Waddell Aryan Origin of Alphabet

WWW.
RESI
STANCE2010.
COM
The Aryan Origin of the Alphabet, Waddell
THE ARYAN ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET:
DISCLOSING THE SUMERO PHOENICIAN PARENTAGE OF OUR LETTERS

ANCIENT AND MODERN
by
L. Austine Waddell
LL.D., C.B., C.I.E.
Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute,
Liaison and Folk-Lore Societies, Honorary
Correspondt. Indian Archaeological Survey,
Ex-Professor of Tibetan, London
University
With Plates and Illustrations
Etext prepared by Susan Pixley <nymormon@yahoo.com>
Electronic manuscript © 2008 Cumorah Foundation. www.cumorah.com.

All rights reserved.
1
The Aryan Origin of the Alphabet
List of Illustrations
I. Sumer-Aryan Evolution of the Alphabet A-N
II. Sumer-Aryan Evolution of the Alphabet O-Z
Figures in Text
1. The Formello Alphabet or ABC of about seventh century BC
2. Scientific order of Alphabetic Letters (as on a "Horn-book" board)
Abbreviations for References
Introductory
1. Ancestry of the Alphabets re The Phoenicians
2. Alphabetic Letters in Pre-Dynastic and Early-Dynastic Egypt and Theories

Thereon
3. How the Sumerian Origin of the Alphabet was Discovered
4. The Alphabetic Vowel and Consonantal Signs in Sumerian Writing
5. The So-Called "Aphonic Owner's Mark" Signs of Pre-Dynastic and Early-Dynastic

Egypt are Sumerian Linear Pictograms
6. Comparative Alphabetic Tables Showing Sumerian Origin and Evolution of the

Alphabetic Letters
7. Individual Letters and Their Evolution from Sumerian Parents
8. Names of the Letters and Objects Pictured
9. Order of the Alphabet or ABC and Numeral Values of Letters
10. Authorship of the Alphabetic System and Date
11. Some Historical Effects of the Discoveries.
Index
2
ABBREVIATIONS FOR REFERENCES
AC. Archæologia Cambrensis. 1846.

BB. Bismya, The Lost City of Adab. E. J. Banks, New York, 1912.
BC. Antiquities of Cornwall. W. Borlase, 1769.
BD. An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary. E. A. W. Budge, 1920.
BIP. Indische Paleographie. G. Bühler, Strassburg, 1896.
BO. Ogam Inscribed Monuments. R. R. Brash, 1879.
Br. Classified List of Ideographs. R. E. Brünnow, Leiden, 1889.
BW. Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing. G. A. Barton, Leipzig, 1913.
CA. The Alphabet. E. Clodd, 1913.
CAH. Cambridge Ancient History. 1923 f.
CCT. Cuneiform Texts from Cappadocia in British Museum. 1921, etc.
CIS. Corpus Inscript. Semiticarum. Paris, 1883 f.
CMC. Mission en Cappadoce. E. Chantre, Paris, 1898.
CT. Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, etc., in British Museum.
ECB. Ancient British Coins. J. Evans, 1864.
Edda. Codex Regius af den Ældre Edda. L. F. A. Wimmer and F. Jönason,
Copenhage, 1891.
FBT. Boghazköi Texts in umschrift ii. E. Forrer, Leipzig, 1922.
GH. Hieroglyphs. F. L. Griffith, 1898.
GP. Scripturae linguæque Phœniciae Monuments. Leipzig, 1857.
HB. Boghazköi Studien. F. Hrozny and others, 1922.
HGI. Catalogue of Greek Coins in British Museum. Ionia. B. H. Head, 1892.
HGP. Catalogue of Greek Coins in British Museum. Phœnicia, G. F. Hill, 1910.
HN. Index of Hittite Names. L. Mayer and J. Garstang, 1923.
HOB. Old Babylonian Inscriptions. H. V. Hilpecht, 1890.
KID. Inscriptions of Darius at Behistun. L. W. King, 1907.
LE. Études Accadiennes. F. Lenormant, Paris, 1873-9.
M. Seitene assyrische Ideogramme. B. Meissner, Leipzig, 1906.
MD. Dictionary of the Assyrian Language. W. Muss-Arnolt, Berlin, 1905.
MG. Elementary Egyptian Grammar. M. A. Murray, 1914.
PA. The Formation of the Alphabet. W. F. Petrie, 1912.
PL. Sign-List of Babylonian Wedge-Writing. T. G. Pinches, 1882.
PP. History of Art in Phrygia. G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, 1892.
PRT. The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty. W. F. Petrie, 1900-1.
PSL. Sumerian Lexicon. J. D. Prince, Leipzig, 1908.
RB. Early Babylonian History. H. Radau, New York, 1900.
RM. Mémoire sur l'origine Egyptienne de l'alphabet Phénicien. J. de Rougé, Paris,
1874.
RP. History of Phœnicia. G. Rawlinson, 1889.
SKI. Karian Inscriptions. A. H. Sayce (in Trans. Soc. Biblical Archæology, 1893.
112 f.)
SR. Runic Monuments. G. Stephens, 1884.
TA. The Alphabet. I. Taylor, 1883.
TBA. Transact. Soc. Biblical Archæology.
3
VD. Icelandic Dictionary. G. Vigfuseon, 1874.

WBT. The Buddhism of Tibet. L. A. Waddell, 1895.
WISD. Indo-Sumerian Seals Deciphered. L. A. Waddell, 1925.
WPOB. Phœnician Origin of the Britons, Scots and Anglo-Saxons. 1924.
WSAD. Sumer-Aryan Dictionary: Etymological Lexicon of the English and other Aryan
Languages ancient and modern and the Sumerian Origin of Egyptian and its
Hieroglyphs. 1927.
4
THE ARYAN ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET
"Numbers, too, I taught them and [Writing --] how By marshalled signs to
fix their shifting thoughts." -- Prometheus Bound: Æschylus, trans. by J.
S. Blackie.
"The two greatest inventios of the human mind are Writing and Money --
the common language of intelligence and the common language of self-
interest." -- Mirabeau.
The invention of the Alphabet is generally admitted to be one of the very greatest
scientific human achievements. It enables civilized men by an easy system of some
twenty-four or so sound-signs or letters to rapidly express and register their thoughts
and speak through time and space, conduct their everyday business by registers and
correspondence, and chronicle their experience for the use of future generations by
permanent records. And amongst other things, in association with movable type and
the telegraph, which is also based upon a conventional form of the Alphabet, it has
made possible that living marvel of the modern world, the newspaper, "the beating heart
of civilization," which gives the news of the world as a diary of the human race.
Hitherto, the origin of our Alphabet, the objects represented by its signs or letters
and its authors have remained unknown, although the subject of many diverse
conjectures. Nevertheless, its authors have been assumed to be Semites by all modern
writers, the one mechanically repeating the other. This is partly because Greek tradition
ascribed the introduction of the Alphabet and Writing to the Phœnicians under King
Cadmus of Tyre, a people who have latterly been regarded by modern writers, but not
by the Greeks, as Semites -- though wrongly so, as we have seen by the new evidence;
and partly because the earliest hitherto published specimens of systematic alphabetic
writing which can be read and approximately dated have been in the retrograde form of
the Phœnician alphabet and in a Semitic dialect, which was often used in Semitic
communities by the later Phœnician kings and merchants, who are thus assumed to
have been Semites themselves. And this assumed Semitic racial character of the
Phœnicians is persisted in notwithstanding the fact that the Phœnicians were called by
the Hebrews "Sons of Ham," and not "Sons of Shem" or Semites, and thus were
regarded by the Hebrews or Semites themselves as Non-Semites.[1]
[1] See my article "Sumerians as Phœnicians and Canaanites" in Asiastic Review, April
1926, 300 f.
The Aryan racial nature of the Phœnicians has been dealt with in my former
works, and is further confirmed in the following pages.
5
I.
ANCESTRY OF THE ALPHABETS re THE PHŒNICINS
The vast majority, if not all, of the alphabets of the world are generally regarded
as descended from one, the oldest known, "The Phœnician," which, in its non-reversed
form the "Cadmean Phœnician,"[1] is the immediate parent of our modern English and
European alphabet. The name "Cadmeian"[2] was applied to it by the early Greeks
after its introducer, King Cadmus the Phœnician of Tyre. The number of apparently
disconnected alphabets has been steadily reduced by modern discovery and research,
and the further evidence elicited in this volume and in my Sumer-Aryan Dictionary,
disclosing the Sumero- Phœnician origin of the Egyptian hieroglyphs and alphabet, still
further reduces them.
[1] For early reversed Cadmean, see later on.

[2] Kadméie grammeia.
The earliest-known instances of reversed or "Semitic" (or rather, according to the

Hebrew nomenclature, Hamitic) Phœnician alphabetic writing until a year ago dated,
with the exception of the reversed Cadmean in the Isle of Thera in theÆgean, no earlier
than the Moabite Stone written in the Moabite "Semitic" language, and a bowl inscribed
to the god Bel or Baal of Lebanon in Phœnicia, both of the ninth century BC, and an
inscribed sarcophagus of Ahiram from the old Phœnician seaport capital of Byblos or
Gebal in Phœnicia, and supposed to be of the tenth century BC. And it was universally
assumed that the Phœnicians themselves dated no earlier than "about 1000 BC." In
1925, however, writing of the same type was found on the bust of a statue from Byblos,
which Professor Dussaud believes may be dated on palæographic grounds to "about
the thirteenth century BC."[1] And this is supposed to confirm the "Semitic" theory of
the origin of alphabetic writing. The recent discovery of a Phœniciod script on tablets,
bricks, etc., unearthed at a neolithic site at Glozel, twelve miles from Vichy in the Loire
Valley[2] does not as yet help us much as the inscriptions are still unread; and while
Professor Elliot Smith dates the neolithic remains there to about 2000 BC, several
savants believe the inscribed tablets are of a very much later date, and possibly Early
Roman.
[1] Revue, Syria, 1925, 101 f.

[2] A. Morlet and Emile Fradin, Nouvelle Station Neolithique. Three pamphlets 1926,
summarized in Illustrated London News, October 23, 1926.
On the other hand, I have found on a "prehistoric" monument in Ireland

inscriptions by Brito-Phœnician kings from Brutus downwards in retrograde Phœnician
alphabetic writing quite as archaic as on the Byblos statue and associated with
contemporary Cadmean or non-retrograde Phœnician script (see Plates, column 17),
which can be positively dated to before 1075 BC, as described in detail in my
forthcoming work on "Menes, the First of the Pharaohs," which also proves conclusively
6
that Menes was an Aryan Phœnician, and identical with Manis-tusu, Emperor of
Mesopotamia, and that his father Sargon was a "Pre-dynastic" king of Egypt.
7
II.
ALPHABETIC LETTERS IN PRE-DYNASTIC AND EARLY-DYNASTIC EGYPT

AND THEORIES THEREON
But fully-fledged "Phœnician" alphabetic letters of a period much earlier than

these, and supposed to be several thousand years earlier than the "Semitic" and
Cadmean Phœnician are found in Egypt, "The Land of Ham," with which the Hebrews
so intimately associated the Phœnicians. Professor (now Sir Flinders) Petrie about
twenty-six years ago unearthed at the royal tombs of Menes and his First Dynasty at
Abydos in Upper Egypt the fully-formed letters of the complete Phœnician alphabet
mostly in the Aryan or non-reversed Cadmean Phœnician style (see Plates I and II), cut
upon Pre-dynastic and Early-dynastic baked pottery.[1] They were all, with a few
exceptions, isolated letters and did not form continuous writing, and hence were
supposed to be merely conventional "owner's marks" or "signaries" like masons' marks.
But now they appear to have been presumably the names of the owners or makers in
syllabic form, in view of our discovery that Menes and some, if not all, of the Pre-
dynastic kings were Sumero-Phœnicians and Aryans in race,[2] and that the alphabetic
letters are derived from Sumerian "syllabic" writing.
[1] PA. Pl. II-IV.

[2] These alphabetic marks in the Pre-dynastic period "were all marked by the owner,
being cut into the finished (baked?) pot ... It is seldom that two signs are found together
... The First Dynasty signs are also cut in pottery, but more firmly and sometimes mixed
with regular hieroglyphs. Groups of two or three signs are not uncommon." PA. 10.
Besides these early alphabetic letters in Early Egypt, it had long been known that
the Ancient Egyptians from the First Dynasty onwards used many of their hieroglyphs
as alphabetic letters in their mixed syllabic and alphabetic system of writing. On this
account, attempts were made to ascertain whether the Phœnician alphabet and letters
were derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs either directly or from their later cursive and
abbreviated from, the "hieratic," so-called from its use by the priests for writing on
papyrus sheets with a pen.
But the hieroglyphs used by the Egyptians to represent consonantal sounds were
very numerous. Each individual consonant was represented by a great variety of
different hieroglyphs, often a dozen or more of those which happened to contain that
particular consonant as its initial sound in the syllabic word of the hieroglyph. Yet, with
all this varied number of hieroglyphs and their hieratic forms to select from in support of
the theory of an Egyptian origin for the alphabetic letters, the results were held by
Professor Lagarde and others to be unconvincing. M. E. de Rougé, the chief advocate
of that theory, selected those signs favouring his hypothesis and constructed a table[1]
in which he represented the letter A as derived from the Eagle hieroglyph, B from the
Crane, C from the Throne, D from the Hand, E from the "Meander" and so on. Some of
the superficial resemblances appeared plausible, but practically all of the alleged
resemblances were deemed insufficient or accidental. Sir Flinders Petrie observed that
8
"only two out of twenty-two letters were satisfactorily accounted for,"[2] and that the fact
of the alphabetic letters being found in Pre-dynastic Egypt "long before the hieroglyphic
system in Egypt, removed the last refuge of those writers who would see in them only a
fresh type of cursive (Egyptian) hieroglyphics."[3] Nor were the attempts to trace the
origin of the alphabet to the cuneiform writing of Babylonia by M. de Morgan, Delitzsch
and others any more successful. So futile, indeed, seemed to be the efforts to trace this
origin to Egypt and Mesopotamia, that the writer on "The Alphabet" in the eighth edition
of The Encyclopœdia Britannica published in 1853 declared in despair that "we must
admit that it (the Alphabet) was not human, but a divine invention."
[1] Acad. des Inscript. Comptes rendus., 1859. RM. 1874; and see TA. I, 99 and CA.
143.
[2] The Plates now show only one.
[3] PA. 1-2.
As a result of these failures and of his discovery of the alphabetic letters in Early
Egypt before the use of Egyptian hieroglyph writing, and of a further comparative survey
in other Mediterranean areas, Sir Flinders Petrie has formulated the theory that the
Alphabetic Signs or Letters were not derived from any picture or hieroglyph writing, but
were older than picture writing, that the alphabet with its letters was "not a systematic
alphabet invented by a single tribe or individual in a developed civilization; on the
contrary a wide body of signs had been gradually brought into use in primitive times for
various purposes [as conventional owner's marks or trade-marks]; these were
interchanged by trade and spread from land to land until the less-known and less-useful
signs were ousted by those in more general acceptance; lastly, a couple of dozen signs
triumphed and thus formed the Alphabet; that the Alphabetic stage of signs was
probably not reached till about 1000 BC, and that in particular it was not originated by
the Phœnicians nor derived from the Phœnician Alphabet, but arose "in North Syria."
And he bases his argument for the priority of signs over picture-writing largely on the
assumption that a child draws signs before it draws good pictures.[1]
[1] Ib., 21.
Here it will be noticed amongst other things, that Sir Flinders Petrie's theory
offers no intelligible explanation of the peculiar forms of these alphabetic signs, nor how
they came to have the definitely fixed vowel and consonantal values attached to them
universally by their users. Moreover, by "Phœnicians" he merely means the late
Semitized Phœnicians of the Syrian province of Phœnicia. "Phœnician alphabet" is
restricted to the late retrograde Phœnician of twenty-two reversed letters, and excludes
the earlier Cadmean Phœnician of which type of Early Egyptian alphabetic signs and
letters almost exclusively consist. While denying the Phœnician origin of the alphabet,
he, nevertheless, concludes that it rose "in North Syria," that is an area including, as
shown in the detailed accompanying map, a considerable portion of the Province of
Phœnicia and old Phœnician cities. And the statement that a child draws signs before it
draws pictures is not in keeping with the general opinion, which credits the child with
trying to draw pictures, however imperfectly it may succeed.
9
Commenting on Professor Petrie's theory Mr. Clodd, in his excellent booklet on

