Chapter 2 : DC circuit Theory

Objectives:
By the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

 differentiate between series and parallel connection of resistors.

 calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in series networks.
 Calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in parallel and series-parallel networks.
 Describe the loading effect of the voltage divider.
 Differentiate between source voltage, open circuit voltage and terminal voltage.
 Define internal resistance of a voltage source.
 Perform calculations using V = E-IR.
 State Ohm’s Law (that is, basic form: opposition = cause divided by effect) I=V/R.
 Apply Ohm’s Law to electrical circuits.
 Differentiate between electric energy and power sating their units.
 Define the Joule and theWatt
 Perform calculations involving electric power and electric energy (that is, W = Q.V = I2R = V2/R =
P.t.).
 State and apply the following theorems in solving DC circuits:
 Kirchoff’s Laws (up to three branches).
 Superposition Theorem (up to three branches)
 Thevenin’s Theorem (including source conversion).
 Norton’s Theorem (including source conversion).
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem (to include solutions on batteries, Thevenin and
Norton’s equivalent circuits).

DC Circuit Theory

There are 2 types of current, Direct current (dc) and Alternating current (ac).
DC is a unidirectional and constant current/voltage whilst AC is bi-directional ie it changes both magnitude
and polarity.

For DC, there are 2 types of current flow ie:

1. Conventional current where current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal
2. Electron flow where current flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal

Basic Electrical measuring instruments

An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series with the circuit.
Figure 1 shows an ammeter connected in series with the lamp to measure the current flowing through it.
Since all the current in the circuit passes through the ammeter it must have a very low resistance.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure p.d. and must be connected in parallel with the part of the
circuit whose p.d. is required. In Figure 1, a voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp to measure the
p.d. across it. To avoid a significant current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a very high resistance.

Fig 1

OHM’S LAW

The Ohm’s law equation can be derived directly from the following basic equation for all physical systems:

In electric circuits, the effect we are trying to establish is the flow of charge, or current. The potential
difference, or voltage, between two points is the cause (“pressure”), and the opposition is the resistance
encountered.

Therefore, Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,

Note also that the current enters the positive terminal and leaves the negative terminal for the load resistor R.
For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current through a resistor will define the polarity of the
voltage drop across the resistor as shown in Fig 2for two directions of current.

Fig 2

Questions
Series and Parallel Networks

A circuit is any combination of elements that will result in a continuous flow of charge, or current,
through the configuration.

There are two ways in which components may be connected together in an electric circuit. One way is ‘in
series’ where components are connected ‘end-to-end’; another way is ‘in parallel’ where components are
connected ‘across each other’. When a circuit is more complicated than two or three elements, it is very
likely to be a network of individual series and parallel circuits

Series Circuit

Fig 2

Figure 2 shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected end to end, i.e., in series, with a battery source of V
volts. Since the circuit is closed a current I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor may be determined
from the voltmeter readings V1, V2 and V3.
Questions
Voltage/ Potential Divider Rule

The circuit shown in Figure 3 (b) is often referred to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit can consist
of a number of similar elements in series connected across a voltage source, voltages being taken from
connections between the elements. Frequently the divider consists of two resistors, as shown in Figure 3 (b),
where

Fig 3

A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of lower e.m.f. from a source of higher e.m.f.,
and is the basic operating mechanism of the potentiometer, a measuring device for accurately measuring
potential differences.
The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in Figure 3 (a) is given by:

Fig 3

Questions
Parallel Circuit

This is where components are connected ‘across each other’.

In a parallel circuit:
(a) The sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current, I, i.e. I=I1+I2+I3
(b) The source p.d., V volts, is the same across each of the resistors.

From Ohm’s law:

Example:

For the circuit shown in Figure determine

(a) The reading on the ammeter
(b) The value of resistor R2

Solution:

Current divider rule

This is only applicable to resistors connected in parallel

It is important to note that current division can only be applied to two parallel resistors. If there are more
than two parallel resistors, then current division cannot be determined using the above formulae.

