)  1  I  I  2 (D)  1  I  I  2
1 2 1 2
P Q
21. One end of a Nichrome wire of length 2L and
(A) vp = vQ (B) vp < vQ cross-sectional area A is attatched to an end of an-
(C) vp > vQ (D) Data insufficient other Nichrome wire of length L and cross-sectional
area 2A. If the free end of the longer wire is at an
electric potential of 8.0 volts, and the free end of the shown. What is the internal resistance of the cell ?
shorter wire is at an electric potential of 1.0 volt, the
potential at the junction of the two wires is equal to V(V)
C
(A) 2.4 V (B) 3.2 V
(C) 4.5 V (D) 5.6 V
22. In the figure shown, battery 1 has emf = 6V and V
internal resistance = 1. Battery 2 has emf = 2V and
internal resistance = 3. The wires have negligible
A
resistance. What is the potential difference across
the terminals of battery 2? I(A)
1
(A) x (B) y
1
(C) x/y (D) y/x
26. A cell of emf E has an internal resistance r & is
3 connected to rheostat. When resistance R of rheo-
stat is changed correct graph of potential difference
2 across it is
(A) 4V (B) 1.5V
(C) 5 V (D) 0.5V
V V
r (A) (B)
23.
 i R R
(a)
r V V
r

i  (No current) (C) (D)
(b) (b) R R
r 27. A circuit is comprised of eight identical batteries
 and a resistor R = 0.8. Each battery has an emf of
(b) 1.0 V and internal resistance of 0.2. The voltage
difference across any of the battery is
In which of the above cells, the potential difference
between the terminals of a cell exceeds its emf.
(A) a (B) b
(C) c (D) d
24. Under what condition current passing through the

resistance R can be increased by short circuiting the
battery of emf E2. The internal resistances of the two (A) 0.5 V (B) 1.0 V
batteries are r1 and r2 respectively. (C) 0 V (D) 2 V
E1 r1 E2 r2
28. In the circuit shown, what is the potential differ-
ence VPQ ?
Q
R
2V 4V
(A) E2r1 > E1(R + r2) (B) E1r2 > E2(R + r1)
1V
(C) E2r2 > E1(R + r2) (D) E1r1 > E2 (R + r1)
P
25. The diagram besides shows a circuit used in an (A) + 3V (B) + 2V
experiment to determine the emf and internal resis- (C) – 2V (D) none
tance of the cell C. A graph was plotted of the poten-
tial difference V between the terminals of the cell 29. In the circuit shown in figure reading of voltmeter
against the current I, which was varied by adjusting is V1 when only S1 is closed, reading of voltmeter is V2
the rheostat. The graph is shown on the right; x and when only S2 is closed. The reading of voltmeter is V3
y are the intercepts of the graph with the axes as when both S1 and S2 are closed then

3R
R a b
6R S1
3V,1 15V,2
S2
V
R
E
(A) V2 > V1 > V3 (B) V3 > V2 > V1 (A) 5 (B) 7
(C) V3 > V1 > V2 (D) V1 > V2 > V3 (C) 3 (D) 1
30. A 5 V battery with internal resistance 2  and a 34. The battery in the diagram is to be charged by
2V battery with internal resistance 1  are connected the generator G. The generator has a terminal volt-
to a 10  resistor as shown in the figure. age of 120 volts when the charging current is 10 am-
peres. The battery has an emf of 100 volts and an
P2
internal resistance of 1 ohm. In order to charge the
battery at 10 amperes charging current, the resis-
tance R should be set at
2V R
5V 10 
+
2 G
1
–
– +
100 V, 1
P1 (A) 0.1 (B) 0.5 
The current in the 10  resistor is : (C) 1.0  (D) 5.0 
(A) 0.03 A P1 to P2 (B) 0.03 A P2 to P1
(C) 0.27 A P1 to P2 (D) 0.27 A P2 to P1 35. ABCD is a square where each side is a uniform
wire of resistance 1. A point E lies on CD such that if
31. The Kirchhoff's first law (  i  0) and second law a uniform wire of resistance 1 is connected across
AE and constant potential difference is applied across
(  i R  0   E) , where the symbols have their usual A and C then B and E are equipotential.
meanings, are respectively based on
(A) conservation of charge, conservation of energy 1
A B
(B) conservation of charge, conservation of momen-
tum 1
(C) conservation of energy, conservation of charge 1 1
(D) conservation of momentum, conservation of charge
E
D C
32. In the network shown the potential difference 1
between A and B is (R = r1 = r2 = r3 = 1 , E1 = 3 V, E2 =
2 V, E3 = 1 V) CE CE
(A) 1 (B) 2
r1 E1 ED ED
E2 CE 1 CE
R r2 (C) ED  (D)  2
A 2 ED
B
36. In the given circuit the current flowing through
r3 E3 the resistance 20 ohms is 0.3 ampere while the
(A) 1 V (B) 2 V ammeter reads 0.8 ampere. What is the value of R1 ?
(C) 3 V (D) 4 V R1
20
33. Two batteries one of the emf 3V, internal resis- A
tance 1 ohm and the other of emf 15 V, internal resis-
15
tance 2 ohm are connected in series with a resis-
tance R as shown. If the potential difference between (A) 30 ohms (B) 40 ohms
a and b is zero the resistance of R in ohm is (C) 50 ohms (D) 60 ohms

37. Find the current flowing through the resistance R1

39. The equivalent resistance between points A and
of the circuit shown in figure if the resistance are
B is :
equal to R1 = 10 , R2 =20 , and R3 = 30 , and the
potential of points 1, 2 and 3 are equal to 1  10 V, A
2 15
 2  6 V and 3  5 V . B
2
R2
8 10
1 R1 O
R2
20 10
3
(A) 0.1 A (B) 0.2 A 30 40

(C) 0.3 A (D) 0.4 A
65 45
(A)  (B) 
38. Two current elements P and Q have current volt- 2 2
age characteristics as shown below : 5 91
(C)  (D) 
2 2
P
40. The resistance of the series combination of two
1 resistances is S. Whey they are joined in a parallel,
the total resistance is P. If S = nP, then the minimum
10 P.D. (Volt) possible value of n is :
(A) 4 (B) 3
(C) 2 (D) 1
Q
41.Consider an infinte ladder network shown in figure.
1 A voltage V is applied between the points A and B.
This applied value of voltage is halved after each sec-
tion.
10 P.D. (Volt)
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
Which of the graphs given below represents current A
voltage characteristics when P and Q are in series. R2 R2 R2 R2 R2
2 2
R
1 1 (A) R1/R2 = 1 (B) R1/R2 = 1/2
(A) (B) (C) R1/R2 = 2 (D) R1/R2 = 3
10 20 10 20
P.D.(Volt) P.D.(Volt)
42. The total current supplied to the circuit by the
battery is :
2 2
1 1
2
(C) (D) 6
10 20 10 20
P.D.(Volt) P.D.(Volt) 6V 3
1.5
2
1
(E)
(A) 1 A (B) 2 A (C) 4 A (D) 6 A
10 20
P.D.(Volt)

43. In the figure shown the current flowing through 2 be increased by 51 to secure balance. The unknown
R is : resistance in the fourth arm is
P Q
A R 2R R B
S 625
(A) from left to right (B) from right to left

(C) no current (D) None of these (A) 625  (B) 650 
(C) 676  (D) 600 
44. In the diagram resistance between any two junc-
tions is R. Equivalent resistance across terminals A 48. The current I drawn from the 5 volt source will be
and B is :
10 
5 10  20 
A B 10 
11R 18R I
(A) (B)
7 11
7R 11R + –
(C) (D)
11 18
5 volt
(A) 0.67 A (B) 0.17 A
45. In a balanced wheat stone bridge, current in the (C) 0.33 A (D) 0.5 A
galvanometer is zero. It remains zero when
(1) battery emf is increased 49.In a Wheat stone's bridge, three resistances P, Q
(2) all resistances are increased by 10 ohms and R are connected in the three arms and the fourth
(3) all resistances are made five times arm is foremd by two resistances S1 and S2 connected
(4) the battery and the galvanometer are interchanged in parallel. The condition for the bridge to be balanced
(A) only (1) is correct will be
(B) (1), (2) and (3) are correct
(C) (1), (3) and (4) are correct P R(S1  S 2 ) P R
(D) (1) and (3) are correct (A) Q  2S S (B) Q  S  S
1 2 1 2
46. A 3 volt battery with negligibel internal resistance P 2R P R ( S1  S 2 )

is connected in a circuit as shown in the figure. Cur- (C) Q  S  S (D) Q  S1S 2
1 2
rent i will be :
i 50.If the reading of ammeter A3 in figure is 0.75 A.
Neglecting the resistance of the ammeters, the read-
ing of ammeter A2 will be :
3 15
3V 3 A2
20
A1
3
(A) 1/3 A (B) 1 A
A3
(C) 1.5 A (D) 2 A
60
47. A Wheatstone’s bridge is balanced with a resis-
(A) 1.5 A (B) 3 A
tance of 625  in the third arm, where P, Q and S are
(C) 4.5 A (D) 6 A
in the 1st, 2nd and 4th arm respectively. If P and Q are
interchanged, the resistance in the third arm has to

51.The resistance of all the wires between any two 57. A wire when connected to 220 V mains supply has
adjacent dots is R. Then equivalent resistance be- power dissipation P1. Now the wire is cut into two
tween A and B as shown in figure is : equal pieces which are connected in parallel to the
A same supply. Power dissipation in this case is P2. Then
P2 : P1 is :
(A) 1 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 3
B 58. Two bulbs rated (25 W – 220 V) and (100 W – 220

(A) 7/3 R (B) 7/6 R V) are connected in series to a 440 V line. Which one
(C) 14/8 R (D) None of these is likely to fuse ?
(A) 25 W bulb (B) 100 W bulb
52. In the box shown current i enters at H and leaves (C) both bulbs (D) none
at C.
i 2i i i i 59. Rate of dissipation of Joule’s heat in resistance
If i AB  , iDC  , iHA  , iGF  , iHE  , choose the
6 3 2 6 6 per unit volume is (symbols have usual meaning)
branch in which current is zero (A) E (B) J (C) JE (D) None
B C
60. The charge flowing through a resistance R varies
A
D with time as Q = 2t – 8t2. The total heat produced in
G 1
F the resistance is (for 0  t  )
H 8
i E R R
(A) joules (B) joules
(A) BG (B) FC (C) ED (D) none 6 3
R
53 A resistor of resistance R is connected to a cell of (C) joules (D) R joules
internal resistane 5 . The value of R is varied from 1 2
 to 5 . The power consumed by R :
61. If the length of the filament of a heater is re-
(A) increases continuously
duced by 10%, the power of the heater will
(B) decreases continuously
(A) increase by about 9%
(C) first decreases then increases
(B) increase by about 11%
(D) first increases then decreases.
(C) increase by about 19%
54. Power generated across a uniform wire connected (D) decrease by about 10%
across a supply is H. If the wire is cut into n equal
parts and all the parts are connected in parallel across 62. A heater A gives out 300 W of heat when con-
the same supply, the total power generated in the nected to a 200 V d.c. supply. A second heater B
wire is gives out 600 W when connected to a 200 v d.c.
H supply. If a series combination of the two heaters is
(A) 2 (B) n2H connected to a 200 V d.c. supply the heat output will
n
H be
(C) nH (D) (A) 100 W (B) 450 W
n
(C) 300 W (D) 200 W
55.A constant voltage is applied between the two
ends of a uniform metallic wire. Some heat is devel-
oped in it. The heat developed is doubled if 63. Two bulbs one of 200 volts, 60 watts & the other
(A) both the length and the radius of the wire are halved of 200 volts, 100 watts are connected in series to a
(B) both the length and the radius of the wire are doubled 200 volt supply. The power consumed will be
(C) the radius of the wire is doubled (A) 37.5 watt (B) 160 watt
(D) the length of the wire is doubled (C) 62.5 watt (D) 110 watt
56. When electric bulbs of same power, but different 64. Three 60 W light bulbs are mistakenly wired in
marked voltage are connected in series across the series and connected to a 120 V power supply. As-
power line, their brightness will be sume the light bulbs are rated for single connection to
(A) proportional to their marked voltage 120 V. With the mistaken connection, the power dissi-
(B) inversely proportional to their marked voltage pated by each bulb is
(C) proportional to the square of their marked voltage (A) 6.7 W (B) 13.3 W
(D) inversely proportional to the square of their marked (C) 20 W (D) 40 W
voltage
(E) the same for all of them

65. The ratio of powers dissipatted respectively in R P P

and 3R, as shown is R
(A) (B)
I I
3R P P
2R
(C) (D)
(A) 9 (B) 27/4
(C) 4/9 (D) 4/27 I I
66. If in the circuit, power dissipation is 150 W then R 70. If X, Y and Z in figure are identical lamps, which
is of the following changes to the brightnesses of the
R lamps occur when switch S is closed ?
z
x s
2
Y
(A) X stays the same, Y decreases
15V (B) X increases, Y decreases
(A) 2  (B) 6 
(C) X increases, Y stays the same
(C) 5  (D) 4 
(D) X decreases, Y increases
67.In the circuit shown, the resistances are given in
ohms and the battery is assumed ideal with emf equal 71. A battery consists of a variable number n of iden-
to 3.0 volts The resistor that dissipates the most tical cells having internal resistance connected in se-
power is ries. The terminals of the battery are short circuited
50 and the current I measured.
Which one of the graph below shows the relationship
R1 R3 R4 30 between I and n ?
60
3V R2 50
I/A
I/A
(A) (B)
(A) R1 (B) R2 n n
O O
(C) R3 (D) R4
68. What amount of heat will be generated in a coil of

I/A
I/A
resistance R due to a charge q passing through it if

the current in the coil decreases to zero uniformly (C) (D)
during a time interval t
n n
4 q2R q2R O O
(A) (B) ln
3 t 2t
2q2R ( 2 t )
(C) (D) ln 2
qR
I/A
3 t
69. The variation of current (I) and voltage (V) is as (E)
shown in figure A. The variation of power P with cur- n
O
rent I is best shown by which of the following graph
V 72. In previous problem, if the cell had been con-
nected in parallel (instead of in series) which of the
above graphs would have shown the relationship be-
tween total current I and n ?
Fig A I

77.When an ammeter of negligible internal resistan ce

is inserted in series with circuit it reads 1A. When the
I/A
I/A
voltmeter of very large resistance is connected across
(A) (B) X it reads 1V. When the point A and B are shorted by
n n a conducting wire, the voltmeter measures 10 V across
O O the battery. The internal resistance of the battery is
equal to
x
I/A
I/A
(C) (D) y
n n
O O
12V
(A) zero (B) 0.5 
(C) 0.2  (D) 0.1 
I/A
(E) 78. Resistances R1 and R2 each 60 are connected in

series as shown in figure. The Potential difference
n
O between A and B is kept 120 volt. Then what will be
the reading of voltmeter connected between the point
73. n identical cells are joined in series with its two C & D if resistance of voltmeter is 120.
A B
cells A and B in the loop with reversed polarities. EMF
of each shell is E and internal resistance r. Potential
difference across cell A or B is (here n > 4)
1 R1 C R2
2E 
(A) (B) 2E 1 –  D
n n
V
(A) 48 V (B) 24 V
4E  2
(C) (D) 2E 1   (C) 40 V (D) None
n n
79. In a galvanometer, the deflection becomes one
half when the galvanometer is shunted by a 20 re-
74. A wire of length L and 3 identical cells of negligible sistor. The galvanometer resistance is
internal resistances are connected is series. Due to
the current, the temperature of the wire is raised by 20
T in time t. N number of similar cells is now con-
nected in series with a wire of the same material and
cross section but of length 2L. The temperature of i/2
the wire is raised by the same amount T in the same
time t. The value of N is : G
(A) 4 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 9 i i/2 Rg
75. In the figure shown the power generated in y is (A) 5 (B) 10
maximum when y = 5. Then R is (C) 40 (D) 20
y
80. A galvanometer has a resistance of 20 and reads
full-scale when 0.2 V is applied across it. To convert
10V R it into a 10 A ammeter, the galvanometer coil should
2 have a
(A) 0.01  resistor connected across it
(A) 2  (B) 6  (B) 0.02  resistor connected across it
(C) 5  (D) 3  (C) 200  resistor connected in series with it
(D) 2000  resistor connected in series with it
76. If an ammeter is to be used in place of a voltme-
ter then we must connect with the ammeter a
(A) Low resistance in parallel 81. A milliammeter of range 10mA and resistance 9
(B) High resistance in parallel is joined in a circuit as shown. The metre gives full-
(C) High resistance in series scale deflection for current I when A and B are used
(D) Low resistance in series as its terminals, i.e., current enters at A and leaves
at B (C is left isolated). The value of I is

9 , 10 mA
R
V
(C)
A
A 0.1 0.9 
B C R
(A) 100 mA (B) 900 mA V
(C) 1 A (D) 1.1 A
A
82. A galvanometer coil has a resistance 90 and full (D)
scale deflection current 10 mA. A 910  resistance is
connected in series with the galvanometer to make a
voltmeter. If the least count of the voltmeter is 0.1 V,
the number of divisions on its scale is 86. Shown in the figure below is a meter-bridge set
(A) 90 (B) 91 up with null deflection in the galvanometer. The value
(C) 100 (D) none of the unknown resistor R is
55 R
83. In the circuit shown the resistance of voltmeter
is 10,000 ohm and that of ammeter is 20 ohm. The
ammeter reading is 0.10 Amp and voltmeter reading is
12 volt. Then R is equal to
R C
A
20cm
V
(A) 122  (B) 140  (C) 116  ( D) 100 
84. By error, a student places moving-coil voltmeter
V (nearly ideal) in series with the resistance in a cir-
cuit in order to read the current, as shown. The volt- (A) 220  (B) 110 
meter reading will be (C) 55  (D) 13.75 
87. In a metre bridge experiment, null point is ob-
E=12V, r  2 tained at 20 cm from one end of the wire when resis-
tance X is balnaced against another resistance Y. If X
< Y, then where will be the new position of the null
4 point from the same end, if one decides to balance a
V
resistance of 4X against Y ?
(A) 0 (B) 4V (C) 6V (D) 12V (A) 50 cm (B) 80 cm
(C) 40 cm (D) 70 cm
85. Which of the following wiring diagrams could be 88. In the figure shown for gives values of R1 and R2
used to experimentally determine R using ohm’s law? the balance point for Jockey is at 40 cm from A. When
Assume an ideal voltmeter and an ideal ammeter. R2 is shunted by a resistance of 10 , balance shifts to
R 50 cm. R1 and R2 are (AB = 1m)
R1 R2
V A G
(A)
A B
R
A
10
(A) , 5 (B) 20, 30
(B) V 3
15
(C) 10, 15 (D) 5, 
2

89. A 6V battery of negligible internal resistance is

internal resistance is 2r. The galvanometer G will show
connected across a uniform wire of length 1m. The
no deflection when the length AJ is
positive terminal of another battery of emf 4V and D ,r
internal resistance 1 is joined to the point A as shown +
–
in figure. The ammeter shows zero deflection when
the jockey touches the wire at the point C. The AC is J
A B
equal to
6V C
+ –

, 2r G
2
C
A B 4L 5L
(A) (B)
9 9
A 7L 11L
4 V,1 (C) (D)
18 18
(A) 2/3 m (B) 1/3 m
(C) 3/5 m (D) 1/2 m 94. An ammeter A of finite resistance, and a resistor
R are joined in series to an ideal cell C. A potentiom-
90. The figure shows a metre- bridge circuit, with AB eter P is joined in parallel to R. The ammeter reading is
= 100 cm, X = 12 and R = 18, and the jockey J in I0 and the potentiometer reading is V0. P is now re-
the position of balance. If R is now made 8 , through placed by a voltmeter of finite resistance. The amme-
what distance will J have to be moved to obtain ter reading now is I and the voltmeter reading is V.
balance ? C
– +
R
X R A
A J B
P
(A) 10 cm (B) 20 cm (A) I > I0, V < V0 (B) I > I0, V = V0
(C) 30 cm (D) 40 cm (C) I = I0, V < V0 (D) I < I0, V = V0
91. A potentiometer wire has length 10 m and 95. In the given potentiometer circuit length of the
resistance 10. It is connected to a battery of EMF wire AB is 3m and resistance is R = 4.5 . The length
11 volt and internal resistance 1, then the potential AC for no deflection in galvanometer is
gradient in the wire is
(A) 10 V/m (B) 1 V/m E = 5V r  0.5 
(C) 0.1 V/m (D) none
92. The length of a potentiometer wire is l. A cell of R  4.5 
emf E is balanced at a length l/3 from the positive end A B
C
of the wire. if the length of the wire is increased by l/ G
2. At what distance will the same cell give a balance E1 = 3V r1
point.
(A) 2 m (B) 1.8 m
2l l
(A) (B) (C) dependent on r1 (D) none of these
3 2
l 4l
(C) (D)
6 3 96. A battery of emf E0 = 12 V is connected across a
4m long uniform wire having resistance 4/m. The
93. In the figure, the potentiometer wire AB of length cells of small emfs 1 = 2V and 2 = 4V having internal
L and resistance 9r is joined to the cell D of emf  and resistance 2 and 6 respectively, are connected as
internal resistance r. The cell C’s emf is /2 and its shown in the figure. If galvanometer shows no deflec-

tion at the point N, the distance of point N from the STATEMENT-2 is a correct explanation for STATEMENT-
point A is equal to 1
0 R  8  (B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
STATEMENT-2 is NOT a correct explanation for STATE-
MENT-1
N (C) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is False
A
B (D) STATEMENT-1 is False, STATEMENT-2 is True
1 r1 G 100. Statement-1 : Knowing that rating is done at
steady state of the filament, an electric bulb con-
2 r2 nected to a source having rated voltage consumes
1 1 more than rated power just after it is switched on.
(A) m (B) m
6 3 Statement-2 : When filament is at room temperature
(C) 25 cm (D) 50 cm
its resistance is less than its resistance when the
bulb is fully illuminated
97. In the arrangement shown in figure when the
switch S2 is open, the galvanometer shows no deflec-
STATEMENT-2 is a correct explanation for STATEMENT-
tion for l = L/2. When the switch S2 is closed, the 1
galvanometer shows no deflection for l = 5L/12. The (B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
internal resistance (r) of 6 V cell, and the emf E of the STATEMENT-2 is NOT a correct explanation for STATE-
other battery are respectively.
10  MENT-1
( )
S2 (C) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is False

6V r (D) STATEMENT-1 is False, STATEMENT-2 is True
G
l
A B 101. Statement-1 : When a battery is supplying
L power to a circuit, work done by electrostatic forces
( )
E S1 on electrolyte ions inside the battery is positive
Statement-2 : Electric field is directed from positive
(A) 3, 8V (B) 2, 12V
to negative electrode inside a battery
(C) 2, 24V (D) 3, 12V
98. Statement-1 : When two conducting wires of dif-
1
ferent resistivity having same cross section area are
joined in series, the electric field in them would be
equal when they carry current.
MENT-1
Statement-2 : When wires are in series they carry
equal current.
102. Statement-1 : Conductivity of a metallic con-
1
ductor decreases with increase in temperature.
Statement-2 : On increasing temperature the number
of free electrons in the metallic conductar decreases.
MENT-1
1
99. Statement-1 : Potential difference across the ter-
minals of a battery is always less than its emf.
MENT-1
Statement-2 : A battery always has some internal
resistance.

Exercise - II (MULTIPLE
(Multiple CORRECT
Correct PROBLEMS)
Problems)
1. A battery is of emf E is being charged from a charger (A) the charge crossing in a given time interval.
such that positive terminal of the battery is connected (B) drift speed
to terminal A of charger and negative terminal of the (C) current density
battery is connected to terminal B of charger. The (D) free-electron density
internal resistance of the battery is r.
6. A simple circuit contains an ideal battery and a
(A) Potential difference across points A and B must
resistance R. If a second resistor is placed in parallel
be more than E
with the first.
(B) A must be at higher potential than B
(A) the potential across R will decrease
(C) In battery, current flows from positive terminal to
(B) the current through R will decreased
the negative terminal
(C) the current delivered by the battery will increase
(D) No current flows through battery
(D) the power dissipated by R will increased.
2. A battery of emf E and internal resistance r is con-
7. In the circuit shown E, F, G and H are cells of e.m.f.
nected across a resistance R. Resistance R can be
2V, 1V, 3V and 1V respectively and their internal re-
adjusted to any value greater than or equal to zero. A
sistances are 2, 1, 3 and 1 respectively.
graph is plotted between the current (i) passing
through the resistance and potential differ ence (V) A
across it. Select the F E
correct alternative (s).
V D B
(volt)
2
10
G H
i
C
(A) VD – VB = –2/13 V
2 ampere
(B) VD – VB = 2/13 V
(C) VG = 21/13 V = potential difference across G.
(A) internal resistance of battery is 5
(D) VH = 19/13 V = potential difference across H.
(B) emf of the battery is 20V
(C) maximum current which can be taken from the 8. Consider the circuit shown in the figure
battery is 4A 5 3  A 3
(D) V-i graph can never be a straight line as shown in
figure.
28 V 10  10  4
3. Which of the following quantities do not change
when a resistor connected to a battery is heated due
to the current? 4 B 2 3
(A) drift speed (B) resistivity (A) the current in the 5  resistor is 2A
(C) resistance (D) number of free electrons. (B) the current in the 5 resistor is 1A
(C) the potential difference VA – VB is 10 V
4. A metallic conductor of irregular cross-section is as (D) the potential difference VA – VB is 5V
shown in the figure. A constant potential difference is
9. The equivalent resistance of a group of resistances
applied across the ends (1) and (2). Then :
is R. If another resistance is connected in parallel to
the group, its new equivalent becomes R1 & if it is
(1) ×P ×Q (2) connected in series to the group, its new equivalent
becomes R2 we have
(A) the current at the cross-section P equals the (A) R1 > R (B) R1 < R
current at the cross-section Q (C) R2 > R (D) R2 < R
(B) the electric field intensity at P is less than that at 10. The value of the resistance R in figure is adjusted
Q. such that power dissipated in the 2 resistor is
(C) the rate of heat generated per unit time at Q is maximum. Under this condition
greater than that at P
8
(D) the number of electrons crossing per unit area of
cross-section at P is less than that at Q.
12V
5. A current passes through a wire of nonuniform cross R 2
section. Which of the following quantities are inde-
pendent of the cross-section?

(A) R = 0
(B) R = 8 (A) If the devices are ideal, ammeter will read zero
(C) power dissipated in the 2 resistor is 72 W current and voltmeter will read the emf of cell.
(D) power dissipated in the 2 resistor is 8 W (B) If the devices are ideal, a large current will flow
through the ammeter and it will be damaged.
11. A bulb is connected to a battery of emf 10 V so (C) The main current in the circuit will be very low
that the resulting current is 10 mA. When the bulb is and practically all current will flow through the amme-
connected to 220 V mains, the current is 50 mA. ter, if resistance of ammeter is much smaller than the
Choose the correct alternative (s) resistance in parallel.
(A) In the first case, the resistance of the bulb is 1k (D) The devices may get damaged if emf of the cell is
and in second case, it is 4.4 k very high and the meters and nonideal.
(B) It is not possible since ohm’s law is not followed
(C) the increase in resistance is due to heating of the 17. In the given potentiometer circuit, the resistance
filament of the bulb when it is connected to 220 V of the potentiometer wire AB is R0. C is a cell of inter-
mains nal resistance r. The galvanometer G does not give
(D) None of these zero deflection for any position of the Jockey J. Which
of the following cannot be a reason for this?
12. A galvanometer may be converted into ammeter D R
+ –
or voltmeter. In which of the following cases the re-
sistance of the device will be the largest ? (Assume A B
maximum range of galvanometer = 1mA) r J
C
(A) an ammeter of range 10A
G
(B) a voltmeter of range 5 V
(A) r > R0 (B) R >> R0
(C) an ammeter of range 5A
(C) emf of C > emf of D
(D) a voltmeter of range 10 V.
(D) The negative terminal of C is connected A.
13. Mark out the correct options.
18. In a potentiometer arrangement. E1 is the cell
(A) An ammeter should have small resistance.
establishing current in primary circuit. E2 is the cell to
(B) An ammeter should have large resistance.
be measured. AB is the potentiometer wire and G is a
(C) A voltmeter should have small resistance.
galvanometer. Which of the following are the essen-
(D) A voltmeter should have large resistance.
tial condition for balance to be obtained.
(A) The emf of E1 must be greater than the emf of E2
14. In the circuit shown the readings of ammeter and
(B) Either the positive terminals of both E1 and E2 or
voltmeter are 4A and 20V respectively. The meters
the negative terminals of both E1 and E2 must be joined
are non ideal, then R is :
to one end of potentiometer wire.
R (C) The positive terminals of E1 and E2 must be joined
A
to one end of potentiometer wire.
V (D) The resistance of G must be less than the resis-
(A) 5 (B) less than 5 tance of AB.
(C) greater than 5 (D) between 4 & 5 19. In a potentiometer wire experiment the emf of a
15. A micrometer has a resistance of 100 and a full battery in the primary circuit is 20V and its internal
scale range of 50A. It can be used as a voltmeter or resistance is 5. There is a resistance box in series
a higher range ammeter provided a resistance is added with the battery and the potentiometer wire, whose
to it. Pick the correct range and resistance resistance can be varied from 120  to 170 . Resis-
combination(s). tance of the potentiometer wire is 75. The following
(A) 50 V range with 10 kresistance in series potential differences can be measured using this po-
(B) 10 V range with 200 k resistance in series tentiometer.
(C) 5 mA range with 1  resistance in parallel (A) 5V (B) 6V
(D) 10 mA range with 1 k resistance in parallel. (C) 7V (D) 8V
20. Two indentical fuses are rated at 10A. If they are
16. By mistake, a voltmeter is placed in series and an joined
ammeter is parallel with a resistance in an electric (A) in parallel, the combination acts as a fuse of rat-
circuit, with a cell in series. ing 20A
(B) in parallel, the combination acts as a fuse of rat-
ing 5A
(C) in series, the combination acts as a fuse of rating
10A
(D) in series, the combination acts as a fuse of rating
20A


1. A current of 0.50 ampere is passing through a CuSO4
solution. How many Cu++ ions will be deposited on 2
X + –
cathode in 10 seconds ?
+ 4V
2. A copper wire of radius 0.1 mm and resistance 1 k – 2V
3 – 3 5
is connected across a power supply of 20 V. (a) How + 4V
many electrons are transferred per second between Y
the supply and the wire at one end ? (b) Write down
the current density in the wire. (b) If intermediate cell has internal resistance r = 1 
then determine the potential difference between X and Y.
3. A wire has a length of 2.0 m and a resistance of 8. For what value of R in circuit, current through 4
5.0 . Find the electric field existing inside the wire if resistance is zero.
it carries a current of 10 A.
R
4. (a) A car has a fresh storage battery of emf 12 V
and internal resistance 5.0 × 10–2 . If the starter
draws a current of 90 A, what is the terminal volt- 4V 6V
age of the battery when the starter is on ? 10V
(b) After long use, the internal resistance of the stor-
age battery increases to 500 . What maximum cur- 9. In the circuit shown in figure the reading of amme-
rent can be drawn from the battery ? Assume the emf ter is the same with both switches open as with both
of the battery to remains unchanged. 0closed. Then find the resistance R. (ammeter is ideal)
(c) If the discharged battery is charged by an exter- 100
nal emf source, is the terminal voltage of the battery A
during charging greater of less than its emf 12 V ?
R 50 
5. Find the current through the 10  resistor shown in
figure.
10  3 V
+ –
300  1.5 V
3 6
10. If the switches S1, S2 and S3 in the figure are
arranged such that current through the battery is
4.5 V minimum, find the voltage across points A and B.
6  3
6. For the circuit shown in figure, determine the un-
known voltage drop V1. 6 A
S2
+2V – +1V – s1
1 9 1 1
S3
+ + 24 V
V1
30 V I B
– –
11. The resistance of the rheostat shown in figure is
30 . Neglecting the meter resistance, find the minimum
and maximum currents through the ammeter as the
– 5V + – 3V + rheostat is varied.5.5 V
A
7. (a) Determine the potential difference between X
and Y in the circuit shown in figure. 10 
30 
20 

12. Find the current I & voltage V in the circuit shown. 17. In the circuit shown in figure, all wires have equal
resistance r. Find the equivalent resistance between
5  7 A and B. C
60 V E
41 7  B
D
F
I V 0.4 
20 V 4  A
8
18. In given circuit determine.
2 10 (a) The rate at which the chemical energy of the cell
is consumed
13. For the circuit shown in the figure, find the volt- (b) The rate at which heat is generated inside the
age across 10  resistor and the current passing battery
through it. (c) Electric power output
(d) Which resistance consumes maximum power
(e) Power dissipated across 4 resistance
5 10  10A 2 1 5A
i1 8
current source current source
i2 4
14. In the circuit, the galvanometer G shows zero i3 8
deflection. If the batteries A and B have negligible
internal resitance, the value of the resistor R will be : i
500
G 2V E = 6V, r  1
A 19. Three equal resistors connected in series across
R a source of emf together dissipate 10 watts of power.
What would be the power dissipated if the same re-
12V B
sistors are connected in parallel across the same
source of emf ?
(A) 200  (B) 100 
20. Find the current through 25V cell & power supplied
(C) 500  (D) 1000 
by 20V cell in the figure shown.
15. A network of nine conductors connects six points
A, B, C, D, E and F as shown in figure. The figure 10V 5V 20V 30V
denotes resistances in ohms. Find the equivalent 25V
A
resistance between A and D.
11
10 
5
5
2
1 1 D
1
1 21. If a cell of constant E.M.F. produces the same
amount of the heat during the same time in two in
E F dependent resistors R1 and R2, when they are sepa-
2 1 2 rately connected across the terminals of the cell, one
B C after the another, find the internal resistance of the
1 cell.
16. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit be- 22. One kilowatt electric heater is to be used with
tween points A and B shown in figure is : (each branch 220 V.D.C supply.
is of resistance = 1) (a) What is the current in the heater
(b) What is its resistance.
(c) What is the power dissipated in the heater.
A B (d) How much heat in calories is produced per sec-
ond.
(e) How many grams of water at 100ºC will be con-
verted per minute into steam at 100ºC with the heater.
[(latent heat of vaporisation of water = 540 cal/g)]

23. The efficiency of a cell when connected to a

resistance R is 60%. What will be its efficiency if the 28. A battery of emf 0 = 10 V is connected across a
external resistance is increased to six times. 1m long uniform wire having resistance 10/m. Two
cells of emf 1 = 2V and 2 = 4V having internal resis-
24. In following diagram boxes may contain resistor or tances 1 and 5 respectively are connected as shown
battery or any other element in the figure. If a galvanometer shows no deflection
at the point P, find the distance of point P from the
point a.
1A=i 10
 0  10 V
10 V,1 P
(A)
A B
1
 1  2V G
1A= i 5
 2  4V
10 V,1 29. A potentiometer wire AB is 100 cm long and has a
(B) total resistance of 10ohm. If the galvanometer shows
then determine in each case zero deflection at the position C, then find the value
(A) E.m.f of battery of unknown resistance R :
(B) Battery is acting as a source or load
(C) Potential difference across each battery. 10 V
(D) Power input to the battery or output by the bat-
40 cm
tery. C
(E) The rate at which heat is generated inside the A B
5V
battery. G
(F) The rate at which the chemical energy of the cell r  1
is consumed or increased.
(G) Potential difference across box. R
(H) Electric power output across box. 30. In the figure shown for which values of R1 and R2
25. Find the resistor in which maximum heat will be the balance point for Jockey is at 40 cm from A. When
produced. R2 is shunted by a resistance of 10, balance shifts to
5 5 50 cm. Find R1 and R2. (AB = 1m)
R1 R2
6
4 G
2
A B
V
26. A part of a circuit is shown in figure. Here reading
31. An accumulator of emf 2 volt and negligible inter-
of ammeter is 5 ampere and voltmeter is 96V & volt-
nal resistance is connected across a uniform wire of
meter resistance is 480 ohm. Then find the resistance R
R length 10m and resistance 30. The appropriate ter-
A minals of a cell of emf 1.5 Volt and internal resistance
1 is connected to one end of the wire, and the other
terminal of the cell is connected through a sensitive
V galvanometer to a slider on the wire. What length of
the wire will be required to produce zero deflection of
27. The ammeter shown in figure consists of a 480  the galvanometer ? How will the balancing change (a)
coil connected in parallel to a 20  shunt. Find the when a coil of resistance 5 is placed in series with
reading of the ammeter. the accumulator, (b) the cell of 1.5 volt is shunted
A with 5 resistor ?
10  Sol.
20 V


