Music of the Whole World

Series 2: presentation # 4 –
Tuesday, April 3, 2007.

Afro-Latin Fusions
- general study materials
by Moshe Denburg
with bibliography and discography
compiled by Joseph “Pepe” Danza

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The Vancouver Inter-Cultural Orchestra gratefully acknowledges the support of the

following organizations that made the series, Music of the Whole World, possible.
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General Note

The following study materials are being made available to attendees of the educational series, Music of
the Whole World, presented by the Vancouver Inter-Cultural Orchestra (VICO) at the Vancouver Public
Library. The presentation, Afro-Latin Fusions, took place on April 3, 2007.

Intercultural Orchestration Materials

These materials form part of a larger work in progress (as of 2007) entitled Orchestrating the World - a
Manual of Intercultural Music Making by Moshe Denburg. Portions of this work are available for
downloading on the VICO website. To download this study guide, go to:

www.vi-co.org
and click on 'Study Guides'.

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Comments, feedback, or suggestions?

Please let us know at: moshe@vi-co.org

For more information on intercultural events, music, and study

The Vancouver Inter-Cultural Orchestra (VICO),
#12 - 719 East 31st Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5V 2W9
Tel. 604-879-8415 Fax 604-873-0501
mailto: info@vi-co.org web: www.vi-co.org

Copyright and Fair Use Notification

The author does not object to the use of these materials for personal educational purposes or for any fair use,
such as quoting or citing these materials, as long as his authorship is credited by the user. Making copies of
these materials as part of any commercial venture, or for any monetary reward, requires the written consent of
the author.

© Moshe Denburg, 2007.

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Scope and Considerations

If anyone was to ask, “What is the soul of Latin American music?”, one answer that could be given
without hesitation is that its soul resides in the rhythms of Africa. The African slaves brought to the Americas
from the 1500’s to the 1800’s were predominantly from the coastal areas of West-Central Africa, from those
regions which today stretch from the Congo to Senegal (see the map below). Over the centuries, these peoples
gradually mixed with transplanted Spaniards and indigenous American peoples, profoundly influencing the
music and spirituality of the Americas. Their beliefs and rituals are alive today in many Latin American
countries, and have been combined with other spiritual traditions, both African and indigenous, to form a
variety of religious ways of life, expressed in music, song, and dance.

The transplanted Africans, in an act of defiance of slavery, continued to practice their native religions
after having been taken to the new world. Having roots in several different African regions and peoples, these
religious traditions are known today by various names, and take different forms, depending upon where they are
practiced. In Cuba and Puerto Rico the religion is known as Santeria or Lukumi; in the USA as Oyotunji; in
Brazil as Candomblé, Umbanda, and Batuque; in Haiti as Vodun. And there are more variations as well.

In a previous study guide, Intercultural Orchestra spiced with Tango & Andean Music (June 7,
2006),we touched upon the issue of how the African slaves preserved their religious rituals and sensibilities in
the Americas. Here we reiterate some of the material mentioned there.

Of the African peoples forcibly brought to the Americas, one of the most important culturally,
spiritually, and in numbers, are the Yoruba. Coming from Nigeria, the Yoruba practice a religion originally
called Ifa. It is a 3 tiered spiritual world:

1. Olorun – the supreme, absolute deity, unapproachable directly;

2. Orishas – brought into being by Olorun, these are the deities with which humans may interact. A few
examples of the Orishas are:
i) Elegua – the keeper of the keys, the one who opens all doors;
ii) Shango – the God of thunder and virility;
iii) Yemaya – Goddess of fertility, the mother of Shango, the goddess of the sea.
Each Orisha is associated with a particular rhythm, with particular sounds, and special songs.
3. Humans – the 3rd rung on the spiritual ladder.

