Retinal - Detachment Priciples and Practice 3rd Edition

Retinal Detachment
Ophthalmology Monographs
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1. Retinal Detachment: Principles and Practice, Third Edition

Daniel A. Brinton and C. P. Wilkinson
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RETINAL DETACHMENT
Principles and Practice
Third Edition
Daniel A. Brinton, MD, and C. P. Wilkinson, MD
Published by Oxford University Press

In cooperation with
The American Academy of Ophthalmology
1
2009
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brinton, Daniel A., 1955-
Retinal detachment : principles and practice / Daniel A. Brinton and C.P. Wilkinson. — 3rd ed.
p. ; cm. — (Ophthalmology monographs ; 1)
Rev. ed. of: Retinal detachment / George F. Hilton, Edward B. McLean, Daniel A. Brinton. 2nd ed. 1995.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-533082-3
1. Retinal detachment. 2. Retinal detachment—Surgery. I. Wilkinson, C. P.
II. Hilton, George F. Retinal detachment. III. American Academy of Ophthalmology.
IV. Title. V. Series.
[DNLM: 1. Retinal Detachment. W1 OP372L v.1 2009 / WW 270 B8585r 2009]
RE603.H543 2009
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Printed in the United States of America
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Preface
Originally written on assignment from the American Academy of Ophthalmology,

this monograph is now updated under ownership of Oxford University Press.
This edition constitutes a substantial reorganization with large amounts of new
material. It is a thorough revision with emphasis on conciseness.
Rather than document each point with specific references to the literature, a list
of Selected References is included at the end of each chapter for those who would
like to pursue further research.
The work is based on a review of the literature and on our personal experience.
We have attempted to acknowledge controversy where it exists, and to present
alternative points of view. The monograph is sufficiently brief to encourage cover-
to-cover reading, but it has a detailed table of contents and an index to facilitate
locating specific information. The book is not an all-inclusive treatise; rather, it is
intended as an introduction to retinal detachment for the ophthalmology resident
or as a concise review and reference manual for the practicing ophthalmologist.
Daniel A. Brinton, MD
C. P. Wilkinson, MD
vii
Contents
PART I Principles
1 History of Surgery for Retinal Detachment 3

Foundations of Retinal Detachment Surgery 3
Discovery of Retinal Detachment 3
Establishing the Etiology of Detachment 3
Gonin’s Detachment Repair 4
Development of Modern Surgical Procedures 5
Scleral Buckling 5
Cryopexy and Laser 5
Pneumatic Retinopexy 6
Vitrectomy for Retinal Detachment 6
Retinal Detachment Surgery Today 6
2 Pathogenesis, Epidemiology, and Natural Course of Retinal

Detachment 9
Types of Retinal Detachment 9
Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachments 9
Exudative Retinal Detachments 10
Tractional Retinal Detachments 10
Role of the Vitreous in Pathogenesis of Rhegmatogenous
Retinal Detachment 10
Vitreous Liquefaction 10
Myopia 11
ix
x Contents
Trauma 11
Infl ammation 12
Vitreous Detachment 12
Vitreoretinal Traction 14
Liquid Currents 15
Retinal Breaks 15
Primary and Secondary Breaks 16
Types of Breaks 16
Horseshoe tears 16
Operculated breaks 18
Atrophic holes 18
Dialyses 19
Postnecrotic holes 20
Retinal breaks due to proliferative diabetic retinopathy 21
Macular holes 22
Distribution of Breaks 22
Lesions Associated with Retinal Breaks 23
Congenital anomalies 23
Peripheral cystoid degeneration 25
Degenerative retinoschisis 25
Lattice degeneration 27
Epidemiology of Retinal Detachment 30
Variables Regarding Epidemiology 31
Age 31
Sex 31
Race 31
Heredity 31
Bilaterality 31
Systemic and Genetic Conditions Associated with Retinal
Detachment 32
Classification of Retinal Detachments 32
Pathology of the Detached Retina 33
Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy 33
Intraretinal Macrocysts 35
Demarcation Lines 36
Natural History of Untreated Detachment 36
Summary 37
3 Ophthalmoscopy 41
Characteristics of Indirect and Direct
Ophthalmoscopy 41
Differences in Visualization 41
Magnification and resolution 41
Field of view 43
Illumination 44
Stereopsis and depth of focus 45
Contents xi
Practical Advantages of the Indirect Ophthalmoscope 45

Opacities in the ocular media 45
Children and uncooperative adults 45
Working distance 46
Scleral depression 46
Role of Direct Ophthalmoscopy 46
The Indirect Ophthalmoscopic Image 46
Basic Indirect Ophthalmoscopy Techniques 46
Instrumentation 47
Choice of indirect ophthalmoscope 47
Adjusting the indirect ophthalmoscope 47
Choice of condensing lenses 48
Preparation of the Patient 49
Pupillary dilation 49
Dilation in infants 50
Medications to be avoided 50
Position of the patient 50
Keeping the other eye open and controlling eye movements 50
First Steps in Observing the Fundus 51
Holding the condensing lens 51
Bringing the fundus into view 52
Troublesome refl exes 53
Shifting from one part of the fundus to the next 54
Orientation and Drawing 55
Drawing the inverted image 57
Position of observer and lesion being examined 58
Fundus charts 58
Examination Through a Small Pupil 59
Circumstances presenting a narrow optical aperture 59
Indirect viewing systems 61
Using the indirect ophthalmoscope with a small pupil 62
Using the indirect laser with a small pupil 62
Scleral Depression 62
Purposes of Scleral Depression 63
Technique of Scleral Depression 63
Choice of depressor 63
Initiating scleral depression 64
Moving the axis of depression 66
Causes of discomfort 66
Scleral depression in the horizontal meridia 67
Scleral depression nasally 68
Examining the far periphery 68
Rolling the depressor 68
Sequence of scleral depression examination 70
Scleral Depression in the Operating Room 72
Summary 73
xii Contents
4 Evaluation and Management 75

Ocular Evaluation 75
History Relevant to Retinal Detachment 75
Flashes of light 75
Floaters 76
Visual fi eld defects 77
Decreased central acuity 78
Trauma 78
Ocular diseases 78
Systemic diseases 78
Family history 78
General Ocular Examination 79
Visual acuity 79
External examination 79
Ocular motility 79
Pupillary reactions 79
Anterior segment biomicroscopy 80
Tonometry 80
Retinal Examination 80
Binocular Indirect Ophthalmoscopy 80
Posterior Segment Biomicroscopy 81
Ancillary Tests 83
Perimetry 83
Ultrasonography 83
Laser test 84
Preparation for Surgery 85
Patient Counseling 85
Urgency of Surgery and Macular Detachment 86
Complicating Preexisting Conditions 88
Managing miosis 88
Corneal opacities 88
Cataract 88
Vitreous opacities 89
External disease 89
Glaucoma 89
Uveitis 89
Choroidal detachment 90
Health Management in Preparation for Surgery 90
Preparation for operating room procedures 90
Preparation for office procedures 91
Postoperative Management 91
Activity Restrictions and Positioning 91
Postoperative Medications 92
Follow-up Examinations 92
If the Retina Fails to Settle 92
Postoperative photocoagulation or cryopexy 92
Reoperation 94
Contents xiii
Chronic persistent subretinal fl uid 94

Summary 94
5 Establishing the Diagnosis 97

Fundus Changes Unrelated to Retinal Detachment 97
Choroidal vasculature 97
Ora serrata 98
Chorioretinal degeneration 100
Reticular pigmentary degeneration 100
Equatorial drusen 100
Cobblestone degeneration 100
Retinal whitening 103
Pars plana cysts 104
Retinal erosion 104
Pigment clumps 105
Hemiretinal differences 106
Fundus Changes Related to Retinal Detachment 106
Findings Suggestive of Retinal Detachment 106
Detection of Retinal Breaks 106
Distinguishing retinal breaks from retinal hemorrhage 108
Nonrhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment 116
Distinguishing Serous from Rhegmatogenous Detachment 116
Causes of Serous Retinal Detachments 119
Choroidal tumors with serous retinal detachment 119
Infl ammatory serous detachment 119
Vascular lesions with serous detachment 121
Congenital causes of serous detachment 121
Macular lesions with serous detachment 121
Distinguishing Tractional from Rhegmatogenous Detachment 121
Causes of Tractional Retinal Detachment 122
Lesions Simulating Retinal Detachment 122
Retinoschisis 122
Intraretinal macrocysts 123
Choroidal tumors 125
Vitreous opacities 125
White-with-pressure and white-without-pressure 125
Summary 126
PART II Practice
6 Prevention of Retinal Detachment 129

Risk Factors for Retinal Detachment 130
Symptomatic Eyes 131
Tears with Persistent Vitreoretinal Traction 131
Symptomatic horseshoe-shaped tears 131
xiv Contents
Symptomatic round tears 131

Breaks Unassociated with Persistent Vitreoretinal Traction 132
Symptomatic operculated retinal tears 132
Symptomatic atrophic retinal holes and precursors of retinal breaks 132
Asymptomatic Eyes 133
Asymptomatic Non-fellow Eyes at High Risk 133
Asymptomatic myopic non-fellow eyes 133
Asymptomatic nonphakic non-fellow eyes 133
Family history of retinal detachment 134
Stickler’s syndrome 134
Asymptomatic Precursors of Retinal Breaks without
High-Risk Features 134
Asymptomatic lattice degeneration 135
Asymptomatic cystic retinal tufts 136
Asymptomatic degenerative retinoschisis 136
Asymptomatic Retinal Breaks 136
Patients with Retinal Detachment in the Fellow Eye 137
Asymptomatic Phakic Fellow Eyes 137
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with lattice degeneration 137
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with cystic retinal tufts 139
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with degenerative retinoschisis 139
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with retinal breaks 140
Asymptomatic phakic eyes with a history of giant retinal tear in the
fellow eye 140
Asymptomatic Aphakic and Pseudophakic Fellow Eyes 140
Asymptomatic non-phakic fellow eyes with lattice degeneration 141
Asymptomatic non-phakic fellow eyes with retinal breaks 141
Asymptomatic non-phakic eyes with a history of giant retinal tear in the
fellow eye 142
Treatment to Prevent Retinal Detachment 142
Cryotherapy 142
Laser Photocoagulation 143
Results of Treatment 144
Flap tears 145
Retinal holes 145
Patients with previous retinal detachment in the fellow eye 145
Complications of Treatment 145
Summary 146
7 Scleral Buckling 149

Anatomical and Physiological Effects of Scleral Buckles 150
Pathophysiology of Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment 150
Reattachment Forces Influenced by Scleral Buckles 150
Principles of Scleral Buckling 151
Scleral Buckle Configuration 151
The Scleral Buckling Operation 153
Contents xv
Prep and Drape 153

Conjunctival Incision and Isolation of Rectus Muscles 154
Localization of Breaks 155
Thermal Treatment 156
Cryotherapy 156
Diathermy 158
Intraoperative laser photocoagulation 158
Buckling Materials 159
Segmental episcleral buckles 159
Encircling episcleral buckles 160
Thin Sclera 163
Intrascleral Buckles 163
Management of Subretinal Fluid 164
Non-drainage technique 165
Assuring perfusion of the central retinal artery 165
Drainage technique 166
Adjustment of Scleral Buckle 168
Accessory Techniques 169
Intravitreal injection of balanced salt solution 170
Intravitreal gas injection 170
Gas–fl uid exchange 171
Postoperative laser photocoagulation 171
Closure of Incisions 171
Common Complications of Scleral Buckling 172
Selected Intraoperative Complications 172
Corneal complications 172
Pupillary complications 172
Scleral perforation with suture needles 172
Complications of draining subretinal fl uid 173
“Fish-Mouthing” of retinal breaks 174
Complications of intravitreal gas injections 174
Selected Postoperative Complications 174
Increased intraocular pressure 174
Endophthalmitis 175
Later periocular infection and implant extrusion 176
Cystoid macular edema 177
Epimacular proliferation 177
Proliferative vitreoretinopathy 178
Recurrent retinal detachment 179
Altered refractive error 179
Strabismus 179
Summary 180
8 Pneumatic Retinopexy 181

Intraocular Gases 181
Choice of Gases 181
What size gas bubble is needed? 183
xvi Contents
How long should the bubble remain in the eye? 183