1. A triangle is constructed using the wires AB, BC & 6. A network of resistance is constructed with R1 & R2
CA of same material and of resistance , 2 & 3 as shown in the figure. The potential at the points
respectively. Another wire of resistance /3 from A 1,2,3,.., N and V1, V2, V3,....., Vn respectively each
can make a sliding contact with wire BC. Find the having a potential k time smaller than previous one.
maximum resistance of the network between points A R1 R2
and the point of sliding wire with BC. Find (i) R and R in terms of k
2 3
2. (a) The current density across a cylindrical con-
V0 R1 V1 R1 V2 R1 V3 VN–1 R1 VN
ductor of radius R varies according to the equation
 r
J  J0  1   , where r is the distance from the axis.
 R V0 = kV1 R2 R3
R2 R2 R2
Thus the current density is a maximum J0 at the axis r
= 0 and decreases linearly to zero at the surface r =
R. Calculate the current in terms of J0 and the
(ii) current that passes through the resistance R2 near-
conductor’s cross sectional area is A = R2.
est to the V0 in terms V0, k & R3.
(b) Suppose that instead the current density is a
maximum J0 at the surface and decreases linearly to 7. A person decides to use his bath tub water to
generate electric power to run a 40 watt bulb. The
r
zero at the axis so that J  J0 . Calculate the cur- bath tube is located at a height of 10m from the
R ground & it holds 200 litres of water. If we install a
rent. water driven wheel generator on the ground, at what
3. What will be the change in the resistance of a rate should the water drain from the bath tube to
circuit consisting of five identical conductors if two light bulb ? How long can we keep the bulb on, if the
similar conductors are added as shown by the dashed bath tub was full initially. The efficiency of generator
line in figure is 90%.(g = 10m/s–2)
8. In the circuit shown in figure, calculate the follow-
ing
(i) Potential difference between points a and b when
switch S is open. (ii) Current through S in
the circuit when S is closed.
4. The current I through a rod of a certain metallic
36v
oxide is given by I = 0.2 V5/2, where V is the potential
difference across it. The rod is connected in series
with a resistance to a 6V battery of negligible internal
resistance. What value should the series resistance a S b
have so that
(i) the current in the circuit is 0.44
(ii) the power dissipated in the rod is twice that dissi-
pated in the resistance.
5. A piece of resistive wire is made up into two squares 9. The circuit shown in figure is made of a homoge-
with a common side of length 10 cm. A current enters neous wire of uniform cross-section. ABCD is a square.
the rectangular system at one of the corners and
leaves at the diagonally opposite corners. Show that Find the ratio of the amounts of heat liberated per
the current in the common side is 1/5th of the enter- unit time in wire A-B and C-D.
ing current. What length of wire connected between D C
input and output terminals would have an equivalent
effect.
A B

10. A rod of length L and cross-section area A lies (a) Find the length AP of the wire such that the gal-
along the x-axis between x = 0 and x = L. The mate- vanometer shows zero deflection.
rial obeys Ohm’s law and its resistivity varies along (b) Now the rheostat is put at maximum resistance
the rod according to (x) = 0e–x/L. The end of the rod (10 ) and the switch S is closed. New balancing
at x = 0 is at a potential V0 and it is zero at x = L. length is found to 8m. Find the internal resistance r of
(a) Find the total resistance of the rod and the cur- the 4.5 V cell.
rent in the wire. 10V
(b) Find the electric potential in the rod as a function
of x. P
A B
11. An ideal cell having a steady emf of 2 volt is 12m
G
connected across the potentiometer wire of length
10 m. The potentiometer wire is of magnesium and 4.5V r S
having resistance of 11.5 /m. An another cell gives
a null point at 6.9 m. If a resistance of 5 is put in
series with potentiometer wire, find the new position 17. A galvanometer (coil resistance 99) is converted
of the null point. into a ammeter using a shunt of 1 and connected as
12. An enquiring physics student connects a cell to a shown in the figure (i). The ammeter reads 3A. The
circuit and measures the current drawn from the cell same galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by
to I1. When he joins a second identical cell is series connecting a resistance of 101  in series. This
with the first, the current becomes I2. When the cells voltmeter is connected as shown in figure (ii). Its
are connected are in parallel, the current through the reading is found to be 4/5 of the full scale reading.
circuit is I3. Show that relation between the current is Find
3 I3 I2 = 2 I1 (I2 + I3)
13. Find the potential difference VA – VB for the cir- 12V r 12V r
cuit shown in the figure.
1V 1V B 1V 1V A
IV IV V
(i) (ii)
A
1V 1V 1V 1V
(a) internal resistance r of the cell
14. A resistance R of thermal coefficient of resistivity (b) range of the ammeter and voltmeter
=  is connected in parallel with a resistance = 3R, (c) full scale deflection current of the galvanometer
having thermal coefficient of resistivity = 2. Find the
value of eff.
15. A galvanometer having 50 divisions provided with
a variable shunt s is used to measure the current
when connected in series with a resistance of 90 
and a battery of internal resistance 10 . It is ob-
served that when the shunt resistance are 10, 50,
respectively the deflection are respectively 9 & 30
divisions. What is the resistance of the galvanometer
? Further if the full scale deflection of the galvanom-
eter movement is 300 mA, find the emf of the cell.
16. In the primary circuit of potentiometer the rheo-

stat can be varied from 0 to 10. Initially it is at
minimum resistance (zero)

1. An electrical circuit is shown in the figure. Calcu- (A) IR = IG (B) IP = IG
late the potential difference across the resistance of (C) IQ = IG (D) IQ = IR
400 ohm, as will be measured by the voltmeter V of
5. The effective resistance between the points P and
resistance 400 ohm, either by applying Kirchhoff’s rules
Q of the electrical circuit shown in the figure is
or otherwise. [JEE-96]
2R 2R
V 2R
P r r Q [JEE 2002]
2R
2R 2R
(A) 2 Rr / (R + r) (B) 8R(R + r)/(3R + r)

(C) 2r + 4R (D) 5R/2 + 2r
10V
2. (i) A steady current flows in a metallic conductor 6. A 100 W bulb B1, and two 60 W bulbs B2 and B3, are
of nonuniform cross-section. The quantity/quantities connected to a 250 V source, as shown in the figure.
constant along the length of the conductor is / are : Now W1, W2 and W3 are the output powers of the
[JEE,97] bulbs B1, B2 and B3 respectively. Then
(A) current, electric field and drift speed
(B) drift speed only B1 B2
(C) current and drift speed
(D) current only
(ii) The dimension of electricity conductivity is
............. .
(iii) Find the emf (E) & internal resistance (r) of a B3
single battery which is equivalent to a parallel combi-
nation of two batteries of emfs V1 & V2 & internal
resistances r1 & r2 respectively with their similar po-
larity connected to each other
(A) W1 > W2 = W3 250 VW >W >W
(B) 1 2 3
3. In the circuit shown in the figure, the current
(C) W1 < W2 = W3 (D) W1 < W2 < W3
through
7. A thin uniform wire AB of length 1m, an unknown
resistance X and a resistance of 12 are connected
by thick conducting strips, as shown in figure. A bat-
tery and a galvanometer (with a sliding jockey con-
9V nected to it) are also available. Connections are to be
made to measure the unknown resistance X using the
principle of Wheatstone bridge. Answer the following
question.
(A) the 3 resistor is 0.50 A
(B) the 3 resistor is 0.25 A
(C) 4 resistor is 0.50 A x 12 
(D) the 4 resistor is 0.25 A [JEE’98]
A B C D
4. In the circuit shown, P  R, the reading of the (A) Are there positive and negative terminals on the
galvanometer is same with switch S open or closed. galvanometer ?
Then [JEE’ 99] (B) Copy the figure in your answer book and show the
battery and the galvanometer (with jockey) connected
P Q at appropriate points.
(C) After appropriate connections are made, it is found
R S
G
that no deflection takes place in the galvanometer
when the sliding jockey touches the wire at a dis-
tance of 60 cm from A. Obtain the value of resistance X.
V
[JEE-2002]

8. Arrange the order of power dissipated in the given P

circuits, if the same current is passing through all
circuit and each resistor is ‘r’
(I) A B
(ii) A Q R
B
[JEE-2004]
(A) P and Q (B) Q and R
(iii) A B (C) P and R (D) any two points
12. For the post office box arrangement to determine

the value of unknown resistance, the unknown resis-
(iv) A tance should be connected between
B
[JEE-2004]
B C D
(A) P2 > P3 > P4 > P1 (B) P3 > P2 > P4 > P1
(C) P4 > P3 > P2 > P1 (D) P1 > P2 > P3 > P4
9. In the given circuit, no current is passing through A

the galvanometer. If the cross-sectional diameter of
AB is doubled the for null point of galvanometer the B1 C1
value of AC would (A) B and C (B) C and D
(C) A and D (D) B1 and C1
13. Draw the circuit for experimental verification of

G Ohm’s law using a source of variable D.C. voltage, a
A main resistance of 100, two galvanometers and two
B
C resistances of values 106  and 10–3  respectively.
x
(A) x (B) x/2 Clearly show the positions of the voltmeter and the
(C) 2x (D) none ammeter.
[JEE-2003] [JEE-2004]
10. How a battery is to be connected so that shown 14. In the figure shown the current through 2 resis-
rheostat will behave like a potential divider ? Also tor is
indicate the points about which output can be taken. 10
10 
[JEE-2003]
C 20 
5
2
A B
R (A) 2A (B) 0A
(C) 4A (D) 6A
11. Six equal resistances are connected between points
[JEE - 2004]
P, Q and R as shown in the figure. Then the net resis-
tance will be maximum between 15. A galvanometer has resistance 100 and it re-
quires current 100A for full scale deflection. A resis-
tor 0.1 is connected to make it an ammeter. The

smallest current required in the circuit to produce the 19. Figure shows three resistor configurations R1, R2
full scale deflection is and R3 connected to 3V battery. If the power dissi-
[JEE-2005] pated by the configuration R1, R2 and R3 is P1, P2
(A) 1000.1 mA (B) 1.1 mA and P3, respectively, then
(C) 10.1 mA (D) 100.1 mA
16. An unknown resistance X is to be determined us- 3V

3V
ing resistances R1, R2 or R3. Their corresponding null 3V
points are A, B and C. Find which of the above will
give the most accurate reading and why ? R2
R1 R3
[JEE - 2008]
(A) P1 > P2 > P3 (B) P1 > P3 > P2
(C) P2 > P1 > P3 (D) P3 > P2 > P1
X R 20. STATEMENT-1
In a Meter Bridge experiment, null point for an un-
known resistance is measured. Now, the unknown re-
G sistance is put inside an enclosure maintained at a
higher temperature. The null point can be obtained at
the same point as before by decreasing the value of
A B C the standard resistance.
R = R1 or R2 or R3 and
[JEE-2005]
STATEMENT-2
Resistance of a metal increases with increase in tem-
17. Consider a cylindrical element as shown in the perature.
figure. Current flowing the through element is I and (A) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
resistivity of material of the cylinder is . Choose the
1
correct option out the following [JEE-2006] (B) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is True;
A B STATEMENT-2 is NOT a correct explanation for STATE-
I C MENT-1
4r 2r (C) STATEMENT-1 is True, STATEMENT-2 is False
l/2 l/2 [JEE - 2008]
(A) Power loss in second half is four times the power
loss in first half 21. For the circuit shown in the figure
(B) Voltage drop in first half is twice of voltage drop in
second half
(C) Current density in both halves are equal
(D) Electric field in both halves is equal
18. A resistance of 2 is connected across one gap

(A) the current I through the battery is 7.5 mA
of a metre-bridge (the length of the wire is 100 cm)
(B) the potential difference across RL is 18 V
and an unknown resistance, greater than 2, is con- (C) ratio of powers dissipated in R1 and R2 is 3
nected across the other gap. When these resistances (D) if R1 and R2 are interchanged, magni tude of the
are interchanged, the balance point shifts by 20 cm. power dissipated in RL will de crease by a factor of 9
[JEE - 2009]
Neglecting any corrections, the unknown resistance is
[JEE-2007] 22. Consider a thin square sheet of side L and thick-
(A) 3  (B) 4  ness t, made of a material of resistivity . The resis-
(C) 5  (D) 6  tance between two opposite faces shown by the

26. A meter bridge is set-up as shown, to determine

shaded area in the figure is : [JEE 2010]
an unknown resistance 'X' using a standard 10 ohm
resistor. The galvanometer shows null point when tap-
ping-key is at 52 cm mark. The end-corrections are 1
cm and 2 cm respectively for the ends A and B. The
determined value of 'X' is [JEE 2011]
t
L
X 10
(A) directly proportional to L
(B) directly proportional to t
(C) independent of L
(D) independent of t
23. Incandenscent bulbs are designed by keeping in

mind that the resitance of their filament increases A B
with the increase in temperature. If at room tempera-
ture, 100 W, 60 W and 40 W bulbs have filament re- (A) 10.2 ohm (B) 10.6 ohm
sistances R100, R60 and R40, respectively, the relation (C) 10.8 ohm (D) 11.1 ohm
between these resistance is [JEE 2010]
1 1 1 27. Two batteries of different emfs and different in-
(A) R   (B) R100 = R40 + R60 ternal resistances are connected as shown. The volt-
100 R 40 R 60
age across AB in volts is [JEE 2011]
1 1 1 6V
(C) R100 > R60 > R40 (D) R  
100 R 60 R 40
A B
24. To verify Ohm's law, a student is provided with a
test resistor RT. a high resistance R1, a small resis-
tance R2, two identical galvanometers G1 and G2 and a
variable voltage source V. the correct circuit to carry
out the experiment is :[JEE 2010] 3V network 2
28. For the resistance shown in the figure,
choose the correct option(s).
G1 G1 I2 

R2 R1 
G2 G2  
RT R1 RT R2
(A) (B) 


v v I1
(A) The current through PQ is zero

R1 R2
G1 G1 (B) l1 = 3A
(C) The potential at S is less than that at Q
G2 G2
RT RT
(D) l2 = 2A [JEE 2012]
(C) R2
(D) R1
v v
25. When two identical batteries of internal resistance

1  each are connected in series across a resistor R,
the rate of heat produced in R is J1. When the same
batteries are connected in parallel across R, the rate
is J2. If J1 = 2.25 J2 then the value of R in  is
[JEE 2010]

Exercise-I
1. B 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. A 6. C 7. C
8. C 9. D 10. D 11. D 12. D 13. B 14. B
15. D 16. C 17. A 18. C 19. D 20. A 21. A

22. A 23. B 24. B 25. D 26. D 27. C 28. B
29. A 30. B 31. A 32. B 33. C 34. C 35. D
36. D 37. B 38. C 39. B 40. A 41. B 42. C
43. B 44. D 45. C 46. C 47. B 48. D 49. D
50. B 51. B 52. B 53 A 54. B 55. B 56. C
57. B 58. A 59. C 60. A 61. B 62. D 63. A
64. A 65. D 66. B 67. A 68. A 69. B 70. B
71. D 72. A 73. D 74. B 75. D 76. C 77. C
78. A 79. D 80. B 81. C 82. C 83. D 84. D
85. B 86. A 87. A 88. A 89. A 90. B 91. B
92. B 93. B 94. A 95. D 96. C 97. B 98. D
99. D 100. A 101. D 102. C
Exercise-II
1. A,B,C 2. A 3. D 4. A,B,C,D 5. A,D 6. C 7. A,C,D

8. A 9. C 10. A,C 11. A,C 12. D 13. A,D 14. C
15. B,C 16. A,C,D 17. A 18. A,B 19. A,B,C 20. A,C
Exercise-III
2
1. 1.5625 × 1019 2. 1.25 × 10–17, (b) × 106 A/m2 3. 25 V/m 4. (a) 7.5 V, (b) 24 mA(c) greater than 12 V

5. zero 6. 19 V 7. (a) 3.7 V (b) 3.7 V 8. 1 9. 600
3 3  5 .5
10. 1V 11.  0.15 A ,  0.83 A 12. I = 2.5 A, V = 3.5 volts
20 20
25 5 22 3r
13. V  2.78 V, A  0.278 A 14. B 15. 1W 16.  17.
9 18 35 5
18. (a) 12 W (b) 4W (c) 8 W (d) 4 (e) 4W
19. 90 watt. 20. 12A, – 20 W 21. R1 R 2

50 22  11
22. (a)  4.55 A (b)  48 .4  (c) 1000 W (d) 240 cal s–1 (e) 80/3 gm
11 5
23. 90%
24. (a) E = 10 V each (b) (A) act as a source and (B) act as load
(c) VA = 9V, VB = 11 V (d) PA = 9 W, PB = 11 W (e) Heat rate = 1 W each
(f) 10 watt. (g) 9V, 11 V (b) –9W, 11 W
50
25. 4 26. 20 ohm 27. A 28. 46.67 cm
73
10
29. 4 ohm 30. , 5 31. 7.5 m, 8.75 m, 6.25 m
3
Exercise-IV
R2 3
1. (3/11) 2. (a) J0A/3; (b) 2J0 A/3 3. R  5 4. (i) 10.52 ; (ii) 0.3125 
1
5. 7/5 times the length of any side of the square
(k  1) 2 k (k  1) / k 2 V0

6. (i) ; (ii) 7. 4/9 kg/sec, 450 sec 8.(i) Vab = –12 V, (ii) 3 amp from b to a
k (k  1) R3
 0L  1 V0 A  e  V ( e  x /L  e 1 ) 22
9. 11  6 2 10. R  1   ; I    ; V 0 11.
1. 7.2 m 13.  Vn
A  e  0L  e  1 1  e 1 9
5
14.  eff   15. 233.3, 144V 16. (a) 6m, (b) 117. (a) 1.01 W, (b) 0-5A, 0-10 V, (c) 0.05 A
4
Exercise-V
V1r2  V2r1 r1 r2
1. 20/3 V 2. (i) D; (ii) M–1 L–3 T3 A2; (iii) , 3. D 4. A
r1  r2 r1  r2
x
A (y) J (1-y) B C
D
5. A 6. D G
7. (a) No, (b) (c) 8 8. A 9. A

10. Battery should be connected across A and B. Out put can be taken across the terminals A and C or B and C
Voltmeter
G1
Ammeter
11. A 12. C 13. G2

14. B 15. D
16. This is true for r1 = r2; So R2 given most accurate value 17. A 18. A 19. C
20. D 21. A,D 22. C 23. D 24. C 25. 4
26. B 27. 5 28 A, B, C, D

IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
MAGNETISM
CONTENTS
1. The Magnetic field ............................................................................................ 3
2. Biot Savart law .................................................................................................. 3
3. Field Due to straight Current Carrying wire ...................................................... 4 – 8
4. Magnetic field at an axial Point of a circular coil ............................................ 8 – 11
5. Solenoid ........................................................................................................11 – 13
6. Magnetic lines and their characteristics ........................................................ 13 – 15
7. Ampere’s law ................................................................................................ 15 – 20
8. Magnetic field Inside a long Solenoid ................................................................ 20
9. Toroid ............................................................................................................... 21
10. Infinite Current Carrying sheet ........................................................................ 21
11. Magnetic force on a moving charge ................................................................. 22
12. Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field .............................. 23 – 27
13. Motion of a Charged particle in Combined ................................................... 27 – 31
Electric and Magnetic field
14. Magnetic force on a current carrying wire .................................................... 31 – 35
15. Current loop in a uniform magnetic field. ..................................................... 36 – 38
16. Magnet ....................................................................................................... 38 – 44
17. Terrestrial Magnetism ..................................................................................... 45
18. Moving coil galvanometer ................................................................................ 46
19. Exercise I ................................................................................................... 47 – 57
20. Exercise - II ................................................................................................ 58 – 59
21. Exercise - III ............................................................................................... 60 – 62
22. Exercise - IV .............................................................................................. 63 – 65
23. Exercise - V ............................................................................................... 66 – 72
24. Answer key ................................................................................................ 73 – 74

Page # 2 MAGNETISM
Syllabus
Biot-Savart law and Ampere’s law, magnetic field near a current-carrying straight wire, along
the axis of a circular coil and inside a long straight solenoid; Force on a moving charge and
on a current-carrying wire in a uniform magnetic field.
Magnetic moment of a current loop; Effect of a uniform magnetic field on a current loop;
Moving coil galvanometer.

MAGNETISM Page # 3
1. THE MAGNETIC FIELD
In earlier lessons we found it convenient to describe the interaction between charged objects
in terms of electric fields. Recall that an electric field surrounding an electric charge. The
region of space surrounding a moving charge includes a magnetic field in addition to the
electric field. A magnetic field also surrounds a magnetic substance.
In order to describe any type of field, we must define its magnitude, or strength, and its
direction.
Magnetic field is the region surrounding a moving charge in which its magnetic effects are
perceptible on a moving charge (electric current). Magnetic field intensity is a vector quantity

and also known as magnetic induction vector. It is represented by B .
Lines of magnetic induction may be drawn in the same way as lines of electric field. The
number of lines per unit area crossing a small area perpendicular to the direction of the
induction being numerically equal to  

B . The number of lines of B crossing a given area is

referred to as the magnetic flux linked with that area. For this reason B is also called
magnetic flux density.
There are two methods of calculating magnetic field at some point. One is Biot-Savart
law which gives the magnetic field due to an infinitesimally small current carrying wire at
some point and the another is Ampere’ law, which is useful in calculating the magnetic field
of a symmetric configuration carrying a steady current.
The unit of magnetic field is weber/m2 and is known as tesla (T) in the SI system.
2. BIOT-SAVART LAW
Biot-Savart law gives the magnetic induction due to an infinitesimal current element.
Let AB be a conductor of an arbitrary shape carrying a current i, and P be a point in vacuum
at which the field is to be determined. Let us divide the conductor into infinitesimal current-

elements. Let r be a displacement vector from the element to the point P..

According to ‘Biot-Savart Law’, the magnetic field induction dB at P due to the current

element d l is given by
   B
 i ( d l  r )  i (d l  r ) i
dB  or dB  k
r3 r3 dl dB
Where k is a proportionalty constant. r P

Here d l vector points in the direction of current i. i
Wb A
In S.I. units, k   0  10 7
4 amp  metre
 
  0 i( d l  r )
 dB  ...(1)
4 r3
Equation (1) is the vector form of the Biot-Savart Law. The magnitude of the field induction
at P is given by
 0 id l  sin
dB  ,
4 r2
 
where  is the angle between d l and r .
If the medium is other than air or vaccum, the magnetic inducton is

   i(dl  r )
dB  0 r ...(2)
4 r3
where r is relative permeability of the medium and is a dimensionless quantity.

Page # 4 MAGNETISM
3. FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT CARRYING WIRE

3.1 WHEN THE WIRE IS OF FINITE LENGTH
Consider a straight wire segment carrying a current i and there is a point P at which magnetic
field to be calculated as shown in the figure. This wire segment makes angle 1 and 2 at that
point with normal OP. Consider an element of length dy at a distance y from O and distance of
this element from point P is r and line joining P to Q makes an angle  with the direction of
current as shown in figure. Using Biot-Savart Law magnetic field at point P due to small
current element is given by
 0 i  dy sin   B
dB   
4  r 2 
i

As every element of the wire contributes to B
O d 1
in the same direction, we have  2
P
B y

0 i dy sin  r
B  ....(i) dy
4
A
r2 Q
From the triangle OPQ as shown in diagram, we have A
y = d tan 
or dy = d sec2 d
and is same triangle,
r = d sec  and  = (90º – ), where  is angle between line OP and PQ
Now equation (i) can be written in this form
1
0 i
 B   cos d
4 d
–2
0 i i
or B  [sin1  sin2 ] ...(3)
4 d
Note :  &  must be taken with sign 2
For the case shown in figure 1 A
 0i r
B at A = (sin  2 – sin 1 ) 
4 r 
Direction of B : The direction of magnetic field is determined by the cross product of the
 
vector id l with r . Therefore, at point P, the direction of the magnetic field due to the whole
conductor will be perpendicular to the plane of paper and going into the plane.
Right-hand Thumb Rule : The direction of B at a point P due to a long, straight wire can be
found by the right-hand thumb rule. The direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane containing wire and perpendicular from the point. The orientation of magnetic field is
given by the direction of curl fingers if we stretch thumb along the wire in the direction of
current. Refer figure.
Conventionally, the direction of the field perpendicular to the plane of the paper is represented
by  if into the page and by O  if out of the page.
Now consider some special cases involving the application of equation (3)

MAGNETISM Page # 5
CASE 1 : When the point P is on the perpendicular bisector

In this case angle 1 = 2, using result of equation (3), the magnetic field is
1
L P
d 1

 0 2i
B sin  1
4 d
L
where sin 1 
L  4d2
2
Case - 2
(i) If the wire is infinitely long then the magnetic field at ‘P’ (as shown in the figure) is given
by (using 1 = 2 = 90° and the formula ‘B’ due to straight wire)
 I I
B= 0  B
2r r
×
×
r
I P ×
× ×

The direction of B at various is as shown in the figure. The magnetic lines of force will be
concentric circles around the wire (as shown earlier)

(ii)If the wire is infinitely long but ‘P’ is as shown in the figure. The direction of B at various
points is as shown in the figure. At ‘P’
 0I
B=
4 r
upto 
×
× ×
I ×
×
90°
P
r
×
CASE III : When the point lies along the length of wire (but not on it)

A id l B
P
r
 
If the point P is along the length of the wire (but not one it), then as d l and r will either
 
be parallel or antiparallel, i.e.,  = 0 or , so i d l  r = 0 and hence using equation (1)
B
 
B  dB 0

A

Page # 6 MAGNETISM
a 3
Ex-1 Calculate the magnetic field induction at a point distance, metre from a straight
2
wire of length ‘a’ metre carrying a current of i amp. The point is on the perpendicular
bisector of the wire.
Sol. x
 i
B= 0 [sin1 + sin 2]
4 d
3
 i  1 1  a
   2 30°
= 10–7  a P
 (a 3 / 2)  2 2   d 30°
2i i
=  10 –7 T
a 3
Perpendicular to the y
plane of figure (inward). S R
Ex.2 Find resultant magnetic field at ‘C’ in the figure shown. C a

Sol. It is clear that ‘B’ at ‘C’ due all the wires is directed . Also B
at ‘C due PQ and SR is same. Also due to QR and PS is same P i Q
 Bres = 2(BPQ + BSP)
3a
 0i
BPQ = (sin 60° + sin 60°)
a
4
2
 0i
BSP = 3 a (sin 30° + sin 30°)
4
2
 3  0i  0i  4 0 i
 Bres = 2  =
 2a   3 a
 2a 3 
Ex.3 Figure shows a square loop made from a uniform wire. Find the magnetic field at the
centre of the square if a battery is connected between the points A and C.
D C
B
A
Sol. The current will be equally divided at A. The fields at the centre due to the currents in the
wires AB and DC will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The resultant of these
two fields will be zero. Similarly, the resultant of the fields due to the wires AD and BC will be
zero. Hence, the net field at the centre will be zero.
Ex.4 In the figure shown there are two parallel long wires
(placed in the plane of paper) are carrying currents
1 2
2 I and I consider points A, C, D on the line
perpendicular to both the wires and also in the plane
2I C I D
of the paper. The distances are mentioned. A

a a/2 a
Find (i) B at A, C, D
 a
(ii) position of point on line A C D where B is zero.

MAGNETISM Page # 7
  
Sol. (i) Let us call B due to (1) and (2) as B1 and B 2 respectively. Then
 
at A : B1 is and B 2 is ×
 0 2I 0 I
B1 = and B2 =
2 a 2 2a
3  0I
 Bres = B1 – B2 = Ans.
4 a
 
at C : B1 is × and B 2 also ×
 0 2I 0 I 6 0 I 3 0 I
 Bres = B1 + B2 = + = = × Ans.
a a 2 a a
2 2
2 2
 
at D : B1 is × and B 2 is and both are equal in magnitude
 Bres = 0 Ans.
(ii) It is clear from the above solution that B = 0 at point ‘D’. y
Ex.5 In the figure shown two long wires W1 and W2 each P

carrying current I are placed parallel to each other Q(a,a)
and parallel to z-axis. The direction of current in W1
3a

is outward and in W2 it is inwards. Find the B at ‘P’
I I
and ‘Q’ x
w1 w2
   a a
Sol. Let B due to W1 be B1 and due to W2 be B 2 .
  y
By summetry B1 = B 2 = B B1 B2
60° 60°
 0I  0I
BP = 2 B cos 60° = B = =
2 2a 4 a
2a 2a
  I
 Bp  0 j Ans.
4 a
60° 60°
0 I  I a a ×
For  B1 = ,  B2 = 0
2 5 a 2a
a 1  B1
tan = =  B =(B1 cos j ) + (B2 – B1sin) i
2a 2 
1   I   I  I 
sin =  B  0 j   0 – 0  i B2
5 5 a  2a 10 a 
2  2 I
0   I
cos =  B i  0 j
5 5 a 5 a 
×
Ex.6 In the figure shown a large metal sheet of width ‘w’ carries a current I (uniformly
distributed in its widith ‘w’. Find the magnetic field at point ‘P’ which lies in the plane of
the sheet
a P
I

Page # 8 MAGNETISM
Sol. To find ‘B’ at ‘P’ the sheet can be considered as collection of large number of infinitely long
wires. Take a long wire distnace ‘x’ from ‘P’ and of width ‘dx’. Due to this the magnetic field at
‘P’ is ‘dB’
 I 
 0  dx
dB =  w 
 x P
2 x

due to each such wire B dx
will be directed inwards
 0I
 Bres =  dB  2w
a w
dx  I
  0 . ln a  w Ans.
x 2w a
x a
4. MAGNETIC FIELD AT AN AXIAL POINT OF A CIRCULAR COIL

Consider a circular loop of radius R and carrying a steady current i. We have to find out
magnetic field at the axial point P, which is at distance x from the centre of the loop.

id l dB cos 
R r dB

 P
x dB sin 
×
dB

Consider an element i d l of the loop as shown in figure, and the distance of point P from
current element is r. The magnetic field at P due to this current element from the equation (1)
can be given by,
 
  id l  r
0
dB 
4 r3
In case of point on the axis of a circular coil, as for every current element there is a
symmetrically situated opposite element, the component of the field perpendicular to the axis
cancel each other while along the axis add up.
 0 idl sin 
 B  dB sin  =
 sin 

4 r2
  
Here,  is angle between the current element id l and r , which is everywhere and
2
R R
sin  = =
r R  x2
2
2R
0 iR
 B = 4 2
(R  x 2 ) 3 / 2  dL B
0
0 i
0 iR B
(2R) 2R
or, B = 4  2
(R  x 2 ) 3 / 2
0 2 i R 2
or, B = ...(4)
4 (R 2  x 2 )3 / 2
If the coil has N turns, then x
 0 2NiR2
B=
4 (R 2  x 2 )3 / 2

MAGNETISM Page # 9

Direction of B : Direction of magnetic field at a point the axis of a circular coil is along the
axis and its orientation can be obtained by using the right-hand thumb rule. If the figers are
curled along the current, the stretched thumb will point towards the magntic field.
Magnetic field will be out of the page for anticlockwise current while into the page for
clockwise current as shown in the figure given.
Now consider some special cases involving the application of equation (4)
CASE I : Field at the centre of the coil
In this case distance of the point P from the centre (x) = 0, the magnetic field
 0 2i 0 i
B= =
4 R 2 R
i i
OUT IN
P P
B B
ACW CW
CASE II : Field at a point far away from the centre
 0 2R 2i
It means x >> R, B =
4 x 3
4.1 FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF A CURRENT ARC

Consider an arc of radius R carrying current i and subtending an angle  at the centre.
According to Biot-Savart Law, the magnetic field induction at the point P is given by

 0 idl 
B = 4
0

R2 dl B
Here, dl = Rd
 d
0 iRd  P
i
 B = 4 
0
R 2
R
0 i 
or, B = ...(5)
4 R
It ‘l’ is the length of the circular arc, we have
0 i l
B= ...(6)
4 R 2
Consider some special cases involving the application of equation (5)
CASE I : If the loop is semicircular
B B
ACW CW
In this case  = , so
 0 i
B=
4 R
and will be out of the page for anticlockwise current while into the page for clockwise current
as shown in the figure.

Page # 10 MAGNETISM
CASE II. If the loop is a full circle with N turns

i i
In this case  = 2, so
OUT IN
 0 2Ni P P
B= B B
4 R
and will be out of the page for anticlockwise
current while into the page for clockwise current ACW CW
as shown in the figure.
Ex.7 Two wire loop PQRSP formed by joining two semicircular wires of radii R1 and R2 carries
a current i as shown in the figure given below. What is the magnetic field induction at
the centre O in cases (A) and (B) ?
i R2
i
R2
O
S R R1 Q P
S R O R1 Q P i
(A) (B)
Sol. (a) As the point O is along the length of the straight wires, so the field at O due to them will
be zero and hence magnetic field is only due to semicircular portions
  i i
0
 |B |  [  ]
4  R2 R1
 0  1 1
or, |B | = 4  i  R – R  out of the page
 2 1
 0  1 1 
(b) |B | = 4  i  R  R  into the page
 1 2
Ex.8 A battery is connected between two points A and B on the circumference of a uniform
conducting ring of radius r and resistance R as shown in the figure given below. One of
the arcs AB of the ring substends an angle  at the centre. What is the value of the
magnetic field at the centre due to the current in the ring?
i
A i1 i
i2  B
r O
O
(B)
(A)
Sol. (a) As the field due to arc at the centre is given by
0 i
B=
4 r
 0 i1  i ( 2  – )
 B=  0 2
4 r 4 r
But(VA – VB) = i1R1 = i2R2
R1 L
or, i2 = i1 = i1 1 [ R  L]
R2 L2

i2 = i1 [ L = r]
( 2 –  )
 0 i1  i
 BR =  0 1 0
4 r 4 r
i.e., the field at the centre of the coil is zero and is independent of .

MAGNETISM Page # 11
Ex.9 A charge of one coulomb is placed at one end of a nonconducting rod of length 0.6m.
The rod is rotated in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis passing through the other
end of the rod with angular frequency 104 rad/s. Find the magnetic field at a point on
the axis of rotation at a distance of 0.8 m from the centre of the path.
Now half of the charge is removed from one end and placed on the other end. The rod
is rotated in a vertical plane about horizontal axis passing through the mid-point of
the rod with the same angular frequency. Calculate the magnetic field at a point on
the axis at a distance of 0.4 m from the centre of the rod.
Sol. As the revolving charge q is equivalent to a current
 10 4  q=1C
i = qf = q × =1× = 5 × 103 A
2 2
0.6 m
0 2iR2 P
Now B = 0.8m B
4  (R2  x2 ) 3 / 2
2  5  10 3 (0.6) 2
–7
 B = 10 × = 1.13 × 10–3 T
[( 0.6) 2  ( 0.8) 2 ]3 / 2
If half of the charge is placed at the other end q/2
and the rod is rotated at the same frequency,
the equivalent current. 0.3m
O B
 q  q 0.4m
i’ =   f    f = qf = i = 5 × 103 A
 2  2
In this case, R’ = 0.3 m and x’ = 0.4 m
q/2
2  5  10 3  (0.3) 2
 B’ = 10–7 × = 2.3 × 10–3T
[(0.3) 2  (0.4) 2 ] 3 / 2
5. SOLENOID :
(i) Solenoid contains large number of circular loops wrapped around a non-conducting cylinder.
(it may be a hollow cylinder or it may be a solid cylinder)
B R B
Axis of the
solenoid

(ii) The winding of the wire is uniform direction of the magnetic field is same at all points of the
axis.