Example:
For the series-parallel arrangement shown in the diagram
Find;
(a) The supply current,
(b) The current flowing through each resistor and
(c) The p.d. across each resistor.
Solution:
Loading effect

Loading effect: is the terminology used when a measuring instrument such as an oscilloscope or voltmeter
is connected across a component and the current drawn by the instrument upsets the circuit under test. The
best way of demonstrating loading effect is by a numerical example.
In the simple circuit of diagram below, the voltage across each of the resistors can be calculated using
voltage division, or by inspection. In this case, the voltage shown as V should be 20 V.

Using a voltmeter having a resistance of, say, 600 kΩ places 600 kΩ in parallel with the 1MΩ resistor, as
shown in the diagram
Using a Fluke (or multimeter) which has a set internal resistance of, say, 10MΩ, as shown in the diag,
produces a much better result and the loading effect is minimal, as shown below.

When taking measurements, it is vital that the loading effect is understood and kept in mind at all times. An
incorrect voltage reading may be due to this loading effect rather than the equipment under investigation
being defective. Ideally, the resistance of a voltmeter should be infinite.

A voltage source is a two-terminal device which can maintain a fixed voltage. An ideal voltage source can
maintain the fixed voltage independent of the load resistance or the output current. However, a real-
world voltage source cannot supply unlimited current. A voltage source is the dual of a current source.
Open-circuit voltage (abbreviated as OCV or VOC ) is the difference of electrical potential between two
terminals of a device when disconnected from any circuit. There is no external load connected. No external
electric current flows between the terminals.

Terminal voltage is the voltage output of a device is measured across its terminals. Terminal voltage is

calculated by V = emf - Ir.

Internal resistance usually means the electrical resistance inside batteries and power supplies that can limit
the potential difference that can be supplied to an external load. With an external resistance of 0.001 Ohms,
you have basically a short circuit.
Example: 1 The potential difference across the cell when no current flows through the circuit is 3 V. When
the current I = 0.37 Ampere is flowing, the terminal potential difference falls to 2.8 Volts. Determine the
internal resistance (r) of the cell?
Solution:
e = V + Ir
Or, e – V = Ir
Or, (e – V)/I = r
Therefore, r = (3.0 – 2.8)/0.37 = 0.54 Ohm.
Due to the Internal Resistance of the cell, the electrons moving through the cell turns some of the electrical
energy to heat energy. Therefore, the potential difference available to the rest of the circuit is:
V = E (EMF of cell) – Ir (the p.d. across the internal resistor)

Electrical energy defines the energy generated due to the movement of charge carriers in a conductor.

While electrical power specifies the rate of consumption of electrical energy by a device. The SI unit of
electrical energy is Joules. But electrical power is measured in Watts (or KWh).

A Joule is a Watt per Seconds. Watts are units of Power, whereas Joules are units of Energy. Power is

Energy in accordance to time: P = E/t . So One Watt of Power is equal to one Joule per second.

D.C. CIRCUIT THEOREMS

Kirchhoff’s laws state:

(a) Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

At any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing towards that junction is equal to the
total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. ⅀I =0
(current entering a junction is equal to current leaving the junction)
 Illustration of KCL

(b) Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e. products of current and
resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in that loop.
Thus, referring to the diagram: E1−E2=IR1+ IR2+IR3
(Note that if current flows away from the positive terminal of a source, that source is considered by
convention to be positive. Thus moving anticlockwise around the loop of the diagram, E1 is positive
and E2 is negative.)

Problem 1. (a) Find the unknown currents marked in the diagram (a) and (b) below. Determine the value of
e.m.f. E
Detailed Example on KVL and KCL

Problem

Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the currents flowing in each branch of the network shown in Figure 13.4

Fig 13.4

Procedure
Fig 13.5
Fig 13.6
The superposition theorem states:

‘In any network made up of linear resistances and containing more than one source of e.m.f., the resultant
current flowing in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would flow in that branch if each
source was considered separately, all other sources being replaced at that time by their respective internal
resistances.’