The African slaves who worshipped many Orishas found themselves in conflict with their adopted – by
force or otherwise – Christian religion. So they began the practice of associating the Orishas with different
Christian Saints in order to camouflage the actual act of worshipping in a non-Christian manner. This ‘new’
religion came to be called Santeria, which means ‘of the saints’. It was originally a derogatory term used by
Catholics to deride the practices of these new Christians who seemed to worship the Saints even more than the
Christian God! Over time the term has lost much of its negative connotation, and today is utilized more and
more to describe the religion of its adherents. Over time the Gods - the Orishas - of the original religion have
become integrated into the life of the Latin American Christian communities, and today are celebrated in
rhythm, song and dance.

The rhythm traditions transplanted in the Americas by African slaves form the basis of a large variety of
musical genres. Some Latin-American musical traditions are more home grown, but most have strong African
roots. Not all of these African traditions are of the Yoruba, but arguably it is the Yoruba tradition which has had
the most widespread effect on the music cultures of Latin America.
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Spirituality and Rhythm

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In the Americas, African religious traditions and related art forms derive from two or three strands of
African culture: 1. The West African Yoruba, with their associated religion called Ifa; 2. The more South
Central Bantu peoples, with their spiritual tradition called Kongo; 3. Other strands, from a variety of peoples,
one of whose notable religious traditions is called Vodun, (aka. Voodoo, in the Americas). These religious
traditions borrowed from and influenced each other over the centuries.

As mentioned above, the roots of Afro-Latin rhythm traditions are in Africa, significantly in the culture
of the Yoruba people - a substantial ethnic group in Africa, with their own language and music-cultural
tradition. Concentrated mainly in Nigeria, there are approximately 30 million Yoruba spread across West
Africa, including the countries of Benin, Togo, and Ghana. The Yoruba today comprise many Latin-American
communities, in Brazil, Cuba, the Caribbean, and in the United States.

African traditions found a way to survive in the colonies of the Spanish and Portuguese, but hardly in
the British colonies, including the USA. In these regions slaves were forbidden to practice their religion or
speak their native languages. Somehow, this was not the case in the Spanish and Portuguese domains. This
explains why, when we refer to Afro-Latin fusions, we speak of the more southern regions of the Americas –
the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. These regions form the caldron wherein African traditions
found a way to assimilate the European culture, and eventually co-opt it. Today, the peoples of these Latin
American countries are very racially mixed, and their cultural traditions are the preserve of strong African
influences. It is from these countries – Brazil, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Haiti and others – that Afro-Latin music has
migrated to the USA and all over the world in the post-slavery age.

It is interesting to speculate that the plethora of Afro-Latin rhythm traditions is proportional to the
multiplicity of Orishas in the Ifa religion. Each Orisha, being a unique force, a personalized energy, is
celebrated uniquely, with it own rhythm, dance, and song. This is not strictly true of course, and a lot of cross
fertilization has occured between the various rhythm traditions and rituals. But the tendency to create new
rhythmic and ritual forms may be related to the great variety of Orishas worshipped in the Ifa religion.

Drums-Song-Dance
Most, if not all, of the popular music and rhythms of Latin-America have been influenced by African
music. Of course much of the music has grown out of the inter-cultural minglings of the different peoples and
musical traditions brought to the area – European, Native American, Spanish, Portuguese, and African traditions
have combined to create the many forms of popular Latin-American music known today the world over.
However, African based rhythms have had an indelible effect on the music of Latin America in all its facets.

As is the case with much of the spiritual music of the world, the music associated with religious worship
becomes diluted somewhat when brought into the mainstream popular consciousness. The meaning and inner
reality of ritual music, rhythm, and dance, is accessible only after a period of orientation and initiation. On a
deeper experiential level one would have to establish a relationship with the music over a longer period of time.
Still, the purely esthetic qualities of the music, its energy, its cross-rhythms, its trance-inducing pulse, these are
evident to any intent listener.