(iii) B on axis (turns should be very close to each others).
 0ni
B= (cos 1 – cos 2 ) ...(7)
2
where n : number of turns per unit length.  P 2
1
1 1 B
cos1 = ; cos = = – cos2
12  R 2  22  R 2
2 1
 
 0ni  1 2 
B= 2  2 
2
 1  R  22  R 2 

 0ni
= (cos 1  cos )
2
Page # 12 MAGNETISM
Derivation :
Take an element of width dx at a distance x from point P. [point P is the point on axis at which
we are going to calculate magnetic field. Total number of turns in the element dn = ndx where
n : number of turns per unit length]
dx
 0 iR2
dB = (ndx) 
2(R2  x2 ) 3 / 2
P x
2
 0 iR 2ndx
B=  dB   – 1
2(R 2  x 2 ) 3 / 2 1 2
 
 0 ni  1 2   0ni
= 2   = cos 1 – cos  2 
2 2 2 2 
 1
  R  2  R  2
(iv) For ‘Ideal Solenoid’ :
* Inside (at the mid point)
 >> R or length is infinite
1  0
2  
 0ni
B= [1 – (–1)]
2
B = 0ni
If material of the solid cylinder has relative permeability ‘r’ then B = 0rni
 0ni
At the ends B =
2
(v) Comparision between ideal and real solenoid :

(a) Ideal Solenoid
Real Solenoid
B B
B   0ni
 0ni / 2
(b)
end centre of solenoid end x (distance x

from centre)  / 2 x /2
Ex.10 A solenoid of length 0.4m and diameter 0.6m consists of a single layer of 1000 turns of
fine wire carrying a current of 5.0 × 10–3 ampere. Find the magnetic field on the axis at
V–s
the middle and at the ends of the solenoid. (Gives 0 = 4 × 10–7 )
A –m
1
Sol. B=  ni [cos1 – cos 2 ]
2 0
1000
 n= = 2500 per meter
0.4
i = 5 × 10–3 A.

MAGNETISM Page # 13
2
1
(i)
0.2 0.2
cos1 = 2 2 =
( 0.3 )  ( 0.2) 0.13
–0.2
cos2 =
0.13
1 2  0.2   10 –5
B= × (4 ×  × 10–7) × 2500 × 5 × 10–3 = T
2 0.13 13
90°

(ii)
At the end
0.4
 0.8
cos1 =
( 0.3)  (0.4) 2
2
cos2 = cos 90° = 0

1
B= × (4 ×  × 10–7) × 2500 × 5 × 10–3 × 0.8
2
 B = 2 × 10–6 Wb/m2
6. MAGNETIC LINES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The space surrounding a magnet or magnetic configuration in which its effects are perceptible
is called the magnetic field of the given magnet or magnetic configuration.
S N S
U-Shape magnet
Bar-magnet
(B)
(A)
In order to visualise a magnetic field graphically, Michael Faraday introduced the concept of
lines. According to him a line is an imaginary curve the tangent to which at a point gives the
direction of the field at that point.
Regarding magnetic field it is worth noting that :
(i) Outside a magnet, field are from north to to south pole while inside from south to north, i.e.,
magnetic lines are closed curves i.e., they appear to converge or diverge at poles.
(ii) The number of magnetic lines of field originating or terminating on a pole is proportional to its
strength. 0 lines are assumed to be associatd with a unit pole. so if a body encloses a pole
of strength m, total lines linked with the body (called magnetic flux) will be 0(m).

Page # 14 MAGNETISM
(iii) Magnetic lines of field can never intersect each other because if they intersect at a point,
intensity at that point will have two directions which is absurd.
(iv) Magnetic lines of field have a tendency to contract longitudinally like a stretched elastic
string (producing attraction between opposite poles) and repel each other laterally (resulting
in repulsion between similar poles)
S
N N N
Attraction Repulsion
(A) (B)
(v) Number of lines of field per unit area, normal to the area at a point, represents the magnitude
of field at that point. so crowded lines represent a strong field while distant lines represent
weak field. Further, if the lines of force are equidistant and straight the field is uniform
otherwise not
Non uniform fields

Uniform field
Magnitude is Direction is Both magnitude Both magnitude and

not constant not constant and direction are direction are constant
(A) (B) not constant (D)
(C)
(vi) In a region of space where there is no magnetic field, there will be no lines of field. This is
why, at a neutral point (where resultant field is zero) there cannot be any line of field.
(vii) Magnetic lines of field originate from or enter in the surface of a magnetic material at any
angle.
(viii) Magnetic lines of field exist inside every magnetised material
(ix) As monopoles do not exist, the total magnetic flux linked with a closed surface is always
zero, i.e.,
 
B . ds   0 (0)  0

This law is called Gauss’s law for magnetism.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINE DUE TO SOME IMPORTANT STRUCTURE

1. Straight current carrying wire

MAGNETISM Page # 15
2. Circular coil
3. Solenoid
× × × × ×
×××××××××××××××××××××
(ideal)
(Real)
7. AMPERE’S LAW
This law is useful in finding the magnetic field due to currents under certain conditions of
symmetry. Conside a closed plane curve enclosing some current-carrying conductors.

The line integral  B . d l taken along this closed curve is equal to 0 times the total current
crossing the area bounded by the curve.

i.e., B . d l   0i
 ...(8)
where i = total current (algebraic sum) crossing the area.
As a simple application of this law, we can derive the magnetic induction due to a long
straight wire carrying current i.
Suppose the magnetic induction at point P, distance R from the wire is required.
i B
B
O P
R
Draw the circle through P with centre O and radius R as shown in figure.

The magnetic induction | B | at all points along this circle will be the same and will be tangential

to the circle, which is also the direction of the length element d l .
 
Thus,  B .d l =  B dl  B dl  B × 2 R
The current crossing the circular area is i.
Thus, by Ampere’s law, B × 2R = 0i
 0i
 B=
2 R
Page # 16 MAGNETISM
NOTE : -
• Line integral is independent of the shape of path and position of wire with in it.
 
• The statement B . d  0 does not necessarily mean that B = 0 everywhere along the

path but only that no net current is passing through the path.
 
• Sign of current : The current due to which B is produced in the same sense as d (i.e.
  
B . d  ) positive will be taken positive and the current which produces B in the sense

opposite to d will be negative.
 
Ex.11 Find the value of B . d for the loops L1, L2, L3 in the figure shown. The sense of d is

mentioned in the figure.

Sol. for L1 B . d   0 (I1 – I2 )

here I1 is taken positive because magnetic lines of force
produced by I1 is anti clockwise as seen from top. I2
 I1 I2
produces lines of B in clockwise sense as seen from L1 I3
 I4
top. The sense of d is anticlockwise as seen from top.
L2

for L2 : B . d   0 (I1 – I2  I4 ) L3


for L3 :  B . d  0
7.1 USES OF AMEPERE’S CURRENT LAW : To find out magnetic field due to infinite current
carrying wire

i B
P R
R
 
By B.S.L. B will have circular lines. d is also taken tangent to the circle

 B . d  B. d   = 0° so
  B. d = B 2R ( B = const.)
Now by amperes law :
B 2R = 0I
 0i
 B=
2 R
7.2 Hollow current carrying infinitely long cylinde : (I is uniformly distributed on the)
whole circumference
(i) for r  R I
By symmetry the
amperian loop is a
circle. r
 
= B. d = Bd   = 0
  No current
2r
= B d   B = const. R
0

MAGNETISM Page # 17
0I
 B= B
2 r
(ii) r<R  0I
 2R
B .d =  B. d  =  0
(0)
B  1/ r
= B(2 r) = 0
 Bin = 0
Graph r=R r
7.3 Solid infinite current carrying cylinder :

Assume current is uniformly distributed on the whole cross section area
current
R I
density J 
R 2
CASE (I) :r  R
taken an amperian loop inside the cylinder. By symmetry it should
be a circle whose centre is on the axis of cylinder and its axis
also coincides with the cylinder axis on the loop.
 1
r 2
 B . d =  B. d = B d = B . 2r =  0
 R2 r
 0Ir  0 Jr
 
 B = 0J  r

B= =
2 R 2 2 2
CASE (II) :
0 I
2R r B  1/ r

B
r=R r
 
rR  B. d = B d = B.(2r) =  . I 0
 0I   I
0    JR2
 B= also B ( j  r) = 0
2r 2r 2r
  R2  
B  0 2 (J  r )
2r

Page # 18 MAGNETISM
Ex.12 Consider a coaxial cable which consists of an inner wire of radius a surrouded by an
outer shell of inner and outer radii b and c respectively. The inner wire carries an electric
current i0 and the outer shell carries an equal current in opposite direction. Find the
magnetic field at a distnace x from the axis where (a) x < a, (b) a < x < b (c) b < x < c and
(d) x > c. Assume that the current density is uniform in the inner wire and also uniform
in the outer shell.
Sol.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

A cross-section of the cable is shown in figure. Draw a circle of radius x with the centre at
the axis of the cable. The parts a, b, c and d of the figure correspond to the four parts of the
problem. By symmetry, the magnetic field at each point of a circle will have the same
magnitude and will be tangential to it. The circulation of B along this circle is, therefore,
 
B. d B 2x

in each of the four parts of the figure.
(a) The current enclosed within the circle in part b is i0 so that
i0 i
2
.x 2  02 x 2
a a
Ampere’s law
 
B. d   0 i gives
 0i0 x2  0 i0 x
B. 2x = or, B =
a 2 2 a 2
The direction will be along the tangent to the circle.
(b) The current enclosed within the circle in part b is i0 so that
 i
B 2x = 0 i0 or, B = 0 0
2x
(c) The area of cross-section of the outer shell is c2 – b2. The area of cross-section of the
outer shell with in the circle in part c of the figure is x2 – b2.
i0 ( x2 – b2 )
Thus, the current through this part is . This is in the opposite direction to the
(c 2 – b 2 )
current i0 in the inner wire. Thus, the net current enclosed by the circle is
i0 ( x2 – b 2 ) i 0 (c 2 – x 2 )
inet = i0 – =
c 2 – b2 c 2 – b2
From Ampere’s law,
 0 i0 (c 2 – x2 )  0 i0 (c 2 – x2 )
B 2x = or, B =
c 2 – b2 2x( c 2 – b2 )
(d) The net current enclosed by the circle in part d of the figure is zero and hence
B 2x = 0 or, B = 0.
Ex.13(a)Figure shows a cross-section of a large metal sheet carrying an electric current along
its surface. The current in a strip of width dl is Kdl where K is a constant. Find the
magnetic field at a point P at a distance x from the metal sheet.

MAGNETISM Page # 19
Sol. Consider two strips A and C of the sheet situated symmetrically on the two sides of P
(figure). The magnetic field at P due to the strip A is B0 perpendicular to AP and that due to
the strip C is Bc pependicular to CP. The resultant of these two is parallel to the width AC of
the sheet. The field due to the whole sheet will also be in this direction. Suppose this field
has magnitude B.
Ba B P
x
Bc
x
A C x
B
dl O dl 
The field on the opposite side of the sheet at the same distance will also be B but in opposite
direction. Applying Ampere’s law to the rectangle shown in figure.
1
2B  = 0 K  or,, B =  0K
2
Note that it is independent of x.
Ex.13 (b) A cylinder of radius R1 have cylinderical cavity of

radius R2 as shown in the figure and have current × ×
× × ×× ×
density J (down ward). Find Magnetic field when
× × × × R2
(i) r > R1 (on x-axis towards right) ×R1×
× ×× ×
(ii) r < R1 (on x-axis towards left) × × ××× ×
× × ×
(iii) when point is in cavity
Sol. (i) r > R1 (on x-axis towards right)

y
R2
× × × ×
× = × ×
+
×× × x × × ×
× r ×
(1) (2)
Magnetic field due to big cylinder = B1
Magnetic field due to smaller cylinder = B2
Br = B1 + B2
  jR2   JR 2 
0 1 0 2
=  2r  – 2(r – ) 
  
(ii) r < R1 (on x-axis) towards left of centre Magnetic field due to big cylinder
 0 Jr 2
B1 =
2r
Magnetic field due to smaller cylinder
 0 (– J)R 22 r
B2 =
2(r  ) 
So net Magnetic field
0J  R22 
B = B1 + B2 = r – 
2  r   

Page # 20 MAGNETISM
(iii) When the point(p) is in cavity

+J
P
–J
r1 P
O 1 r2 P
P 2
= B1 + r2
 B2 r1
1 2
PR = r1 sin 1 = r2 sin2 ...(1) O R Q
and  = r1 cos1 + r2 cos2 ...(2) 
Horizontal component BH = B1 sin 1 – B2 sin 2
 0J
= [r1 sin 1 – r2 sin  2 ]
2
BH = 0 from eq. (1)
Vertical component Bv = B1 cos 1 + B2 cos 2
 0J  2 1
= [r1 cos 1  r2 cos  2 ]  0 Jr1
2  Jr B1 
 i B2  0 2 2
Bv = 0 . from eq. (2) 2
2
8. MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A LONG SOLENOID

The magnetic field inside a very tightly wound long solenoid is uniform everywhere along the
axis of the solenoid and is zero outside it.
i i
To calculate the magnetic field at a point P inside the solenoid, let us draw a rectangle PQRS
as shown in figure. The line PQ is parallel to the solenoid axis and hence parallel to the

magnetic field B inside the solenoid.
Q
 
 B .d l  Bl

P
l
S R
B
P Q
× × × × × × × ×
  
On the remaining three sides, B . d l is zero everywhere as B is either zero (outside the

solenoid) or perpendicular to d l (inside the solenoid).

 the circulation of B along PQRS is
 
B .d l  B l
If n is the number of turns per unit length along the length of solenoid, total nl turns cross
the rectangle PQRS. Each turn carries a current i.
 Net current crossing PQRS = nli
Using Ampere’s law,
 
 B . d l   0nil
 Bl = 0 nil  B = 0 ni ...(9)

MAGNETISM Page # 21
9. Toroid : It is on hollow circular tube have windings of conducting wire closely attached to
each other circullerly on it (as shown below)
R d
i
for ideal Toroid d << R
Magnetic field in Toroid ×
× ×
Let N = Total No. of turns
Now from Ampere’s circuital law ×
×
B
×
 B. d =  i 0 in
× R
B.2R = 0 iin = 0 Ni ×
 0N i
× ×
B= Ampere's
2R × B × loop
× ×
N
n= = No of turns per unit length
2R
so B = 0 n i

10. Infinite Current Carrying sheet
Now from Ampere’s loop
D × C
 B.d =  0  r ×
× B Ampere's
 loop
 B. d   B. d   B. d   B. d  
AB BC CD DA
0  B × r
×
A B
×
B d  B' d cos 90B d  B' d cos 90   0 
   
B + 0 + B + 0 = 0   
0
B=
2
Ex.14 Three identical long solenoids P, Q and R are connected to each other as shown in
figure. if the magnetic field at the cente of P is 2.0 T, what would be the field at the
centre of Q? Assume that the field due to any solenoid is confined within the volume of
that solenoid only.
Sol.
Q
P
R
As the solenoids are identical, the currents in Q and R will be the same and will be half the
current in P. The magnetic field within a solenoid is given by B = 0 ni. Hence the field in Q will
be equal to the field in R and will be half the field in P i.e., will be 1.0 T

Page # 22 MAGNETISM
11. MAGNETIC FORCE ON MOVING CHARGE

 
When a charge q moves with velocity v , in a magnetic field B , then the magnetic force
experienced by moving charge is given by following formula :
  
F  q( v  B) Put q with sign. ...(9)

v : Instantaneous velocity

B : Magnetic field at that point.
11.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGNETIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FORCE

(1) Magentic force is always perpendicular to the field while electric force is collinear with the
field.
(2) Magnetic force is velocity dependent, i.e., acts only when the charged particle is in
motion while electric force (qE) is independent of the state of rest or motion of the
charged particle.
(3) Magentic force does no work when the charged particle is displaced while the electric
force does work in displacing the charged particle.
NOTE :
   
• F  v and
also F  B
•  F  v  power due to magnetic force on a charged particle is zero. (use the
 
formula of power P = F . v for its proof))
• Since the F  B so work done by magnetic force is zero in every part of the motion. The
magnetic force cannot increase or decrease the speed (or kinetic energy) of a charged
particle. Its can only change the direction of velocity.
• Ona stationary
 charged particle, magnetic force is zero.
• If V || B , then also magnetic force on charged particle is zero. It moves along a straight
line if only magnetic field is acting.

Ex.15 A Charged particle of mass 5 mg and charge q = +2C has velocity v  2 î – 3 ĵ  4k̂ . Find
out the magetic force on the charged particle and its acceleration at this instant due to
 
magnetic field B  3 j – 2k . v and B are in m/s and Wb/m2 respectively.
  
Sol. F  qv  B = 2 × 10–6 ( 2 î – 3 ĵ  4k̂ )  ( 3 ĵ – 2k̂ )
= 2 × 10–6 [–6 i  4 j  6k ] N


 F 2  10 –6
By Newton’s Law a   (–6 i  4 j  6k )
m 5  10 –6
= 0.8 (–3 i  2 j  3k ) m/s2

  
 
Ex.16 A charged particle has acceleration a  2 î  xĵ in a magnetic field B  –3î  2 ĵ – 4 k̂ . Find the
value of x.
 
Sol.  FB
 
 a B
 
 a .B  0
 ( 2i  xj).(–3 i  2j – 4k ) = 0

 – 6 + 2x = 0  x = 3.

MAGNETISM Page # 23
12. MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD.
12.1 WHEN THE CHARGED PARTICLE IS GIVEN VELOCITY PERPENDICULAR TO THE FIELD
Let a particle of charged q and mass m is moving with a velocity v and enters at right angles

to a uniform magnetic field B as shown in figure.
The force on the particle is qvB and this force will always act in a direction perpendicular to
v. Hence, the particle will move on a circular path. If the radius of the path is r then
× × ×
×  v ×
v F F
× ×
× F ×
× ×
× × × × × v × ×
mv 2 mv
 Bqv or, r = ...(10)
r qB
Thus, radius of the path is proportional to the momentum mv of the particle and inversely
proportional to the magnitude of magnetic field.
Time period : The time period is the time taken by the charged particle to complete one
rotation of the circular path which is given by,
2r 2m
T= = ...(11)
v qB
The time period is independent of the speed v.
Frequency : The frquency is number of revolution of charged particle in one second, which is
given by,
1 qB
= = ..(12)
T 2m
and angular frequency =  = 2
Ex 17. A proton (p),  - particle and deuteron (D) are moving in circular paths with same
kinetic energies in the same magnetic field. Find the ratio of their radii and time periods.
(Neglect interaction between particles).
2mK
Sol. R=
qB
2mK 2.4 mK 2.2 mK
 Rp : R  : R D = : :
qB qB qB
=1:1: 2
T = 2m/qB
2m 24m 22m
 Tp : T : TD = : :
qB 2qB qB
= 1 : 2 : 2 Ans.

Page # 24 MAGNETISM
Ex.18 A positive charge particle of charge q, mass

P
m enters into a uniform magnetic field with
velocity v as shown in the figure. There is no B
magnetic field to the left of PQ. A
Find v 
(i) time spent,
(ii) distance travelled in the magnetic field Q
(iii) impulse of magnetic force.
Sol. The particle will move in the field as shown. Angle subtended by the arc at the centre = 2
(i) Time spent by the charge in magnetic field

m Q
qB
t =   t  t =
m qB v  × × × ×
(ii) Distance travelled by the charge in magnetic field : D× × × ×
y r × × × ×
2 2r sin 
mv C × × × ×
= r (2) = .2
qB r × × × ×
x A × × × ×
(iii) Impulse = change in momentum of the charge q.v 
=(–mv sin  i + mv cos  j )
P
– (mv sin  i + mv cos  j ) = –2mv sin i
Ex.19 Repeat above question if the charge is –ve and the angle made by the boundary with

the velocity is .
6 × × × × ×
  5 × × × × ×
Sol. (i) 2 – 2 = 2 – 2. = 2 – = \ 6
6 3 3 v   
× × × × ×
qBt 5m 
= t = t= × C× 2×– 2× ×
m 3qB 
5 r –q. v × × × × ×
(ii) Distance travelled s = r (2 – 2 ) =
3 × × × × ×
(iii) Impulse = charge in linear momentum
× × × × ×
= m (– v sin  i + v cos  j )
– m (v sin  i + v cos j )

= – 2 mv sin  i = – 2 mv sin i = – mv i
6
Ex.20 In the figure shown the magnetic field on the P

left on ‘PQ’ is zero and on the right of ‘PQ’ it is B
uniform.
Find the time spent in the magnetic field. u
Sol. The path will be semicircular

time spent C
= T/2 = m/qB Q
u

MAGNETISM Page # 25
Ex.21 A uniform magnetic field of strength ‘B’ exists in a

region of width ‘d’. A particle of charge ‘q’ and mass
‘m’ is shot perpendicularly (as shown in the figure) B=0 B B=0
into the magnetic field. Find the time spend by the
q,m
particle in the magnetic field if u
mu mu
(i) d  (ii) d <
qB qB d
Sol.
u
mu T m
(i) d > means d > R  t= =
qB 2 qB
d
(ii) sin  =
R C

 d
 = sin–1   
R C
t = 
u
m  d
 t= sin –1 
qB  R
Ex.22 What should be the speed of charged particle so that it can’t collide with the upper
wall? Also find the coordinate of the point where the particle strikes the lower plate in
the limiting case of velocity.
y
wall
× × ×
q,m v d
B
×(0,0) × ×
Sol. (i) The path of the particle will be circular larger the velocity,
larger will be the radius. For particle not to s strike R < d
mv R3
 d v
qB
C3 C2 C1
qBd
 v
m
qBd
(ii) for limiting case v 
m
R=d
2d
 coordinate = (–2d, 0, 0)

Page # 26 MAGNETISM
12.2 WHEN THE CHARGED PARTICLE IS MOVING AT AN ANGLE TO THE FIELD

In this case the charged particle having charge q and mass m is moving with velocity v and it
enter the magnetic field B at angle  as shown in figure. Velocity can be revsolved in two
components, one along magnetic field and the other perpendicular to it. Let these components
are v|| and v
v|| = v cos
and v = v sin 

The parallel component v|| of velocity remains unchanged as it is parallel to B . Due to the v
the particle will move on a circular path. So the resultant path will be combination of
straight-line motion and circular motion, which will be helical as shown in figure.

 B
v sin
v
A1 X
 A3 A4 A5
A2
q,m v cos 
Pitch
mv mvsin
The radius of path is (r) = = ...(13)
qB qB
2 r 2mv sin  2m
Time period (T) = v = vsin qB = ..(14)
 qB
Bq
Frquency (f) = ...(15)
2m
Pitch : Pitch of helix described by charged particle is defined as the distance moved by the
centre of circular path in the time in which particle completes one revolution.
Pitch = distance A1A2 = A3A4 = .............. = v cos. T
2m 2mv cos 
V||.T = v cos  = ...(16)
Bq qB
If the velocity of the charge is not perpendicular to the magnetic field, we can break the
velocity in two components – v| |, parallel to the field and v  , perpendicular to the field. The
 
components v| | remains unchanged as the force qv  B is perpendicular to it. In the plane
mv 
perpendicular to the field, the particle traces a circle of radius r = as given by equation.
qB
The resultant path is helix.
Complete analysis :
Let a particle have initial velocity in the plane of the paper and a constant and uniform
magnetic field also in the plane of the paper.
the particle starts from point A1.
It completes its one revolution at A2 and 2nd revolution at A3 and so on. X-axis is the tangent
to the helix points
A1, A2, A3,............. all are on the x-axis. y
distance A1A2 = A3A4 = .............. = v cos. T = pitch
v sin 
where T = Time period v sin   t
Let the initial position of the particle be (0, 0, 0) 
and v sin in +y direction. Then +z c –z
in x : Fx = 0, ax = 0, vx = constant = v cos,
x = (v cos) t

MAGNETISM Page # 27
In y-z plane :
From figure it is clear that
y = R sin, here  = t
vy = v sin cos
z = – (R – R cos)
vz = v sin sin
acceleration towards centre
= (v sin)2/R = 2R
 ay = – 2R sin , az = – 2R cos
At any time : the position vector of the particle
(or its displacement w.r.t. initial position)

r  x i  yj  zk , x, y, z already found

velocity v  v x i  v y j  v zk , vx, vy, vz already found

a  a x i  a y j  a zk , ax, ay, az already found
Ex.23 A beam of protons with a velocity 4 × 105 m/s enters a uniform magnetic field of 0.3 T
at an angle 60° to the magnetic field. Find the radius of the helical path taken by the
proton beam. Also find the pich of the helix mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
Sol. Radius of the helical path taken by the proton beam
m( v sin )
r= = 1.2 cm
qB
2r
Time period T = = 2.175 × 10–7s
v sin 
 pitch of the helix p = v cos .T
1
 p = 4 × 105 × × 2.175 × 10–7 = 4.35 cm
2
,
13. MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD


When the moving charged particle is subjected simultaneously to both electric field E and
  
magnetic field B , the moving charged particle will experience electric force F  q E and
e
  
magnetic force F  q( v  B )
m
   
F  q[ E  V  B ] ..(17)
which is ‘Lorentz force equation’.
Now let us consider two special cases involving the application of above equation
Note
• Magnetic force is frame dependent, Electric force is frame dependent but lorentz force is
frame independent
  
CASE I : When v , E and B all the three are collinear
In this situation as the particle is moving parallel or anti-parallel to the field, the magnetic
force on it will be zero and only electric force will act, so
E

 v1
  v
 F qE q
a  
m m
B
Hence the particle will pass through the field following a straight-line path (parallel to the
field) with change in its speed. So in this situation speed, velocity, momentum and kinetic
energy all will change without change in direction of motion as shown in the figure.
  
v , E and B are collinear..

Page # 28 MAGNETISM
   
CASE II : - E||B and uniform   0, 180° ( E and B are constant and uniform)
y
V0
V0 sin
V0

 x, E, B x
+q E,B V0 cos
z
qE
along X axis : Fx = qE, ax = , vx = v0 cos + axt,
m
1 2
x = v0cos t + a x t
2
in y z plane : v 0 sin
qv0 sin  B = m(v0 sin)2/ R y
mv 0 sin
 R=
qB
 R
v 0 sin qB z
= = C
R m
2   t
= = 2f
T
 1 qE 2 
r  {( V0 cos ) t  t } i  R sin tj  (R – R cos t)(–k )
2 m
  qE  
t i +(V0 sin) cost j

V   v 0 cos  
 m 
+V0 sin  sint – k )
 qE 
a i + 2 R [– sin  j – cos k ]
m
  
CASE III : v , E and B are mutually perpendicular
E
  
v , E and B are mutually perpendicular. In Fe
 
case situation of E and B are such that 
q v
  
F  F e F m  0 
v

  F 
or, a     0 , then the particle will pass 
B Fm
 m
 
through the field with the same velocity.
In this situation,
Fe = Fm or, qE = qvB
E
or, v =
B
This principle is used in velocity-selector to get a charged beam having a specific velocity.

MAGNETISM Page # 29
12. If a charge particle (q) inters into the magnetic field at origin with velocity vi, then find
the maximum possible positive x co-ordinate of particle if magnetic field is given as
B=B x (– k ) x > 0
0
=0 x<0
Sol. Because F = qv0B0x at any time t at position x

Fvertical = qB 0 v 0 x cos  v0
y
dy qB 0 v 0 x cos 
so ay = = ...(i)
dt m
dv y  dx  qB 0 x qv0B0x=F v0
  ( v 0 cos  ) 
dx  dt  m 
dx
 v 0 cos 
dt at any time t x
v0 xmax
q{B 0 . x} 2
 dv y   dx  v = qB 0 . xmax
m 0
m 2
0 0
Ex.24 A long, straight wire carries a current i. A particle having a positive charge q and mass
m kept at a distance x0 from the wire is projected towards it with a speed v. Find the
minimum separation between the wire and the particle
Sol. Let the particle be initially at P(figure). Take the wire as the Y-axis and the foot of perpendicular
from P to the wire as the origin. Take the line OP as the X-axis. We have, OP = x0. The
magnetic field B at any point to the right of the particle is, therefore, in the X-Y plane. As
there is no initial velocity along the Z-axis, the motion will be in the X-Y plane. Also, its speed
remains unchanged. As the magnetic field is not uniform, the particle does not go along a
circle.
  
The force at time t is F  q v  B
    i    i   i
 q( v x i  v y j )    0 k   j qv x 0  i qv y 0
 2  x  2x 2x
Y
F  qi v y vy i
Thus a x  x   0   ...(i) x0
m 2m x x
O x
 0 qi P
where  
2 m
dv x dv x dx v x dv x
Also ax    ...(ii)
dt dx dt dx
As, v x 2 + v y 2 = v 2,
giving vx dvx = – vy dvy ...(iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii),
v y dv y v y

dx x
dx dv y
or, 
x 
Initially x = x0 and vy = 0. At minimum separation from the wire, vx = 0 so that vy = –v.
x v
dx dv y x v
  
Thus x  or, In x   
x0 0 0
2 mv

 0 qi
or; x = x0 e –v / 
= x0 e

Page # 30 MAGNETISM
Ex.25 An electron is released from the origin at a place

where a uniform electric field E and a uniform
magnetic field B exist along the negative Y-axis and Y
u
the negative Z-axis respectively. Find the
displacement of the electron along the Y-axis when E F
its velocity becomes perpendicular to the electric
field for the B
first time. X
Sol. Let us take axes as shown in figure. According to the right-handed system, the Z-axis is
upward in the figure and hence the magnetic field is shown downwards. At any time, the
velocity of the electron may be written as
  
u  ux i  uy j
The electric and magnetic fields may be written as
   
E   E j and B   Bk
respectivley. The force on the electron is
      
F   e(E  u  B)  eE j  eB(u y i  u x j )
Thus, Fx = euy B and Fy = e(E – uxB).
The components of the acceleration are
du x eB
ax   uy ...(i)
dt m
du y e
and ay   (E  u xB) ...(ii)
dt m
We have,
d2u y eB du x eB eB
2
  . uy    2 uy
dt m dt m m
eB
where   ...(iii)
m
This equation is similar to that for a simple harmonic motion. Thus,
uy = A sin (t + ) ...(iv)
and hence,
du y
 A  cos(t   ) ...(v)
dt
du y Fy eE
At t = 0, uy = 0 and  
dt dt m
Putting in (iv) and (v)
eE E
 = 0 and A 
m B
E
Thus, u y  sint
B
The path of the electron will be perpendicular to the Y-axis when uy = 0. This will be the case
for the first time at t where
sin t = 0
 m
or, t =  or, t  
 eB
dy E
Also, u y   sint
dt B
y
E E
or,  dy  B sint dt
0
or,, y
B
(1  cos t)

MAGNETISM Page # 31

At t
,

E 2E
y (1  cos  )  x
B B
Thus, the displacement along the Y-axis is cycloid
2E 2Em 2Em qE0
 
B BeB eB 2 B0
q
ax = E sin t
m 0
vx t y
qE0 qE 0
 dv x   sintdt  vx = (1 – cos t)
m m
0 0
x t
qE0 qE0  sin t 
 dx   (1 – cos t). dt  x= t –  
m m  
0 0
14. MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING WIRE :


Suppose a conducting wire, carrying a current i, is placed in a magnetic field B . Consider a
small element d of the wire (figure). The free electrons drift
i
d
vd
F
B
with a speed vd opposite to the direction of the current. The relation between the current i
and the drift speed vd is
i = jA = nevdA
Here A is the area of cross-section of the wire and n is the number of free electrons per unit
volume. Each electron experiences an average (why average ?) magnetic force
  
f  – ev d  B
The number of free electrons in the small element considered in nAd  . Thus, the magnetic
force on the wire of length d is
  
dF  (nAd)(– ev d  B)

If we denote the length d along the direction of the current by d , the above equation
becomes
  
dF  nAev dd  B
  
Using (i), dF  id   B

The quantity id is called a current element
    
Fres  dF  id  B  i d  B
  
(  i is same at all points of the wire)
  
If B is uniform then Fres  i  d  B

     
Fres  iL  B ...(18)
 
Here L  d = vector length of the wire = vector connecting the end points of the wire.

I
P  Q
L
P Q
Page # 32 MAGNETISM
  
NOTE :- If a current loop of any shape is placed in a uniform B then  Fres 
 
on it = 0 ( L  0 )
 magnetic
Direction of force : The direction of force is always perpendicular to the plane containing i
     
d L and B and is same as that of cross-product of two vectors ( a  b ) with a = id L and
 
b B
 
id L
dF

B
 
id L  
B dF
 
The direction of force when current element id L and B are perpendicular to each other can
also be determined by applying either of the following rules.
(a) Fleming’s Left-hand Rule : Stretch the fore-finger, central finger and thumb of the left

hand mutually perpendicular. Then if the fore-finger points in the direction of the field ( B ) and
the central in the direction of current i, the thumb will point in the direction of force (or motion).
(b) Right-hand Palm rule : Stretch the fingers and thumb of the right-hand at right angles
to each other. If the fingers point in the direction of current i, and the palm in the direction of

the field B then thumb will point in the direction of force.
14.1 POINT OF APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE :
On a straight current carrying wire the magnetic force in a uniform magnetic field can be
assumed to be acting at its mid point.
I B
× B I,  I
/2
This can be used for calculation of torque.
14.2 FORCE BETWEEN TWO LONG STRAIGHT PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS
Let us consider two very long parallel straight wires carrying currents i1 and i2.
Each wire is placed in the region of magnetic induction of other and hence will experience a
force. The net force on a current-carrying conductor due to its own field is zero. So if there
are two long parallel current-carrying wires 1 and 2 (as shown below), the wire-1 will be in
the field of wire-2 and vice versa.
i2
i1 i2 i1

dF1 dF2 dF1  dF2 
B2 d d
1 2 1 2
The force on dl2 length of wire-2 due to field of wire-1, dF2 = i2 dL2 B1
 0 2i1i2  0 2i1
dF2 = dL2 [  B1 = ]
4 d 4 d
dF2  2i i
or  0 12 ...(19)
dL 2 4 d

MAGNETISM Page # 33
It will be true for wire-1 in the field of wire-2. The direction of force in accordance with the
right-hand screw rule will be as shown above.
So the force per unit length in case of two parallel current-carrying wires separated by a
distance ‘d’ is
dF  0 2 i1i2

dL 4  d
If i1 and i2 are along the same direction, the forces between the wires is attractive in nature
and if i1 and i2 are oppositely directed the force is repulsive. The direction of forces is given
by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Definition of ‘ampere’
dF  0 2 i1i2
We have 
dL 4  d
If i1 = i2 = 1 A ; d = 1 m; dL = 1 m ; then
dF = 2 × 10–7 N
Hence, ‘ampere’ is defined as the current which when passing through each of two parallel
infinitely long straight conductors placed in free space at a distance of 1m from each other
produces between them force of 2 × 10–7 N for one metre of their length.
Ex.26 A wire is bent in the form of an equilaterial triangle PQR of side 10 cm and carries a
current of 5.0 A. It is placed in magnetic field B of magnitude 2.0 T direction perpendicular
to the plane of the loop. Find the forces on the three sides of the triangle.
F3 B
F1 F2
P Q
i
Sol. Suppose the field and the current have directions as shown in figure. The force on PQ is
  
F1  i  B
or, F1 = 5.0 A × 10 cm × 2.0 T = 1.0 N
The rule of vector product shows that the force F1 is perpendicular to PQ and is directed
towards the inside of the triangle.
 
The forces F2 and F3 on QR and RP can also be obtained similarly. Both the forces are 1.0 N
directed perpendicularly to the respective sides and towards the inside of the triangle.
  
The three forces F1,F2 and F3 will have zero resultant, so that there is no net magnetic force
on the triangle. This result can be generalised. Any closed current loop, placed in a homogeneous
magnetic field, does not experience a net magnetic force.
Ex.27 Figure shown two long metal rails placed horizontally and parallel to each other at a
separation  . A uniform magnetic field B exists in the vertically downward direction. A
wire of mass m can slide on the rails. The rails are connected to a constant current
source which drives a current i in the circuit. The friction coefficient between the rails
and the wire is .
(a)What should the minimum value of  which can prevent the wire from sliding on the
rails ?
(b)Describe the motion of the wire if the value of  is half the
value found in the pervious part
× × × × × × × ×
i × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × ×

Page # 34 MAGNETISM
Sol. (a) The force on the wire due to the magnetic field is
  
F  i  B
or, F = iB
It acts towards right in the given figure. If the wire does not slide on the rails, the force of
friction by the rails should be equal to F. If 0 be the minimum coefficient of friction which can
prevent sliding, this force is also equal to 0 mg. Thus,
0 mg = i  B
iB
or, 0 =
mg
0 iB
(b) If the friction coefficient is  = = , the wire will slide towards right. The frictional
2 2mg
force by the rails is
iB
f = mg = towards left.
2
iB iB i B
The resultant force is iB – = towards right. The acceleration will be a = . The
2 2 2m
wire will slide towards right with this acceleration.