Why Gas Works 184
Preoperative Evaluation 185
Indications and Contraindications 186
Limits to Indications 186
Extent of breaks 186
Inferior breaks 187
Proliferative vitreoretinopathy 187
Cloudy media 187
Inability to maintain positioning 187
Glaucoma 187
Aphakia/pseudophakia 188
Relative Indications for Pneumatic Retinopexy 188
Retinal detachment imminently threatening the fovea 188
Macular holes and other posterior retinal breaks 188
Redetachment following scleral buckling 188
Filtering blebs 188
Isolated tears under the superior rectus 189
Contraindications to general anesthesia 189
Optic pit with macular detachment 189
Extensively scarred conjunctiva 189
Very thin sclera 189
Need to retain emmetropia or to prevent anisometropia 189
Cosmetic concerns 189
Operating room not available 189
Limited fi nancial resources 189
Operative Technique 190
Anesthesia 190
Retinopexy 190
Cryopexy versus laser 190
Sterilizing the Eye 191
Preparing the Gas 191
Making Room for the Gas 191
Paracentesis 192
Ocular massage 192
Injecting the Gas 193
After Gas Injection 195
Is the central retinal artery occluded? 195
Is a single gas bubble present or are there multiple small bubbles
(“fi sh eggs”)? 195
Is the bubble mobile within the vitreous or is it trapped at the injection site? 195
Special Procedures 196
Steamroller 196
Fish Eggs 197
Gas Entrapment at the Injection Site 198
Summary of Procedure 199
Postoperative Management 199
Contents xvii
Complications 200
Subretinal Gas 200
Iatrogenic Macular Detachment 200
New Retinal Breaks 200
Comparison with Scleral Buckling 201
Summary 203
9 Vitrectomy for Retinal Detachment 205

Vitrectomy Techniques for Routine Retinal
Detachments 206
External Steps of the Procedure 206
Prep and drape 206
Opening incisions 206
Internal Steps of the Procedure 207
Removal of vitreous gel 207
Installation of heavy perfl uorocarbon liquids 208
Identification and marking of retinal breaks 208
Internal drainage of subretinal fl uid 210
Air infusion 210
Laser treatment of retinal breaks 211
Placement of scleral buckle 211
Closure of sclerotomies and peritomies 212
Vitrectomy Techniques for Complicated Cases 212
Retinal Detachment and Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy 212
Vitrectomy for PDR and retinal detachment 214
Removal of fibrovascular PDR tissue 215
Treating retinal breaks in PDR 217
Retinal Detachment and Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy 217
Scleral buckle for PVR 219
Removal of vitreous 219
Removal of epiretinal PVR membranes 219
Retinotomy and retinectomy in PVR 221
Marking retinal breaks 222
Internal drainage of fl uid and vitreous replacement 222
Giant Retinal Tear 223
Results of Vitrectomy 226
Complications of Vitrectomy 226
Summary 227
10 Selection of Surgery for “Routine” Retinal

Detachment 229
Surgery for Common Types of Retinal Detachment 230
Scleral Buckling 231
Advantages of scleral buckling 232
Disadvantages of scleral buckling 232
Pneumatic Retinopexy 232
xviii Contents
Advantages of pneumatic retinopexy 232

Disadvantages of pneumatic retinopexy 233
Vitrectomy for Primary Retinal Detachment 233
Advantages of vitrectomy 233
Disadvantages of vitrectomy 233
Twelve Representative Cases 233
1. Quadrantic detachment with one break 234
2. Total detachment with one break 235
3. Detachment with multiple breaks at same distance from ora 236
4. Detachment with multiple breaks at different distances from ora 237
5. “Aphakic detachment” with multiple small ora breaks 238
6. Detachment with peripheral break and macular hole 239
7. Detachment due to macular break 239
8. Detachment with retinal dialysis 241
9. Detachment with giant break 241
10. Detachment with no apparent break 242
11. Detachment with outer-layer break in retinoschisis 243
12. Detachment with PVR 244
Algorithm for Choosing Surgery for Retinal Detachment 245
Conclusion 247
Index 249
PART I
Principles
1
History of Surgery
for Retinal Detachment
T
he evolution of the retinal reattachment operation is one of the most
remarkable chapters in the history of ophthalmology. Gonin’s operation
for repair of the detached retina ranks with Daviel’s cataract extraction,
von Graefe’s peripheral iridectomy, and Machemer’s vitrectomy as one of history’s
most important surgical treatments for blinding eye diseases.
FOUNDATIONS OF RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY
DISCOVERY OF RETINAL DETACHMENT

The entity of retinal detachment was recognized early in the eighteenth century
by de Saint-Yves, who reported the gross pathologic examination of an eye with a
detached retina. The fi rst clinical description did not appear until almost a century
later, in 1817, when Beer detected a retinal detachment without the benefit of an
ophthalmoscope. Von Helmholtz’s invention of the direct ophthalmoscope in 1851
was a giant step forward in diagnostic technique, and a rapid succession of oph-
thalmoscopic observations of retinal detachments soon followed. In the same year,
Coccius reported the ophthalmoscopic detection of breaks in the detached retina.
ESTABLISHING THE ETIOLOGY OF DETACHMENT

Von Graefe theorized in 1858 that retinal detachment was caused by a serous
effusion from the choroid into the subretinal space. When he observed a retinal
break, he assumed that it was secondary to the detachment and represented the
eye’s attempt to cure itself. Supposing that the development of a break would
3
4 I: Principles
allow the subretinal fluid to pass from the subretinal space into the vitreous cavity,
he attempted unsuccessfully to treat detachments with deliberate incision of the
retina.
Girard-Teulon invented the reflecting binocular indirect ophthalmoscope in
1861. This potentially important contribution was generally overlooked by the
profession, and more than 80 years transpired before Schepens developed the self-
illuminating binocular indirect ophthalmoscope.
In 1869 Iwanoff described the entity of posterior vitreous detachment, which is
now recognized as a prerequisite to the development of most retinal detachments.
The following year de Wecker suggested that retinal breaks cause detachment due
to the resultant passage of vitreous fluid through the break into the subretinal
space. Unfortunately, his accurate interpretation was not generally accepted. In
1882 Leber reported his observation of retinal breaks in 14 of 27 retinal detach-
ments, and he correctly inferred the role of vitreous traction in the pathogenesis of
breaks. Unfortunately, he later altered this opinion. In 1889 Deutschmann treated
a detachment by closing the retinal break with ignipuncture. However, the value
of this procedure was not appreciated at the time, and it was discarded for several
decades.
GONIN’S DETACHMENT REPAIR

Jules Gonin (1870–1935; Figure 1–1) investigated the works of Leber and became
convinced of the causal role of retinal breaks in the pathogenesis of retinal detach-
ment. Resurrecting Deutschmann’s surgical approach, Gonin treated retinal breaks
Figure 1–1. Jules Gonin, MD, 1870–1935, father of retinal detachment surgery. (Reproduced
with permission from Duke-Elder S, ed: Diseases of the Retina, vol. X of System of
Ophthalmology. St. Louis: CV Mosby Co; 1967.)
1: History of Surgery for Retinal Detachment 5
with a red-hot searing probe, which was plunged into the vitreous cavity. The
probe, manufactured for burning designs in wood, was obtained at a toy store.
He fi rst reported his results in 1923 and subsequently reported the surgical cure
of 20 of 30 cases of retinal detachment. With the publication of 34 papers in var-
ious journals over the ensuing years, and with the 1934 publication of his classic
text, Retinal Detachment, Gonin established his new treatment as the standard
of care, and he has rightfully become accepted as the father of retinal detachment
surgery.
Gonin’s procedure was markedly improved in the early 1930s when Weve and
Larsson independently developed the use of diathermy in place of the red-hot pen-
etrating technique. This provided a means of treating a wider area around retinal
breaks and avoided the need for ultra-precise localization of breaks required with
the Gonin technique. In 1933 Lindner treated retinal detachment by shortening
the axial length with a full-thickness scleral resection, an adaptation of the scleral
resection originally developed by Müller.
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SURGICAL PROCEDURES
SCLERAL BUCKLING
Scleral buckling was first described in 1937 by Jess, but this brief mention in the
literature was overlooked until Custodis developed the procedure 12 years later.
In 1949 Shapland supplanted Lindner’s full-thickness resection with a lamellar
scleral resection. Custodis’ segmental scleral buckle was extended by the develop-
ment of an encircling scleral buckle by Schepens in the early 1950s. His encircling
polyethylene tube was later replaced with silicone rubber to minimize the compli-
cation of scleral erosion. In the early 1960s Lincoff introduced the silicone sponge
for use with segmental buckles described by Custodis, and in 1979 he described
retinal reattachment with a temporary external balloon buckle.
In 1945 Schepens invented the modern binocular indirect ophthalmoscope,
augmented by the use of scleral depression originally introduced by Trantas; this
equipment and technique have represented the standard of care for scleral buckling
since the early 1950s.
CRYOPEXY AND L ASER

Although Bietti reported the use of cryosurgery for retinal detachment in 1933, it
was Lincoff who developed and popularized this valuable method in 1964. This
freezing technique minimizes damage to conjunctiva, muscle, and sclera, rendering
the dissection of scleral flaps unnecessary.
In 1956 Meyer-Schwickerath introduced xenon arc photocoagulation to achieve
a chorioretinal adhesion. Since an adhesive burn can only be obtained when an
attached retina is treated with photocoagulation, this therapy was originally
employed for conditions other than retinal detachment. However, the introduction
of lasers and vitrectomy techniques with intraoperative reattachment of the retina
and also pneumatic retinopexy (with laser applied after the retina is reattached)
6 I: Principles
has resulted in the laser being commonly employed in contemporary reattachment

surgery.
PNEUMATIC RETINOPEXY
First performed by Ohm in 1911, the use of intravitreal air injection for retinal
detachment was developed by Rosengren in 1938. Years later, Chawla, Fineberg,
Vygantas, Norton, and Lincoff brought intravitreal gas into common usage, com-
bined with or following scleral buckling or vitrectomy.
Pneumatic retinopexy is a gas injection procedure for retinal detachment, per-
formed in the office without scleral buckling, vitrectomy, drainage of subretinal
fluid, or conjunctival incision. In 1983 G. Brinton presented the fi rst cases, and
in 1985 Hilton and Grizzard published the fi rst report using the procedure they
named, “pneumatic retinopexy.” This procedure (and a similar one described con-
currently by Dominguez) modified Kreissig’s and Lincoff’s technique for treating
retinal tears in the posterior pole. Tornambe, Hilton, and others brought pneu-
matic retinopexy into the mainstream of retinal surgery.
VITRECTOMY FOR RETINAL DETACHMENT

A surgical approach to the vitreous, an important adjunct in selected cases of
retinal detachment, was pioneered by Shafer in 1950 with his method of vitre-
ous transplantation. This important branch of surgery was expanded by Cibis in
1962 with his introduction of intravitreal silicone oil injection. The development
of the vitreous infusion suction cutter (VISC) by Machemer in 1971 and the use
of intravitreal sulfur hexafluoride gas by Norton in 1973 further expanded the
role of vitreous surgery in the management of retinal detachment. In recent years,
improvements in vitrectomy instrumentation, the development of wide-angle
microscopic viewing systems, the use of perfluorocarbon liquids, and the develop-
ment of microincisional techniques have resulted in vitrectomy becoming a routine
contemporary procedure for the treatment of primary, as well as complex, retinal
detachment.
RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY TODAY

Three different surgical techniques are widely employed to reattach the retina:
scleral buckling, pneumatic retinopexy, and vitrectomy; these are discussed in
Chapters 7, 8, and 9, respectively. Although they are frequently single procedures,
a combination of techniques may be required in selected cases. A discussion of pre-
operative factors that may favor the selection of a particular technique is presented
in Chapter 10. Prevention of retinal detachment by treating selected lesions with
photocoagulation or cryopexy is discussed in Chapter 6.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Custodis E: Scleral buckling without excision and with polyviol implant. In: Schepens
CL, ed: Importance of Vitreous Body with Special Emphasis on Reoperations.
St Louis: CV Mosby Co; 1960:175–182.
1: History of Surgery for Retinal Detachment 7
Gonin J: Treatment of detached retina by searing the retinal tears. Arch Ophthalmol
1930;4:621–625.
Hilton GF, Grizzard WS: Pneumatic retinopexy—A two-step outpatient operation without
conjunctival incision. Ophthalmology 1986;93:626–640.
Jacklin HN: 125 years of indirect ophthalmoscopy. Ann Ophthalmol 1979;11:643–646.
Lincoff HA, McLean JM, Nano H: Cryosurgical treatment of retinal detachment. Trans
Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1964;68:412–432.
Machemer R, Buettner H, Norton EW, Parel JM: Vitrectomy: a pars plana approach.
Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1971;75(4):813–820.
Norton EWD: Intraocular gas in the management of selected retinal detachments. XXIX
Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol
1973;77:OP85–98.
Norton EWD: The past 25 years of retinal surgery. Am J Ophthalmol 1975;80:450–459.
Schepens CL, Hartnett ME, Hirose T: Schepens’ Retinal Detachment and Allied Diseases.
Second Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000:3–22.
Wilkinson, CP, Rice TM: Michels Retinal Detachment. St. Louis: Mosby; 1997:251–334.
2
Pathogenesis, Epidemiology,
and Natural Course of
Retinal Detachment
R
etinal detachment does not result from a single, specific disease; rather,
numerous disease processes can result in the presence of subretinal fluid.
TYPES OF RETINAL DETACHMENT