NB

Ifwe are to consider the effects of each source, the other sources obviously must be removed. Setting a
voltage source to zero volts is like placing a short circuit across its terminals. Therefore,

when removing a voltage source from a network schematic, replace it with a direct connection (short
circuit) of zero ohms. Any internal resistance associated with the source must remain in the network.

Setting a current source to zero amperes is like replacing it with an open circuit. Therefore,

when removing a current source from a network schematic, replace it by an open circuit of infinite ohms.
Any internal resistance associated with the source must remain in the network.
 Removing a voltage source and a current source to permit the application of the superposition theorem

 Since the effect of each source will be determined independently, the number of networks to be
analyzed will equal the number of sources.

 If a particular current of a network is to be determined, the contribution to that current must be

determined for each source. When the effect of each source has been determined, those currents in
the same direction are added, and those having the opposite direction are subtracted; the
algebraic sum is being determined. The total result is the direction of the larger sum and the
magnitude of the difference.
 Similarly, if a particular voltage of a network is to be determined, the contribution to that voltage
must be determined for each source. When the effect of each source has been determined, those
voltages with the same polarity are added, and those with the opposite polarity are subtracted; the
algebraic sum is being determined. The total result has the polarity of the larger sum and the
magnitude of the difference.

Question

The circuit in fig 13.11containing two sources of e.m.f., each with their internal resistance. Determine the
current in each branch of the network by using the superposition theorem.

Fig 13.11
Procedure

Fig 13.12
Fig 13.13

Fug 13.14
Questtion

For the circuit shown in Figure 13.16, find, using the superposition theorem,
(a) the current flowing in and the pd across the 18 Ω resistor,
(b) the current in the 8 V battery
(c) the current in the 3 V battery.
General DC Circuit Theory

The following points involving dc circuit analysis need to be appreciated before proceeding with problems
using Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems:

Fig 13.20

Fig 13.21
Fig 13.22

Fig 13.23

Fig 13.24
 Fig 13.26

THÉVENIN’S THEOREM

Thévenin’s theorem states:

‘The current in any branch of a network is that which would result if an emf equal to the p.d. across a break
made in the branch, were introduced into the branch, all other emf’s being removed and represented by the
internal resistances of the sources.’

OR

Any two-terminal dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting solely of a voltage source
and a series resistor as shown in fig 9.23

Fig 9.23 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Thévenin’s Theorem Procedure

1. Remove that portion of the network where the Thévenin equivalent circuit is found, this requires that the
load resistor R L be temporarily removed from the network.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of this step will become
obvious as we progress through some complex networks.)

RTH :

3. Calculate RTH by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short circuits, and
current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals.
(If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original network, it must
remain when the sources are set to zero.)
ETH :

4. Calculate ETH by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-circuit voltage
between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one that causes most confusion and errors. In all
cases, keep in mind that it is the open circuit potential between the two terminals marked in step 2.)

Conclusion:

5. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced between
the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the placement of the resistor R L between the
terminals of the Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Question

Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current flowing in the 10Ω resistor for the circuit shown in Figure
13.28(a).

Fig 13.28

Solution

Following the above procedure:

(i) The 10Ω resistance (load) is removed from the circuit as shown in Figure 13.28(b) and the
terminals where the load is removed are labelled (AB)

Fig 13.28

Determining Eth
(iii) Removing the source emf by replacing it with a short circuit gives the circuit shown in
Fig 13.28 (c)

13.28

Determine the resistance looking into the circuit ( Rth)

NB: There is no particular order in determining Rth and Eth , you can start determining one or
the other

Final step: Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and connect the load resistor

Fig 13.28 (d)

 Question

For the network shown in Figure 13.29(a) determine the current in the 0.8Ω resistor using Thevenin’s
theorem.

Fig 13.29

Solution

Current (I) through the 0.8Ω resistor is 1.5 A

Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s theorem states:

‘The current that flows in any branch of a network is the same as that which would flow in the branch if it
were connected across a source of electrical energy, the short-circuit current of which is equal to the current
that would flow in a short-circuit across the branch, and the internal resistance of which is equal to the
resistance which appears across the open-circuited branch terminals.’