Ex.28 In the figure shown a semicircular wire is placed in a uniform B directed toward right.
Find the resultant magnetic force and torque on it.
I
B
P Q
Sol. The wire is equivalent to B

 =0
I
 Fres = 0 Ans. 2R
forces on individual parts are marked in the figure
by × and . By symmetry their will be pair of
forces forming couples.
I y
/2 ××
=  i(Rd) B sin (90 – ). 2R cos ×
×
  Q
x
0 ×
i R 2
= B
2
 i R2
  B(– j ) Ans.
2
Ex.29 Find the resultant magnetic force and torque on the loop.
 I
Sol. Fres  0 , ( loop)
B
  i  R 2B(– j )

and
R
using the above method I

MAGNETISM Page # 35
Ex.30 In the figure shown find the resultant magnetic force and torque about ‘C’, and ‘P’.
 I
Sol. Fnett = I. 2R. B
×B
P
Q
 wire is equivalent to C R
dF
dF
P 2R Q 
P R
Force on each element is radially outward : c = 0
about point P

P=  [ i / (Rd)B sin 90 ]R sin 
0
= 2 I B R2 Ans.
Ex.31 Find the magnetic force on the loop ‘PQRS’ due to the straight wire.
 0 I1 I2  0I1 I2   I I
Sol. Fres = a ( – i ) + a( i ) = 0 1 2 (– i )
2 a 2( 2a) 4
a
y
Q
I2 a
x
I1
S
a
Ex.32 In the figure shown the wires AB and PQ carry constant currents I1 and I2 respectively.
PQ is of uniformly distributed mass ‘m’ and length ‘  ’ AB and PQ are both horizontal
and kept in the same vertical plane. The PQ is in equilibrium at height ‘h’. Find

I2
P Q
h
A
I1 B
(i) ‘h’ is terms of I1 I2 ,  , m, g and other standard constants.
(ii)If the wire PQ is displaced vertically by small distance prove that it performs SHM.
Find its time period in terms of h and g.
Sol. (i) Magnetic repulsive force balnaces the weight.
0I1I2  I I 
  mg  h  0 1 2
2h 2 mg
(ii) Let the wire be displaced downward by distance x (<< h).
Magnetic force on it will increase, so it goes back towards its equilibrium position. Hence it
performs oscillations.
 0 I1 I2
Fres   – mg
2 (h – x)
mgh mg(h – h  x)
= – mg =
h–x h–x
mg mg
= x x for x << h
h– x h
m h
 T = 2 = 2 Ans.
mg / h g

Page # 36 MAGNETISM
15. CURRENT LOOP IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
15.1 MAGNETIC MOMENT

According to magnetic effects of current, in case of current-carrying coil for axial point,
  2NiR2
B  0 2
4  (R  x2 ) 3 / 2
  2NiR2
when x >> R, B  0
4  x3
If we compare this result with the field due to a small bar magnet for a distant axial point, i.e.,

  2M
0
B 
4  x3
where M is magnetic moment of the bar magnet.
We find that a current-carrying coil for a distant point behaves as a magnetic dipole of
moment

M = NiR2 = NiA ...(20)
where A is area of the loop. So the magnetic moment of a current carrying coil is defined as
the product of current in the coil with the area of coil in the vector form.
Magnetic moment of a current loop is a vector quantity and 
direction is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. Its dimensions M
are [L2A] and units are A-m2.
Magnetic moment is case of a charged particle having charge q
1
and moving in a circle of radius R with speed v is given by qvR
2
v
As we know, the equivalent current i = qf = q and |A| = R2
2R
 1
 M = i | A| = qvR
2
15.2 TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP
Consider a rectangular coil CDEF of length L and width b
is placed vertically, while a uniform magnetic induction B
passes normally through it as shown. The coil is capable
F1
of rotation about an axis O1O2.
If the loop is oriented in the magnetic field such that the D
C L
normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle  with the

direction of B , then the torque experienced by the loop 
i
b b
= (iLB) sin   (iLB) sin  O1 i b O2
2 2
i.e.,  = iLbB sin  = iAB sin 

where A = Lb is the area of the loop. F E
The maximum torque experienced is  = iAB, when  = 90°

and for a coil of N turns F2
 = NiAB
Here NiA = M = Magnetic moment of the loop.
  
In vector notation   M B ...(21)
This result holds good for plane loops of all shapes rectangular, circular or otherwise.

MAGNETISM Page # 37
15.3 WORK DONE IN ROTATING A CURRENT LOOP

When a current loop is rotated in a uniform magnetic field through an angle  about an axis
then work done will be
w 
 dW   d   MBsind
0 0
W = – [MB cos ]0 = MB (1 – cos ) ...(22)
Ex.33 For a given length L of a wire carrying a current i, how many circular turns would
produce the maximum magnetic moment and of what value ?
Sol. For a cicular coil having N turns, magnetic moment
M = R2 iN ...(i)
Now, length of wire L = (2R) N
L
 R=
2N
Substituting the above value of R in equation (i), we get
L2 iL2
M = Ni × or, M =
4 2N2 4N
From equation (ii), it is clear that M will be maximum when N = minimum = 1, i.e., the coil has
only one turn and
1 2
(M)max = iL
4
Ex.34 A coil in the shape of an equilateral triangle of side 0.02 m is suspended from a vertex
such that it is hanging in a vertical in plane magnetic field of 5 × 10–2 T. Find the couple
acting on the coil when a current of 0.1 ampere is passed through it and the magnetic
field is parallel to its plane.
Sol. As the coil is in the form of an equilateral triangle, its area
1
A=  L  L sin 60 A
2
1 3 N
S
=  ( 0.02) 2  = –4
3 × 10 m
2
2 2
So its magnetic moment B C
–4
M = iA = 0.1 × 3 × 10
–5 2
3 × 10 A-m
=
Now, the couple on a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field is given by  = MB sin 

Since the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field, the angle between M and B will
be 90° and hence  = MB sin 90° = MB
  = ( 3 × 10–5) × 5 × 10–2 = 5 3 × 10–7 N-m

Page # 38 MAGNETISM
Ex.35 The arrangement is as shown below i2

(a) Find the potential energy of the loop.
(b) Find the work done to increase the spacing i1
between the wire and the loop from a to 2a.
a b
Sol. (a) Magnetic moment of a small element of the loop.
dM = i2 Ldx
The direction of the magnetic moment is perpendicular to the plane of paper pointing inwards.

dU = –dMB = – dM B, where B is the magnetic field at the position of this element.
 0 2i1
i.e., B =
4 a  x
0  dx  i1 i2
 dU = – 2i1i2 l  
4 a+ x
b a 
dx b
0 0  a  b
 U = – 4  2i1i2 l a + x =
 2i1i 2 l loge   x dx
0
4  a 
0  a  b
(b) Ui = – 2i1i2 l loge  
4  a 
0  2a  b 
Uf = – 2 i1i2 l  loge 
4  2a 
0  2(a  b) 
 W = U = Uf – Ui = 2 i1i 2 l loge  
4  2a  b 
16. MAGNET
16.1 Pole strength, magnetic dipole and magnetic dipole moment :

A magnet always has two poles ‘N’ and ‘S’ and like poles of two magnets repel other and the
unlike poles of two magnets attract each other they form action reaction pair.
F F
N S N S
(i)
F F
S N N S
(i)
The poles of the same magnet do not comes to meet each other due to attraction. They are
maintained we cannot get two isolated poles by cutting the magnet from the middle. The
othe end becomes pole of opposite nature. SO, ‘N’ and ‘S’ always exist together.
 they are
A C B A C C B
N S  N S N S
Know as +ve and –ve poles. North pole is treated as positive pole (or positive magnetic
charge) and the south pole is treated as –ve pole (or –ve magnetic charge). They are
quantitatively represented by their “POLE STRENGTH” + m and – m respectively (just like we
have charge +q and –q in electrostatics). Pole strength is a scalar quantity and represents
the strength of the pole hence, of the magnet also).

MAGNETISM Page # 39
A magnet can be treated as a dipole since it always has two opposite poles (just like in
electric dipole we have two opposite charges –q and +q). It is called MAGNETIC DIPOLE and
it has a direction is from –m to +m that means from ‘S’ to ‘N’)
m
N S
+m g –m
M = m.lm here lm = magnetic length of the magnet. lm is slightly less than lg (it is geometrical
length of the magnet = end to end distance). The ‘N’ and ‘S’ are not located exactly at the
ends of the magnet. For calculation purposes we can assume  m   g [Actually  m /  g ~
–
0.84]
The units of m and M will be mentioned afterwards where you can remember and understand.
16.2 Magnetic field and strength of magnetic field.

The physical space around a magnetic pole has special influence due to which other pole
experience a force. That special influence is called MAGNETIC FIELD and that force is called
‘MAGNETIC FORCE’. This field is quanlitatively represented by ‘STRENGTH OF MAGNETIC FIELD’

or ‘MAGNETIC INDUCTION” or “MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY”. It is represented by B . It is a
vector quantity.

Definition of B : The magnetic force experienced by a north pole of unit pole strength at a
point due to some other poles (called source) is called the strength of magnetic field at that
point due to the source.

 F
Mathematically, B 
m

Here F = magnetic force on pole of pole strength m. m may be +ve or –ve and of any value.

S.I. unit of B is Tesla or Weber/m2 (abbreviated as T and Wb/m2).
 
We can also write F = mB . According to this direction of on +ve pole (North pole) will be in

the direction of field and on –ve pole (south pole) it will be opposite to the direction of B .
 
B B
 and
N F S
F
The field generated by sources does not depend on the test pole (for its any value and any
sign).

(A) B DUE TO VARIOUS SOURCE
(i) Due to a single pole :
(Similar to the case of a point charge in electrostatics)
r
m
 0  m
B =   2 ...(23)
4 r
This is magnitude
Direction of B due to north pole and due to south poles are as shown.

Page # 40 MAGNETISM

B
 
B B
N S

B
in vector from B    0  m r
 
...(24)
 4  r 3

here m is with sign and r = position vector of the test point with respect to the pole.
(ii) Due to a bar magnet :

(Same as the c ase of elec tric dipole in
Bres
electrostatics) independent case never found.
equitorial
B
Always ‘N’ and ‘S’ exist together as magnet. line r
 –m m A
 0  M Bres
at A (on the axis) = 2   3 for a << r ...(25) S
4 r N
axis
2a r

 0  M
at B (on the equatorial) = –   3 for a << r ...(26)
4 r
Bn Bres
At General point :
 Br
  0  M cos 
Br = 2  
4 r3

  0  M sin
Bn =   S N
 4  r 3
 0M
Bres =
4 r 3 1  3 cos 2  ...(27 (a))
Bn tan
tan = B = ...(28 (b))
r 2
Ex.36 Find the magnetic force on a short magnet of magnetic dipole moment M2 due to another
short magnet of magnetic dipole moment M1.
S N N S
M1 M2
r
Solution :
To find the magnetic force we will use the formula of ‘B’ due to a magnet. We will also assume
m and –m as pole strengths of ‘N’ and ‘S’ of M2. Also length of M2 as 2a. B1 and B2 are the
strengths of the magnetic field due to M1 at +m and –m respectively. They experience
magnetic forces F1 and F2 as shown.
+m –m
r–a 2a
r+a

MAGNETISM Page # 41
  0  M1    M1
F1 = 2  m and F2  2 0  m
4  (r – a) 3  4   (r  a) 3
 0   1   1 
 Fres = F1 – F2 = 2   M1m  3
 – 3

4  (r – a)   (r  a)  
–3 –3
  0  M1m  a  a 
2 
=  4  3   1   –  1   
r  r  r 

By using, Binomial expansion, and neglecting terms of high power we get
  0  M1m  3 a 3a 
Fres = 2  3 1  – 1
4 r  r r 
  0  M1m 6 a   0  M1 3M2   0  M1M2

= 2  3 = 2  4 = 6  4
4 r r 4 r 4 r
Direction of Fres is towards right.
 0 2M1 dB  6M
B= .   – 0  41
4 r 3 dr 4 r
dB   0  6M1M2
F = – M2 ×  F =  
dr 4 r4
Ex.37 Two short magnets A and B of magnetic dipole moments M1 and M2 respectively are
placed as shown. The axis of ‘A’ and the equatorial line of ‘B’ are the same. Find the
magnetic force on one magnet due to the other.
N
A M1 B
N S M2
S
r
  M M
Ans. F  3  0  24 1 upwards on M1
 4  r
down wards on M2
Ex 38. A magnet is 10 cm long and its pole strength is 120 CGS units (1 CGS unit of pole strength
= 0.1 A-m). Find the magnitude of the magnetic field B at a point on its axis at a distnace
20 cm from it.
Sol. The pole strength is m = 120 CGS units = 12 A-m
Magnetic length is 2l = 10 cm or l = 0.05 m
Distance from the magnet is d = 20 cm = 0.2 m. The field B at a point in end-on position is
0 2Md  0 4md
B = 4 2 = 4 2
(d –  2 ) 2 (d –  2 ) 2
 –7 T – m  4  (12 A – m)  ( 0.05m)  ( 0.2m)
=  10  = 3.4 × 10–5 T..
A  [( 0.2m)] 2 – ( 0.05m) 2 ] 2

Page # 42 MAGNETISM
Ex.39 Find the magnetic field due to a dipole of magnetic moment 1.2 A-m2 at a point 1 m
away from it in a direction making an angle of 60° with the dipole-axis.
Sol. The magnitude of the field is
 0M
B= 1  3 cos 2 
4 r 3
. A – m2
 –7 T – m  12
=  10 
A  1m 2 1  3 cos 2 60
The direction of the field makes an angle  with the radial line where
tan 3
tan  = =
2 2
Ex.40 Figure shows two identical magnetic dipoles a and b of magnetic moments M each,
placed at a separation d, with their axes perpendicular to each other. Find the magnetic
field at the point P midway between the dipoles.
d d
Bb
a S a S
S N b S N b
P N P Ba N
(a) (b)
Sol. The point p is in end-on position for the dipole a and in broadside-on position for the dipole b’.
 0 2M
The magnetic field at P due to a is Ba = 4  along the axis of a, and that due to b is Bb
(d / 2) 3
0 M
= 4 parallel to the axis of b as shown in figure. The resultant field at P is, therefore
( d / 2 )3
B= B 2a  B b2
 0M
= 12  2 2
4 (d / 2) 3
2 5  0M
=
d2
The direction of this field makes an angle  with Ba such that tan = Bb/Ba = 1/2.
16.3 MAGNET IN AN EXTERNAL UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD.

(same as case of electric dipole)
+m mB
Fres = 0 (for any angle) B
 = MB sin  
* here  is angle between mB –m
 
B and M
NOTE :
  
•  acts such that it tries to make M  B

•  is same about every point of the dipole it’s potential energy is
 
U = – MB cos = – M.B
 = 0° is stable equilibrium
 =  is unstable equilibrium
for small ‘’ the dipole perfoms SHM about  = 0° position
 = – MB sin  ;
I  = – M B sin 

MAGNETISM Page # 43
 MB 
 = –  
I 
for small , sin  ~ 
–
Angular frequency of SHM
MB 2 I
= =  T = 2
I T MB
here I = Icm if the dipole is free to rotate
= Ihinge if the dipole is hinged
Ex.41 A bar magnet having a magnetic moment of 1.0 × 10–4 J/T is free to rotate in a
horizontal plane. A horizontal magnetic field B = 4 × 10–5T exists in the space. Find the
work done in rotating the magnet slowly from a direction parallel to the field to a
direction 60° from the field.
Sol. The work done by the external agent = change in potential energy
= (–MB cos2) – (–MB cos1)
= – MB (cos60° – cos 0°)
1 1
= MB = × (1.0 × 104 J/T) (4 × 10–5 T) = 0.2 J
2 2
Ex.42 A magnt of magnetic dipole moment M is released in a uniform magnetic field of

induction B from the position shown in the figure.
120°
B
Find :
(i) Its kinetic energy at  = 90°
(ii) its maximum kinetic energy during the motion.
(iii) will it perform SHM? oscillation ? Periodic motion ? What is its amplitude ?
Sol.
(i) Apply energy conservation at  = 120° and  = 90°
– MB cos 120° + 0
= – MB cos 90° + (K.E)
MB
KE = Ans.
2
(ii) K.E. will be maximum where P.E. is minimum. P.E. is minimum at  = 0º. Now apply energy
conservation between  = 120º and  = 0º.
–mB cos 120º + 0
= – mB cos 0º + (KE)max
3
(KE)max  MB Ans.
2
The K.E. is max at  = 0° can also be proved by torque method. From  = 120° to  = 0° the
torque always acts on the dipole in the same direction (here it is clockwise) so its K.E. keeps
on increases till  = 0°. Beyond that  reverses its direction and then K.E. starts decreasing
  = 0° is the orientation of M to here the maximum K.E.
(iii) Since ‘’ is not small.
 the motion is not S.H.M. but it is oscillatory and periodic amplitude is 120°.

Page # 44 MAGNETISM
Ex.43 A bar magnet of mass 100 g, length 7.0 cm, width 1.0 cm and height 0.50 cm takes /
2 seconds to complete an oscillation in an oscillation magnetometer placed in a
horizontal magnetic field of 25T.
(a) Find the magnetic moment of the magnet.
(b) If the magnet is put in the magnetometer with its 0.50 cm edge horizontal,
what would be the time period?
Sol. (a) The moment of inertia of the magnet about the axis of rotation is
m' 2
I= (L  b 2 )
12
100  10 –3 25
= [(7 × 10–2)2 + (1 × 10–2)2] kg-m2 =  10 –5 kg – m 2
12 6
I
We have, T = 2
MB
4  2I 4  2  25  10 –5 kg / m 2
or, M= = = 27 A-m2
BT 2 –6 2 2
6  ( 25  10 T)  s
4
(b) In this case the moment of inertia becomes
m' 2
I’ = (L  b 2 ) where b’ = 0.5 cm.
12
The time period would be
I'
T’ = ...(ii)
MB
Dividing by equation (i),
m' 2
(L  b 2 ) (7cm) 2  ( 0.5 cm) 2
T' I' 12
 = =
T I m 2 (7 cm) 2  (10
. cm) 2
(L  b 2 )
12
= 0.992
0.992  
or, T’ = s = 0.496  s.
2
16.4 MAGNET IN AN EXTERNAL NONUNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :

No special formula are applied is such problems. Instead see the force on individual poles and
calculate the resultant force torque on the dipole.
Note :
• Force due to Non-uniform Magnetic field
dB
F = –M
dr

• If a source of Magnetic Moment M have dimension very less than the distance of point of

application then we can replace it with magnet of magnetic moment equal to M .

MAGNETISM Page # 45
17. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

Earth is a natural source of magnetic field.
17.1 Elements of the Earth’s Magnetic Field

The earth’s magnetic field at a point on its surface is usually characterised by three quantities
: (a) declination (b) inclination or dip and (c) horizontal component of the field. These are
known as the elements of the earth’s magnetic field.
(a) Declination
A plane passing through the geographical poles (that is, through the axis of rotation of the
earth) and a given point P on the earth’s surface is called the geographical meridian at the
point P. Similarly, the plane passing through the geomagnetic poles (that is, through the
dipole-axis of the earth) and the point P is called the magnetic meridian at the point P.
The angle made by the magnetic meridian at a point with the geographical meridian is called
the declination at that point.
(b) Inclination or dip
The angle made by the earth’s magnetic field with the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian, is called the inclination or dip at that point.
(c) Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field
As the name indicates, the horizontal component is component of the earth’s magnetic field
in the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian. This direction is towards the magnetic
north.
Figure shows the three elements. Starting from the geographical meridian we draw the
magnetic meridian at an angle  (declination). In the magnetic meridian we draw the horizontal
direction specifying magnetic north. The magnetic field is at an angle  (dip) from this direction.
The horizontal component BH and the total field B are related as
BH = B cos 
or, B = BH / cos .
Geographical Vertical
Declination
North P
Geographical Bh
Meridian Bv
Magnetic
North
Magnetic
Meridian
Thus, from the knowledge of the three elements, both the magnitude and direction of the
earth’s magnetic field can be obtained.
Ex.45 The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is 3.6 × 10–5 T where the dip is
60º. Find the magnitude of the earth’s magnetic field.
Sol. We have BH = B cos 
BH 3.6  10 5 T
or, B   7.2  10 5 T
cos  cos 60º

Page # 46 MAGNETISM
18. MOVING-COIL GALVANOMETER

T
North South
The main parts of a moving-coil galvanometer are shown in figure. A rectangular coil of
several turns is wound over a soft-iron core. The wire of the coil is coated with an insulating
material so that each turn is insulated from the other and from the iron core. The coil is
suspended between the two pole pieces of a strong permanent magnet.
The current to be measured is passed through the galvanometer. As the coil is in the magnetic
   
field B of the permanent magnet, a torque   niA  B acts on the coil. Here n = number of
 
turns, i = current in the coil A = area-vector of the coil and B = magnetic field at the site of
the coil. This torque deflects the coil from its equilibrium position.
N S
The pole pieces are made cylindrical. As a result, the magnetic field at the arms of the coil
remains parallel to the plane of the coil everywhere even as the coil rotates. The deflecting
torque is then   niAB . As the upper end of the suspension strip W is fixed, the strip gets
twisted when the coil rotates. This produces a restoring torque acting on the coil. If the
deflection of the coil is  and the torsional constant of the suspension strip is k, the restoring
torque is k. The coil will stay at a deflection  where
k
niAB = k or, i 
nAB
k
Hence, the current is proportional to the deflection. The constant is called the
nAB
galvanometer constant, and may be found by passing a known current, measuring the deflection
 and putting these values in equation.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a moving-coil galvanometer is defined as /i. From equation, the sensitivity
nAB
is . For large sensitivity, the field B should be large. The presence of soft-core increases
k
the magnetic field.

MAGNETISM Page # 47

SECTION A : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A tends to infinity. (The wires joining the succes-
STRAIGHT WIRE sive square are along the line passing through
the centre)
1. A point charge is moving in a circle with 
constant speed. Consider the magnetic field
produced by the charge at a fixed point P (not 4a
centre of the circle) on the axis of the circle. 3a
2a
(A) it is constant in magnitude only a
(B) it is constant in direction only  i O i 
(C) it is constant in direction and magnitude both
(D) it is not constant in magnitude and direction
both.
2. A current carrying wire is placed in the grooves


of an insulating semi circular disc of radius ‘R’, as
shown. The current enters at point A and leaves  0i
(A) (B) 0
from point B. Determine the magnetic field at point 2 a
D.
B 2 2 0 i
(C) ln 2 (D) none of these
a
A
i
i 5. Four infinitely long ‘L’ shaped wires, each
30° carrying a current i have been arranged as shown
30° D
C in the figure. Obtain the magnetic field intensity
R at the point ‘O’ equidistant from all the four
 0I  0I corners.
(A) (B)
8R 3 4 R 3
3  0I
(C) (D) none of these i a i
4R
a
0°
3. A pair of stationary and infinitely long bent

wires is placed in the X-Y plane as shown in figure.
The wires carry currents of 10 A each as shown. (A) 1 wb/m2 (B) 0 wb/m2
The segments L and M are along thex-axis. The (C) 2 wb/m2 (D) none of these
segments P and Q are parallel to the y-axis such
that OS = OR = 0.02 m. Find the magnetic 6. Two parallel, long wires carry currents i1 and i2
induction at the origin O. with i1 > i2. When the current are in the same
direction, the magnetic field at a point midway
 between the wire is 10 T. If the direction of i2 is
y i reversed, the field becomes 30T. The ratio i1/i2
is
 L R Q M  (A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 1
i P O S x
7. Two mutually
perpendicular insulated long
 I P(2,3)
conducting wires carrying
(A) 1 × 10–4 wb/m2, towards the reader. equal currents I, intersect
(B) 1 × 10–4 wb/m2, opposite to the reader. at origin. Then the resultant O I
(C) 2 × 10–4 wb/m2, towards the reader. magnetic induction at point
(D) zero P (2m, 3m) will be -
4. Determine the magniutde of magnetic field at  0I 5 0I  0I
the centre of the current carrying wire arrange- (A) (B) (C) I 2 (D) 0
5a 2
ment shown in the figure. The arrangement ex-

MAGNETISM Page # 48
8. Figures shows a long wire bent at the middle the wires will be :
to form a right angle. The magnitudes of the mag-
 0i  1 1  0i  1 1
netic fields at the points P, Q, R and S are B1, B2, (A)    (B)   
B3, B4 respectively. The wire and the circumfer- 2  r  x x  2  r  x x 
R
ence of circle are coplaner. T
 0i  0i
(C) (D)
2(r  x ) 2x
i Q
S d
12. Infinite number of straight wires each carrying
P current I are equally placed as shown in the
i figure. Adjacent wires have current in opposite
direction. Net magnetic field at point P is
(A) B1 = B2 = B3 = B4 (B) B1 = 2B2

(C) B3 = 2B4 (D) none of these a y
a
9. Two long parallel wires situated at a distance z x
30°
2a are carrying equal current ‘i’ in opposite direc- P 30° 1 2 3 4 5
tion as shown in figure. The value of magnetic
field at a point P situated at equal distances from
both the wires will be :
i
 0I ln2   0I ln4 
r (A) 4  k (B) 4  k
3a 3a
2a   0I ln4 
 (C) 4  (– k ) (D) Zero
3a
r
× 13. Two mutually perpendicular conductors
i
carrying currents I1 and I2 lie in one plane. Locus
 0i a  0i a 2  0i a 2  0i a of the point at which the magnetic induction is
(A)  r (B) (C) (D)
r r 2 r2 zero, is a
(A) circle with centre as the point of intersection
10. A uniform beam of positively charged particles of the conductor.
is moving with a constant velocity parallel to (B) parabola with vertex as the point of
another beam of negatively charged particles intersection of the conductors
moving with the same velocity in opposite (C) straight line passing through the point of
direction separated by a distance d. The variation intersection of the conductors
of magnetic field B along a perpendicular line draw (D) rectangular hyperbola
between the two beams is best represented by
B 14. Equal current i is flowing in three infinitely
B long wires along positive x, y and z directions.
The magnitude field at a point (0, 0, –a) would
be :
(A) d/2 d (B)
 0i    0i  
d/2 d (A) j–i
  (B) ij
 
2 a 2a
B  0i    0i   
B (C) i–j
  (D) i  j k
 
2 a 2a
15. Two very long straight parallel wires, parallel

(C) (D)
d/2 d d/2 d to y-axis, carry currents 4I and I, along +y
direction and – y direction respectively. The wires
are passes through the x-axis at the points (d,
11. Two parallel straight long conducting wires,
0, 0) and (–d, 0, 0) respectively. The graph of
which are placed at a distance r from each other,
magnetic field z-component as one moves along
are carrying equal currents i in opposite directions.
the x-axis from x = – d to x = +d, is best given by
The value of magnetic induction at a point situated
at a point situated x from one wire in between

MAGNETISM Page # 49
At a point on the axis, midway between them.

O (A) 13 × 10–5 T (B) zero
(C) 15 × 10–5 T (D) none of these
O x
(A) x (B)
20. Three rings, each having equal radius R, are
placed mutually perpendicular to each other and
each having its centre at the origin of co-ordi-
nate system. If current I is flowing through each
(C) x (D) x ring then the magnitude of the magnetic field at
O O
the common centre is
y
16. If the ratio of magnetic fields at two point in
a definite direction due to a long current carrying
wire is 3/4, then the ratio of the distances of
these points from the wire will be : x
2 4 3 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) z
3 3 4 2
 I
(A) 3 0 (B) zero
17. A long straight wire, carrying current I, is 2R
bent at its midpoint to form an angle of 45°.  0I  0I
(C) ( 2 – 1) (D) ( 3 – 2 )
Induction of magnetic field at point P, distant R 2R 2R
from point of bending is equal to : 21. Two concentric coils X and Y of radii 16 cm
P and 10 cm lie in the same vertical plane containing
I
45°
R N-S direction. X has 20 turns and carries 16 A. Y
has 25 turns & carries 18 A. X has current in
anticlockwise direction and Y has current in
 2 – 1  0I
  2  1  0I
 clockwise direction for an observer, looking at the
(A) (B) coils facing the west. The magnitude of net
4 R 4 R
magnetic field at their common centre is
 2 – 1  0I
  2  1  0I
 (A) 5 × 10–4 T towards west
(C) (D) (B) 13 × 10–4 T towards east
4 2 R 4 2 R (C) 13 × 10–4 T towards west
(D) 5 × 10–4 T towards east
SECTION B : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A
CIRCULAR LOOP 22. A direct current is passing through a wire. It
is bent to form a coil of one turn. Now it is further
18. A battery is connected between two points
bent to form a coil of two turns but at smaller
A and B the circumference of a uniform conducting
radius. The ratio of the magnetic induction at
ring of radius r and resistance R. One o the arcs
the centre of this coil and at the centre of the
AB of the ring subtends an angle  at the centre.
coil of two turn is
The value of the magnetic induction
(A) 1 : 4 (B) 4 : 1
at the centre due to the current in the ring is :
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 1
SECTION C : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A

STRAIGHT WIRE AND CIRCULAR ARC
 23. A current of i ampere
A B is flowing through each of
(A) zero, only if  = 180° the bent wires as shown O R'
(B) zero for all values of  the magnitude and

direction of magnetic field R
(C) proportional to 2(180° – )
(D) inversely proportional to r at O is
 0i  1 2   0i  1 3 
19. Two circular coils of wire each having a ra- (A)    (B)   
4  R R'  4  R R' 
dius of 4 cm and 10 turns have a common axis
and are 6 cm apart. If a current of 1 A passess  0i  1 3   0i  1 3 
through each coil in the opposite direction find (C)    (D)   
8  R 2R'  8  R R' 
the magnetic induction.

MAGNETISM Page # 50
24. Net magnetic field at the

2r
centre of the circle O due to a i i  O
current carrying loop as shown
in figure is ( < 180°) P
(A) zero r
(B) perpendicular to paper inwards
(C) perpendicular to paper outwards
(D) is perpendicular to paper inwards if  90°
3  0I
and perpendicular to paper outwards if 90°   < (A) ; perpendicular to the plane of the paper
180° 8 r
and directed inward
25. Two wire loops PQRSP formed by joining two 3  0I
semicircular wires of radii R1 and R2 carries a cur- (B) ; perpendicular to the plane of the paper
8 r
rent I as shown in (fig.) The magnitude of the and directed outward
magnetic induction at the centre C is ........
1  0I
(C) ; perpendicular to the plane of the paper
I 8 r
and directed inward.
I 1  0I
R2 R1 (D)
8 r
; perpendicular to the plane of the paper
S R C Q P and directed outward.
SECTION D : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A

 0I  1 1  0I  1 1 
(A) 4  R  R  (B) 4   R  R  CYLINDER, LARGE SHEET, SOLENOID, TOROID
 1 2   1 2  AND AMPERE’S LAW
0I  1 1  28. A coaxial cable is made up of two conductors.

(C) 4  R  R  (D) none of these The inner conductor is solid and is of radius R1 &
 1 2 
the outer conductor is hollow of inner radius R2
26. Find the magnetic induction of the field at and outer radius R3. The space between the
the point O of a loop with current I, whose shape conductors is filled with air. The inner and outer
is illustrated conductors are carrying currents of equal
A current I flows along a thin wire shaped as magnitudes and in opposite directions. Then the
shown in figure. The radius of a curved part of variation of magnetic field with distance from the
the wire is equal to R the angle is 2. Find the axis is best plotted as :
magnetic induction of the field at the point O.
O R
2
R R2
R3
I
(A) B  (     sin  ) 0
2R
I
(B) B  (     tan )0 B B
2R
I (A) (B)
(C) B  (     tan )0
2R R1 R2 R3 r R1 R2 R3 r
(D) none of these
27. A current I flows around a closed path in the B B

horizontal plane of the circle as shown in the
figure. The path consists of eight arcs with al- (C) (D)
ternating radii r and 2r. Each segment of arc
subtends equal angle at the commom centre P. R1 R2 R3 r R1 R2 R3 r
The magnetic field produced by current path at

point P is

MAGNETISM Page # 51
29. Axis of a solid cylinder of infinite length and 33. A hollow cylinder having infinite length and
radius R lies along y-axis it carries a uniformly carrying uniform current per unit length  along
distributed current ‘i’ along +y direction. Magnetic the circumference as shown. Magnetic
 R R field inside the cylinder is
field at a point  , y,  is :
2 2 0
(A) (B) 0
2
 0I    0i  
(A) ( i – k) (B) ( j – k) (C) 20 (D) none
4 R 2R
 0i   0i   34. A long straight metal rod has a very long hole
(C) j (D) ( i  k) of radius ‘a’ drilled parallel to the rod axis as shown
4 R 4 R
in the figure. If the rod carries a current ‘i’ find the
value of magnetic induction on the axis of the hole,
30. In a coaxial, straight where OC = c
cable, the central conductor
and the outer conductor
carry equal currents in a
opposite directions. The C
magnetic field is zero.
(A) outside the cable
(B) inside the inner conductor
(C) inside the outer conductor
(D) in between the two conductors.  0ic  0 ic
(A) 2 2 (B)
(b – a ) 2(b2 – a 2 )
31. A thin, straight conductor lies along the axis
of a hollow conductor of radius R. The two carry
equal currents in the same direction. The  0i(b2 – a 2 )  0ic
(C) (D)
magnetic field B is plotted against the distance r 2 c 2 a 2 b 2
from the axis. Which of the following best
represents the resulting curve ? 35. The magnetic field B inside a long solenoid,
carrying a current of 10 A, is 3.14 × 10–2 T. Find
the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
B B
(A) (B) (A) 1500 turns/m. (B) 3500 turns/m.
R R (C) 2000 turns/m. (D) 2500 turns/m.
r r
36. Two long conductors are arranged as shown
below to form overlapping cylinders, each of
B
(C) B (D) radius r, whose centers are separated by a
R R distance d. Current of density J flows into the
r r
plane of the page along the shaded part of the
32. A long thin walled pipe of radius R carries a one conductor and an equal current flows out of
current I along its length. The current density is the plane of the page along the shaded portion
uniform over the circumference of the pipe. The of the other, as shown. What is the magnitude
magnetic field at the center of the pipe due to and direction of the magnetic field at point A ?
d Conductor
quarter portion of the pipe shown, is
r y
A
Vacuum x
(A) (0/2) dJ, in the +y direction

(B) (0/2)d2/r, in the +y-direction
 0I 2  0I 2 0I 2
(A) 2 (B) 2 (C) (D) None (C) (0/2)4d2J/r, in the –y-direction
4 R  R  2R (D) (0/2)Jr2/d, in the –y-direction
(E) There is no magnetic field at A.