There are a vast number of musical forms in Latin America, most with African roots. Here is a short
list, related to the bibliography at the end of this study guide, of the Latin American musical forms which have
been influenced by African music.
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Selected Afro-Latin Musical Forms

Brazil Cuba Puerto Rico Uruguay General

Baião Bata Bomba Candombé Music of Santeria
Batucada Rumba Plena Salsa
Capoeira Son Umbanda
Maracatu
Samba

In conclusion, it must be emphasized that the African influenced musics of the Americas are connected,
to a greater or lesser extent, with a spiritual world view, and though most of the musical forms in popular
circulation are not associated directly with ritual worship, the rhythmic pulse at the heart of Latin American
music is in its origins an African dance, an African celebration and worship of life in all its abundant energy.

Afro-Latin Instruments

Conga Drums

Originally a conical shaped drum from Africa, conga drums today are
more cylindrical and come in 3 sizes. The mid-sized one is called conga, the
smaller higher pitched is the quinto, and the larger lower pitched is the tumba.
Often these three are played by one performer, other times the roles are more
differentiated, with one performer to a drum. The drums are traditionally
made of a hollowed out block of wood, with a rawhide skin stretched over one
end. The other end is left open. Today, congas may be made of other
materials, such as fiberglass, and their heads can be made of synthetic
materials. The heads are fastened with rings and can be tensioned with tuning
lugs.
The roles of the different conga drums, when played in ensemble, are
as follows:
Quinto – this is the drum of the soloist, it is high pitched and speaks
well over the other drums.
Conga – this drum plays in a mid-range, and can be utilized for
accompanying rhythms as well as for occasional solo playing.
Tumba – this is the bass drum, and plays the basic rhythm figures,
usually together with the conga, to give a solid rhythmic basis for the soloist
to improvise upon.
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Bongos
Originally brought to Cuba via the slave trade, the bongos are an
instrument made of two small cylindrical drums attached to each other.
One of the drum heads is larger than the other, rendering two distinct
pitches. The larger head is called hembra and the smaller macho.
Traditionally the heads are covered with animal skins, and fastened with
tacks; however, modern technologies allow for synthetic skins which last
longer and fasteners to make tuning easier. The bongos render higher
pitches than larger drums, and have excellent presence and rhythmic
definition. Bongoceros (bongo players) develop a great facility in
improvising and creating syncopated and cross rhythmic riffs.

Ashiko

Originally a straight sided drum carved out of a single log, but

today commonly constructed from many tapered staves of wood to create
a conical form, the Ashiko is a drum of the Yoruba people. The animal
skin head, stretched over the wider opening, is held in place by a system of
ropes and cords. Rendering a great range of sounds and tones, the ashiko
can be utilized both as an ensemble drum and for solo playing. It is played
all over sub-Saharan Africa, in Cuba, and in the Americas.

Caxixi

Caxixi (pronounced: ka-shi-shi) are hand held shakers, made of

woven baskets in various shapes and sizes. These are filled with pebbles,
beans, or any sonorous rattling objects. A hard gourd disc is often placed
in the base of the basket to increase the projection of the sound. Caxixi are
found all over Africa and the Americas, and in the Brazilian Capoeira
tradition they are often paired with the berimbau (a struck string
percussion instrument).
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Djembe

The Djembe (pronounced: jem-bey) is a large goblet

shaped drum carved out of a single piece of a hardwood tree. Over
the larger opening a skin is stretched, usually goatskin but other
animal skins are utilized as well. Modern instruments will
sometimes utilize synthetic skins. The drumhead is tuned by a
system of cords and ropes wrapped around the wood shell.
Originating in West Africa, the djembe is widely played all over
the world today. Its sounds range from very deep booming bass
tones to well projected higher pitched slap strokes. It can be played
in a seated position, but more often standing, where the performer
holds up the drum with the aid of a shoulder harness. Often, the
rim of the head has a ring of percussive bells attached, which add a
jingling sonority to each stroke.