the Alphabet, considers "the question cannot be regarded as definitely settled; mayhap
settlement may never be reached."[1]
[1] CA. 3.
10
III.
HOW THE SUMERIAN ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET WAS DISCOVERED
On finding, by my new Aryan keys, that the Phœnicians were "Sumerians," and
the leading seafaring branch of the Early Aryans, and that the Early "Sumerian" dynasty
of Uruas'-the-Khad ("Ur Nina") was the First Dynasty of the Phœnicians in the fourth
millennium BC, as detailed in my previous works, and that the Sumerian Language was
radically Aryan in its vocabulary and structure and was disclosed as the parent of the
English and of all the Aryan Family of Languages, ancient and modern, including also
the Ancient Egyptian, as shown in my Sumer-Aryan Dictionary and former works, I then
observed, many years ago, that most of the alphabetic Cadmean Phœnician letters, as
well as the late retrograde Phœnician letters were of substantially the same form as the
Suemrian linear pictographs bearing the corresponding simple vowel and simple
consonanial phonetic values or sounds (see Plates I-II).
Further detailed examination fully confirmed this observation and disclosed that
our Alphabetic Letters, and all the chief Alphabets, ancient and modern, together with
their sound-values, had their parent in the Sumerian picture-writing, as announced in
my recent works and now detailed in the following pages.
11
IV.
THE ALPHABETIC VOWEL AND CONSONTAL SIGNS IN SUMERIAN WRITING
When the Sumerian vowel and syllabic pictograms or word-signs are arranged in
alphabetic order according to their universally recognized phonetic values in "roman"
letters, as in the "Sumerian Lexicon" of Prince, in the vocabularies of Langdon and
Gadd and in my Sumer-Aryan Dictionary -- the other Sumerian dictionaries and
glossaries in "roman" transliteration being all arranged characteristically by their
Assyriologist compilers in the order of the Hebrew alphabet, apparently on the
antiquated notion that all languages were somehow derived from the Hebrew, that
supposedly "primordial speech" of the Garden of Eden -- it is seen that they all fall
within our alphabetic system and form a complete alphabetic series from A to Z (see
cols. in Plates I-II), with the exception of the four late and ambiguous letters in our
alphabet and the aspirated S. These four late ambiguous letters are the redundant C,
also absent in Phœnician and representing phonetically both K and S, although deriving
its form from G; J with the sound of Gi or a soft G, a consonantal differentiation from I
and sounded Y in Teutonic; V a late labial with the consonantal value of F and used in
Latin script as the equivalent of U, of which it is regarded as a consonantal form; and Y
supposed to be introduced by later Greeks as an equivalent for U, and therefore
properly a vowel, and in English confused with I. The letters F and O we shall see by
the new analysis appear to be represented in Sumerian, although not previously
remarked.
In the Sumerian writing, it will be seen from column I of the Tables (pp. 14 and
54) that the simplest vowel and syllabic word-signs under each letter-value in this
alphabetic catalogue consist of single vowels, and single consonants, each followed by
a vowel that is absolutely necessary to sound the consonant. And it is from these
simple consonantal signs, wherein the consonant is followed by a vowel, that the
alphabetic consonant letters are found to be derived. This latter feature now explains
for the first time the inherent suffixed vowel in every consonant in the Semitic
Phœnician, Hebrew, Sanskrit and other allied Indo-Aryan alphabets, in that it was a
feature of their parent script, the Sumerian. Thus, for example, the Sanskrit script writes
the Aryan clan-title of Barat (or "Brit-on") as B'RT, just as the later Phœnicians wrote it
PRT,[1] the short suffixed a being inherent in every consonant.
[1] WPOB. 53, in series with the ancient Greek spelling of Britain as "Pretan," WPOB.
146 f. But later Phœnicians spelt the name of "Britannia" with the long ā, as Bārāt,
WPOB. 9.
These vowel and simple syllabic word-signs in Sumerian, now seen to be the
parents of our alphabetic letters, read according to their transliteration into "roman"
letters, as universally accepted by Assyriologists,[1] as follows: A or Ā, Ba or Bi, Da or
Du, E or Ē, Fi, Ga, Ha or Kha, I, Ka (or Kat), La, and so on to Z or Za, as seen in the
Tables (Plates I and II).
12
[1] Except Fi hitherto read Pi, and Ka hitherto read Qa through its Semitic equivalent.
13
V.
THE SO-CALLED "APHONIC OWNER'S MARK" SIGNS OF PRE-DYNASTIC AND

EARLY-DYNASTIC EGYPT ARE SUMERIAN LINEAR PICTOGRAMS
Before examining the details of our comparative tables of the alphabets with their
Sumerian pictogram parents, it is interesting to find in Egypt itself additional proof for the
Sumerian origin of the alphabetic letters of Pre-dynastic Egypt.
One of the chief arguments used for Professor Petrie's theory that the alphabetic
signs preceded and were in nowise related to or derived from pictogram or picture
writing is that these alphabetic signs were associated in Pre-dynastic and Early-
Dynastic Egypt with other contemporary signs or "owner's marks" on pottery which, as
they did not resemble the alphabetic signs, were termed "aphonic," in the belief that
they represented no sounds or words whatsoever.
On examining, however, the list of these "Aphonic Owner's mark" signs in

Professor Petrie's Table V, I observed that most if not all of these signs were clearly
rough linear Sumerian syllabic pictograms of the Sargonic or Pre-Sargonic period. Thus
the first line of these supposed "aphonic" signs is seen to contain rough forms of the
Sumerian pictogram for S'a (seed, or cereal, BW. 323) and Gi or Gin (cane, BW. 92 and
Sumer-Aryan Dict., Plate III) -- different signs being sometimes classed together in this
"Aphonic" table. The 2nd line has Garza (cross or sceptre of the lord, BW. 251 and
WPOB. 290, 294 f). In 3rd line Is' (wood, BW. 258) and Dan (lord, strong, BW. 279); 4th
line with variant in 7th line, Wa (pair of ears, BW. 339 and Plate II, p. 54); 5th line with
variant in next line, Uru (city, BW. 39) and Ad (father, 162); and so on -- the 9th and
10th lines having Garas (a mart, BW. 177), Ut (sunrise, BW. 337) and Ar (plough, see
Sumer-Aryan Dict., Plate I).
All these sound-values of those "aphonic" signs are common elements for the
front-names in ancient Sumerian personal names, indicating that these signs doubtless
recorded the abbreviated names of the owners of the pottery who, writing in Sumerian
script were presumably of Sumerian or Sumero-Phœnician extraction.
And as regards the Egyptian Hieroglyphs themselves, the concrete proofs for the
Sumerian origin of the chief cultural hieroglyphs, for the identity of their names or word-
values and the neo-archaic drawing of their Egyptian forms from Sumerian prototypes,
have already been given in my Dictionary, to which several others are now added in the
following Plates.
14
VI.
COMPARATIVE ALPHABETIC TABLES SHOWING SUMERIAN ORIGIN &

EVOLUTION OF THE ALPHABETIC LETTERS
The Alphabetic letters in the leading scripts ancient and modern are compared
with their Sumerian pictographic parents in the following Tables, Plates I and II, with the
letters in their modern alphabetic order, and discloses the evolution of the Alphabetic
letters. In comparing the forms of the letters or signs at different periods, it is to be
noted that a change of writing material exercises usually some change in the form of the
signs. Thus the writing with pen and ink or a brush on parchment, wood or pottery is
generally more curving and cursive than when the signs are cut on stone or pottery with
a chisel, when the curves tend to become straight lines, and circles tend to become
square or diamond or lozenge shaped. While on wet clay the signs impressed by dabs
with a style, to avoid tearing the clay, become wedge-shaped lines. Later there is the
further change or modification due to writing the letter as far as possible without lifting
the pen, by which E becomes E and e.
The order of the columns is generally that of relative age; but it has been deemed
desirable to separate the "Western or European" (cols. 13-21) from the "Eastern" (cols.
1-12). Sumerian as the parent comes first, followed by the Akkad (some early and
some later forms), this is succeeded by the Egyptian, Phœnician, Asia Minor, Old
Persian and Indian, followed by the European alphabets including the Brito-Phœnician
of the 11th BC to 4th BC "Roman" is not given, as that alphabet is seen to have been
used in Britian before the foundation of Rome. Nor are the so-called "Aramean"
alphabets of Semitic scholars exemplified. These are a miscellaneous category of more
or less slightly variant local forms of "Semitic" Phœnician found in Armenia, and in the
highlands of Mesopotamia, in Persia, etc., as "a commercial alphabet of Asia" from
about the seventh century BC onwards. From these were apparently derived eventually
the Arabic, Syria, Parsee, Hebrew and Mongol scripts.
In column 1 of each plate are placed the Sumerian pictogram signs, vowel and
consonantal, in Mesopotamian writing from Barton's standard plates, which are the
fullest and latest on the subject. More than one scribal variant of the sign is given when
it illustrates variations in the form, and the references for all are duly cited from Barton.
The phonetic value or sound and ideographic meaning of each sign and object
represented are cited from the standard lists of Brünnow and Meissner. For fuller
references to these word-signs, see my Sumer-Aryan Dictionary.
Col. 2 contains the chief Akkad cuneiform shape of the respective signs, the
references for which are given under Barton in Col. 1.
Col. 3 contains the Egyptian equivalents of (a) the alphabetic signs in Pre-
dynastic and Early-Dynastic periods from Petrie's Formation of the Alphabet (Plates II-
IV), and (b) a few hieroglyphs which now appear to be correlated to these letters. But
15
only one of the Egyptian hieroglyphs supposed by M. de Rougé to be parents of our

letters now remains, namely F, and this is derived from the Sumerian.
Col. 4 contains early forms of the Phœnician letters in the Cadmean which are
properly the non-reversed alphabetic writing and in the squared form, practically
identical with our modern capital letters. They are from Thera Island in the Ægean,
which, according to the Cadmean legend was one of the earliest Phœnician colonies
established in the Ægean by Cadmus, son of the Phœnician King Agenor of Tyre,[1]
and uncle of King Minos of Crete,[2] and that colony had existed for eight generations
when the Dorians arrived. These inscriptions, found on ancient tombstones of
Phœnicians and Dorians at Thera are accounted, along with the retrograde inscriptions
there, "the oldest extant monuments of the alphabet of Greece"[3] -- Cadmean letters
being arbitrarily called "Grecian" by modern writers. And whilst the reversed Cadmean
writing there is believed to be earlier than the ninth century BC Moabite Stone (see col.
5), the non-reversed is generally assumed by Taylor and others to date no earlier than
about "the seventh century BC"; but in the light of our new evidence this inference does
not necessarily appear to follow. Yet, in view of the large proportion of the early
Cadmean inscriptions at Thera and at some other ancient sites being written in reversed
direction, it seems probable that Cadmus and his Phœnicians, like the Indo-Aryan
Emperor Asoka (see col. 11), occasionally wrote their inscriptions in reversed direction
at sites where the native subjects were Semites who were accustomed to the sinister
direction in the Moon-cult of their Mother-goddess, as opposed to the sun-wise right-
hand direction of the Aryan Solar-cult. And in the old Hittite hieroglyph inscriptions the
opening line is usually in reverse direction, from right to left.
[1] Herodotus, 2, 44 f; 4, 174 f; 5, 57 f.

[2] WPOB. 41 f; 161 f.
[3] TA. 2, 29.
It is also noteworthy that some of the Cadmus inscriptions at Thera, as at several

other ancient sites in Asia Minor are written in the direction of the Hittite hieroglyphs, the
so-called "Ox-plough-wise" (Boustrophedon) direction, that is to say the first line reads
from right to left, the second line continues below the end of the first line and reads from
left to right as in ordinary Aryan writing, and the third line reads as in the first and so on
in alternating direction, like the track of oxen in ploughing. The probable significance of
this Hittite feature is seen in regard to the authorship of the alphabet, see later.
Col. 5 has the reversed or retrograde tailed letters, the Hamitic, or so-called
"Semitic" Phœnician, or the Moabite Stone of the ninth century BC.[1] Similar letters
are found in inscriptions at old Phœnician sites in the Mediterranean basin from Gades
or Cadiz, Marseilles, Sardinia, Malta, Carthage, Cyprus, Cilicia to Phœnicia.
[1] And see TA. 1, 150, and HGP. cxlvii, for variants of retrograde Phœnician on Coins
of Phœnicia.
16
Col. 6 gives the Phrygian form of the Cadmean letters from "the tomb of Midas,"
usually dates to about the eighth or seventh century BC, but certainly much earlier. its
early date for an eastern alphabet is evidenced by the letter F and the early forms for U,
P, and G.[1]
[1] Cp. TA. 2, 109.
Col. 7 gives the Carian. The Carians or Karians were a famous seafaring people
and military mercenaries of western Asia Minor and occupied the greater part of Ionia
there before the arrival of the Greeks. They were presumably a colony of Phœnicians.
An ancient name for Caria was " Phœnice,"[1] which I have shown was a common
name for Phœnician colonies all over the Mediterranean.[2] Whilst the chief mountain
in Caria was names Mt. Phœnix.[3] The Tyrian Phœnicians assisted the Carians in
defending themselves against Greek invaders. Caria was in intimate confederate
relations with Carthage and Crete; and the Carians were allies of the Trojans in the
Great War (Iliad 2 867 f). The Cadmean alphabet of the later Phœnician colonies in
Iberia or Spain is generally identical with the Carian. The signs are after Sayce.
[1] CAH. 2, 27.

[2] WPOB. 39 f; 146 f., and see map facing p. 420.
[3] Strabo, 651.
Col. 8 gives the Cadmean letters carved by Carians, Ionians or Dorians on the
famous rock-cut temple of Rameses II at Abu Simbel, one of the "Wonders of the
World," near the second cataract of the Nile, from the facsimiles by Lepsius[1] and
dated to "about 650 BC."
[1] TA. 2, 11 f.
Col. 9 gives the Lydian form of the Cadmean. Lydia was the old middle state of
the Ægean border of Asia Minor, between the Trojan state of Mysia on the north and
Caria on the south. Its chief seaport was Smyrna with its rock-cut Hittite hieroglyphs
and Sumerian inscription,[1] and the western terminus of the old Hittite "royal road" of
the overland route to Babylonia. The Lydians who claimed descent from Hercules of
the Phœnicians were a sea-going merchant people, the first to coin gold and silver
money.[2] And their port of Phocaea held the tin-trade traffic with Cornwall in the fifth
century BC. They kept the light Babylonian talent of weight, whilst that at Phocaea was
based on the Phœnician. They are supposed to have held Troy after the Trojan War,[3]
and about that time they sent out a colony to N.W. Italy which founded there the state
called Etrusca or Tyrrene, the letters of which resemble in many ways those of Lydia,
but are mostly written reversed (see col. 15).
[1] WPOB, 238 f; 255 f.