The three general categories of retinal detachments are termed rhegmatogenous,
exudative, and tractional. Rhegmatogenous detachments are sometimes referred
to as primary detachments, while both exudative and tractional detachments are
called secondary or nonrhegmatogenous detachments.
The three types of retinal detachments are not mutually exclusive. For exam-
ple, detachments associated with proliferative vitreoretinopathy or proliferative
diabetic retinopathy may exhibit both rhegmatogenous and tractional features.
However, excluding the section on differential diagnosis in Chapter 5, the scope of
this book is limited to rhegmatogenous retinal detachments. Accordingly, through-
out the book, the term retinal detachment refers to the rhegmatogenous type,
unless another type is specifically mentioned.
RHEGMATOGENOUS RETINAL DETACHMENTS

Rhegmatogenous detachments (from the Greek rhegma, meaning rent, rupture, or
fissure) are the most common form of retinal detachment. They are caused by a break
in the retina through which fluid passes from the vitreous cavity into the subretinal
space. The responsible break(s) can be identified preoperatively in more than 90%
of cases, but occasionally the presence of a minute, unseen break must be assumed.
9
10 I: Principles
EXUDATIVE RETINAL DETACHMENTS

Exudative detachments, also called serous detachments, are due to an associated
problem that produces subretinal fluid without a retinal break. This underlying
problem usually involves the choroid as a tumor or an inflammatory disorder.
TRACTIONAL RETINAL DETACHMENTS

Tractional detachments occur when pathologic vitreoretinal adhesions or mem-
branes mechanically pull the retina away from the pigment epithelium without a
retinal break. The most common causes include proliferative diabetic retinopathy,
cicatricial retinopathy of prematurity, proliferative sickle retinopathy, and pene-
trating trauma. Retinal breaks may subsequently develop, resulting in a combined
tractional and rhegmatogenous detachment.
ROLE OF THE VITREOUS IN PATHOGENESIS

OF RHEGMATOGENOUS RETINAL DETACHMENT
The essential requirements for a rhegmatogenous retinal detachment include a ret-
inal break and low-viscosity vitreous liquids capable of passing through the break
into the subretinal space. Vitreous changes usually precede development of impor-
tant defects in the retina. The usual pathologic sequence causing retinal detach-
ment is vitreous liquefaction followed by a posterior vitreous detachment (PVD)
that causes traction at the site of significant vitreoretinal adhesion with a subse-
quent retinal tear. Fluids from the vitreous cavity then pass through the tear into
the subretinal space (Figure 2–1), augmented by currents within the vitreous cav-
ity caused by rotary eye movements. Although a total PVD is usually seen, many
detachments occur with partial vitreous detachment, and evidence of posterior
vitreous detachment may not be seen.
Any ocular condition associated with an increased prevalence of vitreous lique-
faction, posterior vitreous detachment, or an increased number or extent of vit-
reoretinal adhesions and traction is likely to be associated with a higher incidence
of retinal detachment. As will be discussed later, most eyes with retinal breaks do
not develop retinal detachment because existing physiologic forces are sufficient to
hold the retina in place.
VITREOUS LIQUEFACTION
In early life, the vitreous body is a homogeneous gel consisting of a network of col-
lagen fibrils separated from one another by macromolecules of hyaluronic acid. The
density of fibrils is relatively higher near the retina, called the vitreous cortex, but
is highest at the vitreous base, the zone of fi rm anterior vitreoretinal attachment.
Aging of the human vitreous (synchisis senilis) is characterized by liquefaction
of the gel and the development of progressively enlarging pools of fluid (lacu-
nae) within the gel. These optically empty liquid spaces continue to coalesce
with advancing age, and extensive liquefaction within the vitreous cavity leads
2: Pathogenesis, Epidemiology, and Natural Course 11
Figure 2–1. Classic pathogenesis of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. An acute posterior

vitreous separation causes traction on a vitreoretinal adhesion (white arrow), and this results
in a retinal tear. Liquids in the vitreous cavity then gain access to the subretinal space via the
opening in the retina (black arrow).
to both a reduction in the shock-absorbing capabilities and the stability of the gel
(Figure 2–2). Accelerated vitreous liquefaction is associated with significant myo-
pia, surgical and nonsurgical trauma, intraocular inflammation, and a variety of
additional congenital, inherited, or acquired ocular disorders.
Myopia
There is abundant evidence that the vitreous gel in myopic eyes has a substantially
increased liquid component compared to emmetropic and hyperopic eyes. This is
associated with reduced vitreous viscosity and stability.
Trauma
Significant blunt or penetrating trauma can damage the vitreous or retina and cause
immediate or late changes that increase the odds of subsequent retinal detachment.
Blunt trauma can cause accelerated vitreous liquefaction, as well as retinal tears,
dialyses, or postnecrotic holes. In eyes with penetrating trauma, dense fibrocellular
bands may develop within the vitreous gel and result in traction causing retinal
breaks and detachment.
Surgical trauma may contribute to changes in the vitreous that increase the
likelihood of retinal detachment. Because the posterior capsule is left intact in the
majority of modern cataract operations, the vitreous remains relatively undamaged
following uncomplicated surgery. However, subsequent posterior capsulotomy by
Nd:YAG laser accelerates the loss of hyaluronic acid, increasing the incidence of vit-
reous liquefaction and detachment and subsequent retinal tears and detachment.
12 I: Principles
A B
Figure 2–2. Dark-field illumination of the human vitreous. Specimens were obtained by peeling
off the sclera, choroids, and retina. (Courtesy of Jerry Sebag, MD.) (A) A clear central vitreous
is demonstrated in a 33-week gestational age human embryo. This is due to the homogeneous
distribution of collagen and hyaluronan, which minimizes light scattering. (B) The vitreous
from an 88-year-old patient. There is an overall reduction in size and a collapse of the shape of
the vitreous body. Within the vitreous, a dissociation of collagen from hyaluronan has occurred,
resulting in pockets (“lacunae”) of liquid vitreous and thickened fibers of collagen.
Inflammation
Intraocular inflammation may predispose to retinal detachment by causing vitre-
ous liquefaction and detachment or by the development of transvitreal membranes,
particularly cyclitic membranes. In addition, retinitis can cause severe retinal thin-
ning and associated vitreous liquefaction.
VITREOUS DETACHMENT
Vitreous detachment, usually termed posterior vitreous detachment (PVD), usu-
ally occurs as an acute event following significant liquefaction of the vitreous gel.
The precipitating event is probably a break in the posterior cortical vitreous in the
region of the macula, followed by the passage of intravitreal fluid into the space
between the cortical vitreous and retina (Figure 2–3). Characteristically, this rapid
movement of fluid and the associated collapse of the remaining structure of the gel
result in extensive separation of the vitreous gel from the retina posterior to the
vitreous base, especially in the superior quadrants.
As the vitreous detaches from around the disc, it may pull loose a glial annulus
(Weiss’ ring), which the patient may see as a prominent floater near the visual axis.
This is generally considered to be pathognomonic for posterior vitreous detachment
(Figure 2–4). With collapse of the vitreous gel, the remaining formed vitreous assumes
a position in the inferior aspect of the globe. Because the vitreous remains firmly
attached anteriorly, the pull of the collapsed gel frequently creates a fine circumfer-
ential retinal fold or ridge near the ora at the posterior limit of the vitreous base.
As noted above, the incidence of vitreous detachment is age related. In one
study, slit-lamp examination revealed that 65% of patients older than 65 had vit-
reous detachment. However, vitreous surgical experience has shown that PVD is
frequently misdiagnosed, and in a large series of autopsy eyes, only 22% of eyes
Figure 2–3. The rapid evolution of a posterior vitreous detachment usually occurs when
pockets of liquid in the posterior vitreous gel break through the posterior cortex of the vitreous,
separating it from the underlying retina (black arrows).
Figure 2–4. Clinical photograph of a midvitreal annular opacity (Weiss’ ring), which is due to
the posterior cortical vitreous separating from the optic nerve.
had vitreous detachment by age 65. This number increased to 60% by age 75.
Complete and incomplete PVD may cause vitreoretinal traction sufficient to create
a retinal break.
The classic symptoms associated with a PVD are the sudden appearance of “float-
ers” and “flashes.” The former are due to shadows cast by the suddenly collapsed gel,
14 I: Principles
vitreous hemorrhage, or glial tissue. Flashes are termed photopsias and appear to be
due to vitreoretinal traction. The chance of a retinal tear due to PVD in eyes with
these sudden symptoms is approximately 15% to 25%, and there is a direct relation-
ship between the amount of vitreous hemorrhage and the likelihood of a tear.
VITREORETINAL TRACTION
Following complete or partial PVD, gravitational traction forces are important
and are probably responsible for the predominance of retinal tears in the superior
quadrants. However, rotational eye movements, which exert strong forces on all
vitreoretinal adhesions, are also important causes of vitreoretinal traction. When
the eye rotates, the inertia of the detached vitreous gel causes it to lag behind the
rotation of the eye wall and the retina. The retina at the site of a vitreoretinal
adhesion exerts force on the vitreous gel, causing the adjacent vitreous to rotate
(Figure 2–5). The vitreous gel, because of its inertia, exerts an equal and opposite
force on the retina, and this can cause a retinal break or separate the retina fur-
ther from the pigment epithelium if a break is already present. When the rotational
eye movement stops, the vitreous gel continues its internal movement and exerts
vitreoretinal traction in the opposite direction.
Figure 2–5. Rotational eye movements cause vitreoretinal traction. When the eye rotates (large
arrow), the detached vitreous gel lags behind the rotation of the eye wall and the retina. The
retina at the site of a vitreoretinal adhesion exerts force on the vitreous gel, causing the adjacent
vitreous to rotate (arrow). The vitreous gel exerts an equal and opposite force on the retina,
causing a retinal break or separating the retina further from the pigment epithelium if a break
is already present. Liquid currents within the vitreous gel aggravate the movement of the gel,
whereas those in the subretinal space promote extension of the subretinal fluid (arrows).
In addition to gravitational and inertial forces, vitreoretinal traction can be

caused by contracture of intraocular fibroproliferative tissue associated with retinal
vascular proliferative disorders, trauma, and other conditions. This type of traction
does not always create a retinal break. Instead, a traction retinal detachment may
be produced, and there are classical features that frequently distinguish this type of
detachment from the rhegmatogenous variety (see Chapter 5, page 116). Sometimes
significant vitreoretinal traction initially causes a localized traction detachment
that later becomes more extensive due to the development of a retinal break.
In the normal adult eye, the vitreous adheres firmly to the retina at the vitreo-
retinal symphysis, or vitreous base. The zone of fi rm attachment is only 3 or 4 mm
wide and straddles the ora serrata. A less firm adhesion of cortical vitreous to the
retina is located around the optic disc and surrounding the macula.
Occasionally, a tongue of vitreoretinal adhesion extends posteriorly from the
vitreous base as far as the equator. These invisible lesions are responsible for
most horseshoe tears, but they are usually not apparent until the tear develops.
Vitreoretinal attachment and traction are also found along retinal vessels and are
accordingly termed vitreovascular attachments. This accounts for the frequent
clinical presentation of a retinal tear with a vitreous hemorrhage and supports the
clinical dictum that a vitreous hemorrhage implies a retinal tear until proven oth-
erwise. Pathologic adhesions frequently occur at the margin of a patch of lattice
degeneration or at the site of previous chorioretinal inflammation.
LIQUID CURRENTS
Continued flow of liquid vitreous through a retinal break into the subretinal space
is necessary to maintain a rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, because subretinal
fluid is continually absorbed from the subretinal space. This flow is encouraged by
rotary eye movements that cause liquid currents in the vitreous to dissect beneath
the edge of a retinal break into the subretinal space (Figure 2–5). Eye movements
also have an inertial effect causing liquid currents in the subretinal fluid, and these
favor extension of the retinal detachment.
RETINAL BREAKS
Most retinal breaks do not lead to clinical retinal detachment. Several studies of
eye bank eyes and nonselected clinical patients’ eyes have revealed a 5% to 7%
prevalence of retinal breaks in the general population. Most of these breaks are
small atrophic holes covered by the vitreous base near the ora, and they carry a
low risk of subsequent retinal detachment. Equatorial horseshoe tears, which are
associated with higher risk, are much less common.
A break in the retina is an essential feature of rhegmatogenous retinal detach-
ment. In addition, liquid in the vitreous cavity must have access to the break. If
retinal breaks and posterior vitreous detachment are common, why does clinical
detachment of the retina occur so infrequently? Whether or not significant fluid vit-
reous passes through a retinal break depends upon the balance of forces acting at the
16 I: Principles
edge of the break. Forces normally responsible for maintaining retinal attachment
include negative pressure in the subretinal space created by the metabolic pump of
the retinal pigment epithelium and the relatively higher oncotic pressure in the cho-
roid, interdigitation of the pigment epithelial cell processes and the outer segment
of photoreceptors, and mucopolysaccharide “glue” between the pigment epithelium
and the sensory retina. Retinal detachment occurs when forces favoring adherence of
the retina are overwhelmed by forces promoting an accumulation of subretinal fluid.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BREAKS