Udu

The udu is a vessel drum originally from the Igbo people of

Nigeria. Traditionally it was a water jug with another hole in the side,
played by women for ceremonial music. Udus have a side hole which
creates a deep reverberating note when struck with the flat palm of the
hand. The clay body of the vessel produces a high pinging sound when
struck with the fingers. The combination of these two techniques
sometimes sounds similar to the Indian tabla or African talking drum.

Talking Drum

The talking drum, originating in West Africa, is known by

many names depending upon where and by whom it is played. It is a
two headed hourglass shaped drum, played with a crooked stick. The
two heads, made of hide or other animal membranes, are fastened onto
the shell at both ends by a continuous system of leather straps. The
performer cradles the drum under his arm, and by pressing against the
straps he alternately increases and releases tension on the drumheads,
thus creating changes in pitch. Talking drums can be used to convey
messages, and the language of the drum can be understood by the
initiated. Today talking drums are an important part of a popular
Yoruba rooted music called juju.
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Djundjun (bass drum)

The djundjun is a cylindrical, two headed bass drum from West Africa.
Traditonally it is carved from a single log. Its heads are cowhide or goat skin,
and are fastened to the shell by a hoop and strap system. It is held aloft by a
shoulder strap and struck with two sticks. Amongst the Yoruba, djundjun may
form an ensemble of three drums of different sizes: the kenkeni (smallest and
highest pitched), the sangban (medium sized), and the doundounba (largest
and deepest pitched).

Shekere

The shekere is a hand percussion instrument made of a dried out gourd

with a woven net of sonorous beads or seeds draped around it. It is played by
shaking the instrument and striking it against the hands. Called shekere in
Nigeria, it is known by different names in different parts of Africa and the
Americas. For example, in Ghana it is called Axaste, and in Brazil it is called
Xequebum. It comes in many sizes, and its overall tone and pitch are
determined by the size of the gourd and the materials utilized for the beads of
the net.

Cajon
In a sense, the cajon is the quintessential instrument of Afro-Latin
music. In the absence of their traditional drums upon their arrival in the
Americas, African slaves invented the cajon by utilizing shipping crates as
musical instruments. Today’s cajon has evolved into an instrument of much
more exacting specifications, though, true to its origins it retains an utter
simplicity. Basically it is a wooden box, with 5 sides made of a more solid
wood, and the sixth, the side that is struck (the “head”), made of a thinner
plywood. A sound hole is cut into the side opposite the struck head. The
performer simpy sits on the cajon and strikes the head with his hands. The
instrument is utilized in many genres of music today, including Flamenco,
Cuban Rumba, and significantly in the music of Peru.

Agogo
The agogo are a pair of two wrought iron bells, which when struck
with a stick render two tones, one higher and one lower pitched. Its origins
are in traditional Yoruba music. The sound is sharp and ringing, but the decay
of the tone is quick enough to give a defined rhythm. Today agogo are made
of a variety of metals, and come in several shapes and sizes. Generally, the
bells are differently sized, in order to render the two tones, though the
thickness of the metal and the materials themselves can render the same
effect. The agogo are well utilized today in Samba ensembles in Brazil as well
as in ceremonial religious music such as candomblé.
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Bata drums
The bata drums are a family of 3 double-headed drums,
which play a central role in a sacred Yoruba religious ritual. The
big drum renders the lowest pitch and is called iyá, the medium
one itótele, and the smallest, which renders the highest pitch is
called okónkolo. On each drum the larger head is called enu and
the smaller head chacha. The drums have a slightly hourglass
shape, are carved from single blocks of wood, and utilize goat or
deer skin for the drumheads. Belts of bells, called chaguoro, are
attached to the iya. These drums, and their associated sacred
rituals propitiating the orishas (Gods), were brought from
Yorubaland in Nigeria and Benin to Cuba in the 1800’s. Nowadays
they can be found in the USA as well and more recently some
secular forms have arisen.
Timbales
Originally conceived as a more portable substitute for the
European derived timpani, the timbales (aka. pailas - meaning
‘pails’) are an integral part of the rhythm section of many Cuban
bands, and play an important role today in a large number of Latin
musical genres, such as Salsa, Mambo, Cuban Danzon, and
Charanga. They are basically a set of two small timpani, one larger
than the other but both quite high pitched. They are played with
dowel-like wood sticks. Most timbales come in diameters of 14"
and 15". The drums are fastened to a stand and to the stand are also
fastened a cowbell or two, a woodblock, and sometimes a crash
cymbal. The shells, called cáscara, are usually made of metal and
are utilized percussively as well.