[2] Herod, 1, 7, 94.
[3] Schliemann, Ilios, 587 f, and cp. Strabo, 582.
17
Col. 10. Old Persian or Achæmenian cuneiform alphabetic letters from the
Behistun edict of Darius-the-Great, which formed the chief key to the decipherment of
the Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform writing and the Sumerian.[1] This alphabet
contains besides the simple letters, now disclosed to be derived from the Sumerian
simple consonantal signs with the inherent suffixed short A, also consonantal signs with
suffixed i and u. Thus it has separate signs for Da, Di and Du, Ga or Gi and Gu, etc.;
and it has a sign read Tr. It is, therefore, partially syllabic in the modern sense.
Moreover, it is supposed to omit E, L and O. The letters generally exhibit also many
features of the Akkad, Cadmean and Indian forms, though disguised to some extent by
its wedge-style of writing.
[1] See WSAD. xv. f. The values of these Old Persian Alphabetic signs are taken from
KID. 1 f; and see BD. cli.
Col. 11. Early Indian of the Emperor Asoka, about 250 BC,[1] for comparison
with the Sumero-Phœnician and Old Persian cuneiform, with which latter its relationship
is disclosed, though disguised somewhat by the cuneiform style of writing. It is
arranged in our alphabetic order. The new evidence indicates that some of the
conjectural readings of Indian palæographs require revision. And it is highly significant
that Asoka, and Aryan and Non-Semite, like the ruling Phœnicians also wrote his edicts
in reversed or "Semitic" style in the areas peopled by Semitic or "Hamitic" subjects.
[1] After BIP. Pl. 2.
Col. 12. Modern Hindi or "Nagari," in which the top stroke is omitted for
comparative purposes, as it is merely a late conventional way of joining the letters
forming one word. The Tibetan writing, which was derived from India in seventh century
AD, along with its Buddhism preserves several of the archaic Sumerian features to a
greater degree than the modern Hindi.[1]
[1] WBT. 22, 149.
Col. 13. This commences the Western or European group of alphabets with the
earliest Greek inscribed letters of Athens of 409 BC although the Greek is later than
several of the following columns, Etruscan, etc.[1]
[1] There are Greek inscriptions slightly earlier at Ellis, c. 520 BC, and at Sparta, 476
BC, and cp. letters on coins in Head and Hill's Catalogues of Greek coins in British
Museum.
Col. 14. Etruscan or Tyrsēne from N.W. Italy of about the 11th to 5th century
BC.[1] This great sea-going people, a colony from Lydia shortly after the Trojan War (c.
1200 BC), were the highly civilized ruling race of Italy before the rise of the Romans.
They were called by the Greeks, after the name they appear to have called themselves,
Tyrren-oi, Turran-oi or Tyrsēn-oi, a name corrupted by the Romans into "Etrusci," and
their land is the modern Tuscany. They were separated by the Tiber from the sister
18
colony of Trojans in Latium, the traditional birthplace of Brutus-the-Trojan, the first king
of the Britons and the great grandson of Æneas, who settled there after the Fall of
Troy.[2] The "Etruscans" were allies of the Phœnicians of Carthage and wrote in the
Cadmean letters. One of their seaports was named "Punicum," and Lake Benacus the
modern Garda on the western border of the province of Venice (a name also a variant
of Phœnice) was the site of an "Etruscan" colony. And one of their early inscribed
vases of c. 718 BC is of Phœnician porcelain.[3]
[1] See under Col. 14.

[2] WPOB. 148 f; 163 f.
[3] Cp. CAH. 4, 393.
Col. 15. Iberian or Early Spanish Cadmean. This writing is found at Gades
(Cadiz) and other ancient Phœnician seaports and mining sites in Spain or Iberia. In N.
Spain the writing is usually in the ordinary Aryan, left to right direction with letters non-
reversed, whilst in S. Spain the writing and letters are usually in the reversed direction.
It is especially noticeable that the critical letter for I preserves generally its complex
archaic Sumerian form in the older inscriptions in both areas, and thus presumes a very
ancient date, probably about the twelfth or eleventh century BC. This Cadmean writing
continued there down to the Roman period when the letter I is given its modern form,
and such late inscriptions are often bilingual with Latin.
Col. 16. Brito-Phœnician cursive script of King Partolan-the-Scot, from the

Newton Stone of about 400 BC.[1]
[1] WPOB. 29 f and Pl. 1.
Col. 17. Brito-Phœnician Cadmean from the inscriptions of King Brutus, the
Trojan, the first king of the Britons, c. 1103-1080 BC and his descendants,[1] from the
prehistoric tomb on Knockmany, Tyrone, details of which are given in my volume on
"Menes the First of the Pharaohs."
[1] Ib., 386 f.
Col. 18. Runic letters of the Goths, British, Scandinavian and Eastern.[1] None
of the ancient monuments and objects on which this script is engraved are believed to
date earlier than the third century AD. The British or "Northumbrian" or "English" runes
appear to have comprised twenty-four letters. They are found from the Ruthwell Cross
in Dumfriesshire, of about the seventh century in the north, to the Isle of Wight in the
south. The Scandinavian runes are found on great numbers of monuments and on
weapons, etc., in Denmark (especially Jutland or Goth-land),[2] Sweden, Norway and
Iceland, also in the Orkneys, Isle of Man, and some other parts of England. The
number of letters tended to be reduced in the Scandinavian till only eighteen were left in
the so-called "Futhark" alphabet, but about the end of the tenth century four of the
dropped letters, G, E, D and P were restored by suffixing a dot to their cognate letters K,
19
I, T and D, the so-called "dotted runes." The Eastern runes are found chiefly in
Rumania and S.W. Russia or Scythia, the old Goth-land.
[1] After Taylor, Stephens and Vigfusson. The oldest forms are given.
[2] WPOB. 186, etc.
The latest English coins bearing Runic legends are found in East Anglica and
Northumbria in the eighth and ninth centuries AD. Runic inscriptions on British
monuments also cease about this period, when Christianity became widespread, and
the Christian clergy stigmatized the runes as "pagan" and "magical" and abhorrent to
Christianity, just as they tabooed the Ogam script of the Irish Scots. Runes continued in
Scandinavia for several centuries later, as Christianity was later in adoption there. And
in the remote fastnesses of Iceland, where Christianity was not introduced till the
eleventh century, were fortunately preserved the fragments of the great Gothic national
epic, The Eddas. The runic alphabet of Bishop Ulfilas of Cappadocia adapted for his
Christianized Goths in Greece and Byzantium contained several of the Greek letters
then current in those regions.
Col. 19. Ogam or "Tree-twig" linear sacred script of the early Scots of Ireland
and Scotland, dating to about 400 BC.[1] The forms and values of the signs and
traditionally named after Ogma, a title of the Phœnician Hercules and "The Sun-
Worshipper,"[2] are from Brash's classic work based on the Book of Ballymote. The
letters A, I, E, O, B, S and X of its limited alphabet are seen to possess essentially the
same number of strokes and relative forms as in the Sumerian.[3]
[1] WPOB. 30 f; 35 f.
[2] Ib., 37.
[3] Cp. Ib., 36.
Col. 20. Ancient Welsh letters in their "Bardic" form and from the Lantwit
Stone.[1]
[1] Ac 1, 471, Cawen-y-Beirdd, by W. Rees.
Col. 21. Modern "English" or European letter forms, the so-called "Roman"
letters, which, however, are now seen to have been current in Britain and the British
Isles several centuries before the rise of the Romans and the foundation of Rome; and
are thus more British than "Roman." The Gothic "Black Letters" are added, as their
flourishes and angles seem to preserve vestiges of the old cuneiform style of writing the
letters.
20
21
22
VII.
INDIVIDUAL LETTERS AND THEIR EVOLUTION FROM SUMERIAN PARENTS
The Sumerian parentage and evolution of the alphabetic letters, ancient and
modern, is thus disclosed and established by these tables. And it is seen that
notwithstanding their abbreviated form for rapidity in writing -- a for already attained in
Pre-dynastic and Early-Dynastic Egypt for popular and secular use -- most of the letters
even in our modern alphabet still retain the leading features of the object represented in
their ancestral Early Sumerian pictograms. Thus A has the features of a wavelet, as the
aquatic sign, B a mass in division or bi-sected, and so on.
The early Sumerians wrote their pictograms upright or vertically, but later in
Mesopotamia they turned them on their sides to the left hand of the writer, to face the
left, in their system of writing and reading from left to right in the Aryan fashion. This
accounts for some of the alphabetic letters in the "Phœnician" script being turned on
their left sides, such as the "Semitic Phœnician" A which is the Cadmean turned on its
left side (see Plate I), and similarly for the slanting of the ribs of the E, H, etc., in that
script.
The somewhat varying form of the letters in different local alphabets is obviously
due partly to local mannerisms or conventional writing analogous to the variant local
forms given to the Sumerian pictograms when reproduced in the more elaborate and
artistic Egyptian hieroglyphs and in the Sumerian hieroglyphs on the Indo-Sumerian
seals in the Indus Valley,[1] partly to differences in the writing material by pen and ink,
or brush, or wet clay or chiselled or cut on wood or stone, and partly to greater
abbreviation by writing without lifting the pen, as for example, E becoming e and I
becoming T.
[1] WISD., passim.
Let us now take up the alphabetic letters individually as regards their evolution:
A. This vowel letter in its fully-fledged modern capital form is already found cut
as an "owner's mark" repeatedly on Pre-dynastic and Early-Dynastic pottery in Egypt
(see Plate I, col. 3), and its one-legged form (seen to be the source of our small or
"miniscule" a) is also found there from the first Dynasty onwards.
This letter A is now disclosed to have its parent in the Sumerian Water-sign for A
or Ā, picturing two wavelets. These were represented in the earlier Sumerian writing by
two wavy lines or ripples (see Plate I, col. 1). Later, for more rapid and easy writing,
these wavy lines were written by two parallel strokes sometimes with a short stroke on
the middle of one of them or having the bottom one angular to represent the
curved line. When this angle in the consolidation of the sign pierces the top horizontal
line we get the form or A. We find all stages in the evolution of this letter from this
23
pair of strokes, straight and angular, in the "Semitic" Phœnician and Indian Asokan (see
cols. 6, 11 of Plate I), in both of which the form of the sign is based on the later
Sumerian style of turning the sign on its left side, which gives this "Semitic" Phœnician
letter the form of . .
The one-legged A, as , , in Early Egypt as well as often in Greek and Latin

is merely the result of more rapid writing of the letter without lifting the pen, and it
eventuated in the minuscule from a, in which the angle becomes a curve or loop.
The normal two-legged A is found in the Cadmean Phœnician and generally

throughout most of the alphabets. In the Gothic Runes, where this letter is significantly
called Āss or Asa, i.e., "the Lord" or "Ace" or The One[1] (presumably for the
commercial value of A for "One"), its common form consists of the two angular wavelet
lines, the one below the other and connected by a perpendicular in F fashion (see Plate
I, col. 18). in Ogam it is a single upright stroke I, presumably from its numerical value,
or with its base-line forms a cross.[2] In Old Persian where the letter is turned on its
side the three parallel wedges are preserved in the Hindi and seemingly also in the
Gothic black letter A. The Indian Asokan is derived from the lateral form of the late
Sumerian sign turned on its side, and it also exists in the reversed or retrograde form
(the so-called Kharoshithi script) in those inscriptions of the emperor Asoka intended for
Semitic-speaking subjects on the North-Western frontiers of his great Indian empire
where the letters are written in retrograde, but in the same Aryan language, just as the
Aryan Sumerians and Phœnicians wrote their "Akkad" inscriptions for Semitic
subjects.[3]
[1] Cp. VD. 2; and see WSAD. p. 19.

[2] And see WPOB. p. 30.
[3] Ib., 27.
The Ā in the Brito-Phœnician of Partolan like a shallow tailed U (col. 16)

resembles the corresponding sign in "Semitic," Phœnician derived obviously from the
Sumerian inverted crescent sign for A or Ā,[1] see under U; and the A or a retains this
form in the Syriac, Partolan having been born as he tells us in Syria-Cilicia.
[1] Cp. Br. 8631; BW. 365. It has also the vowel values of O and U, see O.
The absence of this Water pictogram for A in Egyptian hieroglyphs and in hieratic
writing is obviously owing to Water not having been ordinarily known by it Sumerian and
Aryan name of A or Ā to the natives of Egypt. Instead of the Water-sign for A the
Sumero-Phœnician rulers, who introduced writing there, employed for the vowel-sign Ā,
the Hand-sign which has in Sumerian also that same phonetic value and meaning as in
Egyptian.[1] And for the short vowel, where it is expressed, the Egyptian uses the
Eagle-sign which is called Akh in Sumerian and Akha (-mist) in Egyptian[2] -- for the so-
called "alphabetic" system in Egyptian consists, as we have seen, merely, as a rule, in
24
the use of a great variety of syllabic words of two or more consonants for the sake of the
initial portion of the syllabic name or sound.
[1] See WSAD. Pl. I and p. 2.

[2] Ib., Pl. I and p. 9. This name is also spelt in Egyptian with a long initial Ā, but the
Eagle-sign alphabetically has always the value of short A.
B. This labial letter in all the alphabets preserves clearly the form of that early
pictogram now disclosed as its Sumerian parent. This is the word-sign Ba or Bi
picturing a mass in division and meaning "broken" or "bi-sected" (see Plate I, col 1, and
cp. the other cols.).[1]
[1] And see WSAD. p. 23.
In Egyptian alphabetic "signaries" the form approaching that of the modern B is

found on twelfth Dynasty pottery. Before that period, on pre-dynastic pottery is found
the simpler square diagrammatic form of an upright bar with everted ends, which thus
corresponds to signs found in Crete, etc., and to the form of B or Ba in Old Persian
cuneiform, etc. (see Plate I, cols. 3, 10 and 18). In hieroglyphs this Sumerian sign is not
used for B as no word of that sound or initial with the meaning of "bi-sect" occurs in
Egyptian.
In Ogam or Tree-twig script with its simple strokes, its B sign as appears to
represent the same idea of division or bi-section. The Indian Asokan and Hinki also
preserve the form of a mass bi-sected, and this is especially well conserved in the
Runes and in the modern English B. The modern small or minuscule b or is
simplified and cursively looped for writing without lifting the pen.
C is a late redundant and ambiguous letter of the Roman period, deriving its form
from the Greek (or G), and standing ambiguously in its hard and soft variations for
both K and S. it does not exist in the more scientific phonetic signs of the Sumerian and
Phœnician, nor in the older Gothic Runes, which use K and S respectively for those
sounds. See further under G, K and S.
D. This dental letter in its Suemrian triangular form, which shape gave its later
trivial name of "Delta," is found in Egyptian "signaries" from the pre-dynastic period
downwards and in that shape in all the alphabets down to the Roman, and in its later
looped Cadmean form in the modern alphabets (see Plate I).
Its Sumerian parent is disclosed in two somewhat similar triangular pictograms,

namely (I) the Sumerian Da, Du, "a Wedge," picturing a wedge, and borrowed by the
Egyptians for their hieroglyph for their wedge-sign and its name of Da (see Plate I, cols.
1 and 4, and Sumer-Aryan Dict., Plate III and text), and (2) the Sumerian Du, Dun, "a
Hill or Dune," picturing a conical mound with three lines as the plural sign , which
thus discloses the Sumerian origin of the Egyptian neo-archaic hieroglyph of Du for
25
"Hill" with its picture of two hills .[1] This latter form is significantly preserved in the
double triangle for the letter D in the Runes (see Plate I, col. 18). it is presumably
owing to D being derived from the Sumerian Da, Du that in Spanish the letter is
pronounced Du.
[1] Cp. GH. 31, and BED. 869a.
This letter D does not appear to have arisen in the picture of a hand, as has been
suggested by Egyptologists, because Da is the hieroglyph for "Hand." That hieroglyph
Da "Hand" has been disclosed in the Sumer-Aryan Dictionary to be derived from the
Sumerian Da pictogram for "Hand,"[1] and the D letter-sign was until latterly a simple
triangle without any signs of fingers[2] or arm -- the tail only appears in the late "Semitic"
Phœnician when it had become the fashion to write many of the letters with flourishing
down-strokes from their right border.
[1] WSAD. Pl. III and text.