MAGNETISM Page # 52
SECTION E : MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CHARGE

m m  2d 
37. A charged particle is accelerated through a (A) (B) sin –1  
potential difference of 12 kV and acquires a speed 2qB qB R 
of 1.0 × 106 m/s. It is then injected perpendicu-
larly into a magnetic field of strength 0.2 T. Find m m d
(C) (D) sin –1  
the radius of the circle described by it. qB qB R
(A) 12 cm (B) 14 cm
(C) 10 cm (D) none of these 42. Three ions H+, He+ and O+2 having same kinetic
energy pass through a region in whcih there is a
38. A neutron, a proton, an electron and an -
uniform magnetic field perpendicular to their
particle enters a uniform magnetic field with equal
velocity, then :
velocities. The field is directed along the inward
(A) H+ will be least deflected
normal to the plane of the paper. Which of these
(B) He+ and O+2 will be deflected equally.
tracks followed are by  - particle.
× × × × × × × × × (C) O+2 will be deflected most
× × × × × × × × (D) all will be deflected equally.
C
× × B × × × × ×
× × × × × × × 43. An electron having kinetic energy T is moving
A D in a circular orbit of radius R perpendicular to a
× × × × × × × 
× × × × × × × uniform magnetic induction B . If kinetic energy
(A) A (B) B (C) C (D) D is doubled and magnetic induction tripled, the
39. A proton of mass 1.67 × 10–27 kg and charge radius will become
1.6 × 10–19C is projected with a speed of 2 × 106 3R 3 2 4
m/s at an angle of 60° to the x-axis. If a uniform (A) (B) R (C) R (D) R
2 2 9 3
magnetic field of 0.104 T is applied along the y-
axis, the path of te proton is :
(A) A circle of radius 0.2 m and time period  × 10– 44. A charged particle moves in a magnetic field
7  
s B  10 i with initial velocity u  5 i  4 j . The path
 
(B) A circle of radius 0.1 m and time period 2×10– of the particle will be
7
s (A) straight line (B) circle
(C) A helix of radius 0.1 m and time period of 2 (C) helical (D) none
× 10–7 s
(D) A helix of radius of 0.2 m and time period 4
× 10–7s 45. A electron experiences a force ( 4.0 i  3.0 j ) ×
10–13 N in a uniform magnetic field when its velocity

40. A uniform magnetic field B  B 0 j exists in a is 2.5 k  10 7 ms –1 . When the velcocity is redirected
space. A particle of mass m and charge q is
projected towards negative x-axis with speed v
and becomes (15 . i – 2.0 j ) × 107 ms–1, the magnetic
force of the electron is zero. The magnetic field
from the a point (d, 0, 0). The maximum value v
for which the particle does not hit y-z plane is vector B is :
2Bq Bqd Bq Bqd
(A) (B) (C) (D) (A) –0.075 i  0.1j (B) 0.1i  0.075 j
dm m 2dm 2m
(C) 0.075 i – 0.1j  k (D) 0.075 i – 0.1j
41. A positive charge particle of mass m and
charge q is projected with velocity v as shown in
46. A mass spectrometer is a device which select
the figure. If radius of curvature of charge particle particle of equal mass. An ion with electric charge
in magnetic field is R (2d < R < 3d), then time q > 0 starts at rest from a source S and is
lapse by charge particle in magnetic field regions accelerated through a potential difference V. It
is
passes through a hole into a region of constant
× × × × × × 
magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of
× × × × × ×
× × × × × × the paper as shown in the figure. The particle is
×B× × ×B× × deflected by the magnetic field and emerges
× × × × × × through the bottom hole at a distance d from the
× × × × × × top hole. The mass of the particle is
90°
d d d

MAGNETISM Page # 53

 experiences a force F2  2iN . The force the
S
B electron would experience if it were moving with a
V 
velocity V  2k m/s at the same point is
3
(A) zero (B) 2kN (C) – 2kN


qBd qB 2 d2 qB 2 d2 qBd (D) information is insufficient
(A) (B) (C) (D)
V 4V 8V 2V
52. Two particles of charges +Q and –Q are
projected from the same point with a velocity v
47. Electrons moving with different speeds enter in a region of uniform magnetic field B such that
a unif orm magnetic field in a direction the velocity vector makes an angle  with the
perpendicular to the field. They will move along magnetic field. Their masses are M and 2M,
circular paths. respectively. Then, they will meet again for the
(A) of same radius first time at a point whose distance from the
(B) with larger radii for the faster electrons. point of projection is
(C) with smaller radii for the faster electrons. (A) 2M v cos /QB (B) 8M v cos /QB
(D) either (B) or (C) M v cos /QB (D) 4M v cos /QB
(C) depending on the magnitude of the magnetic
field 53. A particle with charge +Q and mass m enters
a magnetic field of magnitude B, existing only to
48. In the previous question, time periods of the right of the boundary YZ. The +Q directionY of
rotation will be : m ×
the motion of the particle is perpendicular to the
×
(A) same for all electrons.
m  ×
B
(B) greater for the faster electrons direction of B. Let T = 2 . The time spent ×by
(C) smaller for the faster electrons. QB ×
×
the particle in the field ×
(D) either (B) or (C) depending on the magnitude
will be Z
of the magnetic field
   2    – 2 
49. OABC is a current carrying square loop an (A) T (B) 2T (C) T   (D) T  
2   2 
electron is projected from the centre of loop along
its diagonal AC as shown. Unit vector in the
direction of initial acceleration will be 54. In the previous question, if the particle has –
Q charge, the time spend by the particle in the
y B
A field will be
   2    – 2 
v (A) T (B) 2T (C) T   (D) T  
2   2 
55. The direction of magnetic force on the electron
O Cx as shown in the diagram is along
y
 i  j  i  j
(A) k (B) 
–  (C) – k (D) x
 2 2 i
50. A particle having charge of 1 C, mass 1 kg e

–
and speed 1 m/s enters a uniform magnetic field, (A) y-axis (B) –y-axis
having magnetic induction of 1 T, at an angle  = (C) z-axis (D) –z-axis
30° between velocity vector and magnetic
induction. The pitch of its helical path is (in meters) 56. A particle having charge q enters a region of

uniform magnetic field B (directed inwards) and
3 
(A) (B) 3 (C)
2
(D)  is deflected a distance x after travelling a distance
2
y. The magnitude of the momentum of the particle
is

51. An electron moving with a velocity V1  2i m/
s at a point in a magnetic field experiences a x

force F1  –2jN . If the electron is moving with a

velocity V2  2j m/s at the same point, it
y

MAGNETISM Page # 54
qBy qBy
(A) (B) 13 E0 16 B 0 25 5
2 x (A) 2 B (B) (C) 2E (D) 2B
0 E0 0 0
qB  y 2  qBy 2
(C) 2  x  x (D) Paragraph Ques. No. 61 to 64
  2x
A current i is passed through a silver strip of
width d and area of cross-section A. The number
57. A block of mass m & charge q is released on a of free electrons per unit volume is n.
long smooth inclined plane magnetic field B is × × × ×v × × ×
constant, uniform, horizontal and parallel to × × × × × × ×
surface as shown. Find the time from start when d
block loses contact with the surface. ×i × × × × × ×
× × × × × × ×
q 61. Find the drift velocity v of the electrons.
m
B i iB iB i Bd
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Ane An Ane Ane
62. If a magnetic field B exists in the region as

m cos  m cosec  shown in figure, what is the average magnetic
(A) (B) force on the free electrons ?
qB qB
i iB iB i Bd
m cot  (A) (B) (C) (D)
(C) (D) none Ane An Ane Ane
qB
63. Due to the magnetic force, the free electrons

58. A particle moving with velocity v having
get accumulated on one side of the conductor
specific charge (q/m) enters a region of magnetic
along its length. This produces a transverse
3mv electric field in the conductor which opposes the
field B having width d  at angle 53º to the
5qB magnetic force on the electrons. Find the
boundary of magnetic field. Find the magnitude of the electric field which will stop
angle  in the diagram. further accumulation of electrons.
B i iB iB i Bd
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Ane An Ane Ane
53º
64. What will be the potential difference devel-

d oped across the width of the conductor due to
the electron accumulation ? The appearance of a
(A) 37º (B) 60º (C) 90º (D) none transverse emf, when a current - carrying wire is
placed in a magnetic field, is called Hall effect.
SECTION F : ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCE
i iB iB i Bd
ON A CHARGE (A) (B) (C) (D)
Ane An Ane Ane
59. A particle moves in a region having a uniform
magnetic field and a parallel, uniform electric field. 65. A particle of specific charge (q/m) is projected
at some instant, the velocity of the particle is from the origin of coordinates with initial velocity
perpendicular to the field direction. The path of [ui– vj]. Uniform electric magnetic fields exist in
the particle will be the region along the +y direction, of magnitude E
(A) a straight line (B) a circle and B. The particle will definitely return to the
(C) a helix with uniform pitch origin once if
(D) a helix with nonuniform pitch (A) [vB/2E] is an integer
(B) (u2 + v2)1/2 [B/E] is an integer
60. A particle of specific charge (charge/mass)  (C) [vB/E] in an integer
starts moving from the origin under the action of (D) [uB/E] is an integer
 66. An electron is moving along positive x-axis. A
an electric field E  E 0 i and magnetic field
 uniform electric field exists towards negative y-
B  B 0 k . Its velocity at (x0, y0, 0) is (4 i – 3 j ) . The axis. What should be the direction of magnetic
value of x0 is field of suitable magnitude so that net force of
electron is zero.

MAGNETISM Page # 55
(A) positive z-axis (B) negative z-axis (A) 1,2,3 are correct
(C) positive y-axis (D) negative y-axis (B) 1,2 only are correct
(C) 2,3 only are correct
67. A particle of charge q and mass m starts (D) 1 only
moving from the origin under the action of an
  72. Two protons move parallel to each other,
electric field E  E 0 i and B  B 0 i with velocity keeping distance r between them, both moving
 
   0 j . The speed of the particle will become 20 with same velocity V . Then the ratio of the
after a time electric and magnetic force of interaction between
2m 0 2Bq them is
(A) t = (B) t = m (A) c2/ V2 (B) 2c2 / V2 (C) c2 / 2 V2 (D) None
qE 0
3Bq 3m  0
(C) t 
SECTION G: MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT
(D) t 
m 0 qE CARRYING WIRE
68. An electron is projected with velocity v0 in a 73. Two long parallel wires carrying currents 2.5
uniform electric field E perpendicular to the field.
amps and I amps in the same direction (directed
Again it is projected with velocity v0 perpendicular
into the plane of the paper) are held at P and Q
to a uniform magentic field B. If r1 is initial radius
respectively such that they are perpendicular to
of curvature just after entering in the electric
the plane of paper. The points P and Q are lo-
field and r2 is initial radius of curvature just after
entering in magnetic field then the ratio r1/r2 is cated at a distance of 5m and 2m respectively
equal to from a collinear point R.
Bv 20 B Ev 0 Bv 0 R +x
(A) (B) (C) (D)
E E B E P Q
An electron moving with a velocity of 4 × 105 m/
s along the positive X-direction experiences a
69. An electron (mass = 9.1 × 10–31 ; charge = – force of magnitude 3.2 × 10–20 N at the point R.
1.6 × 10 –19 C) experiences no deflection if
Find the value of I.
subjected to an electric field of 3.2 × 105 V/m
(A) 4 Å (B) 8 Å (C) 16 Å (D) none
and magnetic field of 2.0 × 10–3 Wb/m2. Both the
fields are normal to the path of electron and to
each other. If the electric field is removed, then 74. In the figure shown a current I1 is established
the electron will revolve in an orbit of radius : in the long straight wire AB. Another wire CD
(A) 45 m (B) 4.5 m (C) 0.45 m (D) 0.045 m carrying current I2 is placed in the plane of the
paper. The line joining the ends of the this wire is
70. A charged particle is released from rest in a perpendicular to the wire AB. The resultant force
region of uniform electric and magnetic fields, on the wire CD is :
B y
which are parallel to each other. The locus of the
particle will be
(A) helix of constant pitch (B) straight line x
I1
(C) helix of varying pitch (D) cycloid I2
C D
71. A charged particle enters a unifrom magnetic
field perpendicular to its initial direction travelling A
in air. The path of the particle is seen to follow
(A) zero (B) towards negative x-axis
the path in figure. Which of statements 1-3 is/
are correct ? (C) towards positive y-axis
(A) The magnetic field strength may have been (D) none of these
increased while the particle was travelling in air 75. A straight current carrying conductor is placed
(B) The particle lost energy by ionising the air in such a way that the current in the conductor
(C) The particle lost charge by ionising the air flows in the direction out of the plane of the
entry paper. The conductor is placed between two poles
of two magnets, as shown. The conductor will
exerience a force in the direction towards

MAGNETISM Page # 56
P y(m)
A
S R S N
Q 2 x(m)
(A) P (B) Q (C) R (D) S B
76. A straight rod of mass m and length L is
suspended from the identical spring as shown in (A) 16 i (B) 32 i (C) 32 i (D) 16 i
the figure. The spring stretched by a distance of 79. A semi circular current carrying wire having
x0 due to the weight of the wire. The circuit has radius R is placed in x-y plane with its centre at
total resistance R. When the magnetic field origin ‘O’. There is non-uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of the paper is switched  B x
on, springs are observed to extend further by B  0 k (here B0 is +ve constant) is existing in
the same distance. The magnetic field strength 2R
is the region. The magnetic force acting on semi
circular wire will be along
Y
I
k k
(-R,0,0) (+R,0,0) X
L
Z
mgR (A) –x-axis (B) +y-axis
(A) ; directed outward from the plane of (C) –y-axis (D) +x-axis
L B
the paper 80. A circular current loop
of radius a is placed in a I
mgR a
(B) 2  x ; directed outward from the plane of radial field B as shown. The
0
net force acting on the loop
the paper
is
mgR (A) zero (B) 2BaIcos
(C) ; directed into the plane of the paper
L (C) 2aIBsin (D) none
mgR 81. A square loop ABCD, carrying a current i,
(D)  x ; directed into the plane of the paper
0 is placed near and coplanar with a long straight
77. A metal wire PQ of mass 10 g lies at rest on conductor XY carrying a current I, the net force
two horizontal metal rails separated by 4.90 cm on the loop will be
Y
(figure). A vertically downward magnetic field of B C
magnitude 0.800 T exists in the space. The
resistance of the circuit is slowly decreased and i L
I
it is found that when the resistance goes below A D
20.0 , the wire PQ starts sliding on the rails. L/2 L
Find the coefficient of friction. Neglect magnetic X
force acting on wire PQ due to metal rails (g = 2 0 Ii  0 Ii 2 0 IiL  0 IiL
9.8 m/s2) (A) (B) (C) (D)
× × × × 3 2 3 2
P 82. A metal ring of radius r = 0.5 m with its plane
× × × × 6V normal to a uniform magnetic field B of induction
0.2 T carries a current I = 100 A. The tension in
× × × × newtons developed in the ring is
Q (A) 100 (B) 50 (C) 25 (D) 10
× × × ×
(A) 0.12 (B) 0.10 83. In given figure, X and Y are two long straight
(C) 0.24 (D) none of these parallel conductors each carrying a current of
2A. The force on each conductor is F newtons.
78. A conducting wire bent in the form of a
When the current in each is changed to 1A and
parabola y2 = 2x carries a current i = 2 A as
reversed in direction, the force on each is now
shown in figure. This wire is placed in a uniform X
 2A
magnetic field B  4 k Tesla. The magnetic force 2A
on the wire is (in newton) Y

MAGNETISM Page # 57
(A) F/4 and unchanged in direction magnetic field B parallel to the plane of the disc,
(B) F/2 and reversed in direction as shown. Then,
(C) F/2 and unchanged in direction
(D) F/4 and reversed in direction
SECTION H : MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE
ON A CURRENT CARRYING LOOP AND
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT
B
84. A toroid of mean radius ‘a’, cross section radius (A) The net torque on the disc is zero
‘r’ and total number of turns N. It carries a current (B) The net torque vector on the disc is directed
‘i’. The torque experienced by the toroid if a uniform leftwards
magnetic field of strength B is applied : (C) The net torque vector on the disc is directed
(A) is zero (B) is Bi N  r2 (C) is B i N  a2 (D) The net torque vector on the disc is parallel
(D) depends on the direction of magnetic field. to B
85. A conducting ring of mass 2kg and radius 0.5 90. A rectangular coil PQ has 2n turns, an area
m is placed on a smooth horizontal plane. The 2a and carries a current 2I, (refer figure). The
ring carries a current i = 4A. A horizontal magnetic plane of the coil is at 60º to a horizontal uniform
field B = 10T is switched on at time t = 0 as magnetic field of flux density B. The torque on
shown in figure. The initial angular acceleration the coil due to magnetic force is
of the ring will be 2n,2a,2I
B Coil 60º
B
//////////////
2 2
(A) 40  rad/s (B) 20  rad/s
(C) 5  rad/s2 (D) 15  rad/s2 (A) BanI sin 60º (B) 8 BanI cos 60º
(C) 4 anI Bsin 60º (D) none
86. In the figure shown a coil of single turn is
wound on a sphere of radius R and mass m. The 91. Figure shows a square current carrying loop
plane of the coil is parallel to the plane and lies in ABCD of side 10 cm and current i = 10 A. The

the equatorial plane of the sphere. Current in the magnetic moment M of the loop is
coil is i. The value of B if the sphere is in equilibrium is Y
B
C
B
A i=10
30° X
D
mg cos  mg mg tan mg sin Z

(A) (B) (C) (D) 2
 iR  iR  iR  iR (A) (0.05) i – 3k A – m

 

87. The magnetic moment of a circular orbit of
(B) (0.05)  j  k  A – m
  2
radius ‘r’ carrying a charge ‘q’ and rotating with
velocity v is given by
  
qvr qvr 2
(C) (0.05)  3 i  k  A – m2
(A) (B) (C) qvr (D) qvr
2 2
2
(D) i  k A – m
 
 
88. The dimensional formula for the physical
E2  0  0 SECTION I : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A
quantity is MAGNET AND EARTH
B2 92. A conductor of length l and mass m is placed
(E = electric field and B = magnetic field) along the east-west line on a table. Suddenly a
(A) L0M0T0 (B) L1M0T–1 (C) L–1M0T1 (D)L1/2M0T–1/2 certain amount of charge is passed through it
89. A thin non conducting disc of radius R is and it is found to jump to a height h. The earth’s
rotating clockwise (see figure) with an angular magnetic induction is B. The charge passed
velocity  about its central axis, which is through the conductor is
perpendicular to its plane. Both its surfaces carry 1 2gh gh m 2gh
+ve charges of uniform surface density. Half the (A) (B) (C) (D)
Bmgh Bl m Bl m Bl
disc is in a region of a uniform, unidirectional

MAGNETISM Page # 58
Exercise - II
B has only a z-component.
SECTION A : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A
(C) At all point of the z-axis, excluding the origin,
STRAIGHT WIRE
B has only a y-component.
1. In the following hexagons, made up of two
(D) B cannot have an x-component.
different material P and Q, current enters and
leaves from points X and Y respectively. In which 5. Current flows through uniform, square frames
case the magnetic field at its centre is not zero. as shown. In which case is the magnetic field at
the centre of the frame not zero ?
Q Q
Y Y
Q P P
P
(A) P Q
(B) Q Q (A) (B)
X X
P P
Q P
Y Y
P Q (C) (D)
Q Q
(C) P (D) P
Q Q 6. A long straight wire carries a current along the
X X
P P x-axis. Consider the points A(0, 1, 0), B (0, 1, 1),
2. Consider the magnetic field produced by a C(1, 0, 1) and D (1, 1, 1). Which of the following
finitely long current carrying wire. pairs of points will have magnetic fields of the
(A) the lines of field will be concentric circles same magnitude ?
with centres on the wire. (A) A and B (B) A and C
(B) There can be two points in the same plane (C) B and C (D) B and D
where magnetic fields are same. 7. In the previous question, if the current is i and
(C) There can be large number of points where the magnetic field at D has magnitude B,
the magnetic field is same.
 0i  0i
(D) The magnetic field at a point is inversally (A) B = (B) B =
proportional to the distance of the point from the 2 2 2 3
wire. (C) B is parallel to the x-axis
(D) B makes an angle of 45° with the xy plane
3. Consider three quantities x =E/B, y = 1/ 00
l
and z = . Here, l is the length of a wire, C is a STRAIGHT WIRE AND CIRCULAR ARC
CR
capacitance and R is a resistance. All other 8. A wire carrying I is shaped as shown. Section
symbols have standard meanings. AB is a quarter circle of radius r. The magnetic
(A) x, y have the same dimensions field at C is directed
(B) y,z have the same dimensions B
(C) z,x have the same dimensions
(D) none of the three pairs have the same r
dimensions. I
4. Two long thin, parallel conductors carrying equal A C
currents in the same direction are fixed parallel (A) along the bisector of the angle ACB, away
to the x-axis, one passing through y = a and the from AB
other through y = –a. The resultant magnetic (B) along the bisector of the angle ACB, towards AB
field due to the two conductors at any point is B. (C) perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
Which of the following are correct ? directed into the paper
Z (D) at an angle /4 to the plane of the paper
SECTION C : MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CHARGE
–a 9. Which of the following statement is correct :
a Y (A) A charged particle enters a region of uniform
i O
magnetic field at an angle 85° to magnetic lines
X i
of force. The path of the particle is a circle.
(A) B = 0 for all points on the x-axis (B) An electron and proton are moving with the
(B) At all points on the y-axis, excluding the origin, same kinetic energy along the same direction.

MAGNETISM Page # 59
When they pass through uniform magnetic field 13. An electron is moving along the positive X-
perpendicular to their direction of motion, they
axis. you want to apply a magnetic field for a
describe circular path.
(C) There is no change in the energy of a charged short time so that the electron may reverse its
particle moving in a magnetic field although direction and move parallel to the negative X-
magnetic force acts on it. axis. This can be done by applying the magnetic
(D) Two electrons enter with the same speed but field along.
in opposite direction in a uniform transverse (A) Y-axis (B) Z-axis
magnetic field. Then the two describe circle of
(C) Y-axis only (D) Z-axis only
the same radius and these move in the same
direction.
14. In a region of space, a uniform magnetic field
10. Two identical charged particles enter a uniform B exists in the y-direction. A proton is fired from
magnetic field with same speed but at angles 30° the origin, with its initial velocity v making a small
and 60° with field. Let a, b and c be the ratio of angle  with the y-direction in the yz plane. In
their time periods, radii and pitches of the helical
the subsequent motion of the proton,
paths than
Z
(A) abc = 1 (B) abc > 1
(C) abc < 1 (D) a = bc B
v
11. Consider the following statements regarding 
Y
a charged particle in a magnetic field. Which of O
B
the statements are true :
(A) Starting with zero velocity, it accelerates in X
a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. (A) its x-coordinate can never be positive
(B) While deflecting in magnetic field its energy (B) its x-and z-coordinates cannot both be zero
gradually increases. at the same time
(C) Only the component of magnetic field (C) its z-coordinate can never be negative
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the (D) its y-coordinate will be proportional to the
charged particle is effective in deflecting it.
sqaure of its time of flight
(D) Direction of deflecting force on the moving
charged particle is perpendicular to its velocity.
SECTION D : ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCE
ON A CHARGE
12. Two charged particle A and B each of charge
15. A particle of the charge q and velocity v
+e and masses 12 amu and 13 amu respectively
passes undeflected through a space with non-
follow a circular trajectory in chamber X after
zero electric field E and magnetic field B. The
the velocity selector as shown in the figure. Both
undeflecting conditions will hold if.
particles enter the velocity selector with speed
(A) signs of both q and E are reversed.
1.5 × 106 ms–1. A uniform magnetic field of
(B) signs of both q and B are reversed
strength 1.0 T maintained within the chamber X
(C) both B and E are changed in magnitude, but
and in the velocity selector.
keeping the product of |B| and |E| fixed,
velocity (D) both B and E are doubled in magnitude.
selector
y 16. A rod AB moves with a uniform velocity v in a

 uniform magnetic field as shown in figure.
B × × × A× × ×
z x × × × × × ×
× × × v× × ×
(A) Electric field across the conducting plate of × × × × × ×
the velocity selector is –106 NC–1 i . × × × × × ×
(B) Electric field across the conducting plate of × × × B× × ×
the velocity selector is 106 NC–1 i . (A) The rod becomes electrically charged.
(C) The ratio rA/rB of the radii of the circular paths (B) The end A becomes positively charged.
for the two particles is 12/13. (C) The end B becomes positively charged.
(D) The ratio rA/rB of the radii of the circular paths (D) The rod becomes hot because of Joule heating.
for the two particles is 13/12.

MAGNETISM Page # 60

SECTION A : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A 5. Two circular coils of wire each having a radius
STRAIGHT WIRE of 4 cm and 10 turns have a common axis and
are 6 cm apart. If a current of 1 A passes through
1. Figure shows a straight wire of length l carrying
each coil in the opposite direction find the
a current i. Find the magnitude of magnetic field
magnetic induction.
produced by the current at point P.
(i) At the centre of either coil ;
l
P (ii) At a point on the axis, midway between them.
l i
6. Find the ratio of magnetic field magnitudes at
a distance 10 m along the axis and at 60° from
2. Six wires of current I1 = 1 A, I2 = 2A, I3 = 3A, I4 the axis, from the centre of a coil of radius 1 cm,
= 1A, I 5 = 5A and I 6 = 4A cut the page carrying a current 1 amp.
perpendicularly at the points 1,2,3,4,5 and 6
respectively as shown in the figure. Find the value SECTION C : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A
 
of the integral B. d l around the closed path.
 STRAIGHT WIRE AND CIRCULAR ARC
7. Find the magnetic induction at the origin in

1 2 the figure shown.
×4 ×5 Y
3
×6 R
R
R R
R X
3. A system of long four parallel conductors whose
I
sections with the plane of the drawing lie at the Z
vertices of a square there flow four equal currents.
I1 I2 8. Find the magnetic induction at point O, if the
current carrying wire is in the shape shown in the
figure.
O r i
r
The directions of these currents are as follows :
those marked  point away from the reader, while
those marked with a dot point towards the reader.
How is the vector of magnetic induction directed 9. Find the magnit ude of the magnetic induction
at the centre of the square? B of a magnetic field generated by a system of
thin conductors along which a current i is flowing
at a point A(O, R, O), that is the centre of a
circular conductor of radius R. The ring is in yz
CIRCULAR LOOP
plane. y
5
4. Two circular coils A and B of radius cm
2
and 5 cm respectively carry current 5 Amp and i A i
5
Amp respectively. The plane of B is z
2 i
i
perpendicular to plane of A and their centres x
coincide. Find the magnetic field at the centre.

MAGNETISM Page # 61
SECTION D : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A Q.15 A particle of charge +q and mass m moving
CYLINDER, LARGE SHEET, SOLENOID, TOROID
under the influence of a uniform electric field E i
AND AMPERE’S LAW
Q.10 A cylindrical conductor of radius R carries a and a magnetic field B k enters in I quadrant of a
current its length. The current density J, however, coordinate system at a point (0, a) with initial
it is not uniform over the cross section of the velocity v i and leaves the quadrant at a point
conductor but is a function of the radius according
(2a, 0) with velocity – 2v j . Find
to J = br, where b is a constant. Find an expression
for the magnetic field B. (a) Magnitude of electric field
(b) Rate of work done by the electric field at
i point (0, a)
R (c) Rate of work done by both the fields at (2a, 0)
Q.16 A proton beam passes without deviation
through a region of space where there are uniform
(a) at r1 < R & transverse mutually perpendicular electric and
(b) at distance r2 > R, magnetic field with E and B. Then the beam strikes
measured from the axis a grounded target. Find the force imparted by
the beam on the target if the beam current is
SECTION E : MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CHARGE equal to I.
Q.11 Electric charge q is uniformly distributed
over a rod of length l. The rod is placed parallel SECTION G: MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT
to a long wire carrying a current i. The separation CARRYING WIRE
between the rod and the wire is a. Find the force Q.17 An infinitely long straight wire carries a
needed to move the rod along its length with a conventional current I as shown in the figure.
uniform velocity v.
Q.12 A charged particle (charge q, mass m) has

I' c
velocity v0 at origin in +x direction. In space there I
is a uniform magnetic field B in –z direction. Find a
the y coordinate of particle when is crosses y
b
axis.
The rectangular loop carries a conventional current
Q.13 A charged particle having mass m and I’ in the clockwise direction. Find the net force
charge q is accelerated by a potential difference on the rectangular loop.
V, it flies through a uniform transverse magnetic
field B. The field occupies a region of space d. Q.18 An arc of a circular loop of radius R is kept
Find the time interval for which it remains inside in the horizontal plane and a constant magnetic
the magnetic field. field B is applied in the vertical direction as shown
in the figure. If the arc carries current I then find
SECTION F : ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCE the force on the arc.
ON A CHARGE
× × × × ××
Q.14 An electron moving with a velocity 5 ×
× × × × × B×
× ×I × × × ×
106 ms–1 i . In the uniform electric field of 5 × 107 × × × × × ×
90°
× × × × × ×
Vm–1 j . Find the magnitude and direction of a × × × × × ×
minimum uniform magnetic field in tesla that will
cause the electron to move undeviated along its
original path.

MAGNETISM Page # 62
Q.19 Two long straight parallel conductors are

separated by a distance of r1 = 5 cm and carry Q.22 A square current carrying loop made of
currents i1 = 10 A & i2 = 20 A. What work per unit thin wire and having a mass m = 10g can rotate
length of a conductor must be done to increase without friction with respect to the vertical axis
the separation between the conductors to r2 = OO1, passing through the centre of the loop at
10 cm if, currents flow in the same direction ? right angles to two opposite sides of the loop.
The loop is placed in a homogeneous magnetic
SECTION H : MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE field with an induction B = 10–1T directed at right
ON A CURRENT CARRYING LOOP AND angles to the plane of the drawing. A current I =
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT 2A is flowing in the loop. Find the period of small
oscillations that the loop performs about its
Q.20 A conducting circular loop of radius r position of stable equilibrium.
carries a constant current I. It is placed in a O B
 
uniform magnetic field B 0 such that B 0 is
I
perpendicular to the plane of the loop. Find the
magnetic force acting on the loop is
O1
Q.21 A rectangular loop of wire is oriented with
the left corner at the origin, one edge along X-
SECTION I : MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A
axis and the other edge along Y-axis as shown in
MAGNET AND EARTH
the figure. A magnetic field is into the the page
Q.23 Two coils each of 100 turns are held such
and has a magnitude that is given by  = y
Y
that one lies in the vertical plane with their centres
a coinciding. The radius of the vertical coil is 20 cm
and that of the horizontal coil is 30 cm. How
×B a
would you neutralize the magnetic field of the
earth at their common centre? What is the current
X
where  is constant. Find the total magnetic force to be passed through each coil? Horizontal
on the loop if it carries carrent i. component of earth’s magnetic induction = 3.49
× 10–5 T and angle of dip = 30°.

MAGNETISM Page # 63
1. Three infinitely long conductors R, S and T are 5. A straight segment OC (of length L meter) of a
lying in a horizontal plane as shown in the figure. circuit carrying a current I amp is placed along
The currents in the respective conductors are the x-axis. Two infinitely line straight wires A and
B, each extending form z= –  to + , are fixed
at y = – a metre and y = +a metre respectively,
b b
as shown in the figure. If the wires A and B each
R S T carry a current I amp into plane of the paper.
a Obtain the expression for the force acting on the
segment OC. What will be the force OC if current
P in the wire B is reversed?
y
2 ×B
IR = I0 sin (t + )
3
I
IS = I0 sin (t) O x
C
2 z ×A
IT = I0 sin ( t – )
3
Find the amplitude of the vertical component of 6. A very long straight conductor has a circular
the magnetic field at a point P, distance ‘a’ away cross-section of radius R and carries a current
from the central conductor S. density J. Inside the conductor there is a
2. Four long wires each carrying current I as cylindrical hole of radius a whose axis is parallel
shown in the figure are placed at the points A, B, to the axis of the conductor and a distance b
C and D. Find the magnitude and direction of from it. Let the z-axis be the axis of the conductor,
Y and let the axis of the hole be at x = b. Find the
magnetic field
D(–a,a) + A(a,a)
X y
C(–a,–a) + B(a,–a)
R
im
(i) magnetic field at the centre of the square. a
x
(ii) force per metre acting on wire at point D. O C
b
3. An infinite wire, placed along z-axis, has current
I1 in positive z-direction. A conducting rod placed
in xy plane parallel to y-axis has current I2 in (a) on the x=axis at x = 2R
positive y-direction. The ends of the rod subtend (b) on the y = axis at y = 2R.
+30° and –60° at the origin with positives x-
7. Q charge is uniformly distributed over the same
direction. The rod is at a distance a from the
surface of a right circular cone of semi-vertical
origin. Find net force on the rod.
angle  and height h. The cone is uniformly rotated
4. A square cardboard of side l and mass m is about its axis at angular velocity . Calculated
suspended from a horizontal axis XY as shown in associated magnetic dipole moment.
figure. A single wire is wound along the periphery
of board and carrying a clockwise current I. At
t = 0, a vertical downward magnetic field of 
induction B is switched on. Find the minimum value
of B so that the board will be able to rotate up to 
horizontal level. h
y
x
rd
Bo a
B
I

MAGNETISM Page # 64
8. A wire loop carrying current I is placed in the Calculate, from the height h that the wire reaches,
X-Y plane as shown in the figure. the size of the charge or current pulse, assuming
M y that the time of the current pulse is vey small in
comparision with the time of flight. Make use of
V
120°
I
a
P
x
the fact that impulse of force equals  F dt , which
equals mv. Evaluate q for B = 0.1 Wb/m2, m = 10
N
(a) If a particle with charge +Q and mass m is gm  = 20 cm & h = 3 meters [g = 10 m/s2]
placed at the centre P and given a velocity along
× × × × × × × ×
NP (fig). Find its instantaneous acceleration B
× × × × × × × ×
(b) If an external uniform magnetic induction field
× × × × × × × ×m
 l
B  B î is applied, find the torque acting on the Hg
loop due to the field.
9. A long straight wire carries a current of 10 A
directed along the negative y-axis as shown in 12. A current i, indicated by the
figure. A uniform magnetic field B0 of magnitude crosses in fig. is established in X
10–6 T is directed parallel to the x-axis. What is a strip of copper of height h and X
the resultant magnetic field at the following width w. A uniform field of B X h
points? magnetic induction B is applied X
z
B0
at right angles to the strip. w
y (a) Calculate the drift speed vd for the electrons.
(b) What are the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic force F acting on the electrons?
x
i (c) What would the magnitude & direction of
(a) x = 0, z = 2m ; homogeneous electric field E have to be in order
(b) x = 2m, z = 0 ; to counter balance the effect of the magnetic
(c) x = 0, z = – 0.5 m field?
(d) What is the voltage V necessary between
10. A stationary, circular wall clock has a face two sides of the conductor in order to create
with a radius of 15cm. Six turns of wire are wound this field E?
around its perimeter, the wire carries a current (e) If no electric field is applied form the outside
2.0 A in the clockwise direction. The clock is the electrons will be pushed somewhat to one
located, where there is a constant, uniform side & thereforce will give rise to a uniform electric
external magnetic field of 70 mT (but the clock field EH across the conductor untill the force of
still keeps perfect time) at exactly 1 : 00 pm, the this electrostatic field EH balance the magnetic
hour hand of the clock points in the direction of forces encountered in part (b). What will be the
the external magnetic field magnitude and direction of the field EH? Assume
(a) After how many minutes will the minute hand that n, the number of conduction electrons per
point in the direction of the torque on the winding unit volume, is 1.1 × 1029/m3 & that h = 0.02
due to the magnetic field? meter, w = 0.1cm, i = 50 amp, & B = 2 webers/
(b) What is the magnitude of this torque. meter2.
11. A U-shaped wire of mass m and length l is 13. (a) A rigid circular loop of radius r & mass m
immersed with its two ends in mercury (see lies in the xy plane on a flat table and has a
figure). The wire is in a homogeneous field of current I flowing in it. At this particular place,
magnetic induction B. If a charge, that is, a   
the earth’s magnetic field is B  B x i  B y j. How
current pulse q = idt , is sent through the wire,
 large must I be before one edge of the loop will
the wire will jump up. lift from table ?
  
(b) Repeat if, B  B x î  B zk̂.