Selected Bibliography and Discography

compiled by Joseph “Pepe Danza
Bibliography
African Music (A People's Art) - Francis Bebey - Lawrence Hill & Company
Brazilian Sound (The) - Chris McGowan & Ricardo Pessanha - Temple University Press
Drumming at the Edge of Magic - Mickey Hart - Harper San Francisco
La africania de la musica folklorica cubana - Fernando Ortiz - Letras Cubanas
Las Musicas Primitivas del Uruguay - Lauro Ayestaran - Arca
Los Tambores del Candombe - Luis Ferreira - Ediciones Colibue Sepe
Mandiani Drum and Dance - Mark Sunkett - White Cliffs Media
Music of Africa (The) - J. H. Kwabena Nkeita - Norton Books
Music of Santeria (The) - John Amira & Steven Cornelius - White Cliffs Media
Musica Brasileira - Claus Schreiner - Marion Boyars Publishers
Mystery of Samba (The) - Hermano Vianna - University of North Carolina Press
Samba - Alma Guillermoprieto - Vintage Departures
Santeria, The Religion - Migene Gonzales-Wippler - Llewellyn Publications
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Bibliography – continued

Soul of Mbira (The) - Paul Berliner - University of California Press

Studies in African Music - Jones A. M. - Oxford University Press
Wellsprings of Music (The) - Curt Sachs - Da Capo Press

Discography
Adama Drame - Any record by this artist (virtuoso Djembe player)
African Drums - Mamady Keita - Master Sound
Afro Roots - Mongo Santamaria
Afropea, telling stories by the sea - Warner Bros.
Amampondo - (any album by them) (South African Percussion Group)
Bata Ketu - Michael Spiro & Mark Lamson - Bembe Records
BataMbira - Michael Spiro & Michael Williams - Batambira Productions
Brazil: Bahia - The Rough Guide
Bresil: Capoeira, Rites et Invocations Vol 2 - Musique du Monde
Cantos de Umbanda - Dudu Tucci - Amacy
Deep Rumba - Justin Time Records
Djembe 2 - Buda Musique
Djembe - Dianke Productions
Drums of Passion - Babtunde Olatunji
Endangered Music Project - The Library of Congress - Ryko
Ilu Aña - Sacred Rhythms - Fundamento Productions
Matanzas Cuba, ca 1957 - Afro cuban sacred music - Smithsonian Folkways Recordings
Pan African Orchestra (The) - RealWorld
Rhythms and Songs from Guinea - Famdou Konate - African Rhythm Traders
Sabar Wolof (Dance Drumming of Senegal) - Village Pulse
Samba - The Rough Guide
Susana Baca - (wonderful Afro Peruvian music)
Tierra del Cacao (Afro Venezuelan Music and Dance) - Pan Records
Toto la Momposina - "Carmelina" - (Colombian Afro music) - MTM Ltda
Tumi Cuba Classics - Volume three: Rumba - Tumi
Uruguay, Tambores del Candombe - Musique du Monde
Yemaya 1 and 2 - Abbilona & Tambor Yoruba

Internet Resources
Look up the following titles in any good search engine:

The African Roots of Latin Music

Foundation Course in African Dance Drumming, by CK Ladzekpo
Yoruba Music (in wikipedia, the online encyclopedia)

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Afro-Latin Fusons is a publication of
The Vancouver Inter-Cultural Orchestra (VICO)
mailto: info@vi-co.org web: www.vi-co.org