Retinal breaks are termed primary when they are responsible for the production
of the detachment. They are termed secondary when they are present preopera-
tively but are not responsible for the detachment and are subsequently lifted up
by subretinal fluid. Secondary breaks also include those that develop in the retina
after it detaches. There have been a few rare cases of secondary breaks appearing
at the edge of paving-stone degeneration. Secondary breaks have also been seen
at the site of old chorioretinal scars resulting from either inflammation or photo-
coagulation. A secondary break can also occur at the time of photocoagulation if
excessive power is used. All breaks, both primary and secondary, should be treated
at the time of surgery.
TYPES OF BREAKS
Retinal breaks may be subdivided into tears, holes, and dialyses (Table 2–1). Tears
are produced by traction on the retina, whereas holes are due to a gradual thin-
ning of the retina (Figure 2–6). Tears usually occur suddenly, with the retina fre-
quently appearing completely normal before the acute event. Atrophic holes appear
to develop slowly, whereas traumatic dialyses probably occur acutely. Most breaks
causing retinal detachment are associated with vitreoretinal traction in the vicinity
of the break(s). Dialyses usually feature traction on the retina immediately poste-
rior to the break, and if traction is confi ned to the retina anterior to the dialysis, a
giant tear is more likely to evolve.
Horseshoe tears
Also referred to as fl ap or U-shaped tears, horseshoe tears occur in most cases at
the irregular posterior margin of the vitreous base during posterior vitreous detach-
ment. The flap thus remains adherent to the posterior vitreous surface following
Table 2–1. Retinal Breaks

Type Cause Shape Usual Location Onset
Tear
Horseshoe Tractional Flap Superior (esp. temporal) Acute
Operculated Tractional Round Superior (more posterior) Acute
Hole Degenerative/atrophic Round Temporal Gradual
Dialysis Traumatic or familial Linear Inferotemporal Acute
A B
C D
E F
Figure 2–6. Vitreoretinal relationships associated with retinal breaks. (A) Horseshoe tear with
flap adherent to posterior cortical vitreous. (B) Tear with free operculum adherent to detached
cortical vitreous. (C) Atrophic hole within lattice degeneration. (D) Retinoschisis with holes in
inner and outer layers producing retinal detachment. (E) Retinal dialysis with vitreous adherent
to the posterior edge of the break. (F) Retinal dialysis with vitreous adherent to the anterior
edge of the break (giant retinal tear).
the creation of a tear (Figures 2–6A, 2–7). Essential conditions for the production
of a horseshoe tear are a preexisting vitreoretinal adhesion and traction applied to
this point via the vitreous. Because of the associated vitreous traction, flap tears
frequently lead to detachment. Horseshoe tears are most common in middle age
and appear most often near the equator of the eye.
18 I: Principles
Figure 2–7. Horseshoe tear with flap adherent to posterior cortical vitreous.
Operculated breaks
Operculated breaks are technically tears because free opercula are produced by a
mechanism identical to the one involved in horseshoe tears. However, the flap has
been torn free from the retina at the anterior edge of the flap; therefore, the oper-
culum is separated from the retina and adheres to the posterior hyaloid membrane
(Figure 2–6B and 2–8). Because the vitreoretinal traction is usually no longer
adherent to the surrounding retina, operculated retinal breaks very rarely lead to
retinal detachment unless vitreoretinal traction persists in the vicinity of the tear.
The breaks are caused by isolated areas of vitreoretinal adhesion and are not
contiguous to the vitreous base. Operculated retinal breaks tend to be more pos-
terior than horseshoe tears, and occasionally an operculated break is found poste-
rior to a horseshoe tear in the same meridian.
Atrophic holes
Atrophic holes are due to the gradual thinning of the retina, often in association
with lattice degeneration (Figure 2–6C and 2–9). These small holes occur in the
middle of the lattice patch and are distinguished from the retinal tears that occur
in full-thickness retina at the margin of the lattice patch. The holes are due to
atrophy, but the tears are related to vitreoretinal adhesions, which are universally
found at the margin of lattice patches. Still, a progressive accumulation of subreti-
nal fluid is usually due to vitreoretinal traction on the lattice lesions containing
atrophic retinal holes.
Retinoschisis is frequently accompanied by atrophic holes. Inner-layer holes are
generally small and difficult to see. Outer-layer holes, which are larger and there-
fore more easily seen, are much more significant in the pathogenesis of retinal
detachment (Figure 2–6D).
Figure 2–8. Operculated tear with free operculum adherent to detached cortical vitreous.
Figure 2–9. Atrophic retinal hole associated with chorioretinal scarring in the midperiphery.
Atrophic holes sometimes occur in diffuse chorioretinal atrophy, such as in

the equatorial zone of the highly myopic eye (Figure 2–9). In rare instances, they
are caused by the rupture of a cystoid space in peripheral cystoid degeneration.
However, in these cases, the holes seldom produce retinal detachments, because
those at the extreme periphery are usually covered by the base of the vitreous.
Dialyses
A retinal dialysis is a circumferential linear tear, the anterior margin of which is
at or near the ora serrata (Figure 2–6E and 2–10). The retina is thinnest and least
20 I: Principles
Figure 2–10. Inferior retinal dialysis. (Courtesy of H. Richard McDonald, MD.)
developed at the ora, especially in the inferior temporal quadrant. Dialyses occur
at any age, but they are particularly common in youth—hence the well-known
clinical entity of inferior temporal dialysis of the young.
About 75% of retinal breaks that occur after blunt ocular trauma are retinal
dialyses. The dialysis is thought to result from the marked deformation of the
globe, which, in association with the relatively inelastic vitreous base, tears the
peripheral retina.
A pathognomonic sign of trauma, avulsion of the vitreous base, is sometimes
seen in these cases. This constitutes a circumferentially torn ribbon of the nonpig-
mented epithelium of the pars plana and the peripheral retina. The ribbon with its
adherent vitreous tends to drape down over the peripheral retina.
Penetrating trauma often causes a dense vitreous band to form along the track
of the injury, and the band may contract, which subsequently detaches the retina.
In dialyses, the vitreous gel generally remains adherent to the posterior edge of the
torn retina, where it exerts some degree of vitreoretinal traction. In this regard, dial-
yses are different from the vast majority of other retinal tears in which the vitreous is
attached to the anterior flap. A dialysis occurring in association with vitreous attached
to the anterior flap (Figure 2–6F) behaves much differently than a routine dialysis,
and such cases frequently extend to become giant retinal tears (Figure 2–11).
Postnecrotic holes
Postnecrotic holes are breaks that develop following retinitis or trauma.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common cause of infectious retinitis in immunolog-
ically deficient patients, such as patients on immunosuppressive therapy, fetuses in
utero, and patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Patients
with poor immune function due to AIDS may develop CMV retinitis, and of those
who do, retinal detachment occurs in about 17%. These detachments typically
Figure 2–11. Giant retinal tear. (Courtesy of H. Richard McDonald, MD)
Figure 2–12. Retinal detachment associated with CMV retinitis. Retinal breaks typically occur
near edges of atrophic retinal scars. (Courtesy of J.P. Dunn, MD.)
are associated with multiple tiny postnecrotic holes in the thin areas of previous
inflammation (Figure 2–12).
Similar findings may be present with other forms of infectious retinitis, such as
the acute retinal necrosis (ARN) syndrome. Postcontusional retinal necrosis with
breaks also may develop following blunt trauma.
Retinal breaks due to proliferative diabetic retinopathy

Vitreous changes are instrumental in the production of atypical holes causing rheg-
matogenous retinal detachment in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Numerous
vitreoretinal adhesions form before separation of the posterior hyaloid, which typ-
ically occurs slowly, as opposed to senescent PVD. As the vitreous detaches, the
22 I: Principles
retina may be focally elevated as a traction retinal detachment. Occasionally, the

retina splits, producing secondary retinoschisis, especially along retinal vessels.
Progression of this process may produce retinal breaks, which are usually
located just anterior to the margin of the vitreous separation (Figure 2–13). The
typical rhegmatogenous detachment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy starts
as a detachment of the posterior retina with small traction-related breaks, from
which the retinal detachment subsequently spreads anteriorly to the equator or
even the ora serrata.
Macular holes
Macular holes may be traction-induced or atrophic, operculated or nonopercu-
lated. Gass has postulated that they often develop as a result of tangential traction
from the vitreous cortex at the margins of the foveal pit, although other studies
have demonstrated a “micro” or “partial” PVD as being responsible. Macular
holes may also be degenerative or may result from coalescence of intraretinal
cystoid spaces. Trauma may also induce macular holes. The rare macular breaks
that produce detachments are usually associated with high myopia or trauma
(Figure 2–14).
DISTRIBUTION OF BREAKS
The distribution of retinal breaks throughout the quadrants of the fundus is dif-
ferent for each type of break. Horseshoe tears are most common in the superior
temporal quadrant; the second most susceptible site is the superior nasal quad-
rant. Operculated tears are also located most frequently in the superior quadrants,
although they tend to occur more posteriorly than horseshoe tears. Atrophic retinal
breaks are also usually located in the superior temporal quadrant, but the second
Figure 2–13. Retinal detachment associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. The retinal
break is not visible, but it lies just peripheral to a site of vitreous traction upon fibrovascular
tissue.
Figure 2–14. Retinal detachment associated with a macular hole in a highly myopic eye.
most common quadrant is the inferior temporal. Dialyses are found most fre-
quently in the inferior temporal quadrant (Table 2–1). The preponderance of supe-
rior temporal breaks in adults is not seen in juveniles because of the relatively high
incidence of inferior temporal dialyses among youths (Table 2–2; Figure 2–15).
In one large series of retinal breaks, 12% were found near the ora, 28% between
the ora and the equator, 45% near the equator, 14% posterior to the equator, and
1% at the macula. In the typical pseudophakic detachment, one or more small
retinal breaks are seen near the ora along the posterior margin of the vitreous
base, whereas equatorial breaks are more common in phakic eyes (Table 2–3). In
approximately 50% of retinal detachments, there is only one break. When there
are multiple breaks, they are found to be within 90 degrees of one another in 75%
of the affected eyes.
LESIONS ASSOCIATED WITH RETINAL BREAKS

Congenital anomalies and peripheral cystoid degeneration rarely lead to clinically
significant retinal breaks. Although inner- or outer-layer breaks may develop in
degenerative retinoschisis, it is the outer-layer breaks that occasionally produce a
clinical detachment of the retina. Retinal breaks with lattice degeneration are com-
mon, although the great majority of these breaks do not lead to retinal detachment.
Still, the condition is sufficiently common that 20% to 30% of retinal detachments
are associated with lattice lesions. Most retinal tears that cause retinal detachment
occur where vitreoretinal adhesions are invisible and the retina appears normal
before vitreous detachment.
Congenital anomalies
Peripheral retinal variations may be associated with vitreoretinal adherence and
traction. Cystic retinal tufts (congenital retinal rosettes, granular patches, and
24 I: Principles
Table 2–2. Retinal Break Location vs. Age

Age Typical Location of Breaks
<20 Temporal
>40 Superior
Superotemporal Superonasal
50 47% 50
41%
40 40
36%
Percentage
30 30
26% 26%
20 20 20%
10 10
Age Age Age Age Age Age

1–20 21–39 40+ 1–20 21–39 40+
50 50
40 37% 40
Percentage
30 30
24%
20 19% 20
10 10 9% 8%
7%
Age Age Age Age Age Age

1–20 21–39 40+ 1–20 21–39 40+
Inferotemporal Inferonasal
Figure 2–15. Quadratic distribution of retinal breaks by age group.
glial spheres) and zonular traction tufts display such attachment, so that a retinal
tear may be produced with or without posterior vitreous detachment. Cystic reti-
nal tufts frequently lie posterior to the vitreous base, and as visible sites of vitreo-
retinal adhesion, they are important locations at which tears occur.
Table 2–3. Distribution of Retinal Breaks

Lens Status Typical Location Type of Break
Phakic Equatorial Horseshoe
Pseudophakic or aphakic Near ora Small; round or horseshoe
Peripheral cystoid degeneration