MAGNETISM Page # 65
14. Zeeman effect. In Bohr’s theory of the 19. The figure shows a conductor of weight 1.0
hydrogen atom the electron can be thought of N and length L = 0.5 m placed on a rough inclined
as moving in a circular orbit of radius r about the
plane making an angle 30° with the horizontal so
proton. Suppose that such an atom is placed in a
that conductor is perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field, with the plane of the orbit at right
angle to B. horizontal magnetic field of induction B = 0.10 T.
(a) If the electron is circulating clockwise, as The coefficient of static friciton between the
viewed by an observer sighting along B, will the conductor and the plane is 0.1. A current of I =
angular freuqency increase or decrease ? 10 A flows through the conductor inside the plane
(b) What if the electron is c irculating of this paper as shown. What is the force needed
counterclockwise? Assume that the orbit radius
to be the applied parallel to the inclined plane to
does not change.
sustaining the conductor at rest?
15. In above problem show that the change in
frquency of rotation caused by the magnete field I
× B
Be
is given approximately by v = ± . Such
4m   30
frequency shifts were actually observed by
Zeeman in 1896.
16. A square loop of wire of edge a carries a 20. An electron gun G emits electron of energy
current i. 2kev traveling in the (+) ve x-direction. The
(a) Show that B for a point on the axis of the electron are required to hit the spot S where GS
loop and a distance x from its centre is given by, = 0.1 m & the line GS makes an angle of 60° with
the x-axis, as shown in the fig. A uniform magnetic
4 0 ia2 
B= . field B parallel to GS exists in the region out
( 4 x2  a2 )(4 x 2  2a2 )1/ 2 sides to electron gun. Find the minimum value of
(b) Can the result of the above problem be B needed to make the electron hit S.
reduced to give field at x = 0 ?
(c) Does the square loop behave like a dipole for B S
points such that x >>a ? If so, what is its dipole
moment? B
60°
17. A conductor carrying a current i is placed
Gun X
parallel to a current per unit width j0 and width d,
as shown in the figure. Find the force per unit
length on the conductor. 21. The magnetic field due to a current carrying
z square loop of side a at a point located
i
symmetrically at a distance of a/2 from its centre
(as shown is)
j0 h
d
y
a/2
x
18. Find the work and power
required to move the conductor
a
of length l shown in the fig. one
full turn in the anticlockwise 22. A charged particle of specific charge  is
released from origin at time t = 0 with velocity
direction at a rotationl frequency  
z V  V0 i  V0 j in magnetic field B  B 0 i . The
of n revolutions per second if
r A
the magnetic f ield is of 
magnitude B0 everywhere and I I coordinates of the particle at time t = B  are
0
points radially outwards fromZ- (specific charge  = q/m)
y
axis. The figure shows the B
surface traced by the wire AB. x

MAGNETISM Page # 66
1. A proton, a deuteron and an -particle having

q q 2q q
the same kinetic energy are moving in circular (A) (B) (C) (D)
trajectories in a constant magnetic field. If rp, rd 2m m m m
& r  denote respectively the radii of the 4. A particle of mass m & charge q is moving in a
trajectories of these particles then : region where uniform, constant electric and
[JEE ‘97,1]    
(A) r = rp < rd (B) r > rd > rp magnetic fields E & B are present, E & B are
(C) r = rd > rp (D) rp = rd = r parallel to each other. At time t = 0 the velocity
 
v 0 of the particle is perpendicular to E . (assume
2. 3 infinitely long thin wires each carrying current
that its speed is always << c, the speed of light
i in the same direction, are in the x-y plane of a 
in vacuum). Find the velocity v of the particle at
gravity free space. The central wire is along the
y-axis while the other two are along x = ±d. time t. You must express your answer in terms of
  
(i) Find the locus of the points for which the t, q, m, the vectors v 0 , E & B and their magnitudes
magnetic field B is zero. v0, E & B. [JEE ‘98, 8]
(ii) If the central wire is displaced along the z-
direction by a small amount & released, show that 
5. A uniform constant magnetic field B is directed
it will execute simple harmonic motion. If the linear
density of the wires is , find the frequency of at an angle of 45° to the x-axis in the xy-plane,
oscillation. [JEE ‘97, 5] PQRS is a rigid square wire frame carrying a steady
current I0 (clockwise), with its centre at the origin
3. Select the correct alternative (s). O. At time t = 0, the frame is at rest in the
(i) Two very long, straight, parallel wires carry position shown in the figure, with its sides parallel
steady currents I & – I respectively. The distance to the x & y axes.
between the wires is d. At a certain instant of Each side of the frame is of mass M & length L.
time, a point charge q is at a point equidistant y I0
S R
from the two wires, in the plane of the wires. Its
instantaneous velocity v is perpendicular to this x
plane. The magnitude of the force due to the
magnetic field acting on the charge at this instant
P Q
is : [JEE ‘98, 2+2+2]
 0Iqv  0Iqv 
(A) (B) (a) What is the torque  about O acting on the
2d d
frame due to the magnetic field?
2 0Iqv (b) Find the angle by which the frame rotates
(C) (D) 0
d under the action of this torque in a short interval
(ii) Let [0] denote the dimensional formula of of time t, & the axis about which this rotation
the permittivity of the vacuum and [0] that of occurs (t is so short that any variation in the
the permeability of the vacuum. If M = mass, L = torque during this interval may be neglected) Given
length, T = time and I = electric current. the moment of inertia of the frame about an axis
(A) [0] = M–1L–3T2 I (B) [0] = M–1L–3 T4 I2 through its centre perpendicular to its plane is 4/
(C) [0] = MLT–2I–2 (D) [0] = M L2T–1 I 3 ML2. [JEE ‘98,2+6]
(iii) Two particles, each of mass m & charge q,
are attached to the two ends of a light rigid rod 6. A charged particle is released from rest in a
of length 2R. The rod is rotated at constant region of steady and uniform electric and magnetic
angular speed about a perpendicular axis passing fields which are parallel to each other. The particle
through its centre. The ratio of the magnitudes will move in a
of the magnetic moment of the system & its (A) straight line (B) circle
angular momentum about the centre of the rod is (C) helix (D) cycloid
[JEE;99,2]

MAGNETISM Page # 67
7. The region between x = 0 and x = L is filled M
with uniform, steady magnetic field B0 k . A 90°

I
particle of mass m, positive charge q and velocity – 
P Q S
90°
v0 i travels along x-axis and enters the region of
the magnetic field. Neglect the gravity throughout R
–
the question. (A) 1/2 (B) 1 (C) 2/3 (D) 2
(a) Find the value of L if the particle emerges
from the region of magnetic field with its final (iv) An ionized gas contains both positive and
velocity at an angle 30° to its initial velocity. negative ions. If it is subjected simultaneously to
(b) Find the final velocity of the particle and the an electric field along the +x direction and a
time spent by it in the magnetic field, if the magnetic field along the +z direction, then
magnetic field now extends upto 2.1 L. (A) positive ions deflect towards +y direction and
[JEE ‘99, 6 + 4] negative ions towards –y direction
(B) all ions deflect towards + y direction.
8. (i) A particle of charge q and mass m moves in (C) all ions deflect towards –y direction
a circular orbit of radius with angular speed . (D) positive ions deflect towards –y direction and
The ratio of the magnitude of its magnetic moment negative ions towards +y direction.
to that of its angular momentum depends on [JEE 2000 (Scr)]
(A)  and q (B) , q and m
(C) q and m (D)  and m 9. A circular loop of radius R is bent along a
diameter and given a shape as shown in the figure.
(ii) Two long parallel wires are at a distance 2d One of the semicircles (KNM) lies in the x – z
apart. They carry steady equal currents flowing plane and the other one (KLM) in the y – z plane
out of the plane of the paper, as shown. The with their centers at the origin. Current I is flowing
variation of the magnetic field B along the XX’ is through each of the semicircles as shown in figure.
given by
L M
B B
I
y
N
x x' x x' I
K x
z
(i) A particle of charge q is released at the origin
d d d d
with a velocity v = – v0 i . Find the instantaneous
(A) (B) force f on the particle. Assume that space is
B B gravity free.
x x' x x' (ii) If an external uniform magnetic field B j is

applied, determine the forces F1 and F2 on the
semicircles KLM and KNM due to this field and the
d d d d
net force F on the loop. [JEE2000 Mains, 4 + 6]
(C) (D)
10. A current of 10 A flows around a closed path
(iii) An infinitely long conductor PQR is bent to in a circuit which is in the horizontal plane as
form a right angle as shown. A current I flows shown in the figure. The circuit consists of eight
through PQR. The magnetic field due to this alternating arcs of radii r1 = 0.08 m and r2 = 0.12
current at the point M is H1. Now, another infinitely m. Each arc subtends the same angle at the
long straight conductor QS is connected at Q so centre.
that the current in PQ remaining unchanged. The
magnetic field at M is now H2. The ratio H1/H2 is
given by

MAGNETISM Page # 68
D
C 1 1
(A) (– j  k ) (B) (– j  k  i )
r2 2 3
× A
r1 1    1  
(C) ( i  j  k) (D) ( i  k)
3 2
(a) Find the magnetic field produced by this [JEE, 2001 (Scr)]
circuit at the centre
13. A coil having N turns is wound tightly in the
(b) An infinitely long straight wire carrying a form of a spiral with inner and outer radii a and b
current of 10 A is passing through the centre of respectively. When a current I passes through
the above circuit vertically with the direction of the coil, the magnetic field at the centre is
the current being into the plane of the circuit. [JEE, 2001 Screening]
What is the force acting on the wire at the centre  0NI 2 0NI
due to the current in the circuit? What is the (A) (B)
b a
force acting on the arc AC and the straight
segment CD due to the current at the centre ?  0NI b  0IN b
[JEE 2001, 5 +5] (C) ln (D) ln
2(b – a) a 2(b – a) a
11. Two particles A and B of masses mA and mB

respectively and having the same charge are 14. A particle of mass m and charge q moves
moving in a plane. A uniform magnetic field exists with a constant velocity v along the positive x
perpendicular to this plane. The speeds of the direction. It enters a region containing a uniform
particles are v A and v B respectively and the magnetic field B directed along the negative z
trajectories are as shown in the figure. Then direction, extending from x= a to x = b. The
minimum value of v required so that the particle
A can just enter the region x > b is
(A) q b B/m (B) q(b – a) B/m
B (C) q a B/m (D) q(b + a) B/2m
[JEE 2002 (screening), 3]
15. A long straight wire along the z-axis carries a

(A) mAvA < mBvB
current I in the negative z direction. The magnetic
(B) mAvA > mBvB 
(C) mA < mB and vA < vB vector field B at a point having coordinates (x,
(D) mA = mB and vA = vB [JEE, 2001 (Scr)] y) in the z = 0 plane is
[JEE 2002 (screening),3]
12. A non-planar loop of conducting wire carrying
 0I( yi  xj)  0I( xi  yj )
a current I is placed as shown in the figure. Each (A) (B)
of the straight sections of the loop is of length 2 ( x 2  y 2 ) 2 ( x 2  y 2 )
2a. The magnetic field due to this loop at the
point P (a, 0, a) points in the direction  0I( x ĵ  y î )  0I( x î – y ĵ )
(C) 2 2 (D)
2( x  y ) 2 ( x 2  y 2 )
z
y 16. The magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet
are correctly shown in
I [JEE 2002 (screening), 3]
N N
x
2a
(A) (B)
S S

MAGNETISM Page # 69
right. n represent the direction of area of vector

N N
of the coil. The correct order of potential energy
is :
[JEE 2003 (Scr)]
(C) (D) (A) I > III > II > IV (B) I < III < II < IV
(C) IV < I < II < III (D) II > III > IV > I
S S
20. A wheel of radius R having charge Q, uniformly
17. A rectangular loop PQRS made from a uniform distributed on the rim of the wheel is free to
wire has length a, width b and mass m. It is free rotate about a light horizontal rod. The rod is
to rotate about the arm PQ, which remains hinged suspended by light inextensible stringe and a
along a horizontal line taken as the y-axis (see magnetic field B is applied as shown in the figure.
figure). Take the vertically upward direction as
 d
the z-axis. A uniform magnetic field B  (3 i  4k ) B 0
exists in the region. The loop is held in the x-y T0
T0
plane and a current I is passed through it. The
loop is now released and is found to stay in the
horizontal position in equilibrium.
z
The initial tensions in the strings are T0. If the
P Q 3 T0
y breaking tension of the strings are , find the
2
a maximum angular velocity 0 with which the wheel
x can be rotate. [JEE 2003]
S
b R
(a) What is the direction of the current I in PQ? 21. A proton and an alpha particle, after being
(b) Find the magnetic force on the arm RS. accelerated through same potential difference,
(c) Find the expression for I in terms of B0 , a, b enter a uniform magnetic field the direction of
and m. [JEE 2002, 1+1+3] which is perpendicular to their velocities. Find
the ratio of radii of the circular paths of the two
18. A circular coil carrying current I is placed in a particles. [JEE 2004]
re gion of unif orm magnetic field acting
perpendicular to a coil as shown in the figure. 22. In a moving coil galvanometer, torque on the
Mark correct option [JEE 2003 (Scr) coil can be expressed as  = ki, where i is current
× × × × through the wire and k is constant. The
× × × × rectangular coil of the galvanometer having
× × × ×
numbers of turns N, area A and moment of inertia
× × × ×
× × × × I is placed in magnetic field B. Find
× × × × (a) k in terms of given parameters N, I, A and B.
(A) coil expands (B) coil contracts (b) the torsional constant of the spring, if a
(C) coil moves left (D) coil moves right current i0 produces a deflection of /2 in the coil
in reaching equilibrium position.
(c) the maximum angle through which coil is
deflected, if charge Q is passed through the coil
19. n 
B almost instantaneously. (Ignore the damping in
n n n mechanical oscilations) [JEE 2005]
I II III IV
Figure represents four positions of a current 23. An infinite current carrying wire passes
carrying coil is a magnetic field directed towards through point O and in perpendicular to the plane

MAGNETISM Page # 70
containing a current carrying loop ABCD as shown Column I Column II

in the figure. Choose the correct option(s). (A) Point P is situated (P) The magnetic
C midway between the fields (B) at P
B wires due to the
P currents in the
wires are in the
same direction.
O O'
(B) Point P is situated at (Q) The magnetic
A the mid-point of the fields(B) at P due
D line joining the centers to the currents
(A) Net force on the loop is zero. [JEE2006]
(B) Net torque on the loop is zero. of the circular wires, in the wires are
(C) As seen from O, the loop rotates clockwise.
(D) As seen from O, the loop rotates anticlockwise. which have same radii. in opposite directions

24. A magnetic field B  B 0 j exists in the region P

a < x < 2a and B  –B 0 j , in the region 2a < x <
3a, where B0 is a positive constant. A positive (C) Point P is situated at (R) There is no
 the mid-point of the line magnetic field at P
point charge moving with a velocity v  v 0 i , where
joining the centers of
v0 is a positive constant, enters the magnetic the circular
field at x = a. The trajectory of the charge in this
region can be like, [JEE 2007] P
B0
0 (D) Point P is situated at (S) The wires repel

a 2a 3a x
the common center of each other
–B0 the wires
z z
P
a 2a 3a
(A) a 2a 3a x (B) x
[JEE-2007]
z z
26. A particle of mass m and charge q, moving
a 2a 3a with velocity V enters Region II normal to the
(C) a 2a 3a x (D) x boundary as shown in the figure. Region II has a
uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane
of the paper. The length of the Region II is l.
Choose the correct choice(s). [JEE 2008]
25. Two wires each carrying a steady current I Figure :
are shown in four configurations in Column I.
Some of the resulting effects are described in Region I Region II Region III
Column II. Match the statements in Column I
with the statement in Column II and indicate
your answer by darkening appropriate bubbles in v
the 4 × 4 matrix given in the ORS.
l

MAGNETISM Page # 71
(A) The particle enters Region III only if its velocity 28. In the graph below, the resistance R of a
qB super conductor is shown as function of its
V>
m tempeature T for two different magnetic field B1
(B) The particle enters Region III only if its ve- (solid line) and B2 (dashed line). If B2 is larger
qB than B1. Which of the follwing graphs shows the
locity V <
m correct variation of R with T in these fields ?
(C) Path length of the particle in Region II is [JEE 2010]
qB
maximum when velocity V = R
m R
(D) Time spent in Region II is same for any veloc- B2
ity V as long as the particle returns to Region I

B1
(A) B1
(B)
B2
T
27. A thin flexible wire of length  is connected O O
T
to two adjacent fixed point and carries a current
I in the clockwise direction, as shown in the fig- R
R
ure. When the system is put in a uniform mag-
netic field of strength B going into the plane of B1
the paper, the wire takes the shape of a circle. (C) (D)
B1 B2 B2
The tension in the wire is : [JEE 2010] T
O T
O
29. A susperconductor this T0(0) – 100 K. When

a magnetic field of 7.5 Tesla is applied. its Tc
decreases to 75 K. For this material one can defi-
nitely say that when [JEE 2010]
IB L
(A) I B L (B) (A) B = 5 Tesla, TC(B) = 80 K

(B) B = 5 Tesla, 75 K < Tc(B) < 100 K
IB L IB L (C) B = 10 Tesla, 75 K < TC (B) < 100 K
(C) (D)
2 4 (D) B = 10 Tesla, TC(B) = 70 K
Paragraph for Questions 28 to 29 30. An electron and a proton are moving on

Electrical resistance of certain materials, known straight parallel paths with same velocity. They
as superconductors, changes abruptly from a enter a semi-infinite region of uniform magnetic
nonzero value to zero as their temperature is low- field perpendicular to the velocity. Which of the
ered below a critical temperature TC(0). An in- following statement(s) is/are true?
teresting property of superconductors is that their (A) They will never come out of the magnetic
critical temperature becomes smaller than T(0) if field region.
they are placed in a magnentic field, i.e, the the (B) They will come out travelling along the
critical temperature TC(B) is a function of the parallel paths.
magnetic field strength B. The dependence of (C) They will come out at the same time.
Tc(B) on B is shown in the figure. (D) They will come out at different times.
[JEE 2011]
FC-(B)
31. A long insulated copper wire is closely wound
as a spiral of 'N' turns. The spiral has inner radius
T(0)
'a' and outer radius 'b'. The spiral lies in the X-Y
plane and a steady current 'I' flows through the
wire. The Z-component of the magnetic field at
the center of the spiral is
O
B

MAGNETISM Page # 72
I
a
b
X
 NI b  0NI b  a
0
(A) ln   (B) ln  
2b – a  a 2b – a b – a
34. A loop carrying current I lies in the x-y plane
 0NI b   0NI as shown in the figure. The unit vector K̂ is coming
ln   
b a
(C) ln   (D)
2b a 2b b – a out of the plane of the paper. The magnetic
[JEE 2011] moment of the current loop is
y
32. Consider the motion of a positive point charge
in a region where there are simultaneous uniform
  I
electric and magnetic fields E = E0 ĵ and B = B0 a
x
ĵ . At time t = 0. At time t = 0, this charge has a

velocity v in the x - y plane, making and angle
 with the x-axis. Which of the following option(s)   2 ˆ
(A) a2 IK
ˆ (B)   1  a IK
is(are) correct for time t > 0 ?  2 
(A) If  = 0o, the charge moves in a circular path
in the x-z plane.
  2 ˆ
(B) If  = 0o, the charge undergoes helical motion (C) –   1  a IK (D) 2  1 a2IK
ˆ
 2 
with constant pitch along the y-axis.
(C) If If  = 10o, the charge undergoes helical
motion with its pitch increasing with time, along 35. An infinitely long hollow conducting cylinder
the y-axis. with inner radius R/2 and outer radius R carries a
uniform current density along its length. The
(D) If If  = 90o, the charge undergoes linear but

acclerated motion along the y-axis. magnitude of the magnetic field B as a function
of the radial distance r from the axis is best
33. A cylindrical cavity of diameter a exists in-
represented by
side a cylinder of diamter 2a as shown in the
figure. Both the cylinder and the cavity are infi-
nitely long. A uniform current density J flows along
 
the length. If the magnitude of the magnetic field B B
N (A) (B)
at the point P is given by  0 aJ , then the
12 r r
R/2 R R/2 R
value of N is
 
B B
(C) (D)
r r
R R/2 R
R/2

MAGNETISM Page # 73
Exercise-I
1. A 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C 7. C
8. A 9. D 10. D 11. B 12. B 13. C 14. A
15. C 16. B 17. A 18. B 19. B 20. A 21. A
22. B 23. D 24. C 25. A 26. C 27. A 28. C
29. A 30. A 31. B 32. A 33. B 34. B 35. D
36. A 37. A 38 B 39. C 40. B 41. B 42. B
43. C 44. C 45. A 46. C 47. B 48. A 49. B
50. B 51. A 52. D 53. C 54. D 55. A 56. C
57. C 58. C 59. D 60. C 61. A 62. B 63. C
64. D 65. C 66. B 67. D 68. D 69. C 70. B
71. B 72. A 73. A 74. D 75. B 76. A 77. A
78. B 79. A 80. C 81. A 82. D 83. A 84. A
85. A 86. B 87. B 88. A 89. B 90. B 91. A
92. D
Exercise-II
1. A 2. A,B,C 3. A,B,C 4. A,B,C,D 5. C 6. B,D
7. A,D 8. C 9. B,C 10. A,D 11. C,D 12. C

13. A,B 14. A 15. D 16. B
Exercise-III
2 0 i
, 1. 2. 0 weber.m–1 3. In the plane of the drawing from right to left
8 l
5  0I  3  1  
4. 4   10 –5 T 5. (i) 1.3 × 10–4T, (ii) zero 6. 4 / 7 7.  k  j
2 2 4R  4  
 0I 3   0i  0 br12  0 bR3
8.  2   1 9. B  2( 2 2 – 2  1) 10. B1  , B2 
4 r   4 R 3 3r2
2mv 0  dB q 
 0 iqv 
11. 12. 13. t = m , where  = sin–1   if d < R ; T / 2 if d > R

2 a qB qB  2mV 
3mv 2 3mv 3 mEl

14. 10 k 15. (a) , (b) , (c) zero 16.
4 qa 4a Be
 0II' C  1 1 W  0I1I2 r2
17. – to the left 18. 2 IRB 19. l  2 ln r = 27.6  J/m
2  a b  1
m
20. zero 21. F   a 2 i j 22. T0  2  0.57 s 23. i1 = 0.1110 A, i2 = 0.096 A
61B

Page # 74 MAGNETISM
Exercise-IV
 0 I0 3b  0  4I   0  I2  4  1
1. 2. (i)   along Y -axis, (ii) 4   2a  10 , tan     with positive axis
2 ( a  b 2 )
2 4  a    3
 II mg   0I2   L2  a2 
3. 0 1 2 ln (3) along – ve z direction 4. 5. F    ln  2
 –k  , zero
4 2I l  2   a 
 0 J  a2 R 1 a2   0 J  a 2b 
 –   JR
6. (a) B = 2  2R – b 2  , (b) Bx = 0  4 – 2

2  , By = –  
   4R  b  2  4R2  b2 
Q 2 QV  0I  3 3   3  2
8. (a) m 6a   – 1 , (b)   BI –

7. h tan2 a ĵ
4   3 4 

9. (a) 0 (b) 1.41 × 10–6 T, 45° in xz-plane, (c) 5 × 10–6 T, +x - direction]
10. (a) 20 min. (b) 5.94 × 10–2 Nm 15 C 11.
12. (a) 1.4 × 10 m/s (b) 4.5 × 10 N (down) (c) 2.8 × 10–4 V/m (down)
–4 –23
(d) 5.7 × 10–6 V (top +, bottom–) (e) same as (c)

mg
I mg
1/ 2
13. (a) r B 2x  B 2y (b) I =  r B 14. (a) increase, (b) decrease
  x
 0 iJ0  d
17. tan –1   (– k ) 18. – 2  r B0 i l, – 2  r B0 i l n
  2h 
2 0 i  V0  2V0 
19. 0.62 N < F < 0.88 N 20. Bmin = 4.7 × 10–3 T 21. 22.  B  ,0,– B  
3 a  0 0 
Exercise-V
d 1 0
1. A 2. z = 0 x = ± , (ii) 3. (i) D (ii) B, C (iii) A
3 2d 
 q   qB     
4. v  Et  v 0 cost + [v0 sin t] k , where  = ; k  ( v 0  E)/| v 0  E|
m m
 Bl 0L2   3 BI0 2 mv 0 m
5. (a)   ( i – j ) (b)  = t 6. A 7. (a) 2qB (b) velocity = –v, time = qB
2 4 M 0 0
8. (i) C (ii) B (iii) C (iv) C
 0I
9. (i) – q v0 k (ii) F1 = 2 I R B , F2 = 2 I R B, Net force = F1 + F2 = 41 IRB i
4R
10. (a) 6.6 × 10–5 T, (b) 0, 0, 8 × 10–6 Nt
11. B 12. D 13. C 14. B 15. A 16. D
 mg
17. (a) current in loop PQRS is clockwise from P to QRS., (b) F = BI0b ( 3k – 4 i ) , (c) I = 6bB
0
dT0 rp mp q 1
18. A 19. A 20.  = 2 21. r  m . q 
QR B   p 2
2 i0NAB NAB
22. (a) k = N AB, (b) C = , (c) Q × 2 l i0 23. A, C 24. A

25. (A) Q, R; (B) P; (C) Q, R; (D) Q or (A) Q, R; (B) P; (C) Q, R; (D) Q, S
26. (A), (C) & (D) 27. C 28. A 29. B 30. B,D 31. A
32. C,D 33. 5 34. B 35. D
IIT-JEE|AIEEE
CBSE|SAT|NTSE
OLYMPIADS
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
CONTENTS
1. Magnetic Flux ................................................................................................... 3
2. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic .................................................................. 3 – 4
Induction
3. Lenz’s Law ..................................................................................................... 4 – 5
4. Calculation of induced EMF ........................................................................... 6 – 20
5. Induced Electric Field due to a time Varying ................................................. 20 – 22
Magnetic field
6. Self Induction ............................................................................................... 23 – 24
7. Inductor ........................................................................................................ 24 – 26
8. L.R.Circuit ........................................................................................................ 27
9. Growth and Decay of current in L-R circuit .................................................... 28 – 32
10. Mutual Inductance ...................................................................................... 32 – 34
11. Series Combination of inductors ..................................................................... 35
12. Exercise - I ................................................................................................. 36 – 46
13. Exercise - II ................................................................................................ 47 – 50
14. Exercise - III ............................................................................................... 51 – 52
15. Exercise - IV .............................................................................................. 53 – 55
16. Exercise - V ............................................................................................... 56 – 59
17. Answer key ................................................................................................ 60 – 62

Page # 2 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
In previous lesson we studied about magnetic field produced by a moving charge and the force on it when
placed in a magnetic field. In this lesson we will see how the current and emf are induced in a circuit when the
magnetic flux through the circuit changes with time.
In 1820, the connection between electricity and magnetism was demonstrated by Faraday and indepen-
dently by Joseph Henry. They showed that an electric current could be induced in a circuit by a changing
magnetic field.
The result of these experiments led to a very basic and important law of electromagnetism known as Faraday’s
law of induction.
In this lesson we discuss the ideas of flux and the basic law of producing induced emf. Then we shall discuss
inductor, which plays on important role in electrical circuits and its effect known as self induction and mutual
induction. Finally, we examine the characteristics of circuits containing inductors, resistors and capacitors
in various combinations.
IIT-JEE Syllabus : Faraday’s Law, Lenz’s Law; Motional Emf; Self and mutual inductance. RC and
LR circuits with d.c. sources.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Page # 3
1. MAGNETIC FLUX
Consider a closed curve enclosing an area A (as shown in the figure). Let there be a uniform
 
magnetic field B in that region. The magnetic flux through the area A is given by
 
  B. A ...(i)
= BA cos 

where  is the angle which the vector B makes with the normal to the surface. If B is
 
perpendicular to A , then the flux through the closed area A is zero. SI unit of magnetic flux
is weber (Wb).
Notes :
Area vector is  to the surface
For open surface choose one direction as the area vector direction and stick to it for the
whole problem.
For closed surfaces outward normal is taken as area vector direction
Flux is basically count of number of lines crossing a surface

 B . ds  0 because magnetic field lines exists in closed loop.
Ex.1 Find flux passing through Area ?
B
37°
 
Sol. Since A is  to B
 
  B.A  0
2. FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Whenever the flux of magnetic field through the area bounded by a closed conducting loop
changes, an emf is produced in the loop. The emf is given by
d
 ...(ii)
dt
 
where   B . dA the flux of magnetic field through the area.

The emf so produced drives an electric current through the loop. If the resistance of the loop
is R, then the current
 1 d
i  ...(iii)
R R dt

Ex.2 A coil is placed in a constant magnetic field. The magnetic field is parallel to the plane
of the coil as shown in figure. Find the emf induced in the coil.
Sol.  = 0 (always) since area is perpendicular to magnetic field.

 emf = 0
Ex.3 Find the emf induced in the coil shown in figure. The magnetic field is perpendicular to
the plane of the coil and is constant.
Area=A

B
Sol.  = BA (always) = const.

 emf = 0
Ex.4 Show that if the flux of magnetic induction through a coil changes from 1 to 2, then the
 2 – 1
charge q that flows through the circuit of total resistance R is given by q = ,
R
where R is the resistance of the coil.
d
Sol. Let  be the instantaneous flux. Then is the instantaneous rate of change of flux which is
dt
1  d 
equal to the magnitude of the instantaneous emf. so the current in the circuit |i| = R  dt  ,
dq
since the current is the rate of flow of charge, that is, i =
dt
tt
 1 d 
q =  idt or q    R . dt  dt
t 0
where  is the time during which change takes place. but at t = 0,  1, and at t = t,  = 2

1 2  2 – 1
d
 q=
R 1 =
R
3. LENZ’S LAW
The effect of the induced emf is such as to oppose the change in flux that produces it.
S S N N
V V V V
N N S S
i i
i i
(a) (c) (b) (d)
In figure (a & b) as the magnet approaches the loop, the flux through the loop increases. The
induced current sets up an induced magnetic field Bind whose flux opposes this change. The
direction of Bind is opposite to that of external field Bext due to the magnet.

In figure (c & d) the flux through the loop decreases as the magnet moves away from the
loop, the flux due to the induced magnetic field tries to maintain the flux through the loop.
The direction of Bind is same as that of Bext due to magnet.
Lenz’s law is closely related to the law of conservation of energy and is actually a consequence
of this general law of nature. As the north pole of the magnet moves towards the loop an
induced current is produced. This opposes the motion of N-pole of the bar magnet. Thus, in
order to move the magnet toward the loop with a constant velocity an external force is to be
applied. The work done by this external force gets transformed into electric energy, which
induces current in the loop.
There is another alternative way to find the direction of current inside the loop which is
described below.
Figure shows a conducting loop placed near a long, straight wire carrying a current i as
shown. If the current increases continuously, then there will be an emf induced inside the
loop. Due to this induced emf, an electric current is induced. To determine the direction of
current inside the loop we put an arrow as shown. The right hand thumb rule shows that the
normal to the loop is going into the plane. Again the same rule shows that the magnetic field
at the site of the loop is also going into the plane of the diagram.
   
Thus B and d A are in the same direction. Therefore B . d A is positive if i increases, the

magnitude of flux  increases. Since magnetic flux  is positive and its magnitude increases,
d
is positive. Thus  is negative and hence the current is negative. Thus the current
dt
induced is opposite, to that of arrow.
Brain Teaser
Two identical coaxial circular loops carry equal currents circulating in the same direction.
What will happen to the current in each loop if the loops approach each other ?
Ex.5 Find the direction of induced current in the coil shown in figure. Magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of coil and it is increasing with time.

B
Sol. Inward flux is increasing with time. To oppose it outward magnetic field should be induced.
Hence current will flow in anticlockwise.
v
Ex.6 Figure shows a long current carrying wire and
two rectangular loops moving with velocity v.
Find the direction of current in each loop.
Sol. In loop (i) no emf will be induced because there is no flux (i)
change. constant i
ln loop (ii) emf will be induced because the coil is moving V
in a region of decreasing magnetic field inward in direction.
(ii)
Therefore to oppose the flux decrease in inward direction,
current will be induced such that its magnetic field will
be inwards. For this direction of current should be
clockwise.

4. CALCULATION OF INDUCED EMF
As we know that magnetic flux () linked with a closed conducting loop = BA cos  where B is
the strength of the magnetic field, A is the magnitude of the area vector and  is the angle
between magnetic field vector and area vector.
Hence flux will be affected by change in any of them, which is discussed in the next page.
4.1 By changing the magnetic field
Ex.7 Figure shows a coil placed in decreasing magnetic field applied perpendicular to the
plane of coil. The magnetic field is decreasing at a rate of 10 T/s. Find out current in
magnitude and direction
A=2m2
B R  5
Sol.  = B.A
dB
emf = A. = 2 × 10 = 20 v
dt
 i = 20/5 = 4amp. From lenz’s law direction of current will be anticlockwise.
Ex.8 The magnetic flux (2) in a closed circuit of resistance 20  varies with time (t) according
to the equation  = 7t2 – 4t where  is in weber and t is in seconds. The magnitude of
the induced current at t = 0.25 s is
(A) 25 mA (B) 0.025 mA (C) 47 mA (D) 175 mA
Sol.  = 7t2 – 4t
d
 Induced emf : | e |   14 t  4
dt
 Induced current :
| e | |14t  4| |14  0.25  4|
i   (at t = 0.25 s)
R 20 20
0.5
  2.5  102 A
20
 (A)
Ex.9 Consider a long infinite wire carrying a time varying current i = kt (k > 0). A circular
loop of radius a and resistance R is placed with its centre at a distance d from the wire
(a < < d). Find out the induced current in the loop?
Sol. Since current in the wire is continuously increasing therefore we conclude that magnetic field
due to this wire in the region is also increasing.
 0i
Magnetic field B due to wire  going into and perpendicular to the plane of the paper
2d
Flux through the circular loop,
i
  0  a2
2d i = kt a
 a2kt k>0 d
 0
2d
Induced e.m.f. in the loop
d  0 a2k
 
dt 2d
|  |  0a2k
Induced current in the loop i  
R 2dR
Direction of induced current in the loop is anticlokwise.

Ex.10 Two concentric coplanar circular loops have diameters 20 cm and 2 m and resistance
of unit length of the wire = 10–4 /m. A time -dependent voltage V =(4 + 2.5 t) volts is
applied to the larger as shown. The current in the smaller loop is
V=(4+2.5t)
r1
r2
Sol. r1 = 1.0 m, r2 = 10–1 m

V=(4+2.5t)
Resistance of outer loop = 2 × 10–4 
Resistance of inner loop = 0.2 × 10–4 
V (4  2.5t) r1
Current in outer loop   A
R 2  104 r2
 2  4  1.25  4 
or i0      10      10  t  A
 
Magnetic field produced at the common centre (see figure)
 i
B 0 
2r1
4 [(2  1.25t)  104 ]
or B  107   2  103 (2  1.25t) T
2 
Hence, flux linked with the inner loop,
 = BA = 2 × 10–3 (2 + 1.25 t) × (0.1)2 = 2 × 10–5 (2 + 1.25t) Wb
Hence, the e.m.f. induced in smaller loop =
d
  2  10 5  125
.  –2.5   10 5 V
dt
The negative sign indicates that the induced e.m.f. (or current) is opposite to applied e.m.f.
(or current)
Hence, the current induced in the inner (smaller) loop is
| | 2.5  105 V
i   1.25 A
R (0.2  104 )
Ex.11 A rectangular wire frame of length 0.2 m, is located at a distance of 5 × 10–2 m from a
long straight wire carrying a current of 10 A as shown in the figure. The width of the
frame = 0.05 m. The wire is in the plane of the rectangle. Find the magnetic flux through
the rectangular circuit. If the current decays uniformly to 0 in 0.2 s, find the emf induced
in the circuit.
0.05m
10A
r1=0.05m
0.2m
x
dx
r2=0.1m
Sol. A current, i = 10 A is flowing in the long straight wire. Consider a small rectangular strip (in
the rectangular wire frame) of width dx at a distance x from the straight wire.
The magnetic flux at the location of the strip,
 0i
Bx =
2 x

The flux linked with the infinitesimally small rectangular strip

 0i
= Bx × Area of the strip = dx = l dx
2 x
where l is the length of the rectangular wire circuit
= 2 × 10–1 m
or dx = (0 il/2) (dx/x)
Hence, the total magnetic flux linked with the rectangular frame
0il
=  d x  [loge x]rr12
2
0il 0il  r2 
or   2 [loge r2  loge r1 ]  2 loge  r 
 1
Substituting values, we get
 = 2 × 10–7 × 10 × 2 × 10–1 × loge2
= 2.772 × 10–7 Wb
r 
 o l loge  2 
Induced e.m.f. |  | d   r1  di
dt 2 dt
10
 (2  107  2  101 loge 2)
0.2
= 1.386 ×10–6 V = 1.386 V
Ex.12 Figure shows a wire frame PQSTXYZ placed in a time varying magnetic field given as B
=  t, where  is a positive constant. Resistance per unit length of the wire is . Find the
current induced in the wire and draw its electrical equivalent diagram.
Y Z
b
b>a
B
T S
X
B a
P a Q
Sol. Induced emf in part PQST =  a2 (in anticlockwise  4b

direction, from Lenz’s Law) Similarly induced emf
i
in part TXYZ =  b2 (in anticlockwise direction,
2
from Lenz’s Law) b
Total resistance of the part PQST = a i i
Total resistance of the part PQST = l4b.
The equivalent circuit it is shown in the diagram. i  a2
writing KVL along the current flow i
b2 – a2 –  4ai –  4bi = 0  4a

i= (b – a)
4
Brain Teaser :
A copper ring is held horizontally and a bar magnet is dropped through the ring with its
length along the axis of the ring. Will the acceleration of the falling magnet be equal to,
greater than or lesser than the acceleration due to gravity ?