Or

Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source and a parallel resistor, as shown in Fig. 9.59.

Fig 9.59 Norton’s equivalent circuit

NB: Norton’s current ( I N ) is also referred to as short circuit current ( I SC )

The procedure adopted when using Norton’s Theorem :

1. Remove that portion of the network (branch that contains the load) across which the Norton
equivalent circuit is found and mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.

R N:
2. Calculate R N by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and
current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked
terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original
network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.)

I N /I SC

3. Calculate I N by first returning all sources to their original position and then finding the short-circuit
current between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be measured by an ammeter
placed between the marked terminals.

Conclusion:

4. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced
between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. Determine the current I flowing in resistance R
(where R is the total resistance of the branch containing the load) from the Norton equivalent
network shown in:

RN
I= ( ) I
R N+ R N

NB: There is no particular order in which to determine either I N or R N , the goal is to determine
both at the end.

Example

Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current flowing in the 10Ω resistance for the circuit shown in
Figure 13.34(a).

Fig 13.34
Solution

Fig 13.34

Since the short circuit (having a resistance of 0 Ω) is in parallel with the 8 Ω resistor, their total resistance is
0Ω as shown in fig c below.

Fig 13.34
 Fig 13.34

Question

Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current I flowing in the 4Ω resistance shown in Figure 13.35(a).

Fig 13.35

Thevenin and Norton equivalent networks (Source Conversion)

The Thevenin and Norton networks shown in Figure 13.38 are equivalent to each other. The resistance
‘looking-in’ at terminals AB is the same in each of the networks, i.e. r. If terminals AB in Figure 13.38(a)
are short-circuited, the short-circuit current is given by E/r. If terminals AB in Figure 13.38(b) are short
circuited, the short-circuit current is I sc. For the circuit shown in Figure 13.38(a) to be equivalent to the
circuit in Figure 13.38(b) the same short-circuit current must flow. Thus I sc = E/r.

Fig 13.38
Figure 13.39 shows a source of e.m.f. E in series with a resistance r feeding a load resistance R.

Examples

1. Convert the circuit shown in Figure 13.41 to an equivalent Norton network.

Solution

2. Convert the network shown in Figure 13.43 to an equivalent Thevenin circuit.

Solution
Questions

1. (a) Convert the circuit to the left of terminals AB in Figure 13.45(a) to an equivalent Thevenin circuit
by initially converting to a Norton equivalent circuit. (b) Determine the current flowing in the 1.8Ω
resistor

Fig 13.45

Ans: current in 1.8Ω resistor is 6.4A

2. Determine by successive conversions between Thevenin and Norton equivalent networks a Thevenin
equivalent circuit for terminals AB of Figure 13.46(a). Hence determine the current flowing in the
200Ω resistance.
 Fig 13.46

Ans: current flowing through the 200Ω resistor is 3.9mA

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

It states that:

‘The power transferred from a supply source to a load is at its maximum when the resistance of the load is
equal to the internal resistance of the source.’

Or

A load will receive maximum power from a network when its resistance is exactly equal to the Thévenin
resistance of the network applied to the load.

R L = RTh

Hence, in Figure 13.47, when R = r the power transferred from the source to the load is a maximum.
Illustration of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The circuit diagram of Figure 13.48 shows dry cells of source e.m.f. 6 V, and internal resistance 2.5Ω. If the
load resistance R L is varied from 0 to 5Ω in 0.5Ω steps, calculate the power dissipated by the load in each
case. Plot a graph of R L (horizontally) against power (vertically) and determine the maximum power
dissipated.
Questions

1. A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage of 30 V and an internal resistance of 1.5 Ω. State the value
of load resistance that gives maximum power dissipation and determine the value of this power.

Solution

2. Find the value of the load resistor R L shown in Figure 13.51(a) that gives maximum power
dissipation and determine the value of this power.

Ans: R L = 36/15 Ω and power is 15W