Peripheral cystoid degeneration, occasionally seen in youth, is virtually uni-
versal in the far periphery of the senescent eye (Figure 2–16). Minimal cystoid
degeneration is normally located immediately posterior to the ora serrata, and
in more advanced cases it might extend as far posterior as the equator. This
ubiquitous finding is generally insignificant. In rare cases both the inner and the
outer layers of a cyst rupture, creating a through-and-through retinal hole. The
hole seldom leads to detachment because it is frequently covered by the vitreous
base.
The cystic process begins in the outer plexiform layer but with enlargement
can extend from the inner to the outer limiting membranes, with stretching of
the Müller cell fibers that bridge the cystic space. When the stretched glial fibers
give way, a frank splitting of the retina, referred to as degenerative retinoschisis,
is produced.
Degenerative retinoschisis
Degenerative retinoschisis results from the progression of peripheral cystoid degen-
eration and is usually bilateral. As the glial septa rupture and the small cysts coa-
lesce, a splitting occurs (Figure 2–6D and 2–17). Approximately 5% of the adult
population has been found to have retinoschisis, generally of the flat type. The
splitting may occur in any quadrant but is most common in the inferior tempo-
ral quadrant. Although splitting might extend posteriorly toward the macula, the
most frequent avenue of extension is by circumferential progression around the
periphery.
The inner layer of the bullous schisis cavity is extremely thin and characteris-
tically exhibits multiple white flecks of uncertain etiology known as snowfl akes.
Blood vessels coursing over the dome of the retinoschisis frequently become scle-
rotic and are recognized by their white color. Inner-layer breaks are difficult to
visualize with the ophthalmoscope; they tend to be multiple and are relatively
small. The less common outer-layer break is more readily seen ophthalmoscopi-
cally because it tends to range from 1 to 5 disc diameters in size and is often found
posterior to the equator (Figure 2–17).
The outer layer usually remains adherent to the retinal pigment epithelium, and
the rods and cones may be relatively well preserved though synaptically disconnected.
As in peripheral cystoid degeneration, a mucopolysaccharide substance exists within
the schisis cavity that has been found to be sensitive to hyaluronidase.
When retinoschisis produces a retinal detachment, the subretinal fluid is derived
from both the schisis and the vitreous cavities. The outer-layer breaks are usually
A
Figure 2–16. Peripheral cystoid degeneration. (A) Gross photograph of peripheral distribution
immediately posterior to the ora serrata. (B) Photomicrograph. Cystoid spaces typically develop
in the outer plexiform layer. (Courtesy of Hans E. Grossniklaus, MD.)
Figure 2–17. Retinal detachment associated with retinoschisis. Three large outer layer holes
(with rolled edges) are responsible. (Courtesy of H. Richard McDonald, MD.)
26
visible, but there may be tiny inner-layer breaks that are not clinically detectable.
Outer-layer breaks are required for the development of detachment. Such detach-
ments do not depend on the presence or absence of inner-layer breaks.
Lattice degeneration
Lattice degeneration is the most important visible lesion associated with subsequent
retinal detachment. It initially involves the vitreous cortex and the inner layers of
the retina (Figure 2–6C). As the lesion progresses, the outer layers also become
involved, and there may be sufficient thinning to cause through-and-through reti-
nal holes (Figure 2–18).
The most consistent ophthalmoscopic feature of lattice degeneration is a cir-
cumscribed patch of excavation of the inner retinal surface. The patch is generally
circumferential, oblong, and equatorial or pre-equatorial. Lattice degeneration
varies in extent from a single isolated patch to almost continuous lesions around
the equatorial zone of all four quadrants. There is usually just one plane of involve-
ment between the ora and the equator, but occasionally there are two or three par-
allel rows, or tiers, of circumferentially oriented lattice. Infrequently, the lattice is
radial in its orientation, in which case it is generally in a perivascular distribution
posterior to the equator.
Ophthalmoscopic examination reveals many variations in the appearance of
lattice degeneration. In one form, referred to as snail-track degeneration, the lesion
is completely white and almost reflective, with tiny, dot-like features on its surface
(Figure 2–19). In most areas of lattice, the degenerative process is sufficiently deep
Figure 2–18. Lattice degeneration associated with multiple round atrophic holes. (Courtesy of
Norman E. Byer, MD.)
28 I: Principles
Figure 2–19. Lattice degeneration with a “snail-track” appearance. (Courtesy of Norman

E. Byer, MD.)
to involve the pigment epithelium; there is derangement of pigment, with pigment

clumping and loss. In some lesions, there are fine, branching white lines due to
sclerosis of the blood vessels passing through the lesion (Figure 2–20). (The term
lattice is derived from this characteristic.) In general, fluorescein angiography of
lattice lesions reveals a zone of relative avascularity.
There may be small, round, atrophic holes due to retinal thinning in the patch of
lattice, but retinal tears at the edge of the patch due to vitreoretinal adhesions are
more dangerous. These tears usually develop along the posterior edge of the lesion
or at either end of the lattice lesion (Figure 2–21).
If some degree of posterior vitreous detachment is not present, only a small amount
of fluid can pass through a lattice hole. This fluid is derived from the small pocket of
vitreous liquefaction that overlies such lesions. A small amount of stable subretinal
fluid, which is usually confined within the lattice patch, is therefore not regarded with
the same concern as extensive subretinal fluid. However, a slowly progressive accu-
mulation is seen with some eyes with lattice degeneration containing atrophic holes,
especially those who are highly myopic, and this is usually associated with at least
a modest vitreous detachment and vitreoretinal traction upon the lattice lesion(s).
Retinal tears are accompanied by more complete posterior vitreous detachment.
Lattice degeneration is found in all age groups, and new patches of lattice occur
rarely after the fi rst decade of life. Changes within the lesion do occur, however,
and many progressive features have been noted. Longitudinal observation has
documented the subsequent appearance of pigmentation, branching white lines,
retinal breaks, and subretinal fluid.
In one large series of 800 autopsy and 100 clinical eyes, lattice degeneration
was found to be bilateral in 48% of cases, and more than one lesion was present
in 50% of the 900 eyes examined. The lesions were parallel to the ora in 68% of
Figure 2–20. Sclerotic retinal vessels passing through lattice lesions are responsible for the
“lattice-like” appearance. (Courtesy of Norman E. Byer, MD.)
Figure 2–21. Horseshoe tears associated with lattice degeneration usually occur along the
posterior and/or lateral edges of the lattice lesions. (Courtesy of Norman E. Byer, MD.)
the eyes, oblique in 25%, and perpendicular in 7%. Lattice oriented perpendicular
to the ora was usually quite posterior. Pigment clumping occurred in 92% of the
lesions, retinal holes in 18%, white vessels in 7%, and retinal tears in 1.4%. The
incidence of myopia in the series was higher than in the general population. As
with myopia, there is a tendency for lattice to run in families. In another series of
104 asymptomatic patients with lattice degeneration, a 5-year follow-up disclosed
30 I: Principles
that 0.2% had retinal detachment. If such a study were continued for 50 years, a
prevalence of 2% could be expected.
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF RETINAL DETACHMENT

Reliable information regarding the incidence and prevalence of retinal detachment
is difficult to fi nd because of the mobility of today’s population. Several epidemio-
logic studies of relatively confi ned groups reveal an annual incidence of about one
retinal detachment in 10,000. Assuming an average life expectancy of 74 years,
the prevalence is approximately 0.7%.
The most common features associated with retinal detachment are myopia,
pseudophakia, lattice degeneration, and trauma. Approximately 40% to 55% of
all detachment patients have myopia, and the amount of myopia is directly related
to the likelihood of detachment. Twenty to thirty percent of retinal detachments
are associated with lattice degeneration, and in 10% to 20%, the eyes have suffered
direct ocular trauma. Approximately 30% to 40% of detachments are associated
with a history of cataract surgery, and detachment is more likely if the vitreous gel
has been involved by surgical complications or Nd:YAG capsulotomy.
Traumatic detachments are most common in youth, myopic detachments occur
most frequently among people older than 25, and the incidence of pseudophakic
detachments rises with each decade of advancing age (Figure 2–22). The risk fac-
tors are not mutually exclusive, and highly myopic eyes with lattice degeneration
that undergo cataract surgery appear to be at relatively high risk.
90 Trauma
Retrolental fibroplasia
80 Inferior temporal dialysis
Myopia
70
Aphakia
Relative frequency (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age (years)
Figure 2–22. Age distribution of five types of retinal detachment. (Redrawn with permission
from S. Karger AG, Basel, from Hilton GF, Norton EWD: Juvenile retinal detachment. Mod
Probl Ophthalmol 1969;8:325–341.)
VARIABLES REGARDING EPIDEMIOLOGY

Age
The most common ages for retinal detachment are between 40 and 80 years,
although there is a small increase in rate due to trauma or hereditary factors in the
teens (Figure 2–23). In rare instances, detachment is discovered in a newborn, and
occasionally it occurs as late as the ninth or tenth decade of life.
Sex
Approximately 60% of detachments occur in males. The incidence remains higher
for males even when data are corrected for ocular trauma, which is much more
common among males than females.
Race
The incidence of detachment is reported to be relatively high among Asians and
Jews, and relatively low among people of African descent. One study of Native
Americans revealed an incidence essentially equal to that of Caucasians.
Heredity
Primarily because myopia and lattice degeneration have hereditary tendencies, ret-
inal detachment also has some hereditary predisposition. A positive family history
of retinal detachment is a relevant risk factor, but most cases are sporadic.
Bilaterality
Approximately 15% of detachment patients ultimately develop detachment in the
second eye. The effect on bilaterality of prophylactic treatment, such as cryopexy
of retinal breaks in the second eye at the time of detachment in the fi rst eye, has not
400
Aphakia 383
370
Phakia
300
Number of eyes
200
168
134
100
49 65
44
26
16
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age (years)
Figure 2–23. Age distribution of retinal detachment patients with small juvenile mode and
prominent middle-age mode. (Redrawn with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel, from Hilton
GF, Norton EWD: Juvenile retinal detachment. Mod Probl Ophthalmol 1969;8:325–341.)
32 I: Principles
been optimally evaluated. Bilateral detachments are more common in pseudopha-

kic patients, with an incidence as high as 25% to 30%.
SYSTEMIC AND GENETIC CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED

WITH RETINAL DETACHMENT
Rhegmatogenous detachments can result from retinal breaks associated with
Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Wagner’s vitreoretinal degeneration,
Stickler syndrome, Pierre Robin syndrome, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy,
juvenile retinoschisis, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, proliferative sickle reti-
nopathy, retinopathy of prematurity, atopic dermatitis, acute retinal necrosis, and
cytomegalovirus virus retinitis.
CLASSIFICATION OF RETINAL DETACHMENTS

Retinal detachments may be classified according to a variety of morphologic fi nd-
ings (Table 2–4). There may be considerable overlap in some of these categories,
Table 2–4. Classification of Detachment

Morphology of Break Size of Break
Horseshoe Small
Round or oval Moderate
Operculated Large
Atrophic Giant
Dialysis
Irregular Extent of detachment
One quadrant or less
Etiology of break
Two quadrants
Traditional Three quadrants
Horseshoe Four quadrants
Operculated Total
Atrophic Detachment of pars plana
Postnecrotic epithelium
Location of break Secondary changes

Near ora serrata Demarcation lines
Equatorial zone Pigmented
Posterior to equatorial zone Nonpigmented
Macular Intraretinal macrocysts
Linear and angular strands on
Number of break(s) outer surface of detached retina
(retina fibrosis)
Single
Microcystic degeneration of retina
Multiple
Thinning of retina
Macular edema
Macular status Macular hole
Attached Proliferative vitreoretinopathy
Detached (PVR)
as a variety of retinal breaks can coexist in the same case. Atypical rhegmatog-
enous retinal detachments are commonly seen in eyes with proliferative diabetic
retinopathy.
PATHOLOGY OF THE DETACHED RETINA

The outer layers of the detached retina undergo the greatest alteration due to sep-
aration from the blood supply of the choriocapillaris. Experimental work with
the owl monkey has revealed degenerative changes in the outer segments of the
receptor cells within a few days after detachment. The discs of the outer segments
become ruptured and disorganized and, in time, assume bizarre shapes. In the
normal retina, shed fragments of photoreceptor outer segments are phagocytosed
by the retinal pigment epithelium. These lamellar inclusion bodies are referred to
as phagosomes.
In retinal detachment, this process is disrupted so that phagosomes disappear
from the retinal pigment epithelium. Both proliferative and degenerative changes
occur in the retinal pigment epithelium. Changes visible with an electron micro-
scope include migration of the pigment granules from the anterior processes of the
retinal pigment epithelial cells posteriorly and thickening of Bruch’s membrane.
After surgical reattachment, the receptor cell outer segments regenerate, the discs
assume a more normal pattern, and phagosomes reappear in the retinal pigment
epithelial cells.
With long-standing detachments, the inner and outer nuclear layers of the
detached retina undergo degeneration, become thinner, and may ultimately fuse
into one layer. Although the inner retina is well preserved initially, the ganglion
cells decrease in number in long-standing detachments and may eventually dis-
appear. Other chronic changes include hyalinization of both retinal vessels and
the choriocapillaris. Additional pathologic fi ndings in eyes with chronic retinal
detachments include proliferative vitreoretinopathy, intraretinal macrocysts, and
demarcation lines.
PROLIFERATIVE VITREORETINOPATHY
The most ominous and clinically significant fi nding in retinal detachment is the
presence of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), the process that is responsible
for the vast majority of surgical failures of retinal reattachment surgery. The con-
sequence of cell migration and elaboration of collagen is the formation of mem-
branes involving the inner and outer surfaces of the retina, as well as the vitreous.
In time, and under the influence of mediators of inflammation, the membranes
contract, distorting the retina into folds (Figure 2–24). Localized contracture in
the periphery is referred to as a star fold (Figure 2–25), and a similar process in the
posterior pole is referred to as a macular pucker (Figure 2–26). Two more recent
classification systems for PVR have come into use and, though imperfect, they
have improved our evaluation of retinal detachment and its therapy (see Chapter
5, page 104).
Figure 2–24. Total retinal detachment associated with proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR).
The retina is pulled into fi xed folds by the membranes on the surface of the retina.
Figure 2–25. A star fold located temporal to the macula is due to localized epiretinal mem-
branes that cause surface traction on the detached retina.
Figure 2–26. A “macular pucker” (or “epimacular proliferation”) is due to an epiretinal mem-
brane localized to the central area of the retina.
INTRARETINAL MACROCYSTS
Large intraretinal cystoid spaces may develop over many months in long-standing
retinal detachments (Figure 2–27). They may develop in the posterior pole but
are more frequent in the equatorial zone. Retinal detachments caused by inferior
retinal breaks, such as the classic inferior temporal dialysis of the young, are gen-
erally slow in their progression and thus may be present long enough to develop
Figure 2–27. Intraretinal cysts are a sign of chronic retinal detachment. (A) A large intraretinal
cyst in detached retina. (B) Following reattachment, the cyst has spontaneously resolved.
36 I: Principles
Figure 2–28. Demarcation lines are due to changes in the retinal pigment epithelium at the
borders of chronic retinal detachments that have not progressed rapidly. They can be pigmented,
as demonstrated, or unpigmented.
macrocysts before the detachment becomes symptomatic. Conversely, macrocysts