4.2 BY CHANGING THE AREA

Solved Examples :
Ex.13 A space is divided by the line AD into two regions. Region I is field free and the region
II has a uniform magnetic field B directed into the paper. ACD is a semicircular
conducting loop of radius r with centre at O, the plane of the loop being in the plane of
t he paper . The loop is now m ade t o r ot at e w it h a const ant angular velocit y  about an
axis passing through O, and perpendicular to the plane of the paper in the clockwise
direction. The effective resistance of the loop is R.
(a) Obtain an expression for the magnitude of the induced current in the loop.
(b) Show the direction of the current when the loop is entering into the region II.
(c) Plot a graph between the induced emf and the time of rotation for two periods of
rotation.
Sol. (a) As in time t, the arc swept by the loop in the field, i.e., region II.
1 1
A= r(r)  r 2t
2 2
So the flux linked with the rotating loop at time t,
1
 = BA = Br 2 t [  t]
2
and hence the induced emf in the loop,
d 1 2
=– = – Br = constant.
dt 2
And as the resistance of the loop is R, the induced current in it,
 Br 2
i  
R 2R
Region I Region II + + + + +
Region I Region II
× × × × × × A + + + + +
 A
+ + + + +
× × × × × × 

+ + + + + 
T/2 t
C O × × × × × × O+ + + + + O
T 3T/2 2T
+ + + + +
× × × × × ×
–
D D+ + + + +
× × × × × × i
+ + + + + Fig.(c)
Fig (a) Fig (b)
(b) When the loop is entering the region II, i.e., the field figure (b), the inward flux linked
with it will increase, so in accordance with Lenz’s law an anticlockwise current will be
induced in it.
(c) Taking induced emf to the negative when flux linked with the loop is increasing and
positive when decreasing, the emf versus time graph will be, as shown in figure (c)
Ex.14 Two parallel, long, straight conductors lie on a smooth plane surface. Two other parallel
conductors rest on them at right angles so as to form a square of side a initially. A
uniform magnetic field B exists at right angles to the plane containing the conductors.
Now they start moving out with a constant velocity (v). (a) Will the induced emf be
time dependent? (b) Will the current be time dependent?
Sol. (a) Yes,  (instantaneous flux) = B (a + 2vt)2
d
 = = 4Bv(a + 2vt)
dt

(b) No,

(instantaneous current) i =
R
Now R = 4(a + 2vt)r where r = resistance per unit length
4Bv(a  2vt) Bv
 i= = (a constant)
4r(a  2vt) r
The current will be time independent
Ex.15 Find the direction of induced of current in the × × × ×

wire AB. When rotated anticlockwise ×A × × B×
through angle  if
× × × ×
it is placed initially as shown in the figure
× × × ×
Sol. Range of Angle Rotated Direction of induced current
×D × × ×
0 – 90 A to B C
× × × ×
90 – 180 A to B
180 – 270 B to A
270 – 360 B to A
4.3 Motional Emf

We can find emf induced in a moving rod by considering the number of lines cut by it per sec
assuming there are ‘B’ lines per unit area. Thus when a rod of length l moves with velocity v
in a magnetic field B, as shown, it will sweep area per unit time equal to lv and hence it will
cut B l v lines per unit time.
t t+dt
l V B
Hence emf induced between the ends of the rod = Bvl
d
Also emf = . Here  denotes flux passing through the area, swept by the rod. The rod
dt
d
sweeps an area equal to l vdt in time interval dt. Flux through this area = Bl vdt. Thus =
dt
Bl vdt
= Bvl
dt
If the rod is moving as shown in the following figure, it will sweep area per unit time = v l sin

t t+dt

l B
and hence it will cut B v l sin  lines per unit time. Thus emf = Bvlsin.

4.3.1 Mechanism of The induced EMF a cross the ends of a moving rod :
Figure shows a conducting rod of length l moving with a constant velocity v in a uniform
magnetic field. The length of the rod is perpendicular to magnetic field, and velocity is
perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the length of the rod. An electron inside the
 
conductor experiences a magnetic force FB   e ( v  B) directed downward along the rod. As a
result electrons migrate towards the lower end and leave unbalanced positive charges at the
top. This redistribution of charges sets up an electric field E directed downward. This electric
field exerts a force on free electrons in the upward direction. As redistribution continues
electric field grows in magnitude until a situation, when
Q +
× × FB = e
× ×
× ×
× × v
× ×
× ×
× ×
FE = eE
× × P –
  
| q v  B |  | qE|
After this, there is no resultant force on the free electrons and the potential difference
across the conductor is
    
 d    E.d l   (v  B).d l ...(4)
Thus it is the magnetic force on the moving free electrons that maintains
the potential difference. So e.m.f. developed across the ends of the P
rod moving perpendicular to magnetic field with velocity perpendicular
Blv
to the rod,
  vB l ...(5)
r
As this emf is produced due to the motion of the conductor, it is called
motional emf.
In the problems related to motional e.m.f. we can replace the rod by a Q
battery of e.m.f. vB l.
The moving rod can be represented (or equivalent) as electrical circuit
as shown in figure.
Ex.16 Find the value of emf induced in the rod for the following cases. The figures are self
explanatory.
V
(a) Ans. emf = 0

B
(b) B Ans. emf = 0
(c) Ans. emf = 0
Figure shows a closed coil ABCA moving in a uniform magnetic field B with a velocity v. The
flux passing through the coil is a constant and therefore the induced emf is zero.

A A
B
L C
C V E VBL
B B
Now consider rod AB, which is a part of the coil. Emf induced in the rod = B L v. Now suppose
the emf induced in part ACB is E, as shown in figure.
Since the emf in the coil is zero, Emf (in ACB) + Emf (in BA) = 0
or – E + vBL = 0
or E = vBL
Thus emf induced in any path joining A and B is same, provided the magnetic field is uniform.
Also the equivalent emf between A and B is BLv (here the two emf’s are in parallel)
Ex.17 Figure shows an irregular shaped with AB moving with velocity v, as shown. Find the
emf induced in the wire.
v A
l
B
B A v A
 B l
l
Sol. The same emf will be induced in the straight imaginary wire B B
joining A and B, which is Bvl sin  B
Ex.18 A 0.4 meter long straight conductor moves in a magnetic field of magnetic induction
0.9 Wb/m2 with a velocity of 7 m/sec. Calculate the emf induced in the conductor
under the condition when it is maximum.

Sol. If a rod of length l is moved with velocity v and at angle  to the length of the rod in a field

B which is perpendicular to the plane of the motion, the flux linked with the area generated
by the motion of rod in time t,
v
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
× × ×  × ×
× × l× × ×
d
 = Bl(v sin)t so, || = = Bv l sin 
dt
This will be maximum when sin  = max = 1, i.e., the rod is moving perpendicular to its length
and then ()max = Bvl
Emax = 0.9 × 7 × 0.4 = 2.52 V

Ex.19 A square metal wire loop of side 10 cm and resistance 1 ohm is moved with a constant
velocity v0 in a uniform magnetic field of induction B = 2 Wb/m2 as shown in figure.
The magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The loop is connected
to a network of resistance each of value 3 ohm. The resistances of the lead wires OS
and PQ are negligible. What should be the speed of the loop so as to have a steady
current of 1 milliampere in the loop ? Find the direction of current in the loop ?
v0
× × × × × × × × Q
 × × × × × × × × 3 3
B × × × × × × × × P 3
× × × × × × × × A C
× × × × × × × × O
× × × × × × × × 3 3
× × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × S
Sol. As the network AQCS is a balanced Wheatstone bridge, no current will flow through AC and
hence the effective resistance of the network between QS,
66
RQS = = 3 ohm
66
and as the resistance of the square metal wire loop is 1 ohm, the total resistance of the
circuit,
R = 3 + 1 = 4 ohm
Now if the loop moves with speed v0, the emf induced in the loop,
 = Bv0l
 Bv0l
So the current in the circuit, i = =
R R
Substituting the given data,
In accordance with Lenz’s law, the induced current in the loop will be in clockwise direction.
Ex.20 A rod of length l is kept parallel to a long wire carrying constant current i. It is moving
away from the wire with a velocity v. Find the emf induced in the wire when its distance
from the long wire is x.
 0il v
Sol. E=BlV=
2 x
OR
Emf is equal to the rate with which magnetic field lines are cut. In dt time the area swept by
the rod is l v dt. The magnetic field lines cut in dt time
t
0il vdt B
= B l vdt = l v
2x i
 The rate with which magnetic field lines are cut Const x
 il v
= 0
2 x
Ex.21 A rectangular loop, as shown in the figure, moves away from an infinitely long wire
carrying a current i. Find the emf induced in the rectangular loop.
E = B1 L V – B2 L v
L v
i B1LV B2LV
x b
0i  0i  0iLbv
= Lv – Lv =
2x 2(x  b) 2x( x  b)

Aliter : Consider a small segment of width dy at a distance y from the wire. Let flux through the
segment be d.
0i dy
 d = L dy
2y
y L
v
x b constant
 0iL dy  0iL current i
 =
2 
x
y
=
2
(ln(x  b) – ln x)
x
d  0iL  1 dx 1 dx   0iL  (–b)  – 0ibLv

Now dt  2  x  b dt – x dt  = v =
  2  x(x  b)  2x(x  b)
 0ibLv
 induced emf =
2x(x  b)
Ex.22 A rod of length l is placed perpendicular to a long wire carrying current i. The rod is
moved parallel to the wire with a velocity v. Find the emf induced in the rod, if its
nearest end is at a distance ‘a’ from the wire.
Sol. Consider a segment of rod of length dx, at a
distance x from the wire. Emf induced in the
segment v
B
0i + –
d = dx.v
2x a
l
a l
 0ivdx 0iv  l  a 
 =   ln 
a
2x 2  a 
Ex.23 Two parallel wires AL and BM placed at a distance l are connected by a resistor R and
placed in a magnetic field B which is perpendicular to the plane containing the wires.
Another wire CD now connects the two wires perpendicularly and made to slide with
velocity v. Calculate the work done per second needed to slide the wire CD. Neglect
the resistance of all the wires.
Sol. When a rod of length l moves in a magnetic field with
C
velocity v as shown in figure, an emf  = Bvl will be A L
induced in it. Due to this induced emf, a current × × × × × × × × × ×
 Bvl
i= = will flow in the circuit as shown in figure. × × × × × × × × × ×
R
R R l FM v
Due to this induced current, the wire will experience a × × × × × × × × × ×
magnetic force × × × × × × × × × ×
B2 l 2 v B M
FM = Bi l = D
R
which will oppose its motion, So to maintain the motion of the wire CD, a force F = FM must be
applied in the direction of motion.
The work done per second, i.e., power needed to slide the wire is given by
dW B2 v 2 l 2
P= = Fv = FM v =
dt R
Note :
• The power delivered by the external agent is converted into joule heating in a by using the
circuit(as shwon above). It means magnetic field helps in converting the mechanical energy
into joule heating.

Ex.24 A rod of mass m and resistance r is placed on fixed, resistanceless, smooth conducting
rails (closed by a resistance R) and it is projected with an initial velocity u Find its
velocity as a function of time.
t=0
B
l u R
m,r
i
Sol. Let at an instant the velocity of the rod be v. The emf induced
in the rod will be vBl. The electrically equivalent circuit is shown
r R
in the following diagram.
Bl v
 Current in the circuit i = Blv
R r
At time t
Magnetic force acting on the rod is F = i l B, opposite to the motion of the rod.
dv
ilB=–m ...(1)
dt
Bl v
i= ...(2)
R r
Now solving these two equation V=ue
–kt
B2 l 2 v dv B2 l 2 dv u
 –m.  – .dt 
R r dt (R  r) m v
v
dV
let  – K. dt =
V
v
dv
t
t
   –K.dt
u
v 0
 v
ln  u   –Kt  V = ue–Kt
Ex.25 In the above question if a constant force F is applied on the rod. Find the velocity of the
rod as a function of time assuming it started with zero initial velocity.
dv
Sol. m =F–ilB ..(1)
dt
Bl v
i= ...(2)
R r
dv B2 l 2 v
m =F–
dt R r
v t
B2 l 2 dV dt Vmax
let K =    m
R r 0
F – Kv 0
V
v
1 t
 – ln(F – KV)  t
K 0
m
 F – kV  Kt
ln  –
 F  m
F – KV = F e–kt/m
F
V= (1 – e–kt/m)
K

Ex.26 A square wire of length l, mass m and resistance R slides without friction down the
parallel conducting wires of negligible resistance as shown in figure.
The rails are connected to each other at the bottom by a resistanceless rail parallel to
the wire so that the wire and rails form a closed rectangular loop. The plane of the rails
makes an angle  with horizontal and a uniform vertical field of magnetic induction B
exists throughout the region. Show that the wire acquires a steady state velocity of
mgRsinθ
magnitude v = 2 2
B l cos 2 θ
B
Sol. Force down the plane = mg sin 

At any instant if the velocity is v the induced e.m.f
= l B cos × v
Bl v cos 
Current in the loop ×
R
Force on the conductor in the horizontal direction
Bl v cos 
= Bl ×
R
The component of force parallel to the incline
B2 l 2 v cos 
=  cos 
R
B2 l 2 cos2 
If v is constant,  v = mg sin 
R
mRgsinθ
 v=
B 2 l 2 cos 2 θ
Ex.27 A rod PQ of mass m and resistance r is moving on two fixed, resistanceless, smooth
conducting rails (closed on both sides by resistances R1 and R2). Find the current in the
rod at the instant its velocity is v.
P
B r
R1 l V R2
Q
Sol. The equivalant circuit of above figure
Biv
R1 r R2
Bl v
i= R1R 2
r
R1  R 2

Ex.28 In the above question if one resistance is replaced

by a capacitor of capacitance C as shown. Find the
velocity of the moving rod at time t if the initial
velocity of the rod is v and a constant force F is R F C
applied on the rod. Neglect the resistance B
of the rod.
Sol. At any time t, let the velocity of the rod be v.
Applying Newtons law :
F – i lB = ma ...(1)
q
Also B l v = i1 R = dq
c
i1 dt
Applying KCL,
i
dq Bl v d Bl v F q
i = i1 +   (Bl vC) or i=  Bl Ca R V
dt R dt R C
ilB –q
Putting the value of i in eq. (1), B
B2 l 2 v dv
F– = (m + B2l2C)a = (m + B2l2C)
R dt
dv
(m + B2l2C)  dt
B2l 2 v
F–
R
Integrating both sides, and solving we get
 tB2 l 2 
FR R(m+CB2 l 2 )
v = B2 l 2  1 – e 
 
4.4 Induced e.m.f due to rotation
4.4.1 Rotation of the rod

Consider a conducting rod of length l rotating in a uniform magnetic field.

B B d  rBdr
dr
dr v  r
l emf induced in a
r small segment small segment
just like a rod
Emf induced in a small segment of

length dr, of the rod = v B dr = r  B dr
 emf induced in the rod
 1 2 r
=B  rdr  2 Bl
0
Bl 2 / 2
equivalent of this rod is as following
flux through the area swept by

d the rod in time dt
or  = =
dt
dt
1
B l 2 dt
2 1 2
= = Bl
dt 2

Ex.29 Find out the potential difference between A & B :
× × × × × × ×
× × × × × × ×
× × × × × × ×
A B
× × × × × × ×
l
× × × × × × ×
× × × × × × ×
Sol.
× × × × × × ×
× × × × × × ×
× × × × dx× × ×
A B
× × × x × × × ×
l
× × × × × × ×
× × × × × × ×
 dE   Bxdx
0
Bl 2
VA – VB 
2
Ex.30 A rod PQ of length 2l is rotating about one end P in a uniform magnetic field B which is
perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the rod. Point M is the mid point of the rod.
Find the induced emf between M & Q if that between P & Q = 100V.
 B = Uniform
Q
P M
2l
Bwl 2
Sol. EMQ + EPM = EPQ corner  = 100
2
2
 l
B  
 2 Bl 2
EMQ + =
2 2
3 3
EMQ = Bl 2 =  100 V = 75 V
8 4
Ex.31 A rod of length L and resistance r rotates about one end as shown in figure. Its other
end touches a conducting ring a of negligible resistance. A resistance R is connected
between centre and periphery. Draw the electrical equivalence and find the current in
the resistance R. There is a uniform magnetic field B directed as shown.
B

O r
A r
E 1
r Bl 2 i
O A  R 2
1 D R
Sol. Bl 2
R 2
D C E
C
1
Bl 2
current i = 2
R r
E 
Ex.32 Solve the above question if the length of rod B
is 2L and resistance 2r and it is rotating about
O
its centre. D A
L
Both ends of the rod now touch the conducting ring.
R
E C
r r/2
r r 
A
1
R
C,E,A O  BL2
r

 2
Sol. C  E  i=
r r
R R
E R 2 2
R
Ex.33 A rod of length l is rotating with an angular speed  about its one end which is at a
distance ‘a’ from an infinitely long wire carrying current i. Find the emf induced in the
rod at the instant as shown in the figure.

l
i
Consider a small segment of rod of length dx, at a

distance x from one end of the rod.
Emf induced in the segment a x

 0i i
dE = (x)dx
2(x  a) dx
l x
 0i  i  l – a.ln  l  a  
E=  (x)dx = 0   a  
0
2(x  a) 2  
4.5 By Changing The Angle
Let us consider the case when the magnitude of the magnetic field strength and the area of
the coil remains constant. When the coil is rotated relative to the direction of the field, an
induced current is produced which lasts as long as the coil is rotating.
We have,  = BA cos  [where B is the magnetic field strength, A is the magnitude of the area
vector &  is the angle between them] If the angular velocity with which the coil is rotating is
, then  = t B
Induced e.m.f. in the coil A
d
  BA sin t
dt
Induced current in the coil
|  | BA
i  sin t
R R

Ex.34 A ring rotates with angular velocity  about an axis in the   const
plane of the ring and which passes through the center of
the ring. A constant magnetic field B exists perpendicular
to the plane of the ring. Find the emf induced in the ring as
B
a function of time. t=0
Sol. At any time t,  = BA cos  = BA cos t
Now induced emf in the loop
–d
e= = BA  sin t
dt
If there are N turns
emf = BAN sin t
BA N is the amplitude of the emf e = em sin t
e em
i= = sin t = im sin t
R R
em
im =
R
The rotating coil thus produces a sinusoidally varying current or alternating current. This is
the principle which is always used in generator.
5. INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELD


Consider a conducting loop placed at rest in a magnetic field B . Suppose, the field is constant
till t = 0 and then changes with time. An induced current starts in the loop at t = 0.
The free electrons were at rest till t = 0 (we are not interested in the random motion of the
electrons.) The magnetic field cannot exert force on electrons at rest. Thus, the magnetic
force cannot start the induced current. The electrons may be forced to move only by an
electric field. So we conclude that an electric field appears at time t = 0.
This electric field is produced by the changing magnetic field and not by charged
particles. The electric field produced by the changing magnetic field is nonelectrostatic
and nonconservative in nature. We cannot define a potential corresponding to this
field. We call it induced electric field. The lines of induced electric field are closed
curves. There are no starting and terminating points of the field lines.
 
If E be the induced electric field, the force on the charge q placed in the field of q E . The
 
work done per unit charge as the charge moves through d l is E. d l .The emf developed in
the loop is, therefore,
 
=  E .d l
Using Faraday’s law of induction,
d
=–
dt
  d
or,  E .d l =–
dt
...(6)
The presence of a conducting loop is not necessary to have an induced electric field. As long

as B keeps changing, the induced electric field is present. If a loop is there, the free
electrons start drifting and consequently an induced current results.

Ex.35 What will be the electric field at a distance r B=B0t

from axis of changing cylindrical magentic field
×
B, which is parallel to the axis of cylinder ? × ×
× ×
Sol. (i) When r < R × × × ×
× R× ×
let at a distance r electric field is E × ×
  d ×E
  E.dl  – E× × × B
dt
r× ×
× ×
××
d[B.(r 2 )] ×
E. 2r = – dt
× ×R
×
r dB B0r
E =
2 dt 2
(ii) When r > R
E E
  –d ×
 E.d   × R
dt ×
×× ×
r
d(BR 2 )
E.2 r =
dt
E
R2 dB B R2
 E . = 0
2r dt 2r
Ex.36 Find the e.m.f induced in the rod as shown in the figure.
B=B0t
× ×
× × ×
×
Circular field region
× × R (Radius = R)
× d ×
×
A ×  ×
× B
d sec 
 d
90 – 
Sol.
dx x 

r dB d sec 
E  B0
2 dt 2
d sec B0 dx cos 

dE = E.dx cos  
2
E
B0 d  / 2 B0  d
  dE 
0
2 –/ 2
dx  E
2
Alternate
 
Induced emf in OA & OB is zero (because B & dl are perpendicular)
Total induced emf in OAB is in AB
1
Area = ld
2
O
B0 l dt
=
2
A l B
d B0 l d

dt 2
Ex.37 A thin, nonconducting ring of mass m, carrying a charge q, can rotate freely about its
axis. At the instant t = 0 the ring was at rest and no magnetic field was present. Then
suddenly a magnetic field B was set perpendicular to the plane. Find the angular velocity
acquired by the ring.
Sol. Due to the sudden change of flux, an electric field is set up and the ring experiences an
impulsive torque and suddenly acquires an angular velocity.
d d 
(induced emf) =   B .dA
dt dt 
 
Also   E. d l where E is the induced electric field.

  d   d
  E.d l  B .dA  E.2r   (Br 2 )
dt  dt
r dB
 E
2 dt

Force experienced by the ring = q |E|
qr 2 dB
Torque experienced by the ring   (qE)r 
2 dt
 Angular impulse experienced by the ring
qr 2 dB B
   dt  dt  qr2
2  dt 2
Also angular impulse acquired = l where l is moment of inertia of the ring about its axis = mr2
 mr2  = qr2 B/2
 Angular velocity acquired by the ring  = qB/2m

6. SELF INDUCTION
Self induction is induction of emf in a coil due to its own current change. Total flux N passing
through a coil due to its own current is proportional to the current and is given as N  = L i
where L is called coefficient of self induction or inductance. The inductance L is purely a
geometrical property i.e., we can tell the inductance value even if a coil is not connected in
a circuit. Inductance depends on the shape and size of the loop and the number of turns it
has.
If current in the coil changes by I in a time interval t, the average emf induced in the coil
is given as
(N) (LI) L l
= – = – –
t t t
The instantaneous emf is given as
d(N) d(LI) Ldl
=– =– –
dt dt dt
S.I unit of inductance is wb/amp or Henry (H)
L - self inductance is +ve quantity.
L depends on : (1) Geometry of loop
(2) Medium in which it is kept. L does not depend upon current. L is a scalar
quantity.
Brain Teaser
If a circuit has large self-inductance, what inference can you draw about the circuit.
6.1 Self Inductance of solenoid

l
r
l >> r
A
I
Let the volume of the solenoid be V, the number of turns per unit length be n. Let a current I
be flowing in the solenoid. Magnetic field in the solenoid is given as B = 0 nl. The magnetic
flux through one turn of solenoid  = 0 n l A.
The total magnetic flux through the solenoid = N 
= N 0 n l A
= 0 n2 l A l
 L = 0 n l A = 0 n2 V
2
 = 0 n i r2 (n l)

L= = 0 n2 r2 l
i
Inductance per unit volume = 0 n2
Ex.38 The current in a coil of self-inductance L = 2H is increasing according to the law i = 2 sin
t2. Find the amount of energy spent during the period when the current changes from
0 to 2 ampere.
Sol. Let the current be 2 amp at t = 

Then 2 = 2 sin 2   =
2
di
When the instantaneous current is i, the self induced emf is L . If the amount of charge
dt
that is displaced in time dt is dq, then the elementary work done

 di  di
= L .  dt  dq  L . dt idt  Lidi
 
W=  Lidi =  L(2 sin t

2
)d(2 sin t2 )
0 0
 
2 2 2
W =  8 L sin t cos t (tdt) = 4L  sin2t (tdt)
0 0
Let  = 2t2
Differentiating d = 4t dt
sin d
 W = 4L 
4
= L (– cos) = – L cos 2t2
 /2
W = –L cos 2t2 
0
= 2 L = 2 × 2 = 4 joule
7. INDUCTOR
It is represent by
L
electrical equivalence of loop
R
L

i i
If current i through the inductor is increasing the induced emf will oppose the increase in
current and hence will be opposite to the current. If current i through the inductor is decreasing
the induced emf will oppose the decrease in current and hence will be in the direction of the
current.
i
(increasing) i (decreasing) L
L
i i
induced emf
Induced emf
Over all result
i
A + – B
di
L
dt
di
VA – L = VB
dt
Note
If there is a resistance in the inductor (resistance of the coil of inductor) then :
A B A B
L, R L R
Ex.39 A B is a part of circuit. Find the potential difference vA – vB if
i 2
A B
1H 5 volt
(i) current i = 2A and is constant
(ii) current i = 2A and is increasing at the rate of 1 amp/sec.
(iii) current i = 2A and is decreasing at the rate 1 amp/sec.
2i
+ –
Sol.
A + – + – B
1H 5 volt
di di
L = 1
dt dt
writing KVL from A to B
di
VA – 1 – 5 – 2 i = VB
dt
di
(i) Put i = 2, =0
dt
VA – 5 – 4 = VB  VA – VB = 9 volt
di
(ii) Put i = 2, =1;
dt
VA – 1 – 5 – 4 = VB or VA – VB = 10 V0
di
(iii) Put i = 2, =–1
dt
VA + 1 – 5 – 2 × 2 = VB
VA = 8 volt
Ex.40 Find current i, i1 and i2 in the following circuit.
i R
i1
i2
V R
R
i R
Sol. at t = 0 i2
i1
V
i = i2 = and i1 = 0
2R V R
at t=
i R
i1 i2
V R R
i V
 i1 = i2 = =
2 2R

7.1 Energy stored in an inductor :

If current in an inductor at an instant is i and is increasing at the rate di/dt, the induced emf
will oppose the current. Its behaviour is shown in the figure.
working as a load
i, increasing i
 di / dt L di/dt
di
Power consumed by the inductor = i L
dt
di
Energy consumed in dt time = i L dt
dt
i
1 2
 total energy consumed as the current increases from 0 to I =  ILdi  2 Li
0
1 2 1
= L i  U = L i2
2 2
Note :
This energy is stored in the magnetic field with energy density
dU B2 B2
 
dV 2 2 0 r
B2
Total energy U =  2 dV
0 r
Ex.41 Find out the energy per unit length ratio inside
the solid long wire having current density J. R
Sol. Take a ring of radius r and thickness dr as an element inside the wire
dE B2
= 2
dv 0
r
 jr
using B= 0
2 dr
dE 2 J2r2  0 j2r2 2 4
E  0 j R
 0
dv 4(2 0 )
  dE   8
2rdr 


16
Ex.42 A circuit contains an ideal cell and an inductor with a

switch. Initially the switch is open. It is closed at t =
0. Find the current t=0
as a function of time.  L
i i
di
Sol. = L   dt   Ldi
dt 0 0
t
t = Li  i =
L

8. L.R. CIRCUIT
As the switch S is closed in given figure, current in
L R
v
circuit wants to rise upto in no time but inductor
R
 di V
opposes it   
dt L
hence at time t = 0 inductor will behave as an open circuit S
v
at t = 0
di
As the time passes, i in the circuit rises and decreases. At any instant t.
dt
Ldi
 iR  V
dt
v
current reaches the value at time t =  or we can say, inductor will behave as a simple
R
wire.
at t = 
v/R R
i2 R
v
Ex.43 Find value of current i, i1 and i2 in given figure at i1
(a) time t = 0
L R
(b) time t =  i
v
R
Sol. (a) At time t = 0 inductor behaves as open circuit
i = v/R i2
i1 = 0 i1
i2= i = v/R
i
(b) At time t = . Inductor will behaves as simple wire
v
v 2v
i= 
(R / 2) R
i2 R
i1
v R
i1 = i2 = i
R

9. GROWTH AND DECAY OF CURRENT IN L-R CIRCUIT
9.1 Growth of Current

Consider a circuit containing a resistance R, an inductance L, a two way key and a battery of
e.m.f E connected in series as shown in figure. When the switch S is connected to a, the
current in the circuit grows from zero value. The inductor opposes the growth of the current.
This is due to the fact that when the current grows through inductor, a back e.m.f. is
developed which opposes the growth of current in the circuit. So the rate of growth of
current is reduced. During the growth of current in the circuit, let i be the current in the
circuit at any instant t. Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the circuit, we obtain
R L b
S
E a
i
di di
E–L = R i or E – Ri = L
dt dt
di dt
or 
E – Ri L
Multiplying by – R on both the sides, we get
–R di –Rdt

E – Ri L
Integrating the above equation, we have
R
loge(E – Ri) = – t +A ...(1)
L
where A is integration constant. The value of this constant can be obtained by applying the
condition that current i is zero just at start i.e., at t = 0. Hence
loge E = 0 + A
or A = logeE ...(2)
Substituting the value of A from equation (2) in equation (1), we get
R
loge(E – Ri) = – t + loge E
L
 E – Ri  R
or loge  E  = – t
L
 E – Ri   R 
or  E  = exp  – L t

Ri  R 
or 1– = exp  – t
E L
Ri   R 
or  1 – exp  – t 
E   L 
E  R 
 i = R 1 – exp  – L t 
 
The maximum current in the circuit i0 = E/R. So
  R 
i = i0 1 – exp  – L t  ...(3)
 
Equation (3) gives the current in the circuit at any instant t. It is obvious from equation (3)
that i = i0, when

 R 
exp  – t = 0 i.e., at t = 
 L 
i0
i
Growth of current
O t
Hence the current never attains the value i0 but it approaches it asymptotically. A graph
between current and time is shown in figure.
• We observe the following points
(i) When t = (L/R) then
  R L   1
i = i0 1 – exp  – L  R   = i0 {1 – exp(–1)} = i0  1 –  = 0.63 i0
  e
Thus after an interval of (L/R) second, the current reaches to a value which is 63% of the
maximum current. The value of (L/R) is known as time constant of the circuit and is represented
by . Thus the time constant of a circuit may be defined as the time in which the current rises
from zero to 63% of its final value. In terms of ,
t
 
i  i0  1  e  
 
(ii) The rate of growth of current (di/dt) is given by
di d  i 1 – exp  – R  
t  
= 0  L
dt dt     
di R  R 
 dt  i0  L  exp  – L t ...(4)
 R  i –i
From equation (3), exp  – L t = 0
 i0
di  R   i0 – i  R
 dt  i0  L   i  = (i – i) ...(5)
 0  L 0
This shows that the rate of growth of the current decreases as i tends to i0. For any other
value of current, it depends upon the value of R/L. Thus greater is the value of time constant,
smaller will be the rate of growth of current.
Note :

Final current in the circuit =
, which is independent of L.
R
After one time constant, current in the circuit=63% of the final current (verify yourself)
More time constant in the circuit implies slower rate of change of current.
If there is any change in the circuit containing inductor then there is no instantaneous effect
on the flux of inductor.
L1i1 = L2i2

Ex.44 At t = 0 switch is closed (shown in figure) after a long time suddenly the inductance of
L
the inductor is made  times lesser ( ) then its initial value, find out instant current

just after the operation.
R L
S 
Sol. Using above result (note 4)

L1i1 = L2i2  i2 =
R
Ex.45 Which of the two curves shown has less time constant.
1
i
2
t
Sol. curve 1
9.2 Decay of Current

Let the circuit be disconnected from battery and switch S is thrown to point b in the figure.
The current now begins to fall. In the absence of inductance, the current would have fallen
from maximum i0 to zero almost instantaneously. But due to the presence of inductance,
which opposes the decay of current, the rate of decay of current is reduced.
suppose during the decay of current, i be the value of current at any instant t. Using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the circuit, we get
di di R
–L  Ri or – i
dt dt L i
Integrating this expression, we get
R R
loge i = – t + B L
L
where B is constant of integration. The value of B can be obtained by applying the condition
that when t = 0, i = i0
 loge i0 = B
Substituting the value of B, we get
R
logei = – t + logei0
L
i R
or loge i =– t
0 L
 R 
or (i / i0) = exp  – L t
 ...(6)
 R   t
or i  i0 exp   t  i0 exp   
 L   
where  = L/R = inductive time constant of the circuit.
It is obvious from equation that the current in the circuit decays exponentially as shown in
figure.

• We observe the following points

(i) After t = L/R, the current in the circuit is given by i0
i Decay of current
 R L
i = i0 exp  – L  R  = i0 exp(–1)
= (i0 / e) = i0/2.718 = 0.37 i0 O t

So after a time (L/R) second, the current reduces to 37% of the maximum current i0. (L/R) is
known as time constant . This is defined as the time during which the current decays to 37%
of the maximum current during decay.
(ii) The rate of decay of current in given by
di d   R 
= dt i0 exp  – L t 

dt 
di R  R 
t = – R i
 = i exp  – L  ...(7)
dt L 0 L
di R
or – = i
dt L
This equation shows that when L is small, the rate of decay of current will be large i.e., the
current will decay out more rapidly.
Ex.46 In the following circuit the switch is closed at t = 0. Initially there is no current in
inductor. Find out current the inductor coil as a function of time.
R R
t=0
R L

Sol. At any time t

–  + i1 R – (i – i1) R = 0
–  + 2i1 R – i R = 0 R R
iR   – +
i1R +
–
i1 = t=0 – iR –
2R di
(i–i1)R R L
di  + dt
Now, – + i1 R + iR +L. =0 i–i1 +
dt
i1 i
 iR    di  3 IR di
–  +   + iR + i. 0 –   –L
2  dt 2 2 dt
 –  3 iR  –di di
  dt = – L. di  – 
2 dt –  3iR
t i
dt di t 1  –  3iR 
–    –  3iR  –  ln
0
2L 0
2L 3R  – 
 –  3iR  3Rt
– ln  – 
=
2L
3Rt
  –
2L

i = + 3R  1 – e 

Ex.47 Figure shows a circuit consisting of a ideal cell, an inductor L and a resistor R, connected
in series. Let the switch S be closed at t = 0. Suppose at t = 0 current in the inductor is
i0 then find out equation of current as a function of time
R i0 L
C
B S  A
Sol. Let an instant t current in the circuit is i which is increasing at the rate di/dt.
Writing KVL along the circuit, we have
di di R L
– L – iR = 0  L =  – iR
dt dt
C
i
di
t
dt   – iR  i
Rt
   – iR  
i0 0
L  ln   – i R  = –
  L
0
B S  A
 – ( – i0R)e–Rt / L
  – iR = ( – i0R)e–Rt/L i=
R
10. MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Consider two coils P and S placed close to each other as shown in the figure. When the
current passing through a coil increases or decreases, the magnetic flux linked with the other
coil also changes and an induced e.m.f. is developed in it. This phenomenon is known as
mutual induction. This coil in which current is passed is known as primary and the other in
which e.m.f. is developed is called as secondary.
Let the current through the primary coil at any instant be i1. Then the magnetic flux 2 in the
secondary at any time will be proportional to i1 i.e., 2  i1
Therefore the induced e.m.f. in secondary
i1
when i1 changes is given by P
d2 di1
  i.e.,   
dt dt
S
di dMi1
   M 1 = –  2 = M i1
dt dt
where M is the constant of proportionality and is known as mutual inductance of two coils. It
is defined as the e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil by unit rate of change of current in the
primary coil. The unit of mutual inductance is henry (H).
10.1 Mutual Inductance of a Pair of Solenoids one Suurounding the other coil
Figure shows a coil of N2 turns and radius R2 surrounding a long solenoid of length l1, radius R1
and number of turns N1.
S2
S1
To calculate mutual inductance M between them, let us assume a current i1 through the inner
solenoid S1
There is no magnetic field outside the solenoid and the field inside has magnitude,

N 
B  0  1  i1
 l1 
and is directed parallel to the solenoid’s axis. The magnetic flux B2 through the surrounding
coil is, therefore,
0N1 i1
B2  B(R12 )  R12
l1
N2 B2 N    N i   N N R 2
Now, M   2   0 1 1  R12  0 1 2 1
i1  i1   l1  l1
Notice that M is independent of the radius R2 of the surrounding coil. This is because solenoid’s
magnetic field is confined to its interior.
Brain Teaser
What is the meaning of the statement “The coefficient of mutual inductance for a pair of
coils is large” ?
Note : M  L1L 2
For two coils in series if mutual inductance is considered then
Leq = L1 + L2 ± 2M
Ex.48 Find the mutual inductance of two concentric coils of radii a1

and a2
(a1 << a2) if the planes of coils are same. a2
Sol. Let a current i flow in coil of radius a2. a1
 0i 2
Magnetic field at the centre of coil = 2a a1
2
2
 0i 2  0 a1
or M i = 2a a1 or M 
2 2a 2
Ex.49 Solve the above question, if the planes of coil are perpendicular.
Sol. Let a current i flow in the coil of radius a1. The magnetic field at the centre of this coil will
now be parallel to the plane of smaller coil and hence no flux will pass through it, hence M =
0
Ex.50 Solve the above problem if the planes of coils make  angle with each other.
Sol. If i current flows in the larger coil, magnetic field produced at the centre will be perpendicular
to the plane of larger coil.
Now the area vector of smaller coil which is perpendicular to the plane of smaller coil will make
an angle  with the magnetic field.
   0i
Thus flux = B.A  2a . a12 cos 
2
2
0 a cos 1
1
or M=
2a2
b
Ex.51 Find the mutual inductance between two rectangular b
loops, shown in figure.
Sol. Let current i flow in the loop having -by long a c
sides. Consider a segment of width dx at a distance
x as shown flux through the regent a
b
i
  0i 0i  i x b
d =  –  b dx
 2x 2(x  a)  c dx

c b
  0i 0i 
 =   2x – 2(x  a)  b dx
c  
 0ib  c  b a  b  c
= 2 ln c – ln a  c 
 
Ex.52 Figure shows two concentric coplanar coils

with radii a and b (a << b). A current i = 2t b
flows in the smaller loop. Neglecting self
a
inductance of larger loop
(a) Find the mutual inductance of the two coils
(b) Find the emf induced in the larger coil
(c) If the resistance of the larger loop is R find the current in it as a function of time
Sol. (a) To find mutual inductance, it does not matter in which coil we consider current and in
which flux is calculated (Reciprocity theorem) Let current i be flowing in the larger coil.
0i
Magnetic field at the centre = .
2b
0i 2
flux through the smaller coil = a
2b
0
 M= a2
2b
 di  
(ii) | emf induced in larger coil | = M  dt  in smaller coil
 