[2] The upright strokes in the Sumerian pictogram of Du, a hill, is the conventional
Sumerian method of shading to represent earth or solidity.
The free dialectic interchange of D with its fellow labial T in Sumerian and other
Aryan languages, and the further and later change of T dialectically sometimes into Th
is well illustrated by the changes which transformed the name of the first king of the
Goths and other Aryans, Dar or Dar-danos[1] into "Thor." King Dar is also called by the
Sumerians Dur,[2] which is also a form of his name in the Gothic Edda epics. In the
Runes, in which the Eddas were written, the a afterwards changed often into ơ.[3]
When latterly D sometimes acquired dialectically the sound of Th, which sound was
represented by by lengthening the stem of D into for the new letter Th; and thus the
name Dar or Dor became spelt "Thor." Then to distinguish the old D from this closely
similar letter-sign Th it has often a bar placed across its stem. Similarly the national
Aryan title now spelt "Goth," was always in historical times written by the Goths
themselves as God or Got, representing an early Kad, Kud or Khat or "Catti,"[4] -- the th
in the modern spelling of that name having been only introduced by the Romans.
[1] See WSAD, Dar.

[2] WSAD. Dur. The variants Dar and Dur are also parallelled in Sumerian by this
king's titles of In-dara and In-duru.
[3] WPOB. 7, 46, 70, 179, etc.
[4] WPOB. 7, 46, 70, 179, etc.
E. This three-barred square letter-sign for the vowel E occurs in Early

Sumerian[1] and in Egyptian signaries from the First Dynasty onwards, and in most of
the alphabets onwards down to modern times (see Plate I).
[1] BW. Pl. 168 (where it is conjectured to be a form of Aś, sign 298).
26
Its parent is now seen to be the Sumerian pictogram for E or Ē, picturing a

system of irrigation canals with the meaning of "Water," French, Eau (See Plate I, col.
1.).[1] In this pictogram the cross-bars are turned towards the left, which significantly is
the direction in which they are turned in its earliest Egyptian form from the first to the
twelfth Dynasty, and this direction persists in Etruscan and South Iberian. The change
by which the bars are turned to the right as in ordinary Cadmean Phœnician and
modern style first appears in Egypt in the Eighteenth Dynasty.
[1] And see E in Dict., WSAD.
The tree-twig form of E which occurs in the Ogam (see Plate I, col. 19) is found in
some of the earlier alphabets as an alternative form of E. It is obviously a form of the
Sumerian canal-sign E with the bars extended on both sides of the stem; but it early
disappeared, presumably because it was identical with a form of the letter S, see below.
The lens-like or lenticular form of E as surviving in our small e was probably

merely a cursive form of writing the three-barred square letter. As, however, it so
closely resembles the Sumerian Eye-sign, which has the Sumerian phonetic value of
En,[1] it is possible this syllabic Sumerian sign was also used alphabetically for the letter
E. The Indian Asokan, if that letter has been correctly identified, appears to be based
on the Eye-sign (see Plate I, col. 11); and more especially as the Hindi letter for E (col.
15) exhibits the Eye form and approximates to our modern e. It also occurs for the short
e in the Brito-Phœnician inscription of Partolan.[2]
[1] Inferred from Akkad, from Sumer In, cp. MD. 66. See Egi, Eye in Dict., WSAD.
[2] WPOB. 29-32.
F. This labial letter is a very early and critical letter. Its sign occurs with its two
bars turned to the right on Pre-dynastic and Early-Dynastic pottery,[1] and onwards
throughout almost all the alphabets (see Plate I).
[1] Cp. PA. Table II, Pl. 4, 14, 15.
This letter F with its sound or phonetic value has not hitherto been recognized as
existing in Sumerian, but the new evidence now attests that existence in the signs
hitherto read Pi and Pa.
The parent of the F sign is seen to be the Sumerian Viper-sign, with the value of
Fi, hitherto to read Pi by Assyriologists, (see Plate I, col. 1).[1] This F phonetic value is
evidenced by this Viper-sign, which possesses the F shape in early linear Sumerian
(see Plate I, col. 1), by the Viper-sign also existing in Egyptian hieroglyphs from the first
Dynasty onwards with the phonetic value of Fy, by this letter F having in the runes the
name of Fia or Fe with the meaning of "Fatal, Fate or Death," the Fey or "fatality" of the
Scots and associated with the idea of the Serpent, and by the Sumerian roots spelt with
this Viper-sign being largely represented in their Gothic and English derivatives by
27
words spelt with F as their initial, and by this F occurring in archaic Greek also for such
words, and also Old Persian.
[1] And see Fi in Dict., WSAD.
The F, called by modern Greek scholars di-gamma or "double G" although it has
no phonetic affinity whatever with gamma or G, whilst continuing in the Western
Cadmean alphabets, very early dropped out of the Ionian and Greek alphabets,[1]
where it was either omitted altogether or replaced by the V form of U (whence V in
"Viper"), or by the new value of Ph which was now given to the letter Φ, which we shall
find was the old W. And similarly this F letter sign is given the V and Ph values in Indian
Asokan, Sanskrit and Hindi by modern scholars and transliterators.
[1] F disappeared from the Ionian in the seventh century BC, ep. TA. 2, 109.
In "Semitic" Phœnician this Viper-sign in its reversed form occurs in the identical
relative place in that alphabet, immediately after E, as in our modern alphabet, and is
called Vau by Semitic scholars and given the various alphabetic values of V, U and W.
But it now seems probable that the later Phœnicians also pronounced this letter as F or
Fi.
On the Fa and Fi values for certain Sumerian signs hitherto read Pa or Pi see
Dictionary.[1]
[1] WSAD. under F.
G. This gutteral or throat letter, in both its early angular and crescentic
forms, occurs in the Egyptian signaries from the pre-dynastic period downwards, and on
through the Cadmean and Greek alphabets to the Latin (see Plate I).
The Sumerian parent of the soft G or Gi is obviously the pictogram (which

possibly also had a hard value as often in English) Gi, "a lever-balance" (see Plate I,
col. 1).[1] The crescentic form of the letter was evidently derived from the Sumerian
crescent sign which has the value of Ge or Gu; whilst its square or two-lobed form with
the hard sound is apparently from the Sumerian Ga, "to give,"[2] which is one of the
forms of that letter in Indian Asokan (see col. 11), and in the cursive form it occurs in
Hindi with the late aspirated value of Gh. This latter square form with middle bar is
evidently the source of our modern G with its middle bar, and of the double loop in our
small g, g.
[1] From Udug's Bowl, HOB. 109, 2, and see BW. 530.
[2] WSAD. Ga, give.
From the crescentic form of G was coined by the Romans the extra alphabetic
letter C with its hard sound, identical with that of K, which latter letter in consequence
28
dropped out of use in Latin for a time. This new letter C was also given the soft value of
S, and in Italian has the sound of Ch.
When the rectangular G was represented with its stem upright as Γ in some
Cadmean and Greek alphabets and in Old Persian (see Table I), it then became
identical with the early Cadmean letter for L which apparently led to the Γ being turned
on its left side, as L, in order to avoid confusion with Γ for G (see L).
In the Runes of the Golden Horn, the corresponding hard guttural X is used for
G, while the later Runes used the K sign of Q, which see; but the Runic sign hitherto
read as K is clearly G.
H. This letter sign in its characteristically barred early form, and sometimes
containing two bars, occurs in Pre-dynastic Egypt and downwards through the
Cadmean and "Semitic" Phœnician and Greek alphabets, side by side in most cases
with its modern form H, which is also found in Pre-dynastic and Early-dynastic Egypt
and in the Old Persian cuneiform and in Hindi, its offspring (see Plate I).
The Sumerian parent of this letter, now discloses and explains for the first time
the remarkable and well-known fact that the aspirates and gutturals are so blended in all
the languages that they can only be treated as one class: h, kh, k, q, g, and x, as each
passes readily from one into the other in certain circumstances. The reason for this
inter-largely change is now seen to be because the same Sumerian pictogram
originated more than one of these letters.
The parent of the letter H is now seen to be the Sumerian barred pictogram of
Kha, with the phonetic variants of Kha, Khi, Khu, Xa, Xe, Xi, Xu, Gan, Kan and Qan,[1]
meaning literally and picturing "a Can" on the X-shaped stand (see Plate I).[2] The
letter H is taken from the top limb of this sign, and the letter X from its stand portion,
whilst the K, Kh, G and Q are dialectic variations in its phonetic value.
[1] Br. 4032 f.; PSL 72 f.; and cp. BW. 160, Pl. 38.
[2] See Kan, "a Can" in Dict. (WSAD.).
We now see how throughout the Kha series of words in Sumerian, as in the latter
Akkad and Aryan languages, the initial K tends to drop out, leaving the H as the initial of
the word. Thus the old tribal name of the Goths spelt by the Sumerians and "Hitt-ites"
as Khat-ti or Khad-ti, the "Catti" of the pre-Roman Briton coins[1] (and also spelt Kud-ti
and Guti), became by the dropping out of its initial K, "Hat-ti," the source of the modern
name "Hitt-ite." And by the further dropping out of the H -- a change also occasionally
occurring in Sumerian, Egyptian and modern Aryan dialects, e.g., in cockneyisms -- it
became Atti and Att on the ancient Briton coins.[2]
[1] See WPOB., 6 f.; 200f.

[2] Ib., 6 f; 200 f.
29
This dropping of the initial K in Kh was so common, not only in later Sumerian
and Babylonian but in Egyptian, that most Assyriologists and Egyptologists write most of
these Kh initial letters habitually as H or H. Thus the great Babylonian King Khammu-
rabi, of the famous Hittite or Gothic Law-code borrowed by Moses, is regularly called
"Hammurabi," and so on.
A similar barred Sumerian sign with more than one cross-bar (see p. 32) with the
value Khun[1] is in series with the multibarred form of the latter, as sometimes found in
Cadmean and "Semitic" Phœnician, which possibly may be derived from this syllabic
sign used alphabetically as Kh or H.
[1] BW. 481; Br. 10,503.
The simple H sometimes occurs early as , which is the Sumerian sign for Khat
"to cut," the root of the tribal name Khatti or "Hitt-ite,"[1] turned on its left side, and may
have been derived from that sign, if it be not, as seems more probable, merely a simpler
form of writing the barred oblong sign above figured.
[1] WPOB. 8, 200, 209, 294 f. and Khat in Dict. (WSAD.), Pl, IV and text.
The simple upright cross which appears to be used for H in some of the later
Cadmean alphabets is presumably a still more abbreviated form of the two-barred cross
form and approaching the small h, if it be not really the form of T or t; but it is
sometimes found in Indian Asokan for H.
I. The Sumerian sign for this vowel was , namely five upright strokes, three
above and two below. It occurs in substantially the same form in Egypt from the first
Dynasty onwards, written by four strokes, three of them fused in a horizontal bar, and
somewhat similarly in Cadmean and "Semitic" Phœnician. In Akkad it is .
Ogam (col. 19) significantly preserves all of the five strokes of the Sumerian,[1]
which are reduced to three in Old Persian, fused into a line with bent ends in the Runes
and Asokan, and becoming cursive in Hindi.
[1] See WPOB. 30, 36.
The single stroke I appears in later Cadmean sometimes contemporary with the
four-stroked form. It was probably, I think, derived from the use of the single bar
Sumerian sign for "Wood-bar" with the value of Is',[1] as alphabetic for I. In the Runes
which also use this simple form the letter is called Iss.[2]
[1] Cp. VD. 312.

[2] See Pl. II and Dict. (WSAD.), Iś.
The dot on the top of the letter i seems presumably a survival of the original three
top dots or bars of the Early Sumerian sign fused into one.
30
K. This letter-sign occurs in Egypt from the first dynasty onwards, and in
Cadmean, and is reversed in "Semitic" Phœnician, Etruscan, and has both forms in
Iberian (see Plate I).
This hard front gutteral sound and sign, as we have seen under the letter H, is
much intermixed and blended with the other gutterals Kh, X, Q and the hard guttural G,
in Sumerian as also throughout the ancient alphabets. Thus the name of the famous
old Hittite capital, now spelt "Carchemish" after its Old Testament form, was spelt by the
Suemrians and Akkads variously as Karkamis', Gargamis' and Qarqamis',[1] and by the
Egyptians K-r-k-m-s' and Q-r-q-m-s'.[2] And see Ki, Qi or Gi, "the Earth" in Dictionary,
Plate V and text.[3]
[1] Cp. L., King's note in Carchemish, Pt. I, by D. Hogarth, 17, and on the Q value see
Br. 11,943.
[2] Griffith, Carchemish, op. cit., 17.
[3] WSAD.
The parent of this letter K is now seen to be the , Sumerian syllabic Kad, Kat,
Kit, "a Coat,"[1] picturing presumably the diagram of a coat with its collar, sleeves and
skirt, and from this syllabic name the final consonant has dropped out, leaving the
sound of the sign as Ka or Ki (see Plate I, col. 1). And significantly this Kad or Kat
"Coat" sign is also spelt in Sumerian Gad, Gat and Qad, Qat,[2] just as the Phœnicians
spelt the name of their great Atlantic port outside the Strait of Gibraltar variously
"Kadesh" and "Gadesh" the modern Cadiz.[3]
[1] See Katt, Kat, a coat in Dict. (WSAD). In Egyptian, Khat, cp. BD. 516b.
[2] Cp. Br. 2700 and 6104; WISD. 74, 80 f.
[3] See WPOB. 68, 74, 159 f.
The Sumerian parent of this letter K thus appears to be one of the very few bi-
consonantal signs used for the formation of an alphabetic letter, the great majority and
almost all of the consonantal Sumerian signs for alphabetic letters consisting of a single
consonantal value followed by the vowel necessary to sound it. Whereas, on the
contrary, most of the Egyptian hieroglyphs used in the so-called alphabetic writing in
Egypt were bi-consonantal or tri-consonantal syllabic signs containing two or more
consonants.
The dropping out of final consonants (such as the t or d of this Coat-sign in

question to form a single stem with its inherent vowel as Ka or Ki) is, however, not
uncommon in Sumerian,[1] and in Egyptian it is not infrequent.[2] It is thus probable
that Ka or Ki was current dialectically for this sign at the time when the regular alphabet
was formed for systematic alphabetic writing.
[1] Cp. LSG. 47; and see WISD. 32 f., for the Sumero-Phœnician king's name
"Bidas'nadi," becoming dialectically "Pasenadi."
31
[2] Griffith in GH. cites numerous instances; and many are evident in Budge's
Dictionary. Thus, e.g., B or Ba, "abode," for Bait, BD. 197a, 202b, etc.; B or Ba, "plant"
for Baba, 197a, 202a; Ba "a Staff" for Basa, 202a, 208a, 228a.
The later cursive form of K wanting the lower side-stroke or foot, found in the
later "Semitic" Phœnician is also found as an alternative form in the Runes (see
cols. 5 and 18).
The aspirated K as Kh, the so-called "back explosive guttural," has already been
referred to under H, of which it was the fuller form. It early disappeared from the
Cadmean and is not found in the Western or European alphabets.
The omission of the K for a time by the Romans and their use of C as a new
letter instead -- a letter derived from G -- has been referred to under G.
L. The rectangular sign for this liquid consonant occurs in Egypt from the Pre-
dynastic period onwards in both its early Γ and later L forms, i.e., with its cross-bar
respectively above and below; and onwards it is found in the Cadmean in both forms
down to the later Ancient Briton and Latin or Roman, when the bar is below and to the
right as in the modern letter (see Plate I).
The parent of this letter is disclosed to be the Suemrian right-angled pictogram of

a lever "Balance" Γ with the value of La or Lal.[1] The older form thus had its bar at the
top, although this was conjectured by Taylor to be a "newer form" than the bottom
barred.[2] The modern form L derives from the later Sumerian style of writing with the
sign turned on its left side. This L form is already found in Pre-dynastic and Early-
Dynastic Egypt alongside the earlier form with the bar at the top. The vertical direction
of its stem distinguished this sign from the other Balance-sign , Gi for G with which the
L was apt to be confused; and the tendency to make the angle more acute (see Table I)
was obviously to emphasize the difference from G, which letter in some of its Cadmean
forms was also written Γ.
[1] Br. 10,082; BW. 440; and see Dict. (WSAD.), La, Lal.
[2] TA. 2, 102, where the variations in this letter now receive a different explanation in
the light of the new facts.
In the Brito-Phœnician cursive of King Partolan this letter has the tailed form of λ
(see col. 16), the style of the Greek minuscule for that letter and is found on some
Ancient Briton coins and in Early Egypt. The reversed form with the foot of the L
directed to the left is also found on Early Briton coins.[1]
[1] WPOB. 43.
The supposition that the letter L and its sound were late[1] can no longer be held,
as it is a common consonantal sound in Sumerian words from the earliest times, apart
from its L or La phonetic sign.
32
[1] PA. 17.
In Egyptian hieroglyphs L is supposed by Egyptologists to be absent, and its

kindred lingual R is used by them for spelling the L in foreign and indigenous words.
M. This labial or labio-nasal letter-sign occurs in Egypt in its earlier forms from
the Pre-dynastic period onwards, and on through the Cadmean and "Semitic"
Phœnician and Greek in more or less its modern form (see Plate I).
Its Sumerian parent is now clearly disclosed to be the syllabic pictogram ,

Mad or Mat, "a Mountain," picturing two hills, in which the final consonant has been
dropped out (as previously described under K), leaving its alphabetic values as Ma or
. And this letter-sign is seen to preserve the features of its original pictograph of two
hills down to the present day.
It is noteworthy that its common Runic form is practically identical with the
earliest Egyptian form (see cols. 3 and 18).
In Sumerian and Akkadian and in other Aryan languages M interchanges with its
kindred labial W, the sign for which is somewhat similar, but inverted and derived from a
totally different parent, see W.
N. This nasal letter is found in Egypt from the twelfth Dynasty onwards in its
modern form as well as reversed, and unreversed in Cadmean and reversed in the
"Semitic" Phœnician (see Plate I).
Its Sumerian parent is evidently the sign Nu, , "No" or "Not," picturing what
Assyriologists interpret as a line cancelled or crossed out.[1] Significantly, the primitive
Sumerian form of a crossed line is retained in the Runes (see col. 11).
[1] PSL. 264.
The occasional reversal of the middle stroke of N as may be merely owing to

carelessness of the scribe, as this form is often perpetrated nowadays by even
educated persons in writing their names in capitals.
O. This common vowel has not hitherto been regarded as existing in Sumerian
writing by Assyriologists; but it has been inferred that O was probably occasionally
sounded by Sumerians as a variation of one of the many Sumerian forms of U, of which
there are no less than six different signs transliterated with this U value by
Assyriologists, so that it is probable they were not all sounded as simple U, though no
attempt seems to have been made to find which of these signs, if any, was used with an
O sound.[1]
[1] LSG. 34-35.
33
It seems to me that as the Sumerians had evolved such a fully vocalic system of
writing, so common a sound as O was hardly likely to be left unrecognized by a special
sign, and all the more so as one of the U signs possesses the identical form of O. This
is the Sumerian circle sign for "Sun, Moon, well, hole or opening," with U as a common
phonetic value in current transliteration;[1] and one of its defined meanings is "call out,
speak,"[2] and one of its defined meanings is "call out, speak,"[3] which was more likely
to have the value of O! than U!
[1] Br. 8646; BW. 365, and see O in Dict. (WSAD.).

[2] Br. 8707.
This circle-sign is the form of the letter O as it occurs throughout the Cadmean
and Greek alphabets down to modern times (see Plate II). It is found on Egyptian
pottery from the Pre-dynastic period downwards; but no O letter or "sound" is
recognized in Egyptian hieroglyphs.
In the "Semitic" Phœnician alphabet, as arbitrarily compiled by Semitic scholars

from the Hebrew, this O sign occupies the same relative position as O in our modern
alphabet, between N and P, with the exception that an S is intruded before it (as in the
Hebrew), just as in the Greek alphabet X is intruded before it. Yet, notwithstanding this
position for it and its O shape, it is called by Semitic scholars by the Hebrew name of
Ayin or "Eye," and is given the value of Ā. But in the Brito-Phœnician of Partolan this O
is clearly given the value of O in the bilingual version of that inscription.[1]
[1] WPOB. 29-32.
The reason for these variations in the value of this O sign is now disclosed by its
Sumerian parent. This circle-sign in Sumerian was also latterly written by an upright
crescent , which we shall find was the source of the U letter-sign. Both the circle and
its crescent form possess in Sumerian the phonetic values of both A or Ā and U,[1] and
also as now appears the value of O, which latter became the sole sound for the circle.
[1] Br. 8631, 8645.
In the Runes the letter O is called Ōdal or Ōthal, "Œthal," "noble" and is
represented with two tails below, approaching the form of the later Greek Ō or "Omega"
of lozenge or diamond shape (see Plate II, col. 18) -- circles being written square or
diamond shaped by the Sumerian as we have seen, for greater ease in cutting the signs
on wood or stone, etc. And in the Runes, as above noted, the Ā which frequently
changed dialectically into O tended to be replaced latterly by the letter O;[1] hence, for
example, the change in name of the great Gothic King Dar into Dor, and latterly by the
aspiration of the D as Th in "Thor."[2]
[1] Cp. VD. 2 and 462.

[2] See Dar = Thor in Dict. (WSAD.).
34
In the Indian Asokan the intimate relation of the O and U is indicated by both
signs being represented by the upright crescent or angular crescent of the cuneiform
style, the former letter differing from the latter by the addition of another curve or bend
(see col. 11); whilst the Hindi O is written by a dot-headed crescent extending above the
line, as contrasted with the U crescent written below the line. The reason why the circle
was not used in Asokan for the letter O was possibly because the circle had already
been appropriated at that later date for the new letter Th, the θ of the Greeks.
P. This labial sound is differentiated from its fellow labial B in Sumerian from the
earliest period, although freely interchanging with the latter dialectically as in all Aryan
languages. Thus, for example, in the early name of Preian -- the Prydain of the Welsh -
- for "Britain,"[1] and Peirithoos for "Brutus."[2]
[1] WPOB. 32 f.; 52 f.; 170, 191.

[2] Ib., 163, 404 f.
The letter-sign for P is found in its early form of a shepherd's crook on Egyptian
pottery from the Pre-dynastic period onwards, and in the Cadmean alphabets and
"Semitic" Phœnician,[1] and Brito-Phœnician[2] down to the Greek (see Plate II).
[1] See WPOB. 53.

[2] Ib., 29.
The Sumerian parent of this P sign is now disclosed to be the Sumerian with
the value of Par, Pir, Bar or Mas' and defined as "a staff or sceptre, bar or mace of a
leader" (see col. 1).[1] For alphabetic use its final consonant was dropped, leaving
value as Pa or Pi, and Pa already was a value of the Sumerian sceptre-sign.[2]
[1] And see Bar, Par or Maś, "a Bar or Mace," in Dict. (WSAD.).
[2] Br. 5370; BW. 249.
The closing of the loop to form P occurs in the Runes, Iberia, Pelasgic Italy and
in Latin, and on pre-Roman Briton coins; but not in the Greek, which used this closed P
for their letter R.
The aspirated P as Ph of the late Greek with the form Φ was used to replace the
F when that letter was dropped in Greek. It was presumably fashioned on the type of
the allied labial B as a mass divided; but this Ph sign has the general form of and is
practically identical with the old form of the Q sign, which letter was also dropped in the
later Greek alphabet,[1] yet it was used for the labial W.
[1] This letter was retained in a few inscriptions on Greek coins and for the number 90.
Cp. TA. 2, 104.
35
Q. This explosive back guttural was used by the Sumerians, but not very
extensively as an initial, though exchanging not infrequently with the hard gutturals G, K
and X as we have seen under K and H.
Its old letter forms as , both divided and simply tailed, are found on Egyptian
pottery as owner's marks from the Pre-dynastic period onwards, and alphabetically in
the Cadmean and "Semitic" Phœnician, and its simply-tailed form in the Greek, Roman
and modern periods (see Plate II).
The Sumerian parent of this letter appears to be the Cue or Cord sign Qa
or Qu, "a Cue" and disclosed as the Sumerian source of that English word (see Plate II,
col. 1 and Dict.[1]), and it was presumably the Sumerian source of the neo-archaic
Egyptian hieroglyph Kha, "a Cord or Hank of thread," as Kh is exchangeable with Q.
Another possible Sumerian source is Qi, "Earth" (see Table II), which is shown in my
Dictionary to be the source of the Egyptian hieroglyph Qa, "Earth."[2] Still another
possible source is the Sumerian , Qar, "a Jar," and shown in my Dictionary to be the
parent of the Egyptian Qarr, "a cup."[3] It thus seems probable that all these three Q
syllabic Sumerian signs which present many features in common were fused together to
obtain the simple circle form with a median line and tail, or the circle with a simple tail Q
or q.
[1] WSAD. Qa, Qu, "a Cue."

[2] WSAD. Pl. III, under Ki, Qi.
[3] WSAD. Pl. III.
In the Runes this letter,w hich interchanges with hrd G and K is written by a
bisected lozenge or diamond with the central line projecting at both ends (see Plate III,
col. 18). In the Indian Asokan alphabet this letter with tail above forms the letter now
transliterated by Sanskritists as C. The late Greek letter for Ph is this same sign wit the
median line projecting at both ends, as in the Runic Q. The "Semitic" Phœnician
sometimes has a form which suggests a handled cup, possibly related to the Sumerian
Cup or Jar sign. Qar sign above cited, which also occurs in Early Egypt, if it be not a
form of the allied guttural Kh, as noted under H.
R. This consontal letter has obviously its parent in the Sumerian early cursive
looped or squared diagram of a Foot with value of Ra, "to run or go,"[1] as this form
approximates that found throughout most of the alphabets. The Cadmean form of P for
R, already occurs along with the squared Sumerian form on the First Dynasty pottery in
Egypt (see Plate II), if it is not P.
[1] Cp. BW. 207, Pl. 50, and see Ra, "run" in WSAD.
In the Trito-Phœnician of Partolan the ligatured form of the R occurs as a curved

stroke, as in the Indian Asokan and Hindi.[1]
36
[1] WPOB. 29.
S Sumerian possesses two sibilant S sound-signs, namely the soft dental S and
the rough aspirated Sh or S', which latter has dropped out of the later European
alphabets, which use instead the two separate letters SH. The third S of the Semites,
the so-called Tsade of the Hebrews, and transliterated as Ts or S, is regarded as a bi-
form of Z, like the French çedilla. It is occasionally used in spelling Sumerian names by
the later Babylonian and Assyrian scribes, but it was probably absent in Sumerian.
These two S sound-signs, the simple and the aspirate, freely interchange
between themselves and with the other sibilant Z in Sumerian and Akkadian, and this is
presumably the reason why considerable confusion occurs in regard to the forms of
these S letters in the earlier alphabetic scripts.
Three main types of S letters occur in the Cadmean and "Semitic" Phœnician
and Greek, and significantly they are also found in the Early Egyptian signaries (see
Plate II).
The Sumerian source of the simple soft sibilant letter S, the Sigma of the Greeks,
is now clearly disclosed in this sign with the value of Sig or Sik, picturing the setting
Sun as an inverted winged disc or lozenge, and defined as "sink, weak or sick,"[1] and
thus discovering the Suemrian source of our English words "Sick" and "Sink,"[2] as well
as presumably the Sumerian source of the Greek name for that letter as "Sigma." And
dropping its final consonant it becomes Si or S for alphabetic purposes. in the early
alphabets this sign for greater simplicity was written , the former disregarding the
left-hand angle of the solar disc, which was turned on its left side as in the later
Sumerian style. And these linear S forms are found on the Early Egyptian pottery as
owner's marks. The occasional W and M forms given to these letters in some
Cadmean, "Semitic" Phœnician and Greek inscriptions are merely inverted forms of the
same sign, and they explain why the double zigzag form dropped out of use through
confusion with the M and W alphabetic signs, and thus leaving the second simpler form
which in its looped or cursive shape forms our modern letter S, and the late Gothic or
Old English ƒ.
[1] Br. 11,868 f.; BW. 527, Pl. 133.

[2] See Sig, Sik, "stick" in Dict. (WSAD.).
The other early alphabetic forms of S, which are found in some Cadmean and
Early Asia Minor and "Semitic" Phœnician inscriptions are (a) "the tree-twig" shape (see
Plate II), and (b) the plume or feathered crown . And both of these are also found
on Early Egyptian pottery as owner's marks (see Plate II).
The first of these forms, the so-called "tree-twig" shape is obviously derived from
this Sumerian with the phonetic value of Sil, picturing what is supposed to be a
Fish,[1] and defined as meaning "Fish, god Ia of the Deep Waters, Lord or King." This
syllabic sign by dropping its final consonant as previously described becomes Si or S
37
alphabetically; and in "Semitic" Phœnician it is used for the simple S,[2] called Samekh
in the Hebrew.
[1] BW. 94. it is the same sign which has the synonym of Nun, see Pl. IV.
[2] In the Phœnician form the central stroke is omitted above the bars.
The second form, the plumed crown-sign is seen to be obviously derived from
the Sumerian Sa picturing a plumed crown and defined as "King,"[1] disclosing the
origin of Egyptian hieroglyph S'u, a plumed or feathered crown (see Plate II, col. 3) and
the use of this hieroglyph alphabetically for S'. This Sumerian plume-sign is also seen
to be apparently the parent of the "Semitic" Phœnician letter for S', the so-called Shin of
Hebrew, in all of which the sign is given the aspirated S' value. In view of its aspirated
value of S' or Sh, it is possible that the "Semitic" Phœnician sign may be a
diagrammatic form of the Sumerian sign S'ar, "Garden," picturing a garden with plants,
and shown in my Dictionary, Plate V to be the Sumerian source of the Egyptian
hieroglyph S'a, "Garden," and alphabetic for S' or Sh. And this Egyptian garden-sign
S'a generally resembles the "Semitic" Phœnician letter for S' or Sh.
[1] Br. 6839, 6848; BW. 300.
In the Runes the oldest alphabetic form of the simple S is found, later it was
sometimes written with its top and bottom strokes vertically (see Plate II, col. 18 and cp.
WPOB. 29); and significantly the letter was called Sig or Sigil. In Ogam the "tree-twig"
S has four bars on one side of the stem (see Plate II, col. 19). The Old Persian
cuneiform appears to use the S the plumed crown-sign turned on its right side, and for
Sh or S', the S'ar garden-sign inverted. In the Indian Asokan this letter sign for Sh or S'
is also inverted.
In the Brito-Phœnician cursive writing of Partolan and the Selsey coin of the
fourth century BC, both forms of the S occur.[1]
[1] WPOB. 29, 43 f.; 174.
In the Pre-Roman Briton coins of the first and second centuries BC, the simple S
only is found and in a cursive form which is identical with the modern S.
T. This dental letter with its sound which freely interchanges in Sumerian and
other Aryan languages with its fellow dental D, is found in its present-day form on Early
Egyptian pottery of the first Dynasty onwards; and in its crook and arrow-heard form
from the Pre-dynastic and twelfth Dynasty periods onwards. In the Cadmean and
Greek only the T form occurs. In some early "Semitic" Phœnician inscriptions, for
example the Moabite Stone and Baal Lebanon Bowl, the letter appears as a cross
.
The Sumerian parents of these forms appear to be found in two different syllabic
signs with Ta and Ti as their front sounds.
38
The T form appears to be derived from the Sumerian with the value of Tar,
defined as meaning "to Tear,"[1] disclosing the Sumerian source of that English word.[2]
On dropping its final consonant for alphabetic purposes, it becomes Ta or T; and it
would inevitably be written in rectangular form T for easy and speedy writing.
[1] Br. 391; BW. 12.

[2] See Dar, Tar, Tear in Dict. (WSAD.).
The Arrow-head form of the letter evidently comes from the selection of the
somewhat similar Sumerian arrow-head sign to represent it alphabetically, as it begins
with the same sound or letter. it has the phonetic value of Til with the meaning of "arrow
or dart," "remove (afar)," etc.[1] (disclosing the Sumerian origin of the Latin Tēlum, "a
dart or arrow," and Greek Tēle, "far," in tele-graph, tele-scope, etc.).[2] And significantly
this arrow-sign was also written at times in the identical form of the above Tar sign. The
dropping of the final consonant leaves Ti as the alphabetic value of this sign and
possibly it had this early value "alphabetically." The crutch form is evidently merely a
cursive manner of writing this arrow-heard. And the and also appear to be merely
forms of writing this sign, just as in our modern minuscule t.
[1] Br. 1509, 1525; BW. 70.

[2] See Til, far, remove, in Dict. (WSAD.).
In the Runes, significantly, this archaic arrow-head form survived (see Plate II,
col. 18), and the letter is therein called Tyr, which evidently preserves its Sumerian
name of Til -- l and r being always freely interchangeable dialetically as we have seen.
Moreover, Tyr is the Gothic god of the Arrow or god of War, whose name survives in our
Tues-day or Tys-day, just as Thurs-day derives from Thor. And Tir is the common Indo-
Persian word for "arrow."
In old Persian cuneiform, the letter T with double strokes has the value of Ti,
whilst the simple T has three parallel strokes as in the Ogam with the addition of a dart
wedge at its right border (see Plate IV, col. 19). The Indian Asokan form approaches
the Sumerian like the cursive Hindi (see cols. 11 and 12).
The Brito-Phœnician of Partolan of the fourth century BC preserves the

Sumerian form;[1] whilst the Pre-Roman Briton coins have the modern T form of the
Cadmean Phœnician.
[1] WPOB. 29.
Th, or the aspirated letter with its sound does not appear in Sumerian by a sign,
but is common in Semitic alphabets. In Early Cadmean Th occurs as a compound letter
or monogram consisting of a cross or representing T placed inside the square or
oval barred H sign, and is the source of the Greek θ or Theta letter. This compound
sign is already found in Egypt from the First Dynasty onwards (see Plate II, col. 3).
39
Latterly the Cadmean in its purer alphabetic system wrote the Th by the separate letters
TH.
In the Runes we have seen that the letter D was adapted for the later Th sound
which had come into use for certain D words, by the lengthening of its stem, whereby
the name of the first Gothic King Dar or Dur, became "Thor." An interesting instance of
the survival of the compound letter Th in Britain is found on certain of the coins of the
Pre-Roman Ancient Briton king Addedo-maros, the Aedd-mawr of the Welsh, spell his
name Aththiid.[1]
[1] See ECB. 373, Pl. XIV. 2-9 and WPOB. 285, 339 and 393. He appears to be
probably "Arthe-gal" of the Briton king-lists of 325 BC, see WPOB. 388.
U. This vowel-sound is expressed in Sumerian by no less than six different

signs, as we have seen under O. The sign which is now seen to have been selected for
its alphabetic use was the simplest of all these, namely, the crescent or , which
when turned on its left side became or , This crescent which pictured the setting
Sun and Moon, possessed the phonetic value of U, and also that of A or Ā,[1] with
which this vowel was freely interchangeable, and explaining the use of this sign with the
Ā value in the Brito-Phœnician inscription of Partolan.[2] Its angular form also explains
the confusion of this letter U with the late consonantal letter V which was introduced to
replace the F, and also the confusion with the tailed V as the letter Y. And it is seen to
be the source of the sixth letter in the Phœnician alphabet, the so-called Vau of the
Semites and the U or Upsilon of the Greeks.
[1] Br. 8631 and BW. 365.

[2] WPBO. 29 f; but see under A.
In Egyptian signaries the angular V form of U occurs in the Pre-dynastic and first
Dynasty periods, in the former having one of its limbs sometimes curved. And it is the
regular form for U in the Cadmean and Greek (see Plate II).
In the Runes the letter U, called Ūr, which also represents the late letter V when
it is called Vend, is of semi-angular crescentic form with one of its limbs curved as in the
Early Egyptian form, but it is inverted (see Plate II, col. 18).
This inverted position of writing the U was the original Sumerian position for this
sign as picturing the setting Sun.[1] And significantly it is written in this inverted form in
the cursive archaic Sumerian writing in the Indus Valley seals -- which I have called
"Indo-Sumerian" -- on Seal IV, where it occurs as a "ligature" or attached to the
preceding sign, a common method of writing the U and R in the alphabetic system, and
this is the earliest instance of the ligature yet observed.[2] This inverted form in squared
shape is also found on Egyptian signaries from the pre-dynastic period onwards, and
occasionally in Cadmean, as at Karia, etc., and it is found in cursive form in the Brito-
Phœnician of Partolan.[3] This original common Sumerian sign-source for the letters O
and U and one of the forms of Ā, now seems to explain why the common diphthong,
40
forming the last letter of the Runic alphabet of the Goths, comes to have the varying
phonetic values of Æ and Œ or Ö and is exchangeable dialetically with Ā, Ō and U.
[1] Cp. BW. p. 196, and see Pl. IV under its synonym Kha in Dict. (WSAD.).
[2] WISD. 24, 51 f. The U also occurs in these Indo-Sumerian seals in its usual form
with its "legs" turned upwards, see WISD. 31, etc.
[3] WPOB. 29-32.
On the equivalency of U in Greek with Y see Y.
V. This consonantal letter is a late letter with the labial value, and derives its
form from the V shape of the old U, see F, P and U.
W. This labial letter is supposed by Taylor and others to be very late and merely
a double U or double V, and dating no earlier than mediæval times.[1] But leading
Assyriologists[2] find that the Sumerian pictogram of a pair of ears was pronounced by
the Sumerians Wa, We and Wi, which is now through its compound Wa-ur, "to hear,
hearken"[3] disclosed as the Sumerian source of our English word for "ear," from which,
as in Latin, the initial W has dropped out.[4] The Sumerian sign for Ma or Mu had also
the value occasionally of Wa or Wu.[5]
[1] TA. 2, 189; and similarly Borlase (BC. p. 462).

[2] BW. p. 179. Profs. Sayce, Pinches, passim, and Langdon, LSG. 38.
[3] Cp. Br. 7978 and MD. 1055.
[4] See Waur, "to bear, hearken or listen" in Dict. (WSAD.). This Waur, presumably
survives besides "ear, hear," in the words, "ware, war-ily a-ware, be-ware," etc., in
sense of Waur, "to hear, listen." Its Akkad synonym Usmu is also disclosed as the
source of the Greek Ous, "Ear," whence comes the word "Aus-cultate," to hearken or
listen, and the Latin, Heus," "hark!"
[5] Thus the word Mulu or "man" was pronounced regularly in the reign of Khammurabi,
King of Babylon, c. 2150 BC as Wula, now seen to be the source of the Indo-Persian
Wala, man or person.
The Sumerian parent of the letter W is now seen to be the above-cited pictogram
of a pair of ears (see Plate II, col. 1) with the phonetic value of Wa, We, Wi. This
pictogram sign is found in substantially its Sumrian form in the owner's marks on Early
Egyptian pottery,[1] and throughout most of the other alphabets (see Plate II).
[1] See PA. Table IV, 1. 45, where the signs are classed as M, and Table V, 11, 5 and
8.
In the Brito-Phœnician of Partolan, the W appears to be written like an erect U
sign with the ends of its top limbs bent over.[1] In Runes it has the value of V.
[1] WPOB. 29-32. It is possible, but less probable, that this may be long U.
41
X. This form of sign is found graved on Early Egyptian pottery as owner's marks
from the Pre-dynastic period downwards; but it is such a common geometrical form of
mark for objects that its mere occurrence there does not necessarily imply its alphabetic
use there, though taken in series with the other contemporary alphabetic owner's marks
there establishes a presumption that it also was alphabetic.
In the Cadmean and Greek this X occurs as a letter with alphabetic value, but
that phonetic value is considerably confused by the Greeks, the X value being
transferred by them to a totally different letter-sign. Although this X sign occurs in the
Greek alphabet in the third place from the end, as does also the X in the Roman and
modern alphabet, it is not given an X phonetic value in Greek but is read Ch, and this
notwithstanding that C is admittedly a very late letter. On the other hand the letter
between N and O in the Greek alphabet, formed by three parallel lines and
corresponding to the three-parallel barred S of the Phœnician alphabet (the Sigma of
the Greeks) which also occupies therein this identical place between N and O, is given
by the Greeks the guttural value of X and called Xi, although it has not the form of X.
That this letter was presumably regarded by the Greeks as the Phœnician S seems
evident from the use by the later Greeks of the guttural C to represent the sibilant S.
In the Indian Pali and Sanskrit alphabets a somewhat similar confusion exists. In
the Asokan, which is essentially a Pali script, the sign representing X (as seen in both
versions, se Plate II, col. 11) is given by Indianist scholars the value of C, whilst what
appears to be a cursive form of the same sign is given the value of Khā, Khi and Chi,[1]
and the letter X is not used by Indianists for transliterating any of these letters. In
Sanskrit, however, the Kh of the Pali is sometimes rendered Ksh and by others X. Thus
the ruling title of Khattiyo of the Pali, which I have shown to be the equivalent of the
Sumerian Khatti or "Hitt-ite," and the Catti title of the Ancient Briton kings on their
coins,[2] is spent by some Sanskritists Kshatriya and by others[3] Xatriya, whilst a
dialectic form of it is spelt Cedi.[4]
[1] Cp. BIP. Table I, 11. 10 (1) and 7 (3); and II, 1. 10 (5-8).
[2] WPOB. 6, etc.
[3] Thus Prof. V. Fausboll in Indian Mythology.
[4] WPOB. 262 and WISD. 124.
In Sumerian also, analogous confusion exists amongst value of the X letter

sound and sign. This sign which, we have seen under H, was the common parent of
Kh, H and X, and which pictures a Jar on an X-shaped stand (see Plate II, col 1) is
rendered along with the other signs of like value Xa, Xe, Xi by one of the two leading
Sumerian lexicographers, Prince. The other leading lexicographer, Barton, renders the
same sign or signs as Kha, Khe, Khi, whilst the leading Assyriologist lexicographer,
Muss-Arnolt, renders all these habitually in Assyrian as well as in Sumerian by X; and
other German scholars by Ch. As a result, for instance, the Sumerian signs for the
ruling clan-name of the "Hittites" are variously read as Khatti, Xatti and Chatti.
42
The reason for this confusion between X, Kh and Ch now appears to be owing to
the same Sumerian sign having yielded both the X and Kh letter-signs, and to the late
letter C having been used to replace the hard K to form Ch.
The Sumerian parent of the X sign, whilst yielding by its upper portion the barred
element which formed the letter H (see under H), or properly Kh, by its lower part
yielded the X sign (see Plate II, col. 1). So predominant became the X feature that it is
the leading shape of the sign from the period of Manis-tusu (or Menes) down to
Khammurabi; and in some cases the sign is written as X, with the jar as relatively
inconspicuous (see Plate II, col. 1).
In the Runes the sign X is read by modern scholars as G, though this is as we

have seen probably a mistake as the Runic sign, the proper sign for G, is usually read
C, a letter derived, as we have seen, from G. The phonetic value of X, is sometimes
transferred in the Runes to a sign which seems the Runic K sign with an extra stroke
on its left side, and might be regarded as an X written with its stem erect and one of its
lower limbs turned up. In Ogam the X sign has the value of X or Kh.[1]
[1] WPOB. 30.
Y. This semi-vowel is generally regarded as a late letter and sound. But many
Assyriologists render the Sumerian signs for I and the diphthong IA as Y, sometimes,
and credit the Sumerians with the use of this sound. Semitists call the I sign in
"Semitic" Phœnician and Hebrew Yod, and render it both as I, J and Y; and thus obtain
the forms of Y-h-v-h and Jah for their name "Jehovah."
The sign Y is found on Early Egyptian pottery as owner's marks. In the Cadmean
and Greek it is regarded as the capital form of the letter U or V, from which it is
considered to be derived, especially as in the "Semitic" Phœnician the old sign for that
letter U has a tail on its right border, which is centred in the Moabite Stone inscription.
This derivation from the U explains the interchange of U and Y in the

transliteration of Greek words. The signs read Ja on the Indian Kharosthi versions of
Asokas inscriptions are of the Y form. On the lapse Y into I in English, see under I.
Z. This sibilant letter sign, in its earlier Cadmean "Semitic" Phœnician and Greek
forms occurs on Egyptian pottery as graven owner's marks from the Pre-dynastic
period downwards (see Plate II).
Its Sumerian parent is now seen to be the battle-axe or sceptre sign with the
phonetic value of Zag.[1] The second form, like the capital I with long strokes at either
end of the upright stem, was evidently a shorter way of writing the sign. And the later Z
form, which appears also in "Semitic" Phœnician was a still shorter and more cursive
way of writing the sign without lifting the pen.
[1] Br. 5566; BW. 249. And see Zag, "battle-axe, sceptre," in Dict. (WSAD.).
43
With this Sumerian parent sign is to be compared with the somewhat analogous
Sumerian sign with the value of Za and meaning "jewel or shining stone."[1] This
sign might possibly also be written by two parallel bars intersected by a vertical stroke to
indicate division of each bar into two, as was the case with the A water-sign in regard to
its divided stroke (see Plate I).
[1] Br. 11,721; PSL. 360.
In Old Persian cuneiform significantly, the sign is of the identical form of the I
type (Plate II, col. 10). In Asokan script the signs read J and Jh are now seen to be
derived from this Sumerian sign. In the Runes Z is represented by that form of letter by
Ulfilas; but usually the somewhat angular S in the reversed direction is used for Z, which
latter never appears as an initial letter. And in Sumerian Z freely interchanged with S
and Sh.
44
45
46
VIII.
NAMES OF THE LETTERS AND OBJECTS PICTURED
The hitherto unknown original names and meanings of the letters and the objects
pictured by them are thus disclosed for the first time through their Sumerian parent
pictographic signs.
The names of the letters as A, Ba or Bi, etc., are seen to be "ideo-logic," i.e.,
consisting of the names of the old ideograph of the Sumerian picture writing, except in
the few instances in which the ideograph consisted of more than one consonant, when
the final consonant dropped out. And the objects pictured by the letter-signs are those
of their respective Sumerian parent signs.
The Greek names for the letters as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, etc., were taken
from those of the later Semitic Phœnicians, namely, Aleph an Ox, Beth a House, Gimel
a Camel, Daleth a Door, etc. But these names, as has been shown by Professor Petrie
and others, are "entirely a late meaning, the signs having no connection with the names
... which were but nicknames." These names are comparable to the childish nursery
names of "A was an Archer" and so on. yet it was from these trivial nicknames and their
order, that after the names of the first two Alpha, Beta, our modern name for the letters
as "The Alpha-bet" was derived.
47
IX.
ORDER OF THE ALPHABET OR "ABC" AND NUMERAL VALUE OF LETTERS
The order of our modern alphabet in the "ABC" is that of the Roman alphabet of
the later empire, which was based upon that of the Cadmean Phœnician of the Pre-
Roman rulers in Italy, the Etruscans, who, we have seen, were a colony of Lydians from
Asia Minor who were Phœnicians or kinsmen of the Phœnicians. And through the
imperial policy and prestige of the Romans this order of the alphabet became generally
current throughout Europe.
The earliest-known alphabetic lists or "abecedaria" have been found in Etruscan

settlements in Italy, scribbled as school-exercises on a child's ink-bottle, on vases or
drinking-cups or other treasured articles buried in children's or other owners' tombs.
The oldest of these is on a vase bearing also an Etruscan inscription of the owner from
a tomb at Formello, near the ancient Etruscan city of Veii, about ten miles north of
Rome, and dated from the archaic type of the letters to between the sixth and seventh
century BC,[1] though it may be earlier.
[1] TA. 2 73-78.
Significantly the letters are of the Cadmean non-reversed Phœnician kind, and
are 26 in number as seen in Fig. 1, where their equivalents in modern letters are placed
underneath.
It gives the order generally as in the late Greek alphabet -- four letters following the T,
which is the last letter in the restricted "Semitic" Phœnician of 22 letters, but the Ō or
Omega, the late concluding letter of the Greek version is omitted. The third letter from
the end is represented by an upright or semi-sloping cross , and represents
undoubtedly the X of the Greek, the letter to which Greek scholars give the value of Ch
as we have seen. On the other hand, the 15th letter which occupies the identical place
of the X or Xi of Greek scholars, and which we have seen represents the three-barred S
of the Phœnician, is here given the unusual form of three semi-upright bars twice
crossed, which, however, seems more like an S than an X, and approaches in form the
correspondingly placed squarish Samekh S of the Hebrew. The last two letters are Ph
or W and the sign read in the Runes variously as X, A and I, but by Greek scholars as
Ps.
This shows that the Early Cadmean Phœnician alphabet existed about the
seventh century BC in substantially the same serial order as in the present-day
alphabet, allowing for the dropping of the obsolete letters S, S' and Th, and the
48
transference of Z to the end place by the Romans, when they displaced it from its
seventh place or station to make room for G which they displaced from its original place
third in the list into which they foisted their new form of G as C.
These changes in the old order of the letters are shown in the accompanying
table, in which the letters of the first three columns are given their modern letter values.
The familiar order of the letters in our alphabet or ABC appears to be, not as is
generally supposed a merely capricious or accidental collocation of the letters, but a
scientific arrangement of the letters according to their sounds. It was long ago noticed
that in the Phœnician, Greek and Latin or Roman alphabets there is a repeated
sequence of the letters as vowels, labials, gutturals and dentals. This sequence is well
displayed by Professor Petrie, in arranging the letters on a square table like the old
"Horn-book" board for teaching children their ABC. This arrangement is seen in Fig. 2
with the necessary modifications in view of the new evidence for the antiquity of the
letters U, W, X and Z.
This appears to indicate that originally the letters were arranged for learners in
perpendicular rows, according to their phonetic class qualities, and that later on they
were read transversely across the board, which gave them the apparently capricious
and irregular order in the modern alphabet. The old letters, the sibilant S and the liquid
R were presumably too few to form separate groups. The position of the R immediately
after the Q suggests that the sound of that letter was guttural -- the guttural R. The
concluding letter Z, the sibilant, appears to have been perhaps regarded by the Romans
as a dental, and significantly the Z sign is often rendered by the dental D by
Egyptologists[1] and Tch by others.[2]
[1] GH. xi.

[2] BD. 893 f.
This fixed alphabetic order was, no doubt, conduced to by the early practice of
giving numeral values to the letters according to their relative position in the alphabet,
thus A = 1, B = 2 and so on; and this practice was adopted from the Phœnicians along
with the Sumerian letters by the Semites, as seen, for instance, in the order of the
books of the Old Testament, and especially the 119th Psalm. Here it is noteworthy that
the Suemrian Ā sign possessed the value of "One"[1] in the Sumerian, long anterior to
the formation of the Cadmean and "Semitic" Phœnician alphabets; and similarly Ā had
also this numeral value in Egyptian.[2] But none of the other Sumerian signs which are
disclosed to be the parents of the alphabetic letters appear to have possessed numeral
values in Sumerian except a very few, and these are not according to their "Phœnician"
values, thus I = 5 and U = 10.[3]
[1] See Dict. (WSAD.), and Br. 6542, 6549. It presumably derived this value as a
contraction for Aś, "one" or "ace," but it is given the equivalency of the Water-sign Ā,
i.e., the source of the letter A.
49
[2] See Dict. (WSAD.), and BD. 105a; and it is by the same Hand-sign as in the
Sumerian.
[3] Br. 12,193, 8677.
50
51
52
X.
AUTHORSHIP OF THE ALPHABETIC SYSTEM AND DATE
In the alphabetic system the signs or letters are used, not as in the old picture-
writing pictorially or ideographically for picturing ideas or "syllabically" in its usual sense,
but as mere tokens or counters to express the sound of each of the few elemental vowel
and consonantal sounds which are all that are necessary to spell out any word or
sentence.
The Sumerians from the earliest-known period, as we have found, employed in

their "syllabic" writing those particular signs with their "alphabetic" values generally,
which are now disclosed to be the parents of our alphabetic letters, that is to say, they
used the simple vowel signs to represent the vowel sounds, and the simple consonantal
"syllables" of one consonant, followed by a vowel necessary to sound it, to represent
the consonantal sounds, as regards those particular signs. But they did not often spell
out words by such simple "alphabetic" signs, but mixed these up with a greatly
preponderating number of syllabic signs, often containing two or more consonants.
Yet, sometimes the Early Sumerians appear to have spelt out a few of their
words alphabetically even in the earliest period. In the opening line of the oldest-known
historical Sumerian inscription engraved upon the famous votive stone-bowl of the
Priest-king Udug of the fourth millennium BC, the name of his great-grandfather, the
deified "Sumerian" Father-king with the Goat emblem of the Goths, otherwise styled In-
dara or In-duru, is spelt by three alphabetic signs as Za-ga-ga,[1] a name which it would
appear was intended to be read Zagg. For we find that this same deified Father-king's
name is spelt by the latter Sumerians by one syllable as Zakh or Zax, with a dialectic
variant of Sakh or Sax, a name which, under its Zagg or Zax form, I have shown to be
the Sumerian source of the Greek Father-god name of Zeus for Jupiter, the Sig title of
Thor or Andvara in the Eddas, and the Sakko title of Indra, the Indian Jupiter, in the
Pali.[2] This, therefore appears to represent the germ of the alphabetic system of
writing, but that it was not appreciated is evident by this and analogous polysyllabic
words being fused into one syllabic sign with more than one consonant. And no
progress towards alphabetic spelling is noticeable in the Sumerian period in
Mesopotamia.
[1] HOB. 108-9, Pl. 46.

[2] WPOB. 244 f.; 342 f., with illustrations from Early Sumerian Seals, WISD. 133 f.
In Egypt, from the First Dynasty of Menes and his Sumero-Phœnicians, when
hieroglyphs were first used there for continuous writing, a step towards the alphabetic
system was made in the frequent employment of consonantal syllabic word-signs in
spelling out words piecemeal by the initial consonantal sounds of these word-signs, the
remaining consonantal sounds if any being dropped. This was not a true alphabetic
system, as it employed a great number of totally different signs for the selfsame
consonant, and it was, besides, intermixed with syllabic writing. And owing to the innate
53
conservatism of the Egyptians in preserving intact their picturesque ancestral hieroglyph

writing, this mixed system continued unaltered down to the Roman period. Though side
by side with this, alphabetic letters in more or less their modern form were in use for
owner's marks on pottery, possibly amongst the purer Sumero-Phœnician colonists and
their descendants, just as the really alphabetic inscriptions of about the seventh century
BC onwards found at Abydos, Abu Simbel, etc. were inscribed by Phœnician, Carian
and other mercenaries or colonists. As apparently an exceptional occurrence, in the
nineteenth Dynasty (c. 1350-1200 BC) are found some alphabetic letter-signs for
continuous writing on "ostraka" or earthenware, but they are mixed with hieroglyphs and
"aphonic" signs.[1] The "hieratic" was a local cursive form of the hieroglyphs, several
hundreds in number, of which "only two" have been authoritatively admitted to resemble
decidedly alphabetic letters; and "demotic" was a further abbreviated form of the
hieratic.
[1] PA. 10 and frontispiece.
In Mesopotamia, in the post-Sumerian period, and in the "Akkad" rule of Sargon

and his successors, the Babylonian, Kassi and other dynasties and the Assyrians, no
attempt is evident at spelling words otherwise than syllabically, and usually by bi-
consonantal signs. And no indigenous alphabetic writing has been found in use there
until the very late date of about the fifth century BC, when writing in the "Semitic"
Phœnician or "Aramean" was used by merchants for keeping their accounts in their
business documents.
The origin of the alphabetic system of writing presumably arose amongst a

section of the Sumerian or Aryan race outside Mesopotamia, who wrote habitually in
linear style on parchment or wood with pen and ink, which tended to form a more
abbreviated and simpler cursive shape of the linear signs. One such community, I have
shown, was the Sumerian merchant colony in the Indus Valley, as evidenced by the
linear writing on their seals, which seals of the "stamp" type with linear style of writing
and their associated cultural objects generally resembled, as I remarked, those found in
Cappadocia and Cilicia-Syria of the Hittites.[1]
[1] WISD. 16 f; 117 f.
It is amongst these Hittites, or properly Khatti or "Catti" the clan-title of the

Ancient Briton kings, whom I have shown elsewhere to be a leading northern branch of
the Sumero-Phœnicians, that the tendency to spell Sumerian bi-consonantal signs by
two or more separate single consonantal signs first appears and becomes habitual.
This is evidenced by the great mass of tens of thousands of Hittite cuneiform tablets of
official and business records unearthed from the archives of the old imperial Hittite
capital at the modern Boghaz Koi, the Pteria of the Greeks, in the heart of Cappadocia,
and at numerous other ancient Hittite "dead" cities and Hittite and Amorite mining
settlements through-out Eastern Asia Minor and North Syria, dating from about 2400 to
1300 BC. The writing though classed as "cuneiform" consists of linear impressions
usually without any trace of a wedge-head at all. To Professor Pinches is due the credit
54
of first bringing to notice the peculiar features of this Hittite or Cappadocian style of
writing, and effecting the first decipherments through the Babylonian and Assyrian
cuneiform.[1]
[1] PBA. 1882, Cappadocian Tablets in the British Museum and Louvre. And cp. CMC.
109 f.
As seen in the great numbers of these tablets which have been published,[1] and
especially in their transliteration into "Roman" letters,[2] the Hittites (who, as shown by
Professor Hrozny, a chief decipherer and finder of the tablets, spoke an Aryan
language) were in the habit of splitting up nearly all the Sumerian bi-consonantal word-
signs so as to spell them by single consonantal signs, and the signs which they chiefly
employed for this purpose were those now disclosed to be the Sumerian parents of our
alphabetic letters. Thus the Sumerian word-sign Bar or Par "Fore or before"[3] they
spelt out with three signs as Pa-ra-a; the Sumerian Ba-dur, "Water,"[4] they spelt with
three signs as Ba-a-dar, Ba-a-tar or Wa-a-tar in series with our English "Water" and the
Greek Udor; their own tribal or national name Khat-ti as it is spelt in Sumerian they spelt
out as Kha-at-ti or Kha-ad-ti; their Sumerian Father-god name In-dara, the Andvara title
of Thor in the Eddas[5] they spelt In-da-ra and the god Uranos of the Greeks and the
Varuna of the Hindus, or "The Over-one,"[6] they spelt by five signs as U-ru-wa-na-as',
and so on.
[1] CCT., HBS., FBT., and by Pinches, Sayce and others.

[2] By Hrozny (HBS.), Forrer (FBT.), HN. and others.
[3] See Bar, Par, Fore, before in Dict. (WSAD.).
[4] See Badur, Water in Dict. (WSAD.).
[5] See Andara, Dar, Indara and Ia in Dict. (WSAD.); WPOB. 246, 315 f; 334 f; WISD.
22 f.
[6] See Bar and Uru in Dict. (WSAD.).
This mono-consonantal writing of the Hittites was clearly a great step towards an
alphabetic system, and we have seen that the Khad title of the Phœnicians was a
dialectic form of the Hittite national title Khat or Khatti which the Hittites often spelled
Kha-ad-ti. But so far no especially early alphabetic writing appears yet to have been
found in Hittite Asia Minor (including Phrygia) and North Syria that is usually ascribed to
before the seventh century BC, carved on rocks and monuments, and stamped on the
Cilician coins of the sixth century BC.[1]
[1] Cp. HCC. 51 f.
Now significantly, it is to this region, in its North Syria portion (which was essentially a
Hittite province and was habitually called by the Assyrians "Land of the hittites")[1] that
Sir F. Petrie is lead by quite another class of evidence to locate the origin of the
alphabetic system. Exploring the use of alphabetic letters as numerals according to
their position in the alphabet on the early coins, he finds the practice absent in Greece,
but the sites using this method are "very thick all down Syria [including Phœnician] and
55
scattered in Asia Minor, while there are scarcely any in Europe."[2] From this he
concludes "that in North Syria originated the first system of classification" and "that
Greece was indebted to North Syria for its alphabet"[3] And here it is noteworthy that
the Cappadocians are called "Syrians" by Herodotus,[4] and "White Syrians" by
Strabo,[5] and that "Syria" was a name for Asia Minor, the home of the Hittites.[6]
[1] See Budge, Hist. of Esarhaddon, 1881, pp. 103 f. and WPOB 274 f.
[2] PA. 19.
[3] Ib., 19.
[4] Herod. V., 49.
[5] Strabo, 542, 551-4.
[6] WPOB. 6, 12 f; 188, 195.
This new evidence thus suggests that the gifted scientist who invented the
epoch-making alphabetic system, by observing with rare genius that all the necessary
sounds for spelling words numbered no more than about 24 or so, and that the existing
Sumerian linear pictograms of those sounds in their most diagrammatic form then
current for domestic purposes were all that were needed for the rapid writing of any
word or sentence, was presumably a Hittite or Hitto-Phœnician, and thus an Aryan in
race. He would doubtless also be partly led to this conclusion by observing the clumsy
pseudo-alphabetic system with its 24 or so consonantal and vowel sounds long current
in Egypt, a land with which the Hittites and Phœnicians had long been in close relations
by commerce and intermarriage and invasion, not to speak of the Sumero-Phœnician
origin of the Early Egyptian civilization. Besides this, the old Hittite features present in
many of the early Cadmean alphabetic inscriptions, namely, that the opening line is
written in reversed direction, and that the plough-wise style of alternating directions as
in the Hittite hieroglyphs[1] is sometimes adopted, are also strongly suggestive of Hittite
influence. The Hittites or Khatti were the imperial suzerains of Asia Minor and Syria and
great traders, and were the blood-kinsmen of the Phœnician or Khad, with whom they
were confederated. Phœnicia itself, we have seen, was regularly called by the
Assyrians "The Land of the Hittites" and by no other title.[2] And the Phœnicians had
many of their chief mines in Hittite Asia Minor, and for them with their vast industries,
sea-trade and far-flung colonies, east and west, the invention of a rapid method of
writing for the keeping of their accounts and transacting their business was a very
pressing practical necessity.
[1] Also sometimes in Runes.

[2] And see WPOB. 5 f; 274 f.
The personality of this great inventor who thus boldly discarded the old outworn
syllabic system of writing with its cumbrous and intricate pictographic signs numbering
many hundreds, in favour of this simple alphabetic method with about 24 simple signs
seems after all to be found, in Cadmus, the great Phœnician sea-king and sea-emperor,
himself. He was the traditional introducer of alphabetic writing into the Ægean and
Greece, and if he were not actually the inventor himself it is strange that no other man
is traditionally associated with this epoch-making achievement. And significantly the
56
earliest-known alphabetic inscriptions belong to about the Cadmean epoch and no

earlier.
The date of King Kadmos or Cadmus-the-Phœnician, as I have shown

elsewhere,[1] was contemporary with the Trojan War, in which his father, King Agenor
of Tyre, as one of the leading heroes in the defence of Troy against the Achaian Greeks
in that great fight for the world empire, and was "in the foremost of the battle." In that
war a brother of Cadmus was also a Trojan hero who was killed by Achilles.[2] But
Cadmus himself appears to have been regent in Tyre during his father's absence in
Troy. That Cadmus was an adult at the time of the Trojan War is evident, not only from
his brother being one of the warrior-chiefs, but from the tradition that Cadmus's
daughter Ino saved Odysseus from shipwreck in the Ægean within a few years after the
Fall of Troy.[3]
[1] WPOB. 161 f.

[2] Homer's Iliad, 11. 59; 15. 340; 20. 474; 21. 579.
[3] Odyssey, 5. 333 f.
The date of the Trojan War and Fall of Troy is generally regarded as being "about
1200 BC." And as its immortal poet lived within about 400 years of that event, his
circumstantial traditions and genealogies of the leading human heroes are presumably
based to a considerable extent on genuine historical facts, and thus acceptable as fairly
trust-worthy. We thus obtain the date of "about 1200 BC" for Cadmus.
Now, the earliest-known alphabetic writing, both in the Cadmean and in the
reversed "Semitic" Phœnician script, dates, as we have seen, to about the end of the
twelfth century BC or the beginning of the eleventh century BC, which is in keeping with
the probability that the author of the alphabetic script was Cadmus. And Thera Island,
where the earliest hitherto known inscriptions in Cadmean writing in Europe are found,
was, with its strongly defensive landlocked harbour, traditionally colonized, as we have
seen, by Cadmus and his Phœnicians and successors in a long line of many centuries.
Here it should perhaps be mentioned that whilst the ancient Greeks ascribed the
introduction of the alphabet and its writing to King Cadmus the Phœnician several later
Greek and Latin writers, the agnostic Plato, Diodorus the Silician, Plutarch and
Tacitus[1] refer to a belief, perhaps a mere hypothesis, that the Phœnicians brought
their alphabet from Egypt. This has been supposed to be supported by a reference in
the fragmentary fabulous legend of a mythical Tyrian priest Sanchuniathon[2] stating the
inventor of letters was the Egyptian god Taaut or Thot surnamed "Thoor," and identified
by the Greeks with Hermes. This "Thoor" is now seen to be the first Sumero-Gothic
King Thor or The Asa Bur-Mioth who, as I have shown elsewhere,[3] was the historical
human original of Pro-Metheus, the traditional inventor of writing according to the
Greeks, as cited at the head of the opening chapter.
[1] Tacitus, Ann., 11. 14.

[2] Preserved by Eusebius. See Cory's Ancient Fragments, 9f.
57
[3] WSAD. See under Bur, Pur, Puru, "The As', or Lord, Bur, Pur or Puru-Mid, Lord-
Judge of the Land, The Compassionate Counsellor" of the Sumerians.
That alphabetic letters were not invented in Egypt is clear, as we have seen, from
the fact that true alphabetic writing is not found in Egypt, except amongst Phœnicians
and other foreign colonists of the post-Cadmean period. And of the supposed
derivation of alphabetic letters from the Egyptian hieroglyphs, it is now seen that only
one of M. de Rougé's hieroglyphs is represented in the alphabetic letters, and that one
with its name or phonetic value was borrowed from the Sumerian.
58
XI.
SOME HISTORICAL EFFECTS OF THE DISCOVERIES
The origin of our Alphabet and Alphabetic Writing -- one of the greatest and most
useful of human inventions -- has long been the subject of countless conjectures, but
has hitherto remained wholly unsolved. The new evidence now discloses by concrete
proofs that unknown origin, the meaning of the letters or signs, the objects that they
represent with their original names and meanings, and their racial authorship, which is
found to be not Semite, as hitherto supposed, but Aryan.
The letters of the Alphabet are found all unsuspectedly to be diagrammatic forms
of the old picture-writing of the Sumerians or Early Aryans for those word-signs which
possessed the single vowel and the single consonantal phonetic values of the
Alphabetic letters. And the author of the alphabetic system is seen to have belonged to
the same Aryan "Sumerian" race which evolved that earliest civilized picture-writing with
those phonetic values. The inventor of the alphabet is traced to the leading mercantile
and seafaring branch of the ruling Aryans or Sumerians, namely, the Hitto-Phœnicians;
and his personality appears to found in King Cadmus, the Phœnician sea-emperor of
about 1200 BC, after whom the Greeks named their early alphabetic letters.
The effect, therefore, of these constructive discoveries is destructive of the

current established theories of modern historians and philologists on the racial origin of
the Higher Civilization and of civilized writing, both hieroglyphic and alphabetic. it thus
necessitates a new re-orientation of the facts of Ancient History and of the History of our
Modern Civilization.
The Aryan Sumerian parentage and evolution of all the leading alphabets of the
world, ancient and modern, is displayed in the Plates. And the letters of our alphabet at
the present day are seen still to preserve more or less the characteristic features of their
Early Sumerian parent picture-writing.
It is seen that the Semites (including the Hebrew)[1] and the Hamites borrowed
their alphabetic letters from their Aryan overlords, along with the leading elements of the
Aryan civilization. This explains the remarkable and hitherto inexplicable unity in the
elements of the Ancient Civilizations. It thus affords further evidence for the conclusions
set forth in my previous works that Civilization is mainly a matter of Race, and that the
Higher Civilization is broadly Aryanization, through the culture evolved by our especially
gifted and scientific Aryan ancestors of the Northern fair long-headed race -- culture
evolved for the use of themselves and descendants and subjects and for the world in
general.
[1] Not represented in the Plates through want of space.
This leading part played by the Aryan race in the evolution of the Higher
Civilization, including the Alphabet, and the continued advance of Civilization especially
59
within that race and in the mixed latter-day peoples in which the Aryan element is
conspicuous, supports the theory of heredity and of Darwin's law of selection. It also
appears to indicate that man's higher destiny is being shaped largely by the Aryan racial
characters in his composition or in proportion to his assimilation of Aryanization. Just
as, on the other hand, the racial deficiency in the mental outfit of the African Bushmen
and the Australian aborigines rendered them impervious to Civilization.
The occurrence of alphabetic letters in Ancient Egypt, as owner's marks on

pottery of the Pre-dynastic and Early-Dynastic periods, is now explained by the newly
elicited facts that Menes, or Menes Aha, "the Warrior," the first of the Pharaohs, in
whose reign hieroglyphs are first used for continuous writing, was identical with Manis-
tusu or "Manis-the-Warrior," the famous son of Sargon-the-Great of Mesopotamia, who
himself was one of the "pre-dynastic" kings of Egypt; that the other signs supposed to
be "aphonic" which are used as owner's marks on the Early Egyptian pottery are mostly
Sumerian syllabic words-signs; and that the Egyptian Hieroglyphs with their word-
sounds and meaning are radically derived from the Sumerian or Early Aryan picture-
writing, as shown in these pages and in my Sumer-Aryan Dictionary.
The extraordinary current dogma that "there are no vowels in Egyptian" and that
the hieroglyph signs for a, ā, i, ī, and u are consonants can no longer be maintained.
The reason also for the frequent non-expression of the short vowel in the pseudo-
consonantal style of Egyptian spelling is disclosed to be due to the short vowel a being
inherent in each consonant for sounding it, as in the parent Sumerian letter-sign, just as
in the Aryan Sanskrit and Pali writing in which also the inherent vowel following the
consonant is not expressed. Nor can Egypt any longer be regarded as the seat of the
oldest and self-originated civilization of the world, or of having contributed any letter to
the alphabet.
The derivation of the Old Persian cuneiform alphabet from the Sumerian and its
relation to the Indian Pali and Sanskrit script is indicated for the first time.
The Brito-Phœnician writing of King Partolan of about 400 BC, with my

decipherment and reading of his inscription, in both its Phœnician and bilingual Ogam
version, is now fully established.
The so-called "Greek" alphabetic letters, excepting three later letters which do
not appear in our alphabet, are seen, as admitted by the Early Greeks themselves, to
be of non-Grecian origin and introduced by Phœnicians, now found to be Aryans in
race. And these letters occur on an Ancient Briton monument in the inscriptions of
Ancient Briton kings over five centuries before the earliest inscriptions found in Greece.
The so-called "Roman" letters also are found on this Ancient Briton monument
several centuries before the traditional foundation of Rome, and several additional
centuries before the date of any known Latin inscription; and are thus more British than
Roman. The Romans added no letters to the Cadmean Phœnician alphabet except the
redundant and ambiguous C, which they coined from the Cadmean G sign, and gave to
60
it unscientifically the double phonetic values of K and S, from which latter soft value it
has its modern English name is Si or Sī.
The Runic letters of the Goths, British Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, and
used by Cadmon or Cædmon, uniquely preserve very numerous archaic features of
their Sumerian parents, which indicate far remoter and more independent origin than
the Greek or Roman letters from which they have been supposed to be derived. This
significantly confirms the vastly remote antiquity of the great Gothic epics which the
Runic writing enshrines, namely, "The Eddas." These Eddas, I find, are not
mythological poems of Gothic "gods" as hitherto supposed, through their mutilated and
perverted Teutonic "translations" and "paraphrases"; but are the genuine historical
Gothic tradition, handed down in writing continuously through the ages on the rise of the
Aryans, Sumerians or Goths under King Heria, Thor or Ar-Thor, and of their struggles
and achievements in establishing the Higher Civilization in the Ancient World. They
also preserve ancient Sumerian names of persons and places in agreement with the
Sumerian monuments and early records, as shown in my forthcoming new, and for the
first time literal, translation of these epics as "The British Eddas" -- the most ancient
surviving epics in the world -- and their preponderating British words, indicating
admittedly their origin in Britain, are now shown to be much more numerous than
hitherto supposed.
In short, this new evidence from the Alphabet and its letters, in confirmation of
that detailed in the Sumer-Aryan Dictionary and in my previous works, now places the
identity of the Sumerians with the Early Aryans, and the Sumero-Phœnician origin of the
Britons and their Civilization, upon the solid foundation of concrete fact. It thus opens
up a new era in Ancient History and especially in the History of our Aryan Ancestors, the
Sumerians, the Khads, Kads, "Catti," Guti or Goths.
61
WWW.
RESI
STANCE2010.
COM

Waddell Aryan Origin of Alphabet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Waddell Aryan Origin of Alphabet

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Waddell Aryan Origin of Alphabet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WWW.

THE ARYAN ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET:

DISCLOSING THE SUMERO PHOENICIAN PARENTAGE OF OUR LETTERS

With Plates and Illustrations

Etext prepared by Susan Pixley <nymormon@yahoo.com>

Electronic manuscript © 2008 Cumorah Foundation. www.cumorah.com.

The Aryan Origin of the Alphabet

I. Sumer-Aryan Evolution of the Alphabet A-N

II. Sumer-Aryan Evolution of the Alphabet O-Z

1. The Formello Alphabet or ABC of about seventh century BC

2. Scientific order of Alphabetic Letters (as on a "Horn-book" board)

Abbreviations for References

1. Ancestry of the Alphabets re The Phoenicians

2. Alphabetic Letters in Pre-Dynastic and Early-Dynastic Egypt and Theories

3. How the Sumerian Origin of the Alphabet was Discovered

4. The Alphabetic Vowel and Consonantal Signs in Sumerian Writing

5. The So-Called "Aphonic Owner's Mark" Signs of Pre-Dynastic and Early-Dynastic

6. Comparative Alphabetic Tables Showing Sumerian Origin and Evolution of the

7. Individual Letters and Their Evolution from Sumerian Parents

8. Names of the Letters and Objects Pictured

9. Order of the Alphabet or ABC and Numeral Values of Letters

10. Authorship of the Alphabetic System and Date

11. Some Historical Effects of the Discoveries.

ABBREVIATIONS FOR REFERENCES

AC. Archæologia Cambrensis. 1846.

VD. Icelandic Dictionary. G. Vigfuseon, 1874.

THE ARYAN ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET

ANCESTRY OF THE ALPHABETS re THE PHŒNICINS

[1] For early reversed Cadmean, see later on.

The earliest-known instances of reversed or "Semitic" (or rather, according to the

[1] Revue, Syria, 1925, 101 f.

On the other hand, I have found on a "prehistoric" monument in Ireland

ALPHABETIC LETTERS IN PRE-DYNASTIC AND EARLY-DYNASTIC EGYPT

But fully-fledged "Phœnician" alphabetic letters of a period much earlier than

[1] PA. Pl. II-IV.

[1] Ib., 21.

Commenting on Professor Petrie's theory Mr. Clodd, in his excellent booklet on

HOW THE SUMERIAN ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET WAS DISCOVERED

THE ALPHABETIC VOWEL AND CONSONTAL SIGNS IN SUMERIAN WRITING

THE SO-CALLED "APHONIC OWNER'S MARK" SIGNS OF PRE-DYNASTIC AND

On examining, however, the list of these "Aphonic Owner's mark" signs in

COMPARATIVE ALPHABETIC TABLES SHOWING SUMERIAN ORIGIN &

only one of the Egyptian hieroglyphs supposed by M. de Rougé to be parents of our

[1] Herodotus, 2, 44 f; 4, 174 f; 5, 57 f.

It is also noteworthy that some of the Cadmus inscriptions at Thera, as at several

[1] Cp. TA. 2, 109.

[1] CAH. 2, 27.

[1] WPOB, 238 f; 255 f.

[1] After BIP. Pl. 2.

[1] WBT. 22, 149.

[1] See under Col. 14.

Col. 16. Brito-Phœnician cursive script of King Partolan-the-Scot, from the

[1] WPOB. 29 f and Pl. 1.

[1] Ib., 386 f.

[1] Ac 1, 471, Cawen-y-Beirdd, by W. Rees.

INDIVIDUAL LETTERS AND THEIR EVOLUTION FROM SUMERIAN PARENTS

[1] WISD., passim.

The one-legged A, as , , in Early Egypt as well as often in Greek and Latin

The normal two-legged A is found in the Cadmean Phœnician and generally

[1] Cp. VD. 2; and see WSAD. p. 19.