are relatively rare in retinal detachments caused by superior breaks. With surgical
reattachment, the macrocysts regress rapidly (Figure 2–27B).
DEMARCATION LINES
If the boundary of a retinal detachment remains stable for a long time, pigment
epithelial hyperplasia occurs at the junction between the detached and attached
retina. It is generally accepted that a minimum of 3 months is required to gener-
ate a demarcation line. The to-and-fro undulations of the retina probably have an
irritating effect on the retinal pigment epithelium at the boundary and induce a
proliferative change, which subsequently evolves to fibrous metaplasia.
Most demarcation lines have prominent pigmentation (Figure 2–28), but
occasionally the pigment granules are lost and nonpigmented demarcation lines
result. In rare cases, calcification of the line occurs in long-standing detachments.
Demarcation lines may create a permanent barrier to the further progression of the
detachment, but often the detachment extends through the barrier and progresses
posteriorly. Several concentric demarcation lines may appear, indicating intermit-
tent extension and temporary stability in the course of detachment.
NATURAL HISTORY OF UNTREATED DETACHMENT

A limited retinal detachment left untreated may follow one of four outcomes:
1. Usually, most untreated clinical rhegmatogenous detachments progress to

near total or total detachment and blindness.
Figure 2–29. A spontaneous reattachment of an old chronic retinal detachment in the inferior
temporal quadrant. This occurs when the retinal reattachment forces are stronger than the fac-
tors promoting extension of subretinal fluid.
2. Occasionally, a detachment remains indefi nitely as a subtotal detachment

with stable borders and the creation of demarcation lines. This is most apt
to occur in detachments caused by inferior breaks, particularly small breaks
or dialyses.
3. Rarely, subretinal fluid due to a superior retinal break settles inferiorly away
from the break, and the site of the original break flattens.
4. Very rarely, spontaneous reattachment occurs, usually associated with a
very small break and excellent presumed “pumping” of the retinal pigment
epithelium or closure of the break by scar tissue (Figure 2–29).
Retinal detachment is usually associated with decreased intraocular pressure

secondary to increased resorption of fluid from the subretinal space. Uveitis or
traction on the ciliary body by proliferative vitreoretinopathy may also decrease
the production of aqueous humor to the point of hypotony and eventual phthisis.
Occasionally, the low-grade uveitis that accompanies retinal detachment dam-
ages the trabecular meshwork enough to produce elevated intraocular pressure.
Rubeosis iridis may also develop in long-standing detachment, resulting in neo-
vascular glaucoma. When a long-standing detachment is repaired, glaucoma may
replace relative hypotony due to damage to the trabecular meshwork.
Clinically, proliferative vitreoretinopathy is seen most often after surgery, but
it is also observed as the end result of the natural history of unoperated retinal
detachment. Cataract may also develop as a late effect of retinal detachment.
SUMMARY
Retinal detachments may be caused by traction or by exudation from a choroi-
dal tumor or inflammation, but most detachments are caused by retinal tears
38 I: Principles
(rhegmatogenous detachments). Vitreous liquefaction and vitreous detachment

can lead to traction on the retina with subsequent retinal tear formation. Liquid
currents within the vitreous cavity along with persistent traction promote retinal
detachment.
Horseshoe tears and retinal dialyses have a much higher likelihood of lead-
ing to retinal detachment than atrophic or operculated retinal breaks, and not all
tears require prophylactic treatment. Retinal breaks are most common in superior
and temporal quadrants and less likely in the inferior and nasal retinal periph-
ery. The most common risk factors for development of retinal detachment are
myopia, history of cataract surgery, lattice degeneration, ocular trauma, and a
personal or family history of retinal detachment. Various other ocular, systemic,
and genetic conditions can also lead to retinal detachment. Combinations of risk
factors increase the likelihood of retinal detachment.
Retinoschisis is to be distinguished from and may occasionally lead to retinal
detachment. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy, intraretinal macrocysts, and demar-
cation lines may accompany chronic retinal detachment. Untreated retinal detach-
ment usually progresses, leading to retinal deterioration and eventual blindness.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Aaberg TM, Stevens TR: Snail track degeneration of the retina. Am J Ophthalmol
1972;73:370–376.
Byer NE: The natural history of asymptomatic retinal breaks. Ophthalmology
1982;89:1033–1039.
Byer NE: The Peripheral Retina in Profile: A Stereoscopic Atlas. Torrance, CA: Criterion
Press; 1982; slides 34, 119.
Byer NE: Long-term natural history study of senile retinoschisis with implications for
management. Ophthalmology 1986;93:1127–1137.
Byer NE: Long-term natural history of lattice degeneration of the retina. Ophthalmology
1989;96:1396–1401.
Combs JL, Welch RB: Retinal breaks without detachment: Natural history, management
and long-term follow-up. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1982;80:64–97.
Cox MS, Freeman HM: Retinal detachment due to ocular penetration, I: Clinical charac-
teristics and surgical results. Arch Ophthalmol 1978;96:1354–1361.
Foos RY: Posterior vitreous detachment. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol
1972;76:480–497.
Foos RY: Tears of the peripheral retina: Pathogenesis, incidence and classification in
autopsy eyes. Mod Probl Ophthalmol 1975;15:68–81.
Goldberg MF: Retinal detachment associated with proliferative retinopathies. Ophthalmic
Surg 1971;2:222–231.
Hagler WS: Retinal dialysis as the cause of a special type of retinal detachment. South Med
J 1965;58:1475–1482.
Irvine AR: The pathogenesis of aphakic retinal detachment. Ophthalmic Surg
1985;16:101–107.
Marcus DF, Aaberg TM: Intraretinal macrocysts in retinal detachment. Arch Ophthalmol
1979;97:1273–1275.
Norton EWD: Retinal detachment in aphakia. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc
1963;61:770–789.
Oh KT, Hartnett ME, Landers III, MB: Pathogenetic mechanisms of retinal detach-
ment. In Ryan SJ, Wilkinson CP (eds): Retina. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby,
2005:2013–2020.
Okun E: Histopathology of changes which precede retinal detachment. Bibl Ophthalmol
1966;70:76–97.
O’Malley P, Allen RA, Straatsma BR, et al.: Paving-stone degeneration of the retina. Arch
Ophthalmol 1965;73:169–182.
Retina Society Terminology Committee. The classification of retinal detachment with pro-
liferative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.
Robertson DM, Curtin VT, Norton EWD: Avulsed retinal vessels with retinal breaks: A
cause of recurrent vitreous hemorrhage. Arch Ophthalmol 1971;85:669–672.
Ryan SJ: Traction retinal detachment. XLIX Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture. Am J
Ophthalmol 1993;115:1–20.
2nd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000:43–98.
Sigelman J: Vitreous base classification of retinal tears: Clinical application. Surv
Smiddy WE, Green WR: Retinal dialysis: Pathology and pathogenesis. Retina
1982;2:94–116.
Wilkinson CP, Rice TA: Michels Retinal Detachment. St Louis: CV Mosby Co;
1997:29–242.
3
Ophthalmoscopy
I
ndirect viewing systems, including the binocular indirect ophthalmoscope
and slit lamp biomicroscopy through an indirect lens, have become the stan-
dard of care for management of retinal detachments. Comparison with direct
ophthalmoscopy illustrates the capabilities of indirect systems. The technique of
indirect ophthalmoscopy with scleral depression is presented.1
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIRECT AND DIRECT

OPHTHALMOSCOPY
The characteristics of direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy are compared in
Table 3–1. Figure 3–1A shows the optical principles of direct ophthalmos-
copy, and Figure 3–1B illustrates the optics of the indirect method. Substantial
clinical differences between the two methods are due to the differences in optical
characteristics.
DIFFERENCES IN VISUALIZATION
Magnification and resolution
The direct ophthalmoscope offers 14X magnification compared with 3X with the
indirect using the usual +20 diopter lens. However, this does not mean the direct
device has an equal advantage in resolution. Resolution is a function of how close
1
This chapter has been substantially edited and condensed from Highlights of Ophthalmology 1966,
179–257, ML Rosenthal & S Fradin.
41
42 I: Principles
Table 3–1. Features of Direct vs. Binocular Indirect Ophthalmoscopy

Feature Direct Indirect (+20 lens)
Magnification 14X 3X
Field diameter 2DD 9DD
Ratio of area of field 1 20
Illumination Limited High
Depth of focus Small Large
Stereopsis Absent Present
Orientation of image Direct Inverted, reversed
View of periphery Limited Full
Scleral indentation Difficult Easy
F'
F N'
Observer Patient
Condensing
lens
Figure 3–1. (A) Optical principles of direct method of ophthalmoscopy. (B) Optics of indirect
ophthalmoscopy.
together two points can be and remain distinguished as separate when viewed
through an optical system. The visualization of detail that an optical system per-
mits is a function of its resolving power and not its magnification. Resolution is a
function of the light available at the points to be resolved and of the quality of the
optical components of the system. Magnification plays a role only if the resolution
of the optical system exceeds the resolution of the observing human eye at a given
level of magnification. Too much magnification of a poorly resolved image results
in a loss of detail, such as if one were to examine a halftone newspaper photograph
under a microscope.
With the direct method, the greater the degree of myopia, the higher the magni-
fication of the fundus image and the smaller the field of view. In very high myopes,
the field of view with the direct instrument becomes very limited.
3: Ophthalmoscopy 43
High cylindric errors strongly and adversely affect the image of direct ophthal-
moscopy because the high magnification of the system also magnifies the effects of
refractive errors on the image. With the indirect method, the lower magnification
minimizes this effect. Furthermore, the condensing lens can be tilted slightly to
overcome astigmatic aberrations. Examination of the retinal periphery entails the
travel of light obliquely through the cornea and lens, introducing cylindrical aber-
rations that are likewise problematic with the direct ophthalmoscope and easily
overcome with the indirect.
Due to high illumination, binocular viewing, and high-quality optics, a good
indirect ophthalmoscope and aspheric lens provide good resolution in spite of low
magnification. Substantial advantages gained include a very wide field of view,
stereoscopy, large depth of focus, and dynamic examination capability. During the
early stages of learning indirect ophthalmoscopy, it is essential to accept that one
has to work with a smaller image size; after a time, one ceases to be troubled by it.
After enough experience with indirect ophthalmoscopy, one is rarely aided in an
evaluation of detail by increased magnification. However, if higher magnification
is needed for examining a specific lesion, this can be achieved in several ways:
Magnification is increased by moving the examiner’s head closer to the patient’s
eye (rather than examining at nearly arm’s length as is usual). However, this is dif-
ficult if the pupil is not well dilated. Using a lower power condensing lens, such as a
14 diopter lens, also provides more magnification, but is also more difficult with a
poorly dilated pupil (Table 3–2). The most common way to increase magnification
while maintaining the advantages of indirect viewing is to use a slit lamp biomi-
croscope with a 60- to 90-diopter lens (Figure 3–5). Higher magnification is also
achieved by using a slit lamp with a contact lens with or without reflecting mirrors.
Field of view
Figure 3–2A shows what an observer sees with a direct ophthalmoscope in an
emmetropic eye, in comparison with Figure 3–2B, which shows the field of view
with indirect ophthalmoscopy. This is a 20-fold difference in field size, and it
makes a huge difference in the facility of the instrument, especially for the diag-
nosis and treatment of retinal detachment. The topography of the detached retina
may be complex with multiple folds, and the view with the direct ophthalmoscope
Table 3–2. Comparison of Indirect Lenses