0  a2
= a2 (2) = 0
2b b
 0 a2
(iii) current in the larger coil =
bR
Ex.53 If the current in the inner loop changes according to i = 2t2
C
then, find
the current in the capacitor as a function of time.
0
Sol. M= a 2
2b
 di  
q–q
| emf induced in larger coil | = M  dt  in smaller coil
 
i
0 20 a t 2
R
e= a2 (4t) =
2b b
Applying KVL : - e
q 20 a2 t q
+e – – iR = 0  – –iR = 0
c b c
2 0 a2 i di 2 0 a2C
differentiate wrt time : – – R  0 on solving it i = 1 – e–t / RC 
 
b c dt b

11. SERIES COMBINATION OF INDUCTORS
i L1 L2 V
O V = O V
V1 V2 Leq
 V = V1 + V2
di di di
L eq  L1  L2
dt dt dt
Leq = L1 + L2 +.................
Parallel Combination of inductor
di di di i1
i = i1 + i2   1  2
dt dt dt
O i V
v v v
 
L eq L1 L 2
i2
1 1 1
   ...........
L eq L1 L 2

SECTION (A) : FLUX AND FARADAY’S LAWS OF 4. A square wire loop of 10.0 cm side lies at right
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & LENZ’S LAW angles to a uniform magnetic field of 20T. A 10 V
1. A conducting loop of radius R is present in a light bulb is in a series with the loop as shown in
uniform magnetic field B perpendicular the plane the fig. The magnetic field is decreasing steadily
of the ring. If radius R varies as a function of time to zero over a time interval t. The bulb will shine
‘t’, as R = R0 + t. The e.m.f induced in the loop is with full brightness if t is equal to
× × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×
× × B× × × R × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×
(A) 20 ms (B) 0.02 ms
(A) 2 (R0 + t) B clockwise (C) 2 ms (D) 0.2 ms
(B) (R0 + t)B clockwise
5. A long straight wire is parallel to one edge as
(C) 2(R0 + t)B anticlockwise
in fig. If the current in the long wire is varies in
(D) zero
time as I = I0e–t /, what will be the induced emf in
the loop ?
2. An electron is moving in a circular orbit of i
radius R with an angular acceleration . At the d
centre of the orbit is kept a conducting loop of
a
radius r, (r < < R). The e.m.f induced in the smaller
loop due to the motion of the electron is b
(A) zero, since charge on electron in constant
 0 er 2  0 bI  d  a   0 bI  d  a 
(B)  (A) ln  (B) ln 
4R   d  2  d 
 er 2
(C) 0  2 0 bI  d  a   0 bI  d 
4 R l n  ln 
(C)  d  (D)
(D) none of these    d  a 
3. A wire loop is placed in a region of time varying
magnetic field which is oriented orthogonally to 6. The magnetic flux through a stationary loop
the plane of the loop as shown in the figure. The with resistance R varies during interval of time T
graph shows the magnetic field variation as the as  = at (T – t). The heat generated during this
function of time. Assume the positive emf is the time neglecting the inductance of loop will be
one which drives a current in the clockwise
direction and seen by the observer in the direction a2 T 3 a2 T 2
(A) (B)
of B. Which of the following graphs best represents 3R 3R
the induced emf as a function of time.
a2 T a2 T 3
B (C) (D)
3R R
t1 t2 t1 t
7. The dimensions of permeability of free space
  can be given by
(A) [MLT–2A–2] (B) [MLA–2]
t1 t2 t1
t1 t2 t t –3 2 2
(C) [ML T A ] (D) [MLA–1]
(A) t1 (B)
8. A closed planar wire loop of area A and arbitrary

shape is placed in a uniform magnetic field of
magnitude B, with its plane perpendicular to
 
magnetic field. The resistance of the wire loop is
t1 t2 t1 R. The loop is now turned upside down by 180°
t t
(C) t2 t1 (D) t1 so that its plane again becomes perpendicular to
the magnetic field. The total charge that must
have flowen through the wire ring in the process from ‘c’ to ‘d’ in loop (2)
is
(A) < AB/R (B) = AB/R
(C) = 2AB/R (D) None loop (1)
a b
9. A square coil ABCD is placed in x-y plane with
its centre at origin. A long straight wire, passing loop (2)
through origin, carries a current in negative z- c d
direction. Current in this wire increases with
time.The induced current in the coil is In an experiment, the graph of i2 against time ‘t’
y
B C
is as shown below
 i2
x
0
A D t
Which one(s) of the following graphs could have
(A) clockwise (B) anticlockwise
caused i2 to behave as give above.
(C) zero (D) alternating
i1 i1
10. A vertical bar magnet is dropped from position
(A) (B)
on the axis of a fixed metallic coil as shown in 0 0
fig-I. In fig-II the magnet is fixed and horizontal t t
coil is dropped. The acceleration of the magnet
i1 i1
and coil are a1 and a2 respectively then t
0
S (C) (D)
0
t
S
N i1
fixed fixed N (E) t
fig-1 fig-II 0
(A) a1 > g, a2 > g (B) a1 > g, a2 < g
(C) a1 < g, a2 < g (D) a1 < g, a2 > g 14. Figure shows a bar magnet and a long straight
wire W, carrying current into the plane of paper.
11. Two identical coaxial circular loops carry a Point P is the point of intersection of axis of
current i each circulating in the same direction. magnet and the line of shortest distance between
If the loops approach each other magnet and the wire. If p is the midpoint of the
(A) the current in each will decrease magnet, then which of the following statements
(B) the current in each will increase is correct ? P
(C) the current in each will remain the same N S
(D) the current in one will increase and in other
will decrease

12. In the arrangement shown in given figure
W
current from A to B is increasing in magnitude.
Induced current in the loop will (A) magnet experiences a torque in clockwise
direction
(B) magnet experiences a torque in anticlockwise
direction
(C) magnet experiences a force, normal to the
A B
(A) have clockwise direction line of shortest distance
(B) have anticlockwise direction (D) magnet experiences a force along the line of
(C) be zero shortest distance
(D) oscillate between clockwise and anticlockwise 15. A negative charge is given to a nonconducting
13. An electric current i1 can flow either direction loop and the loop is rotated in the plane of paper
through loop (1) and induced current i2 in loop about its centre as shown in figure. The magnetic
(2). Positive i1 is when current is from ‘a’ to ‘b’ in field produced by the ring affects a small magnet
loop (1) and positive i2 is when the current is placed above the ring in the same plane :

velocity v perpendicular to one of its sides. A

uniform and constant magnetic field B exists along
S N
the perpendicular to the plane of the loop in fig.
The current induced in the loop is
× × × × × ×
(A) the magnet does not rotate × × × × × ×

(B) the magnet rotates clockwise as seen from v
× × × × × ×
below.
× × × × × ×
(C) the magnet rotates anticlockwise as seen (A) BI/R clockwise (B) BI/R anticlockwise
from below (C) 2BI/R anticlockwise (D) zero
(D) no effect on magnet is there.
16. Two conducting rings P and Q of radii r and 2r 20. An equilateral triangular loop ADC having some
rotate uniformly in opposite directions with centre resistance is pulled with a constant velocity v
of mass velocities 2v and v respectively on a out of a uniform magnetic field directed into the
conducting surface S. There is a uniform magnetic paper. At time t = 0, side DC of the loop is at
field of magnitude B perpendicular to the plane of edge of the magnetic field. The induced current
the rings. The potential difference between the (i) versus time (t) graph will be as
× × × × ×
highest points of the two rings is A
2v B v × × × × ×
r 2r
× × × × ×
P S Q
(A) zero (B) 4 Bvr D C
(C) 8 Bvr (D) 16 Bvr × × v× × ×
i i
17. The magnetic field in a region is given by
  x (A) (B)
B  B 0  1   k . A square loop of edge-length d is
 a
placed with its edge along x & y axis. The loop is t t

moved with constant velocity V  V0 i . The emf i i
induced in the loop is
V0B 0 d2 V0B 0 d2 (C) (D)
(A) (B)
a 2a
t t
V0B 0 a 2
(C) (D) None
d
21. A semicircular conducting wire is placed in yz
18. Consider the situation shown in fig. The plane in a uniform magnetic field directed along
resistanceless wire AB is slid on the fixed rails positive z-direction. An induced emf will be
with a constant velocity. If the wire AB is replaced developed between the ends of the wire if it is
by a resistanceless semicircular wire, the moved along. z
magnitude of the induced current will
× × ×A × B
× ×v y
× × × ×
× × × B× x
(A) increase (B) remain the same (A) positive x direction
(C) decrease (B) positive y direction
(D) increase or decrease depending on whether (C) positive z direction
the semicircle bulges towards the resistance or (D) none of these
away from it.
22. Two circular coils A and B are facing each
19. A conducting square loop of side I and other as shown in figure.
resistance R moves in its plane with a uniform
A B
SECTION (B) : E.M.F. INDUCED IN A MOVING
ROD
25. A rectangular loop with a sliding connector of
length 10 cm is situated in uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to plane of loop. The magnetic
induction is 0.1 tesla and resistance of connector
i
(R) is 1 ohm. The sides AB and CD have resistances
~
2 ohm and 3 ohm respectively. Find the current
The current i through A can be altered in the connector during its motion with constant
(A) there will be repulsion between A and B if i is velocity one meter/sec.
increased D
A
(B) there will be attraction between A and B if i is
increased 2 3
(C) there will be neither attraction nor repulsion R
when i is changed B C
(D) attraction or repulsion between A and B 1 1 1 1
depends on the direction of current. (A) A (B) A (C) A (D) A
110 220 55 440
It does not depend whether the current increased
or decreased 26. Two infinitely long conducting parallel rails
are connected through a capacitor C as shown in
23. Two identical conductors P and Q are placed the figure. A conductor of length l is moved with
on two frictionless fixed conducting rails R and S constant speed v0. Which of the following graph
truly depicts the variation of current through the
in a uniform magnetic field directed into the plane.
conductor with time ?
If P is moved in the direction shown in figure with
 B 
a constant speed, then rod Q
P Q  
B v0
l
 
× × ×
R  
V
× × ×
S Current Current
× × × I (t) I (t)
(A) (B)
t (time) t (time)
(A) will be attracted towards P
(B) will be repelled away from P
(C) will remain stationary
Current Current
(D) may be repelled or attracted towards P I (t) I (t)
(C) (D)
24. A square coil ACDE with its plane vertical is
I = 0 t (time) t (time)
released from rest in a horizontal uniform magnetic

field B of length 2L. The acceleration of the coil is
C D 27. The figure shows an isosceles triangle wire
L frame with apex angle equal to /2. The frame
A E starts entering into the region of uniform magnetic
B
× × × × field B with constant velocity v at t = 0. The
× × × × longest side of the frame is perpendicular to the
2L
× × × × direction of velocity. If i is the instantaneous
× × × × current through the frame then choose the
(A) less than g for all the time till loop crosses alternative showing the correct variation of i with
the magnetic field completely time.
(B) less than g when it enters the field and greater × B× ×
× × ×
than g when it comes out of the field
(C) g all the time 90° × ×v ×
× × ×
(D) less than g when it enters and comes out of × × ×
the field but equal to g when it is within the field × × ×
t=0

i i  0 vI l  0 vI l
(A) (B)
r 2 r
(A) (B) 2 0 v Il  0 v Il
(C) (D)
t t r 4 r
i i 32. A conducting rod of length l moves with

velocity  a direction parallel to a long wire carrying
(C) (D) a steady current I. The axis of the rod is
t t maintained perpendicular to the wire with near
end a distance raway as shown in the fig. Find
28. A thin wire of length 2m is perpendicular to
the emf induced in the rod.
the xy plane. It is m oved with ve locity

v  (2 i  3 j  k ) m / s through a region of magnetic I

induction B  ( i  2j ) Wb/m 2 . Then potential
r
difference induced between the ends of the wire
(A) 2 volts (B) 4 volts
(C) 0 volts (D) none of these l 
29. A long metal bar of 30 cm length is aligned
along a north south line and moves eastward at
a speed of 10 ms–1. A uniform magnetic field of  0I  r  l  2 0I  r  l 
(A) ln  (B) ln 
4.0 T points vertically downwards. If the south   r    r 
end of the bar has a potential of 0V, the induced
potential at the north end of the bar is  0I  l   0I  r + l 
(A) + 12 V (B) – 12 V (C) ln  (D) ln 
 r  l 2  r 
(C) 0 V
(D) cannot be determined since there is not closed 33. A square loop of side a and resistance R is
circuit moved in the region of uniform magnetic field B
30. A square metal loop of side 10 cm and (loop remaining completely insidefield), with a
resistance 1  is moved with a constant velocity velocity v through a distance x. The work done is
partly inside a magnetic field of 2 Wbm–2, directed Bl 2 vx 2B 2 l 2 vx
(A) (B)
into the paper, as shown in the figure. This loop R R
is connected to a network of five resistors each 2 2
4B l vx
of value 3 . If a steady current of 1 mA flows in (C) (D) none
R
the loop, then the speed of the loop is 34. A metallic rod of length L and mass M is moving
× × × × v under the action of two unequal forces F1 and F2
× × × × (directed opposite to each other) acting at its
× × × ×
× × × ×
ends along its length. Ignore gravity and any
× × × × external magnetic field. If specific charge of
× × × × electrons is (e/m), then the potential difference
(A) 0.5 cms–1 (B) 1 cms–1 between the ends of the rod is steady state must
(C) 2 cms–1 (D) 4 cms–1 be
(A) |F1 – F2| mL/eM (B) (F1 – F2) mL/eM
31. A conducting rod moves with constant velocity (C) [mL/eM] ln [F1/F2] (D) None
v perpendicular to the long, straight wire carrying
a current I as shown compute that the emf 35. A rod closing the circuit shown in figure moves
generated between the ends of the rod. along a U shaped wire at a constant speed v
under the action of the force F. The circuit is in a
uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the plane.
r Calculate F if the rate of heat generation in the
I circuit is Q.
l v
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
× × × ×F'×
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
Q
A H K
(A) F = Qv (B) F = × 
× × × ×
v B
v
R × × × × ×
(C) F  (D) F  Qv × ×× × ×C
× ×V ×
Q
× ×D
36. Two parallel long straight conductors lie on a
G E
(A) clockwise (B) anticlockwise
smooth surface. Two other parallel conductors (C) alternating (D) Zero
rest on them at right angles so as to form a
square of side a initially. A uniform magnetic field 40. A conducting rod is moved with a constant
B exists at right angles to the plane containing 
velocity  in a magnetic field. A potential
the conductors. They all start moving out with a
difference appears across the two ends
constant velocity v. If r is the resistance per unit    
length of the wire the current in the circuit will (A) if || l (B) if ||B
 
be (C) if l ||B (D) none of these
Bv Br
(A) (B)
r v 41. A uniform magnetic field exists in region given
(C) B v r (D) Bv 
by B  3 i  4 j  5k . A rod of length 5 m is placed
along y-axis is moved along x-axis with constant
37. There is a uniform magnetic field B normal to
speed 1 m/sec. Then induced e.m.f. in the rod
the xy plane. A conductor ABC has length AB =
will be
l1, parallel to the x-axis, and length BC = l2,
(A) zero (B) 25 v
parallel to the y-axis. ABC moves in the xy plane
(C) 20 v (D) 15v
with velocity v x i  v y j . The potential difference
42. BACD is a fixed conducting smooth rail placed
between A and C is proportional to
in a vertical plane. PQ is a conducting rod which
C is free to slide on the rails. A horizontal uniform
magnetic field exists in space as shown. If the
j
A rod PQ is released from rest then,
B A C
i
(A) vxl1 + vy l2 (B) vxl2 + vy l1

(C) vxl2 – vy l1 (D) Vxl1 – vy l2 P Q
38. A conducting rod PQ of length 5 m oriented

as shown in figure is moving w it h v e l o c i t y
B D
(2m / s)i without rotation in a uniform magnetic (A) The rod PQ will move downward with constant
field ( 3 j  4k ) Tesla. Emf induced in the rod is acceleration
(B) The rod PQ will move upward with constant
y
Q acceleration
2m/s (C) The rod will move downward with decreasing
acceleration and finally acqcure a constant
5m
velocity
53°
(D) either A or B
P x
(A) 32 Volts (B) 40 Volt 43. A cylindrical space of radius R is filled with a
(C) 50 Volt (D) none uniform magnetic induction B parallel to the axis
of the cylinder. If B changes at a constant rate,
39. In the circuit shown in figure, a conducting the graph showing the variation of induced electric
wire HE is moved with a constant speed V towards field with distance r from the axis of cylinder is
left. The complete circuit is placed in a uniform × × ×
 × × × × ×
magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of
the circuit directed in inward direction. The current × × × × ×
R
in HKDE is × × ×

field, then the average induced e.m.f. when it

E E
has rotated through 90° is
BA BA
(A) (B)
(A) (B)  2
r r BA 2BA
(C) (D)
4 
E E
47. A ring of resistance 10, radius 10cm and

100 turns is rotated at a rate 100 revolutions per
(C) (D)
second about its diameter is perpendicular to a
r r uniform magnetic field of induction 10 mT. The
amplitude of the current in the loop will be nearly
SECTION (C) : INDUCED EMF IN ROD, RING DISC (Take : 2 = 10)
ROTATING IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD (A) 200 A (B) 2A
44. When a ‘J’ shaped conducting rod is rotating (C) 0.002 A (D) none of these
in its own plane with constant angular velocity
, about one of its end P, in a uniform magnetic 48. A copper rod AB of length L, pivoted at one
 end A, rotates at constant angular velocity , at
field B directed normally into the plane of paper)
then magnitude of emf induced across it will be right angles to a uniform magnetic field of
× × × × × × × × induction B. The e.m.f developed between the
× × × × × × × × mid point C of the rod and end B is
× × × × × × × ×
× × ×l × × ×L × × × ×
× × × × × × ×Q × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × ×× L ×
× P× × × × × × × × A B
× × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × ×
1
(A) B L2  l 2 (B) BL2 × ×
2
Bl 2 Bl 2
1 2 2 1 2 (A) (B)
(C) B(L  l ) (D) Bl 4 2
2 2
3Bl 2 3Bl 2
45. A metal disc rotates freely, between the poles (C) (D)
4 8
of a magnet in the direction indicated. Brushes P
and Q make contact with the edge of the disc 49. A rod of length l rotates with a uniform angular
and the metal axle. What current, if any, flows velocity  about its perpendicular bisector. A
through R? uniform magnetic field B exists parallel to the axis
N of rotation. The potential difference between the
two ends of the rod is
R 1 2
(A) zero (B) B (C) B  2 (D) 2B  2
P  2
Q
S 50. A rod of length 10 cm made up of conducting

and non-conducting material (shaded part is non-
(A) a current from P to Q
conducting). The rod is rotated with constant
(B) a current from Q to P
angular velocity 10 rad/sec about point O, in
(C) no current, because the emf in the disc is
constant magnetic field of 2 tesla as shown in
opposed by the back emf
the figure. The induced emf between the point A
(D) no current, because the emf induced in one
and B of rod will be
side of the disc is opposed by the emf induced in × × × × ×
the other side. 3cm A
(E) no current, because no radial emf is induced × × × × ×
in the disc. × × × × ×
B
× × × × ×
46. A rectangular coil of single turn, having area 2cm
A, rotates in a uniform magnetic field B an angular × × × × ×
velocity  about an axis perpendicular to the field.
If initially the plane of coil is perpendicular to the × O × × × ×

(A) 0.029 V (B) 0.1 V 54. For L - R circuit, the time constant is equal
(C) 0.051 V (D) 0.064 V to
(A) twice the ratio of the energy stored in the
51. A uniform magnetic field of induction B is magnetic field to the rate of dissipation of energy
confined to a cylindrical region of radius R. The in the resistance.
magnetic field is increasing at a constant rate of (B) ratio of the energy stored in the magnetic
dB field to the rate of dissipation of energy in the
(tesla/second). An electron of charge q, resistance.
dt
placed at the point P on the periphery of the field (C) half the ratio of the energy stored in the
experiences an acceleration magnetic field to the rate of dissipation of energy
in the resistance
× × × (D) square of the ratio of the energy stored in
× × R ×
× × × × × the magnetic field to the rate of dissipation of
× × ×× × energy in the resistance.
× × × × ×
× × × ×
× × × 55. In the adjoining circuit, initially the switch S is
P open. The switch ‘S’ is closed at t = 0. The
difference between the maximum and minimum
1 eR dB 1 eR dB current that can flow in the circuit is
(A) toward left (B) toward right
2 m dt 2 m dt
10V s
eR dB ()
(C) toward left (D) zero 0.1 H 10
m dt
52. Figure shows a uniform magnetic field B 10

confined to a cylindrical volume and is increasing
at a co nstant rate. The ins tantaneo us (A) 2 Amp (B) 3 Amp
acceleration experienced by an electron placed at (C) 1 Amp
P is (D) nothing can be concluded
× × P ×
× ×
× × × 56. The ratio of time constant in charging and
× × × × discharging in the circuit shown in figure is
× ×× ×
× ×
R
(A) zero (B) towards right L
(C) towards left (D) upwards
2R
53. A triangular wire frame (each side = 2m) is
placed in a region of time variant magnetic field V
having dB/dt = 3 T / s . The magnetic field is (A) 1 : 1 (B) 3 : 2
perpendicular to the plane of the triangle. The (C) 2 : 3 (D) 1 : 3
base of the triangle AB has a resistance 1  while
the other two sides have resistance 2 each. 57. In an L-R circuit connected to a battery of
The magnitude of potential difference between constant e.m.f E switch S is closed at time t = 0.
the points A and B will be If e denotes the magnitude of induced e.m.f across
inductor and i the current in the circuit at any
×C time t. Then which of the following graphs shows
×× × ××
×× ×× ××× the variation of e with i ?
××× × ××
× ×× ×× e e
×
× ×× ××
× ××
×
A× × × × × B
×××× (A) (B)
i i
(A) 0.4 V (B) 0.6 V
(C) 1.2 V (D) None e e
SECTION (D) :
SELF INDUCTANCE, MUTUAL INDUCTANCE, (C) (D)
CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE i i
INDUCTANCE, AND L.C. OSCILLATIONS

58. A current of 2A is increasing at a rate of 4A/ 64. A long straight wire of circular cross-section
s through a coil of inductance 2H. The energy is made of a non-magnetic material. The wire is
stored in the inductor per unit time is of radius a. The wire carries a current I which is
(A) 2J/s (B) 1 J/s uniformly distributed over its cross-section. The
(C) 16 J/s (D) 4 J/s energy stored per unit length in the magnetic
field contained within the wire is :
59. Two identical inductance carry currents that
vary with time according to linear laws (as shown  0I2  0I2
(A) U = (B) U 
in figure). In which of two inductance is the self 8 16 
induction emf greater ?
 0I2  0I2
(C) U  (D) U 
4 2
I
65. The network shown in the figure is part of a
2
1 complete circuit. If at a certain instant, the
current I is 5A and it is decreasing at a rate of
t
103 As–1 then VB – VA equals
(A) 1 (B) 2 1 + 5 mH
(C) same A B
(D) data are insufficient to decide I
15 V
(A) 20 V (B) 15 V
60. The current in the given circuit is increasing
(C) 10 V (D) 5 V
with a rate a = 4 amp/s. The charge on the
capacitor at an instant when the current in the
66. In Previous Problem if I is reversed in
circuit is 2 amp will be :
direction, then VB – VA equals
E=4V (A) 5V (B) 10 V
(C) 15 V (D) 20 V
R  1 67. Two resistors of 10 , and 20  and an ideal

inductor of 10 H are connected to a 2 V battery
as shown. The key K is inserted at time t = 0.
L=1H C  3 F The initial (t = 0) and final (t ) currents through
battery are
(A) 4 C (B) 5 C
10 H
(C) 6C (D) none of these
61. L, C and R represent physical quantities

inductance, capacitance and resistance. The 10 20
combination which has the dimensions of
frequency is K
1 R 1 R
(A) and (B) and 2V
RC L RC L 1 1 1 1
(A) A, A (B) A, A
C 15 10 10 15
(C) LC (D)
L
2 1 1 2
(C) A, A (D) A, A
62. A coil of inductance 5H is joined to a cell of 15 10 15 25
emf 6V through a resistance 10 at time t = 0.
The emf across the coil at time t = ln 2 s is : 68. A small coil of radius r is placed at the centre
of a large coil of radius R, where R >> r. The coils
(A) 3 V (B) 1.5 V
are coplanar. The coefficient of mutual inductance
(C) 0.75 V (D) 4.5 V
between the coils is
 r  r 2
63. A long solenoid of N turns has a self inductance (A) 0 (B) 0
L and area of cross section A. When a current i 2R 2R
2
flows through the solenoid, the magnetic field  0 r  0 r
(C) (D)
inside it has magnitude B. The current i is equal 2R 2
2R 2
to :
(A) BAN/L (B) BANL (C) BN/AL (D) B/ANL

69. Two long parallel wires whose centres are a 73. In a L - R decay circuit, the initial current at
distance d apart carry equal currents in opposite t = 0 is I. The total charge that has flown through
directions. If the flux within wires is neglected, the resistor till the energy in the inductor has
the inductance of such arrangement of wire of reduced to one-fourth its initial value, is
length l and radius a will be (A) L I / R (B) L I / 2R
 0l d– a  l d (C) L I 2 / R (D) None
(A) L = loge (B) L = 0 loge
 a  a
74. An inductor coil stores U energy when i current
 l a
(C) L = 0 loge (D) none is passed through it and dissipates energy at the
 d rate of P. The time constant of the circuit, when
70. In the circuit shown, the cell is ideal. The coil this coil is connected across a battery of zero
has an inductance of 4H and zero resistance. F is internal resistance is
a fuse of zero resistance and will blow when the 4U U 2U 2P
current through it reaches 5A. The switch is closed (A) (B) (C) (D)
P P P U
at t = 0. The fuse will blow :
L
75. The mutual inductance between the
fuse rectangular loop and the long straight wire as
SW shown in figure is M.
b
2V
(A) just after t = 0 (B) after 2s 
B
(C) after 5 s (D) after 10s i1 c
a
71. In the LR circuit shown, what is the variation
of the current I as a function of time ? The switch
is closed at time t = 0 sec.
I 2V 0a  c
(A) M = Zero (B) M = ln 1  
2  b
L R V
 0b  a  c   0a  b
(C) M  ln  (D) M  ln 1  
2  b  2  c
R
3V 76. A long straight wire is placed along the axis
Rt 
V  L V
Rt of a circular ring of radius R. The mutual
(A) R  1– e
 –
 (B) e L inductance of this system is
  R
 0R  0 R
(A) (B)
Rt 2 2
V –L
(C) – e (D) None 0
R (C) (D) 0
2
72. In the circuit shown, X is joined to Y for a L
long time, and then x is joined to Z. The total 77. In the circuit shown in the figure, R = .
C
heat produced in R2 is : Switch S is closed at time t = 0. The current
through C and L would be equal after a time t
R2
equal to :
X Z
L R
L Y
C R
E R1
V S
2 2 2 2
LE LE LE LE R 2 (A) CR (B) CR ln (2)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 R12 2 R 22 2R1R2 2 R12 L
(C) (D) LR
Rln(2)

78. Two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in 82. In a series L–R growth circuit, if maximum
parallel and a time varying current i flows as current and maximum induced emf in an inductor
shown. The ratio of currents i1/i2 at any time t is of inductance 3mH are 2A and 6V respectively,
L1 then the time constant of the circuit is
(A) 1 ms (B) 1/3 ms
i1 (C) 1/6 ms (D) 1/2 ms
i i
83. Two coils are at fixed locations. When coil 1
i2 has no current and the current in coil 2 increases
L2 at the rate 15.0 A/s the e.m.f. in coil 1 in 25.0
(A) L1/L2 (B) L2/L1
mV, when coil 2 has no current and coil 1 has a
L21 L22 current of 3.6 A, flux linkage in coil 2 is
(C) (D)
(L1  L 2 ) 2 (L1  L 2 ) 2 (A) 16 mWb (B) 10 mWb
(C) 4.00 mWb (D) 6.00 mWb
79. Figure shows a square loop of side 0.5 m and
resistance 10. The magnetic field has a 84. Two coils of self inductance 100 mH and 400
magnitude B = 1.0T. The work done in pulling the mH are placed very close to each other. Find the
loop out of the field uniformly in 2.0 s is maximum mutual inductance between the two
B=0 when 4 A current passes through them
× × × × (A) 200 mH (B) 300 mH
× × × × v (C) 100 2 mH (D) none of these
× × × ×
(A) 3.125 × 10–3 J (B) 6.25 × 10–4 J
(C) 1.25 × 10–2 J (D) 5.0 × 10–4 J
80. In the given circuit find the ratio of i1 to i2.
Where i1 is the initial (at t = 0) current, and i2 is
steady state (at t = ) current through the
battery :
2mH
10V
(A) 1.0 (B) 0.8

(C) 1.2 (D) 1.5
81. In the circuit shown in figure, switch S is
closed at t = 0. Then :
R
R R
E
L
C
t=0
S
(A) after a long time interval potential difference
across capacitor and inductor will be equal
(B) after a long time interval charge on capacitor
will be E C.
(C) after a long time interval current in the
inductor will be E/R.
(D) after a long time interval current through
battery will be same as the current through it
initially.
Exercise - II
SECTION (A) : FLUX AND FARADAY’S LAWS (A) at point P is clockwise
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & LENZ’S (B) at point Q is anticlockwise
LAW (C) at point Q is clockwise
1. The dimension of the ratio of magnetic flux (D) at point R is zero
and the resistance is equal to that of : 7. A conducting wire frame is placed in a magnetic
(A) induced emf (B) charge field which is directed into the paper. The magnetic
(C) inductance (D) current field is increasing at a constant rate. The
Question No. 2 to 5 (4 questions) directions of induced currents in wires AB and CD
The adjoining figure shows two different are
arrangements in which two square wire frames of × × × × × × ×
A C
same resistance are placed in a uniform constantly × × × × × × ×
decreasing magnetic field B.
× × × × × × ×
×h × × × g× B
×h × × ×g × × × × × × × × ×
× e× × × × D
× × × × × × f
f e × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × × × × (A) B to A and D to C (B) A to B and C to D
× × × × c × d× × d
× × × × (C) A to B and D to C (D) B to A and C to D
 c
×a × × × × × ×a × × × × 8. A bar magnet is moved along the axis of copper
L b
× × × × × × b ring placed far away from the magnet. Looking
I × × L× × ×
from the side of the magnet, an anticlockwise
II
2. The value of magnetic flux in each case is current is found to be induced in the ring. Which
given by of the following may be true ?
(A) Case I :  = (L2 +  2 ) B; Case II :  = (L2 –  2 ) B (A) The south pole faces the ring and the magnet
moves towards it.
(B) Case I :  = (L2 +  2 ) B; Case II :  = (L2 +  2 ) B (B) The north pole faces the ring and the magnet
(C) Case I :  = (L2 +  2 ) B; Case II :  = (L2 –  2 ) B moves towards it.
(C) The south pole faces the ring and the magnet
(D) Case I :  = (L +  )2 B; Case II :  = (L –  )2 B
moves away from it.
(D) The north pole faces the ring and the magnet
3. The direction of induced current in the case I is moves away from it.
(A) from a to b and from c to d
(B) from a to b and from f to e 9. Two circular coils P & Q are fixed coaxially &
(C) from b to a and from d to c carry currents I1 and I2 respectively
(D) from b to a and from e to f I1 I2
4. The direction of induced current in the case II is
(A) from a to b and from c to d
(B) from b to a and from f to e
(C) from b to a and from c to d P Q
(D) from a to b and from d to c (A) if I2 = 0 & P moves towards Q, a current in
the same direction as I1 is induced in Q
5. If I1 and I2 are the magnitudes of induced current
(B) if I1 = 0 & Q moves towards P, a current in the
in the cases I and II, respectively, then
opposite direction to that of I2 is induced in P.
(A) I1 = I2 (B) I1 > I2
(C) When I1  0 and I2  0 are in the same direction
(C) I1 < I2 (D) nothing can be said
then the two coils tend to move apart.
6. Figure shown plane figure made of a conductor (D) when I1  0 and l2  0 are in opposite directions
located in a magnetic field along the inward normal then the coils tends to move apart.
to the plane of the figure. The magnetic field
starts diminishing. Then the induced current 10. Which of the following quantities can be
P
× × × ×
written in SI units in K gm2 A–2 S–3 ?
O
(A) Resistance (B) Inductance
× × × ×
(C) Capacitance (D) Magnetic flux
× × × R×
× × × ×

SECTION (B) : E.M.F. INDUCED IN A MOVING SECTION (C) : INDUCED EMF IN ROD, RING DISC
ROD ROTATING IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
11. AB and CD are smooth parallel rails, separated 15. The e.m.f induced in a coil of wire, which is
by a distance l, and inclined to the horizontal at rotating in a magnetic field, does not depend on
an angle . A uniform magnetic field of magnitude (A) the angular speed of rotation
B, directed vertically upwards, exists in the region. (B) the area of the coil
EF is a conductor of mass m, carrying a current i. (C) the number of turns on the coil
For EF to be in equilibrium, (D) the resistance of the coil
B F D
A conducting ring of radius a is rotated about a
C  point O on its periphery as shown in the figure in
B a plane perpendicular to uniform magnetic field B
L which exists everywhere. The rotational velocity
E is .
B
 × × × × × × × ×
A × × × ×P × × × ×
(A) i must flow from E to F (B) Bil = mg tan 
× × × × × × × ×
(C) Bil = mg sin  (D) Bil = mg × × × X× × × × ×
× O× × × × × Q× ×
12. In the previous question, if B is normal to × × × × × × × ×
the plane of the rails × × × × × × × ×
(A) Bil = mg tan  (B) Bil = mg sin  × × × ×R × × × ×
(C) Bil = mg cos  16. Choose the correct statement(s) related to
(D) equilibrium cannot be reached the potential of the points P, Q and R

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UNIT AND DIMENSION

S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

♦ THEORY WITH SOLVED EXAMPLES ........................................ 3 – 23

♦ EXERCISE - III ........................................................................ 37 – 39

♦ ANSWER KEY ............................................................................40

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Fundamental Derived Supplementry

dis tan ce length

Note : The supplementary quantities have only units but no dimensions.

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

3.1. Principle systems of Unit

Fundame ntal Mass gram kilogram pound

Time second second second

De rived W ork or Energy erg joule → J ft-poundal

Power erg/s watt → W ft-poundal/s

3.2 Supplementary units :

3.3 Definitions of some important SI Units

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Ex.3 Find the SI unit of speed, acceleration

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Quantity Correct Incorrect

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Quantity Correct Incorrect

cm3 (cm)3 = (0.01 m)3 = (10–2m)3 = 10–6 m3 0.01 m3 or 10–2 m3

mA2 (mA)2 = (0.001 A)2 = (10–3A)2 = 10–6 A2 0.001 A2

Quantity Correct Incorrect

Quantity Correct Incorrect

Quantity Correct Incorrect

J/mol K Joule / mole K

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

5.1. Characteristics of base units or standards :

5.2 Some special types of units :

Quantity Symbol Formula S.I. Unit D.F.

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Theory of dimensions have following main uses :

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

8.3 Principle of Homogeneity of Dimensions.

8.4 To establish the relation among various physical quantities :

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Solving these three equations, we get

f = k(F)1/ 2 (l ) –1(µ ) –1/ 2

8.5 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

b = semi minor axis

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

(j) Rectangular container h

(i) e ≈ 2.7183 (ii) If ex = y, then x = loge y = ln y (iii) If 10x = y, then x = log10y

11. TRIGONOMETRIC PROPERTIES :

(i) Measurement of angle & relationship between degrees & radian

ANGLE CONVERSION FORMULAS

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(ii) Measurement of positive & Negative Angles :

(iii) Six Basic Trigonometric Functions :

The trigonometric fucntion of a general angle θ are defined in tems of x, y and r.

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS