MOI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

YEAR: III (2019/2020) SEMESTER: I

COURSE CODE: CV 325 COURSE NAME: SOIL MECHANICS II

UNITS: 3
Course Purpose
The purpose of this course is to develop analytical skills in dealing with soil as a medium for structural support.

Course Objectives
Upon completion of this course, the student should be able to:
1. Carry out shear strength tests.
2. Apply shear strength concept to solve geotechnical engineering problems.
3. Calculate earth pressures on retaining wall.
4. Estimate factors of safety against slope stability failure.
Course Outline
1. Shear strength of Soils.
2. Lateral earth pressures and Retaining walls.
3. Bearing capacity of foundations.
4. Stability of Slopes.
Course assessment
• Continuous Assessment Tests 20%
• Field and laboratory Exercises 10%
• End of Semester Examinations 70%

Course References/Reference Texts

1. Braja M Das (2010, 7th Ed). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Cengage Learning
2. R. Whitlow (1996, 3rd Edition). Basic Soil Mechanics, Longman Group Limited.

Course Further Readings

1. C. Venkatramaiah (2006, 3rd Edition). Geotechnical Engineering. New Age International Ltd
2. R. F. Craig, (2004, 7th Edition). Soil Mechanics, Spon Press (New York).

Overview
• Structures of interest as Civil Engineers depend on soils for their foundation. They include: small domestic houses,
offices, shops, hotels, theatres, roads, bridges, power stations, dams, offshore structures etc.
• Each presents its own particular problem with the consequent need for complex decision making procedures.
• All structures rely for their ultimate stability on the natural foundations upon which they are built. Therefore, it’s here
the special knowledge and skills of the geologist and geotechnical engineer are required.
• Owing to the importance of soils, it is imperative that Civil engineering students have a grasp of fundamental
principles as regards soil mechanics.
 CHAPTER ONE
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
1.1. Introduction
• The strength of material is the greatest stress it can sustain.
• The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil.
• Shearing resistance is important to analyze soil stability problems such as; Bearing capacity, Slope stability, Lateral
earth pressure on earth-retaining structures, and Pavement.
• The shear strength of soil is its resistance to shearing stresses.
• It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement of its individual soil particles.
• The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil mass can offer to resist failure
and to slide along any plane inside it
• Figure 1.1 is an illustration of shear failure of soil (Low shear strength).

Fig. 1.1: Cases of Shear failure

1.2 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion

• Coulomb, 1776 considered that failure of soil is a curved line.

…………………………………… (1.1)
• Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in materials that contended that a material fails because of a critical
combination of normal stress and shearing stress. Thus, the failure can be expressed in the following form:

………………………………………. (1.2)

• The preceding equation is called the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion.

• In saturated soil, .
• The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion, in terms of effective stress, will be:

……………………………… ……………… (1.3)

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• So that soil derives its shear strength from two sources:
1. Cohesion between particles (stress independent component), Cementation between sand grains, Electrostatic
attraction between clay particles.
2. Frictional resistance between particles (stress dependent component)

• The value of (c) for sand and inorganic silt = 0.

• For normally consolidated clays, (c) can be = 0.
• Overconsolidated Clays have values of (c) that are greater than 0.
• The angle of friction, ∅' is sometimes referred to as the drained angle of friction.
• Typical values of ∅’ for some granular soils are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Typical Values of Drained Angleof Friction for Sands and Silts

• From the figure 1.2, which shows an elemental soil mass. Let the effective normal stress and the shear stress on the
plane (ab) be (σ') and (τ), respectively.
• If the magnitudes of σ' and τ on the plane (ab) are such that they plot as point A, shear failure will not occur along
the plane.
• If the effective normal stress and the shear stress on plane ab plot as point B (which falls on the failure envelope),
shear failure will occur along that plane.
• A state of stress on a plane represented by point C cannot exist because it plots above the failure envelope, and
shear failure in soil would have occurred already.

Fig. 1.2: Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion

• For cohesionless soils c = 0, the failure criterion will be: τ f = σ' tan∅'
• For saturated soil under undrained condition, the failure criterion will be: τ f = c' (Fig. 1.3)

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 Fig. 1.3
Example 1.1
What is the shearing strength of soil along a horizontal plane at a depth of 4 m in a deposit of sand having the following
properties:
Angle of internal friction, ∅' = 35°, Dry unit weight, γ d = 17 kN/m3, Specific gravity, Gs = 2.7. Assume the ground water
table is at a depth of 2.5 m from the ground surface. Also, find the change in shear strength when the water table rises to the
ground surface.
Solve it in class

1.3. Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear

• To determine the inclination of the failure plane with the major principal plane, refer to Figure 1.4, where σ 1 ' and σ 3 '
are the major and minor effective principal stresses.
• The failure plane EF makes an angle θ with the major principal plane.
• To determine the angle θ and the relationship between σ 1 ' and σ 3 ' refer to Figure 1.4 (b), which is a plot of the Mohr’s
circle for the state of stress shown in Figure 1.4 (a).
• In Figure 1.4 (b), fgh is the failure envelope defined by the relationship
• The radial line ab defines the major principal plane (CD in Figure 1.4 (a)), and the radial line ad defines the failure
plane (EF in Figure 1.4 (a)).

Fig. 1.4 (a) and (b)

• It can be shown that

∅′
𝜃𝜃 = 45° + ………………………………….. (1.4)
2
• Again, from Figure 1.4 (b),
����
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
����
= sin ∅′ ………………………………………………………….. (1.5)
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

…….. (1.6a)
• Also

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 ………………………………………….. (1.6b)
• Substituting Eqs. (1.6a) and (1.6b) into Eq. (1.5), we obtain:

OR

…………………… (1.7)
However,

and
Thus,

………………………………… (1.8)
• An expression similar to Eq. (1.8) could also be derived using Eq. (1.2) (that is, total stress parameters c and ∅' ), i.e in
total stress terms;

……………………… (1.9)
1.4 Laboratory Test to Determine Shear Strength Parameters
• There are several laboratory methods available to determine the shear strength parameters, (c, ∅, c', ∅') in the
laboratory. They are as follows:
1. Direct shear test
2. Triaxial test
3. Plane strain triaxial test
4. Torsional ring shear test
5. Field method e.g. Vane shear test or by any other indirect methods

• The direct shear test and the triaxial test are the two commonly used techniques for determining the shear strength
parameters.

1.4.1 Direct Shear Test

Need and Scope
• In many engineering problems such as
 design of foundation,
 retaining walls,
 slab bridges,
 pipes,
 sheet piling,
• The value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are required for the design.
• Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly.

• This test is performed to determine the consolidated - drained shear strength of a sandy to silty soil.
• The shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil, because it is required whenever a
structure is dependent on the soil’s shearing resistance.

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• The shear strength is needed for engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts, finding
the bearing capacity for foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.
Apparatus
1. Direct shear box apparatus
2. Loading frame (motor attached).
3. Dial gauge.
4. Proving ring.
5. Tamper.
6. Straight edge.
7. Balance to weigh upto 200 mg.
8. Aluminum container.
9. Spatula.

Fig.1.5: Direct shear equipment and use

• The test equipment consists of a metal shear box in which the soil specimen is placed. The soil specimens may be
square or circular in plan. The box is split horizontally into halves.

Procedure
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2. Put the parts of the soil container together.
3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is desired tamp the soil.
5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate the density of the soil.
6. Make the surface of the soil plane.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
9. Apply the desired normal load.
10. Remove the shear pin.
11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between two parts except
sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
15. Take volume change readings till failure.
16. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment

For a given test, the normal stress can be calculated as:

The resisting shear stress for any shear displacement can be calculated as:

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• Figure 1.6 shows a typical plot of shear stress and change in the height of the specimen against shear displacement for
dry loose and dense sands.

Fig. 1.6: Plot of shear stress and change in height of specimen against shear displacement for loose and dense
dry sand (direct shear test)

1. In loose sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear displacement until a failure shear stress of (τ f ) is
reached. After that, the shear resistance remains approximately constant for any further increase in the shear
displacement.
2. In dense sand, the resisting shear stress increases with shear displacement until it reaches a failure stress (τ f ). This (τ f )
is called the peak shear strength. After failure stress is attained, the resisting shear stress gradually decreases as shear
displacement increases until it finally reaches a constant value called the ultimate shear strength.

• To find the correct internal friction and cohesion of soil, it is recommended to carry at least 3 tests.

• The results of this test give normal and shear stress and need to use Mohr’s circle or analytical to find major and minor
principal stresses, σ 1 and σ 3 .

Example 1.2
Direct shear tests were performed on a dry sandy soil. The size of the specimen was 50 mm * 50 mm * 19 mm. Test results
are as follows:

Find the shear strength parameters.

Solution

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 • The shear stresses, τ f obtained from the tests are plotted against the normal stresses in figure 1.7, from which c = 0
kN/m2 and ∅ = 32°.

Fig. 1.7: Shear Strength Parameters (Example 1.2)

Example 1.3
Following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on an overconsolidated clay, the size of the specimen was 50 mm
* 50 mm * 25 mm
Find the shear strength parameters.

Solution

• The shear stresses, τ f obtained from the tests are plotted against the normal stresses in figure 1.8 from which c =
30 kN/m2 and ∅ = 27.5°.

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 Fig. 1.8: Shear Strength Parameters (Example 1.3)

Mohr Diagram for a Direct Shear Test at Failure

• In a direct shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the failure plane is
horizontal.
• Point P I on the stress diagram in Figure 1.9 represents the stress condition on the failure plane. The coordinates of
the point are normal stress = σ and shear stress τ = s.

Fig. 1.9: stress condition on the failure plane

• If it is assumed that the Mohr envelope is a straight line passing through the origin (for cohesionless soil or normally
consolidated clays). Therefore the line OP I must be tangent to the Mohr circle, and the circle may be constructed as
follows:
1. Draw P I C normal to OP I , Point C which is the intersection point of the normal with the abscissa is the center of
the circle. CP I is the radius of the circle. The Mohr circle may now be constructed which gives the major and
minor principal stresses σ 1 and σ 3 respectively.

2. Since the failure is on the horizontal plane, the origin of planes P O may be obtained by drawing a horizontal line
through P I giving P O . P O F and P O E give the directions of the major and minor principal planes respectively.

For analytic solution:

In cohesive soil use:

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Example 1.4
A direct shear test was conducted on a remolded sample of sand, gave the following observations at the time of failure:
Normal load = 288 N; shear load = 173 N. The cross-sectional area of the specimen = 36 cm2.
Determine:
a) the angle of internal friction,
b) the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of failure.

Solution
Such problems can be solved in two ways, namely graphically and analytically.
a) the angle of internal friction,

We know one point on the Mohr envelope. Plot point A with coordinates 48 kN/m2, and τ f = 80 kN/m2. Since
cohesion c = 0 for sand, the Mohr envelope OM passes through the origin. The slope of OM gives the angle of
internal friction ∅ =31°.
b) the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of failure.
In Figure 1.10, draw line AC normal to the envelope OM cutting the abscissa at point C. With C as center and AC
as radius, draw Mohr circle C l which cuts the abscissa at points B and D, which gives

• Now, ∠ACB=2α = twice the angle between the failure plane and the major principal plane. Measurement
gives

• Since in a direct shear test the failure plane is horizontal, the angle made by the major principal plane with the
horizontal will be 60.5°.
• The minor principal plane should be drawn at a right angle to the major principal plane.
• The directions of the principal planes may also be found by locating the pole Po which is obtained by drawing
a horizontal line from point A which is parallel to the failure plane in the direct shear test.
• Now P O B and P O D give the directions of the major and minor principal planes.

Figure 1.10: Graphical method

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 For analytic solution:

1.4.2 Triaxial Shear Test

• The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for determining shear strength parameters. It is
used widely for research and conventional testing. A diagram of the triaxial test layout is shown in Figure 1.11.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.11: (a) Triaxial Shear Test apparatus (b) a triaxial test in progress in the laboratory.

• In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter and 76 mm long. A thin rubber membrane encased the specimen
are placed inside a plastic cylindrical chamber that usually is filled with water or glycerin.

• The test consists of two-stage the first one is isotropic loading where the specimen is subjected to a confining pressure
by compression of the fluid in the chamber. The second stage is shearing to cause shear failure in the specimen, where
axial stress is applied (sometimes called deviator stress) through a vertical loading ram.

• The axial load applied by the loading ram corresponding to a given axial deformation is measured by a proving ring or
load cell attached to the ram.
• Connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen, or to measure pressure in the pore water (as per the test
conditions), also are provided.

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• The following three standard types of triaxial tests generally are conducted:
1) Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)
2) Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
3) Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

1) Consolidated-drained test or drained triaxial test (CD test)

• In the CD test, the saturated specimen first is subjected to an all-around confining pressure, 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 , by compression of the
chamber fluid. As confining pressure is applied, the pore water pressure of the specimen increases by u c (if drainage is
prevented). This increase in the pore water pressure can be expressed as a non-dimensional parameter in the form:

where B = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Read about it)

• Now, if the connection to drainage is opened, dissipation of the excess pore water pressure, and thus consolidation,
will occur. With time, u c will become equal to 0.
• In saturated soil, the change in the volume of the specimen (ΔVc) that takes place during consolidation can be obtained
from the volume of pore water drained.
• Next, the deviator stress, σ d , (σ 1 - σ 3 ) on the specimen is increased very slowly. The drainage connection is kept open,
and the slow rate of deviator stress application allows complete dissipation of any pore water pressure that developed
as a result (Δu d = 0).

• At least three identical samples having the same initial conditions are to be used. Typical shapes of dense and loose
sand samples at failure are shown in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: Failure modes

Example 1.5
A consolidated drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay. The results are as follows:

Determine:
a) Angle of friction, ∅′
b) Angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
c) Find the normal stress σ' and the shear stress τ f on the failure plane.
d) Determine the effective normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress.

Solution
For normally consolidated soil, the failure envelope equation is:

a) For the triaxial test, the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure are as follows:
𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 = 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 + ∆(𝜎𝜎𝑑𝑑 )𝑓𝑓 = 276 + 276 = 552 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�𝑚𝑚2

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 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 = 276 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�𝑚𝑚2
(𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 − 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 )⁄2 552 − 276
sin ∅ = = = 0.33
(𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 + 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 )⁄2 552 + 276
°
∅ = 19.45

b) Angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.

c) Find the normal stress σ' and the shear stress τ f on the failure plane.

d) Determine the effective normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress.
It can be seen that the maximum shear stress will occur on the plane with θ = 45°

Assignments
1. The equation of the effective stress failure envelope for normally consolidated clayey soil is τ f = σ'tan 30°. A drained
triaxial test was conducted with the same soil at a chamber confining pressure of 69 kN/m2. Calculate the deviator
stress at failure. (Answer: 138 kN/m2).
2. The results of two drained triaxial tests on a saturated clay follows:

Determine the shear strength parameters.

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3. A saturated specimen of sand was tested under triaxial drained conditions. The sample failed at a deviator stress of 482
kN/m2, and the plane of failure made an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Find the magnitudes of the principal stresses.
What would be the magnitudes of the deviator stress and the major principal stress at failure for another identical
specimen of sand if it is tested at a cell pressure of 200 kN/m2.

4. A consolidated drained triaxial test was conducted on a granular soil. At failure (σ 1 ') ⁄ (σ 3 ’) = 4.0. The effective minor
principal stress at failure was 100 kN/m2. Compute ∅′ and the principal stress difference at failure.

2) Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial test (CU test)

• The consolidated-undrained test is the most common type of triaxial test.
• In this test, the saturated soil specimen is first consolidated by an all-around chamber fluid pressure, 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 ′ , that results in
drainage.
• After the pore water pressure generated by the application of confining pressure is dissipated, the deviator stress,
(∆σ d ), on the specimen, is increased to cause shear failure. During this phase of the test, the drainage line from the
specimen is kept closed. Because drainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure, Δu d , will increase. During the test,
simultaneous measurements of (∆σ d ), and Δu d are made.
• The increase in the pore water pressure, Δu d , can be expressed in a non-dimensional form as:

� Skempton’s pore pressure parameter, A

Where A � = AB

• The general patterns of variation of (∆σ d ), and Δu d with axial strain for sand and clay soils are shown in Figure
1.13d through 1.13g.

Fig. 1.13: Consolidated undrained test: (a) specimen under chamber confining pressure; (b) volume change in
specimen caused by confining pressure; (c) deviator stress application; (d) deviator stress against axial strain for
loose sand and normally consolidated clay; (e) deviator stress against axial strain for dense sand and
overconsolidated clay; (f) variation of pore water pressure with axial strain for loose sand and normally
consolidated clay; (g) variation of pore water pressure with axial strain for dense sand and overconsolidated clay.

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 • In loose sand and normally consolidated clay, the pore water pressure increases with strain.

• In dense sand and overconsolidated clay, the pore water pressure increases with a strain to a certain limit, beyond
which it decreases and becomes negative (with respect to the atmospheric pressure). This decrease is because of a
tendency of the soil to dilate.

• Unlike the consolidated drained test, the total and effective principal stresses are not the same in the consolidated-
undrained test. Because the pore water pressure at failure is measured in this test, the principal stresses may be
analyzed as follows:

• In these equations, (Δu d ) f = pressure at failure. The preceding derivations show that:

• Tests on several similar specimens with varying confining pressures may be conducted to determine the shear
strength parameters (Figure 1.14)
• Skempton’s pore water pressure parameter at failure

Figure 1.14

Example 1.6
A specimen of saturated sand was consolidated under an all-around pressure of 105 kN/m2. The axial stress was then
increased, and drainage was prevented. The specimen failed when the axial deviator stress reached 70 kN/m2. The pore
water pressure at failure was 50 kN/m2. Determine:
a) Consolidated-undrained angle of shearing resistance, ∅
b) Drained friction angle, ∅’
Solution
a) ‘For this case, 𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 = 105 kN/m2, 𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 = 105 + 70 = 175 kN/m2, and (Δu d ) f = 50 kN/m2. The total and effective stress
failure envelopes are shown in figure below

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b).

Example 1.7
A normally consolidated clay was consolidated under a stress of 150 kN/m2, then sheared undrained in axial compression.
The principal stress difference at failure was 100 kN/m2, and the induced pore pressure at failure was 88.5 kN/m2.
Determine:
(a) The Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters, regarding both total and effective stresses analytically
(b) Compute (𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 ⁄𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 )𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 ′ ⁄𝝈𝝈𝟑𝟑 ′ )𝑓𝑓
(c) Determine the theoretical angle of the failure plane in the specimen.

Solution

(b) The stress ratio at failure are:

Assignment
1. The following results were obtained at failure in a series of consolidated undrained tests, with pore pressure
measurement, on specimens of saturated clay. Determine the values of the effective stress parameters c' and ∅’ by
drawing Mohr circles.

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2. A series of three triaxial tests was carried out on samples of a saturated clay soil, the cell pressure in each being
constant at 200 kN/m2. The shear strength parameters were found to be c' = 0 and ∅' = 24°.
a) In the undrained test the pore pressure at failure was 125 kN/m2. Determine the ultimate deviator stress.
(103 kN/m2)
b) In the consolidated-undrained test the maximum deviator stress was 160 kN/m2. Determine the ultimate pore
pressure. (83 kN/m2)
c) Determine the ultimate deviator stress in the drained test if the back pressure was kept constant at 80 kN/m2.
(164 kN/m2)

3. An embankment is being constructed of soil whose properties are c' = 50 kN/m2, ∅' = 21° (all effective stresses), and
γ = 16 kN/m3. The pore pressure parameters as determined from triaxial tests are A = 0.5, and B = 0.9. Find the shear
strength of the soil at the base of the embankment just after the height of fill has been raised from 3 m to 6 m. Assume
that the dissipation of pore pressure during this stage of construction is negligible and that the lateral pressure at any
point is one-half of the vertical pressure.

(Read on PORE PRESSURE PARAMETERS)

3) Unconsolidated-Undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

• In unconsolidated-undrained tests, drainage from the soil specimen is not permitted during the application of chamber
pressure 𝛔𝛔𝟑𝟑 .
• The test specimen is sheared to failure by the application of deviator stress, (Δ𝝈𝝈𝒅𝒅 ), and drainage is prevented. Because
drainage is not allowed at any stage, the test can be performed quickly.
• Because of the application of chamber confining pressure𝛔𝛔𝟑𝟑 , the pore water pressure in the soil specimen will increase
by u c . A further increase in the pore water pressure (Δu d ) will occur because of the deviator stress application. Hence,
the total pore water pressure u in the specimen at any stage of deviator stress application can be given as:

• This test usually is conducted on clay specimens and depends on a very important strength concept for cohesive soils if
the soil is fully saturated. The failure envelope for the total stress Mohr’s circles is shown in Figure 1.15 becomes a
horizontal line and hence is called a ∅ = 0 condition.

Where: c u is the undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohr’s
circles.
Note that the ∅ = 0 concept applies to only saturated clays and silts.

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Fig. 1.15: Total stress Mohr’s circles and failure envelope (∅ = 0) obtained from unconsolidated-undrained triaxial tests on
fully saturated cohesive soil

1.5 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay

• The unconfined compression test is a special type of unconsolidated-undrained test that is commonly used for clay
specimens.
• In this test, the confining pressure 𝛔𝛔𝟑𝟑 is 0. An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to cause failure.
• At failure, the total minor principal stress is zero, and the total major principal stress is 𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏 (Fig. 1.16).
• Because the undrained shear strength is independent of the confining pressure as long as the soil is fully saturated and
fully undrained, we have:

where q u is the unconfined compression strength.

• Table 1.2 gives the approximate consistencies of clays on the basis of their unconfined compression strength.

Fig. 1.16: Unconfined compression test

Table 1.2: General Relationship of Consistency and Unconfined Compression Strength of Clays

.
• Unconfined compression test equipment is shown in Figure 1.17 (a). Figures 1.17 (b) and 1.17(c) shows the failure in
two specimens; one by shear and one by bulging at the end of unconfined compression tests.

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•

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.17

Example 1.8
Boreholes reveal that a thin layer of alluvial silt exists at a depth of 15.25 m below the surface of the ground. The soil above
this level has an average dry unit weight of 15 kN/m3 and an average water content of 30%. The water table is
approximately at the surface. Tests on undisturbed samples give the following data: c u = 48 kN/m2, ∅ u = 13°, c d = 41.25
kN/m2, ∅ d = 23°. Estimate the shearing resistance of the silt on a horizontal plane
(a) when the shear stress builds up rapidly, and
(b) when the shear stress builds up very slowly.

Solution

(a) For rapid build- up, use the properties of undrained state and total pressure.
At total pressure of 297.38 kN/m2

(b) For slow build – up use effective stress properties

At an effective stress of 147.78 kN/m2
Shear strength = 41.25 + 147.78 tan 230 = 103.98 kN/m2

Example 1.9
The soil has an unconfined compressive strength of 120 kN/m2. In a triaxial compression test, a specimen of the same soil
when subjected to a chamber pressure of 40 kN/m2 failed at an additional stress of 160 kN/m2. Determine:
(i) The shear strength parameters of the soil,
(ii) (ii) the angle made by the failure plane with the axial stress in the triaxial test.
Solution
There is one unconfined compression test result and one triaxial compression test result. Hence two Mohr circles, C 1 and
C 2 may be drawn as shown in Figure below. For Mohr circle C 1 , 𝛔𝛔𝟑𝟑 = 0 and 𝛔𝛔𝟏𝟏 = 120 kN/m2, and for Mohr circle C 2 , 𝛔𝛔𝟑𝟑 =
40 kN/m2 and 𝛔𝛔𝟏𝟏 = (40 + 160) = 200 kN/m2.

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• A common tangent to these two circles is the Mohr envelope which gives

(i) c = 43 kN/m2 and ∅ = 19°

(ii) For the triaxial test specimen, A is the point of tangency for Mohr circle C 2 , and C is the center of circle C2.
The angle made by AC with the abscissa is equal to twice the angle between the failure plane and the axis of
the sample, 2α. From Figure, 2α = 71 ° and α = 35.5°.

The angle made by the failure plane with the 𝝈𝝈 -axis is 𝜽𝜽 = 90°-35.5° = 54.5°.

Assignment
1. When an undrained triaxial compression test was conducted on specimens of clayey silt, the following results were
obtained:

Determine the values of shear parameters considering

(a) total stresses and
(b) effective stresses.

2. A cylindrical sample of soil having a cohesion of 80 kN/m2 and an angle of internal friction of 20° is subjected to a cell
pressure of 100 kN/m2. Determine:
(i) the maximum deviator stress (σ 1 -σ 3 ) at which the sample will fail, and
(ii) the angle made by the failure plane with the axis of the sample.
(Use both Graphical and Analytical approaches)

1.6 Sensitivity of Clay

• For many naturally deposited clay soils, the unconfined compression strength is reduced greatly when the soils are
tested after remolding without any change in the moisture content, as shown in Figure 1.18.

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 Figure 1.
18: Unconfined compression strength for undisturbed and remolded clay

• This property of clay soils is called sensitivity. The degree of sensitivity may be defined as the ratio of the unconfined
compression strength in an undisturbed state to that in a remolded state as:

OR

• The sensitivity ratio of most clays ranges from about 1 to 8; however, highly flocculent marine clay deposits may have
sensitivity ratios ranging from about 10 to 80.

• Some clays turn to viscous fluids upon remolding (Very high S t ). Such clays are referred to as quick clays.
• Clays have been classified on the basis of their sensitivity as follows:

1.7 Stress Path

• When we have many soil samples, it is difficult to study the change of stresses in the soil. Thus, the results of triaxial
tests can be represented by diagrams called stress paths.
• In this diagram, the results for one Mohr’s circle (state of stress) will transform to a point.
• Lambe (1964) suggested a type of stress path representation that plots q’ against p’ (where p’ and q’ are the coordinates
of the top of the Mohr’s circle). Thus, relationships for p’ and q’ are as follows:
•

• A stress path is a line or curve that connects a series of points, each of which represents a successive stress state
experienced by a soil specimen during the progress of a test.

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 Figure 1.19
• In geostatic stresses, the results can be expressed as:

Example 1.20
If the initial stresses is: σ v = σ h , find the stress path for the following cases.
(𝑎𝑎) ∆𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 > 0, ∆𝜎𝜎ℎ = 0 (𝑏𝑏) ∆𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 0, ∆𝜎𝜎ℎ > 0 (𝑐𝑐) ∆𝜎𝜎ℎ = − ∆𝜎𝜎ℎ (𝑑𝑑)∆𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = ∆𝜎𝜎ℎ (𝑒𝑒) ∆𝜎𝜎ℎ = 0.25∆𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣
Solution
Initial stresses

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Exercises
1. Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantage of direct shear apparatus.
2. A shear box test was carried out on a sandy clay and yielded the following results:
Normal load (N) 108 202 295 390 484 576
Shear load at failure (N) 172 227 266 323 374 425
Plot the shear strength envelope and determine the shear strength parameters (apparent cohesion and angle of friction
of the soil). Standard shear box of 60 mm x 60 mm is used.

3. During a shear box test on specimens of compacted sand the following results were recorded
Normal load (N) 110 216 324 432
Ultimate shear load (N) 66 131 195 261
Peak shear load (N) 85 170 253 340
Determine the peak and ultimate angles of friction.

4. Briefly discuss the merits and demerits of the shear box test
5. Discuss the sources of error in the triaxial tests. Mainly Drained and Undrained tests.
6. The following results were obtained from consolidated-undrained tests on specimens of a saturated normally
consolidated clay.
Cell pressure (kN/m2) 100 200 300
Ultimate deviator stress (kN/m2) 137 210 283
Ultimate pore pressure (kN/m2) 28 86 147
Determine:
(a) the effective stress parameters c' and ∅′ , and
(b) the apparent undrained strength parameters c cu and ∅cu .
Solution
The ultimate effective stresses are: 𝜎𝜎1′ = 𝜎𝜎1 – 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓
𝜎𝜎3′ = 𝜎𝜎3 − 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜎𝜎1′ − 𝜎𝜎3′ = 𝜎𝜎1 − 𝜎𝜎3 , 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

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 The Mohr-Coulomb plot is shown in Fig. 1.21, from which the following values may be obtained:

7. A normally consolidated clay was found to have shear strength parameters o f c' = 0 and Ø' = 26°. Triaxial tests were
carried out on three specimens of the soil.
a) In Test 1, the specimen is consolidated under an isotropic stress of 200 kN/m2 and the axial loading stage is
undrained. Determine the ultimate deviator stress if the final pore pressure is 50 kN/m2.
b) In Test 2, the specimen is isotropically consolidated under an isotropic stress of 200 kN/m2 and the axial loading
stage is drained with the back pressure remaining at zero. Calculate the ultimate deviator stress.
c) In Test 3, both stages are undrained. Determine the pore pressure expected when the specimen reaches an ultimate
deviator stress of 148 kN/m2, assuming that the specimen is saturated throughout.

8. During consolidated-undrained triaxial tests, the following data were recorded:

Cell pressure = 250 kN/m2. Original length of specimen = 76 mm.

Determine the relationship between the pore pressure coefficient A and axial strain.

9. A shear vane used to test in situ a soft clay had a diameter of 75 mm and a length of 150 mm. The average torques
recorded after slow and then rapid rotations were 64 and 26 Nm respectively. Determine the undrained shear strength
of the clay and also its sensitivity.

10. Given that the shear strength parameters for a soil are c'= 18 kN/m2 and ∅′ = 30°, calculate its shear strength within a
saturated mass of the soil on a plane upon which the total normal stress is 278 kN/m2 and the pore pressure is 94
kN/m2. (Answer: 124 kN/m2).

11. Write down the general expression for the change in pore pressure in terms of the changes in isotropic and deviator
stress. Explain why B = 1 for a saturated soil.

12. At a given point in a mass of saturated clay, the total vertical stress is 240 kN/m2, the total horizontal stress is 160
kN/m2 and the pore pressure is 60 kN /m2. Assuming that coefficient A = 0.75, determine the pore pressure in a sample
of the clay after its removal from the ground, i.e. when the total stress is reduced to zero. (164 kN/m2).

13. If a specimen cut from this sample is now subject to an undrained triaxial compression at a cell pressure of 150 k N/m2
and fails at a deviator stress of 320 kN/m2, determine the pore pressure and effective principal stresses at failure.
(67 kN/m2; 83 kN/m2; 303 kN/m2)
14. The shear strength of a normally consolidated clay can be given by the equation τ f = σ'tan 31°. A consolidated-
undrained triaxial test was conducted on the clay. Following are the results of the test:
Chamber confining pressure = 112 kN/m2
Deviator stress at failure = 100 kN/m2
Determine:
a. Consolidated-undrained friction angle
b. Pore water pressure developed in the clay specimen at failure

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