Diopters Used with Magnification Static Field Working Distance
of View1 from Cornea (mm)
14 BIO2 4.2 X 38 degrees 72
20 BIO 3.0 X 50 degrees 47
28 BIO 2.1 X 58 degrees 27
60 Slit lamp 1.0 X3 88 degrees4 10
1
Static (instantaneous) field of view varies depending on the size of the lens.
2
BIO = binocular indirect ophthalmoscope.
3
Magnification is increased as a function of the magnifying power of the slit lamp.
4
Using a slit lamp, the portion of the potential static field of view that is illuminated and visualized at one
time is limited by the magnification system.
44 I: Principles
A B
Figure 3–2. (A) Shows single field of view in emmetropic eye with direct ophthalmoscope. This
field is approximately 10° in diameter. (B) Shows single field of view in same eye seen with indi-
rect ophthalmoscope. This field is approximately 37° in diameter. Since the ratio of areas of
these fields is proportional to the square of radii of the fields, it follows that the field in Figure B
covers an area 14 times as great as that in Figure A. The indirect method permits examination
of the disc, macula, and perimacular retinal vessels at one time. Contrast between these two
fields would be even more striking if the eye being examined has 20D of myopia. In such case,
Figure A would show the optic disc occupying the entire field of view, while Figure B would be
unchanged. Ratio of areas seen would therefore be much greater than 14-to-1.
is difficult to interpret. The field of view is so small that one sees only a small part
of the convoluted retina in any one field, and it is difficult to relate each separate
view to adjacent areas.
When examining for retinal detachment, perhaps even more important than
the field of view is the viewable field. Direct ophthalmoscopy permits the study of
approximately 60% to 70% of the total fundus area in a well-dilated, emmetropic
eye (Figure 3–3). In aphakia it may be possible to visualize more than this area,
whereas in myopia less than 60% of the fundus can be seen. Thus, peripheral
examination is very difficult, and as explained above, even when the periphery can
be seen with the direct ophthalmoscope, the image is very blurry. Piecing together
what one sees is even harder, so in practical terms, the direct ophthalmoscope is
rarely used to examine beyond the posterior pole. Since 30% of the retina lies
anterior to the equator, failure to study this region will result in overlooking seri-
ous pathology in many, if not most, cases. Diseases such as senile retinoschisis,
peripheral uveitis, and most retinal tears and detachments defy evaluation by any
other technique.
Illumination
Image brightness of a direct is low due to limited power output. Direct ophthal-
moscopes operated by batteries provide about one-half watt of illumination.
Instruments operated through transformers deliver several times this amount,
but never more than several watts. Indirect ophthalmoscopes can deliver up to 18
A B
Figure 3–3. (A) Shows area of fundus accessible to view by indirect ophthalmoscopy and scleral
depression: all of retina and posterior one third of pars plana. (B) Shows how much of same
fundus is visible by direct ophthalmoscopy: only about 70% of total fundus area.
watts of output. Better illumination results in improved resolution and improved

performance in the presence of media opacities.
Stereopsis and depth of focus

The image with the usual direct ophthalmoscope is not stereoscopic and has essen-
tially no depth of focus, whereas the indirect ophthalmoscope affords a stereo-
scopic view with an excellent depth of focus. These qualities of the image are
invaluable in interpreting lesions with depth, including retinal detachments,
choroidal tumors, and staphylomas.
PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES OF THE INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPE

Opacities in the ocular media
Opacities in the ocular media of the patient’s eye, either in the cornea, lens, or vitre-
ous, have a much more deleterious effect on the image seen through direct ophthal-
moscopy. With indirect ophthalmoscopy, only a narrow path of relative clarity is
required to allow visualization of the retina, and one can generally see through
even diffuse opacities such as marked cataractous lens changes. Consequently, the
clarity of the indirect ophthalmoscopic image provides a poor measure of a cata-
ract’s density. With the indirect instrument, visually significant macular degener-
ation may be detected in spite of a dense cataract, perhaps contraindicating lens
extraction or at least making the surgeon and patient realistic about the visual
prognosis.
Children and uncooperative adults

With uncooperative young children and disoriented adults, or those with nys-
tagmus, it is often not possible to examine the fundus with the direct method.
46 I: Principles
With the indirect ophthalmoscope, since the field of view is so much larger, even
a wildly gyrating disc can usually be observed satisfactorily.
Working distance
The working distance of the direct ophthalmoscope from the patient’s eye is only
several inches, while the indirect is used at almost arm’s length, an important
advantage in maintaining a sterile field in the operating room. Children gener-
ally react favorably to the more impersonal distance of indirect examination. The
greater working distance of the indirect also allows the examiner to shift his atten-
tion rapidly from one eye to the other, facilitating a quick and accurate comparison
of the two eyes.
Scleral depression
One of the main advantages of indirect ophthalmoscopy is the ability to perform a
dynamic examination of the peripheral retina using scleral depression, as described
later in this chapter.
ROLE OF DIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPY

Most retina surgeons dilate the pupil and examine the posterior pole of the retina
with slit lamp biomicroscopy using a 78 or 90 diopter lens or a contact lens, and
they use indirect ophthalmoscopy to examine the periphery. If this equipment and
the expertise to use it are available, the direct ophthalmoscope offers no added
benefit for the dilated patient. In the undilated eye, the direct ophthalmoscope can
be useful in providing a limited view of the posterior pole.
THE INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPIC IMAGE

In indirect ophthalmoscopy we examine an inverted, real image. An aerial fundus
image is formed by the condensing lens close to the focal plane of the lens, between
the lens and the observer. The dioptric power of the condensing lens will determine
how close the lens has to be held to the patient’s eye in order to produce an image
of the fundus—the higher the power, the closer it is held to the eye. The observer
wears refractive correction for distance if needed.
The magnification of the image in indirect ophthalmoscopy is little affected by
the patient’s refractive error, but is determined primarily by the power of the con-
densing lens. A +20 diopter lens affords approximately 3X power magnification
with approximately a 37° field of view (see Figure 3–2B). The entire fundus area,
including the ora serrata and part of the pars plana of the ciliary body, can usually
be examined with this method using scleral depression.
BASIC INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPY TECHNIQUES

Binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy is essential for a detailed and complete exami-
nation of the peripheral fundus. However, many good ophthalmologists throughout
the world do not master this technique. The acquisition of proficiency in this
method of examination is admittedly difficult and requires many hours of patient
practice. Instruction in its use is best obtained from an instructor endowed with
great patience. Techniques are presented here to help in developing this important
proficiency.
INSTRUMENTATION
Choice of indirect ophthalmoscope
Many retina surgeons prefer small-pupil indirect ophthalmoscopes for use with
all patients. When examining the far periphery, the eye is tilted and therefore the
pupillary aperture is tilted and oval, making it in effect a small pupil even if the
patient is well dilated.
Good small-pupil indirect devices have two features that improve the perfor-
mance of the instrument when the pupillary aperture is narrow: First, the size of
the patch of light is adjustable. When viewing through a small pupil, a large patch
of light provides no more illumination of the fundus than a smaller patch, but it
causes additional light reflections that hamper the view.
Second, the proximity of the axis of the incident light and viewer’s line of sight
for each eye is adjustable. To obtain a binocular view, three paths of light must
be able to enter the patient’s pupil simultaneously: the line of sight of the viewer’s
right eye, that of the left eye, and the illuminating beam of light. At the front of the
headpiece of the indirect are three mirrors that direct these three paths of light into
the eye. A satisfactory indirect ophthalmoscope should provide an adjustment that
allows these three mirrors to draw closer to each other for small pupil use or far-
ther apart for use with a well-dilated pupil. In the latter situation, the wide-spread
placement of the mirrors allows a greater degree of stereopsis and minimizes both-
ersome reflections.
Adjusting the indirect ophthalmoscope

Indirect ophthalmoscopes consist of a light source mounted on the head, ocular
lenses containing plus power, and mirrors to enable the observer to sight down a
narrow axis. The eyepieces can be adjusted for individual interpupillary distances.
Several screws permit movement of the headpiece on several axes, allowing fi ne
adjustment of the light direction. These details are shown in Figure 3–4.
Much of the usual frustration experienced when fi rst using the binocular
indirect ophthalmoscope can be obviated by carefully adjusting the instrument
to one’s own head. The headband should fit comfortably on the head without
undue tightness, with the top strap taking some of the weight of the instrument.
Knurled knobs on the instrument are loosened to allow adjustment of the eye-
piece upward or downward and toward or away from the face while simulta-
neously adjusting the angle that the eyepiece makes with the plane of the face.
The field of view is optimized by adjusting the eyepieces as close to the examin-
er’s pupils or eyeglasses as possible. During this adjustment, it is helpful to shine
the light on one’s outstretched hand to ensure that the light centers in the field of
view at that distance. One eye and then the other should be closed to check this,
48 I: Principles
Figure 3–4. Small-pupil indirect ophthalmoscope.
adjusting the interpupillary distance of the oculars as needed. With both eyes
open, the light is then adjusted vertically by moving the small knurled shaft that
controls the mirror.
A comfortable, single, binocular view of the patch of light should be obtained
following these adjustments. The sensation of strain from induced phoria due to
faulty adjustment of interpupillary distance causes headaches that might be falsely
attributed to the weight of the instrument. An experienced observer rarely notices
the weight of the instrument, even after long periods of use. If diplopia persists
even after careful attention to the above directions, the examiner should have his
fusional amplitudes checked and improved with exercises if indicated.
Choice of condensing lenses

The most commonly used condensing lens is a 50-millimeter-diameter double-
aspheric +20 diopter lens. The higher the power of the condensing lens, the less
magnified the image will be and the wider the field of view. Lower-power lenses
have to be held farther from the patient’s eye. A 20D lens gives a good compromise
between field size and magnification, and permits a convenient working distance
from the patient’s eye.
Lenses of 28-D or 30D power provide a substantial advantage when examining
patients with poorly dilating pupils or patients with extremely complicated retinal
topography (Figure 3–5). The lowest power that is practical to use in binocular
indirect ophthalmoscopy is about 14D, but lenses below 20D are not commonly
used. These lenses offer the advantage of higher magnification, but 78 or 90 diop-
ter lenses are usually used with a slit lamp when higher magnification is desired
(Figure 3–5).
Aspheric lenses minimize image distortion, a difference that is especially pro-
nounced in higher power lenses. All lenses used for indirect ophthalmoscopy should
have coated surfaces to reduce light reflexes, as these can be very bothersome.
Figure 3–5. Indirect lenses: 78, 28, and 20 diopters.
Care should be taken in cleaning these lenses. The coatings are easily scratched
by rubbing a dry lens with tissues not made for lens cleaning. Any dirt or fi nger-
prints on the lens surfaces cause great interference with the view of the fundus,
causing more difficulty than if the opacities were present in the vitreous. The con-
densing lens must be kept scrupulously clean and free of fi ngerprints.
PREPARATION OF THE PATIENT

It is useless to attempt to do critical indirect ophthalmoscopy on a patient whose
pupil is not widely dilated or who is seated in a lighted room. The patient should
be warned that the light is intense but that no harm can come to him or her from
this bright light. The patient should understand that pressure on the eyelids from
scleral depression may cause some discomfort.
Pupillary dilation
The pupil should be dilated to the maximum possible diameter. Mydriatics, such
as 2.5% or 10% phenylephrine, used alone are totally inadequate; the moment
the bright light is projected into the eye, the strong stimulation to sphincter con-
traction will overcome the action of the dilator muscle, and the pupil will become
miotic. On the other hand, cycloplegics used alone, while much more satisfactory
than mydriatics alone, do not give maximum dilation but they do result in a dila-
tion that is not affected by the strong light.
The most satisfactory dilation is achieved by the use of any cycloplegic plus 10%
phenylephrine drops. This combination produces a wide and lasting result. The
choice of a cycloplegic is determined by how long the examiner wishes the pupil to
remain dilated, not by how widely he wishes it dilated.
For routine fundus study, tropicamide 1% plus phenylephrine 2.5% is satisfac-
tory. Cyclopentolate 1% gives longer acting cycloplegia if desired. Scopolamine
0.25%, homatropine 5%, and atropine 1% are less commonly used for routine
50 I: Principles
retinal exams. Phenylephrine 10% can provide a little stronger mydriasis than
2.5%, but the higher concentration is particularly prone to cause an elevation in
blood pressure. Punctal occlusion after instillation is indicated if phenylephrine
10% is used in patients with a history of hypertension.
Maximal dilation may be impossible in some eyes due to posterior synechiae,
secondary membranes, sphincter damage, or other causes. The positioning and
the fi ne movements of the condensing lens become critical in such patients, so they
are not easy subjects for the inexperienced observer to examine. An experienced
examiner can see through a miotic pupil but with increased difficulty.
Dilation in infants
When dilating the eyes of infants or young children, care must be taken to avoid
systemic complications. Repeated use of cyclopentolate can lead to abdominal dis-
tension in infants. Phenylephrine 10% can present high systemic absorption rela-
tive to body size in young children and should be avoided. Dilation in the neonatal
intensive care unit is frequently performed with cyclopentolate 0.2% combined
with phenylephrine 1%.
Medications to be avoided
Nothing that might cause corneal hazing should be put in the eye prior to reti-
nal examination. Topical anesthetics such as tetracaine or cocaine often result
in epithelial edema and may make the appreciation of fi ne detail more difficult.
Ointments of any kind should not be used, as they make the lids slippery and cause
blurring of the image. Indirect ophthalmoscopy should be performed prior to slit
lamp biomicroscopy with a contact lens, especially when Goniosol is used.
Position of the patient

Optimally, the patient should be positioned lying flat on a reclining exam chair
or stretcher (Figure 3–6). Although much of the retina can be examined with the
patient in a seated position, the supine position offers great advantages. The exam-
iner has much more flexibility to position his head where needed when he is stand-
ing over a supine patient. The examiner’s arms are more relaxed when examining
the supine patient, and the patient’s head is more relaxed and stable. The headrest
should be about at the height of the examiner’s hips. An adjustable headrest accom-
modates for dorsal kyphosis and avoids flexion of the neck (see Figure 3–6).
If the examiner wants to check for shifting subretinal fluid, unroll the flap of a
superior giant break, or shift an overhanging superior bulla to gain a view of the
fovea, it may be helpful to position the patient’s head such that the top of the head
is as low as possible. The supine patient’s headrest is lowered below the plane of the
reclined chair or table, and the neck is hyperextended to achieve this position.
Keeping the other eye open and controlling eye movements

The examiner holds apart the lids of the eye being examined while simultaneously
holding the condensing lens. If the patient closes the other eye, Bell’s reflex will
cause the examined eye to roll up also. It is useless to have the patient hold the
fellow eye open with his hand since this only intensifies the Bell’s reflex. Constant
Figure 3–6. (A) Correct position of head for beginning examination of fundus. Note that head
is neither flexed nor extended; plane of face is horizontal. (B) Position is unsatisfactory for
general examination of fundus. It would be difficult with head flexed this much to see inferior
periphery. However, sometimes this head position is useful in aiding visualization of superior
periphery. (C) Position is also not good for general examination of fundus. Extension of neck
makes examination of superior periphery of fundus difficult because of interference of chin.
This position is sometimes useful in examining inferior periphery.
reassurance and reminding are necessary to keep the patient from allowing the
opposite eye to close. As he becomes more light adapted, this tendency decreases.
Good cycloplegia is the most important single factor in getting cooperation in this
regard, since the eye with inadequate cycloplegia is more photophobic.
Some patients have poor voluntary control of eye movements. In such cases, it is
advisable to have the patient hold out his own thumb as a fixation object and look
at it (Figure 3–7). The proprioceptive impulses originating from the arm serve to
enable even a blind patient to cooperate.
FIRST STEPS IN OBSERVING THE FUNDUS

Holding the condensing lens
The fi rst impulse is to hold the condensing lens in the hand with which one ordi-
narily writes. This may make the initial viewing of the fundus easier but may make
52 I: Principles
Figure 3–7. Use of patient’s own hand as target has several advantages over other possible objects.
Patient with sight will then use visual stimuli from his hand for fi xation in addition to propriocep-
tive impulses. The latter are important in case of blind, monocular, or uncooperative patients.
holding the scleral depressor harder. It is frequently advisable to use the writing
hand for the scleral depressor and the other hand for holding the lens because it
may be relatively difficult for most people to use the scleral depressor in the non-
writing hand. Either way, one should consistently use the same hand.
The precise manner of holding the condensing lens is of critical importance
(Figure 3–8). It should be grasped between the tip of the flexed index fi nger and the
ball of the extended thumb. The wrist should be flexed moderately and the third,
fourth, and fi fth fingers should be extended. The extended third or fourth finger is
used to hold the upper or lower lid of the patient—which lid depends on the side of
the patient one is standing on. The scleral depressor or the thumb of the opposite
hand is used to retract the lid not held by the third finger (Figure 3–9).
The extended third or fourth fi nger acts as a pivot that enables the observer to
tilt the lens in all planes merely by rocking the forearm on the tip of the finger. The
lens can be moved with critical control closer to or farther away from the eye (see
Figure 3–8B) by increasing or decreasing the flexion of the index finger. If the lens
is incorrectly grasped between the ball of the index fi nger or the terminal joint of
that fi nger and the ball of the thumb, it is difficult to make the fi ne adjustments in
lens position so essential to critical scanning of the fundus.
Bringing the fundus into view

To obtain the initial fundus view, the light intensity on the scope should be turned
down to one-half maximum output by adjusting the transformer. The light should
be directed onto the patient’s eye without the condensing lens being in place, to
initiate light adaptation. After a few seconds, the patient should be asked to look
up so that the light will be thrown onto the superior fundus and away from the
macula. The lens is interposed about one inch from the patient’s eye, keeping his
A B
Figure 3–8. (A) Lens is grasped between ball of thumb and tip of index fi nger. Wrist is extended,
and third fi nger is extended as pivot. (B) Manner in which lens is moved closer to or away from
eye is shown.
Figure 3–9. Examiner is observing superonasal part of patient’s fundus. He stands to left of
patient, and third fi nger of left hand controls lower lid. Right hand controls head, and thumb of
right hand controls upper lid. To observe temporal half of left fundus, examiner should stand
on right side of patient. Left third finger then controls upper lid, and right thumb retracts lower lid.
head at arm’s length from the lens. The lens is now slowly moved away from the
patient’s eye by increasing the flexion of the index finger. When the lens is at a
proper distance away, it will fi ll with the image of the fundus, which should be
clear and striking in its stereopsis. No matter how often one may perform this
examination, one is struck by the clarity and beauty of the image of the fundus.
Troublesome reflexes
Reflexes from the condensing lens surface may be troublesome (Figure 3–10), par-
ticularly for novice examiners. These reflexes correspond to images of the ophthal-
moscope light bulb formed by the anterior and posterior condensing lens surfaces.
These reflexes can be made to move in opposite directions from each other by slightly
54 I: Principles
A B C
Figure 3–10. (A) With condensing lens held perpendicular to visual axis as shown, anterior
reflex and smaller posterior reflex are in center of lens, causing maximum interference with
vision. (B) Lens has been tilted to left, causing anterior reflex to move to right and posterior to
move to left. Observer can look between them. (C) Reflexes can be moved vertically by tilting lens
forward. Anterior reflex always moves in direction of lens tilt, and posterior reflex away from it.
tilting the lens (see Figures 3–10B,C). Thus, they can be moved away from the center
of the lens so that they do not obscure the object being studied (Figure 3–11).
Shifting from one part of the fundus to the next

Small lateral movements of the lens can be made without losing the image of the
fundus filling the lens. Such movements do not enable you to see another field of
view. In fact, if the movements laterally are too great, the image is lost. These fine
movements bring out parallactic movements of objects in the fundus, and this
provides added perception of depth. In order to get from one part of the fundus to
another, more than mere movement of the lens is needed.
The entire image system can be considered to consist of a number of vital elements
arranged on a straight line (Figure 3–12). These elements are the observer’s macula,
the eyepiece of the ophthalmoscope, the center of the condensing lens, the patient’s
pupil, and the object observed in the fundus. All of these elements must be kept on
a rigid axis or the image is lost. To move from one point in the patient’s retina to
another, the entire axis must be pivoted like a lever, with the fulcrum or fixed point
being the patient’s pupil. Thus, the observer must move his head and tilt the lens
simultaneously by using the third or fourth finger as a pivot. The importance of the
proper holding of the lens should be apparent. One must be able to maintain the lens
at the correct distance from the patient’s eye and still tilt it smoothly in all directions
at the same time. To do this, the pivoting finger must be kept rigid (Figure 3–13).
The coordinated movement of the observer’s head and the tilting of the lens is
a maneuver that takes considerable practice. The head is not moved on the neck
but, rather, the whole torso is moved from side to side and forward and backward
while the lens is appropriately tilted (Figure 3–14). It is essential to practice this
maneuver until it is completely natural and automatic.
This activity is frequently a major stumbling block in learning indirect ophthal-
moscopy. Some ophthalmologists never master this step and consequently do not
continue to progress. In order to see the fundus, these ophthalmologists will have
the patient look in one direction and then observe the fundus field in view. They then
have the patient look in another direction and again find the image of the fundus
and examine it. This results in seeing only isolated areas of the fundus. Not only is
A B
Figure 3–11. (A) Shows observer viewing area of macula. Lens is shown perpendicular to visual
axis. In this position, light reflexes are superimposed and view of macula is obscured. It is nec-
essary to tilt lens with reference to visual axis. (B) Observer is shown viewing equatorial area of
eye. Lens is correctly tilted to eliminate effect of light reflexes. Lens should be tilted at a slightly
more acute angle to visual axis when observing extreme periphery of eye than when viewing
posterior pole to compensate for oblique astigmatism. With experience, this correction is made
automatically to clear image.
Figure 3–12. Alignment of eyepiece, condensing lens, pupil, and scleral depression on visual axis.
it inevitable that large areas of the retina will be missed in this way, but one cannot
also ever gain an overall appreciation of fundus topography, and it makes virtually
hopeless the task of scleral depression. It is therefore essential that the “sweeping”
of the fundus be mastered. To develop this skill, practice following a vessel from
the disc to a point as far anterior as can be seen by the observer’s movements alone
should be attempted. This vessel should then be followed back to the disc.
ORIENTATION AND DRAWING

The fact that the image seen in the condensing lens is inverted is confusing at fi rst.
This challenge can be overcome by a simple technique.
Figure 3–13. Previously described technique of holding lens is shown. Importance of extended
third fi nger is apparent, since it is the pivot on which precise control of rotation of visual axis
must depend. In this instance, same fi nger holds upper lid open, and thumb of opposite hand or
scleral depressor held in opposite hand holds lower lid.
Figure 3–14. Axis is formed by examiner’s visual axis (split by prisms in headpiece), condensing
lens, patient’s pupil, and area of fundus under study. Fulcrum of this axis is patient’s pupil. In
order to observe another part of fundus, observer’s head must move and lens tilt in such a way
that the new axis also has its fulcrum at the patient’s pupil.
Drawing the inverted image

Just as constant practice of a foreign language is the key to incorporating it into
one’s subconscious thought processes, so drawing of the fundus is the key tech-
nique to mastery of the inverted image. If you cannot draw a fundus lesion,
you do not really see it. It is not necessary to be artistic in any sense to make
useful fundus sketches. The important thing is not the sketch itself but the
process of making it, which forces one to perceive detail that cannot be inter-
preted in any other way. The problem of orientation in the fundus will be
solved by learning to accurately draw the image that is seen in the condensing lens.
The trick is to take the drawing chart and invert it on the patient’s chest.
Figure 3–15 shows the relationship of the fundus chart to the patient’s eye. It
will be seen that the 6-o’clock position on the chart faces up toward the patient’s
head, with 12-o’clock toward the feet. Obviously, the 9-o’clock and 3-o’clock
meridians on the fundus chart are also reversed.
It should now be possible to accurately reproduce the picture that is seen in the
condensing lens exactly as it appears, since the image in the lens now corresponds
exactly to the drawing chart (Figure 3–16). No attempt should be made to think
in terms such as superior, inferior, or temporal or nasal when performing this
operation initially. No matter on what side of the patient’s eye the observer stands,
whatever appears closest to the observer in the condensing lens (down in the lens)
is peripheral in the fundus compared with an object that is farther away from the
observer in the condensing lens (up in the lens).
12
9 3
3
6
12
Figure 3–15. Chart is placed, inverted, on supine patient’s chest. It can be seen that 12-o’clock
position on chart corresponds to 6-o’clock position on patient’s eye. Likewise, 6-o’clock position
on chart corresponds to 12-o’clock position on patient’s eye. However, when fundus is viewed
through condensing lens, inverted image in lens will exactly correspond to orientation of chart.
Information in lens image can be directly drawn on inverted chart.
58 I: Principles
Figure 3–16. Left eye is being examined, with inverted image shown. In drawing this image, it
should be copied just as it is seen onto an inverted drawing chart. Inverted image is drawn on
inverted chart, thus preserving normal relationships.
Position of observer and lesion being examined

One should attempt, when drawing a specific lesion on the fundus chart, to stand
180° away from the entity being observed. This will serve to simplify the observer’s
understanding of the proper meridian along which to draw the lesion on the chart.
If a lesion at the 11-o’clock position in the patient’s fundus is detected, one should
stand inferiorly and look superiorly toward that location (Figure 3–17A). Looking
at the drawing chart, one can see that he/she is standing near the meridian being
observed, that is, the 11-o’clock meridian (Figure 3–17B). If a lesion is observed at
the 3-o’clock position, the examiner will be standing at the 9-o’clock meridian in
reference to the patient’s eye but at the 3-o’clock meridian on the fundus chart.
The rule is to draw the image seen in the lens on the part of the fundus chart that
is closest (see Figure 3–17). An inverted drawing of an inverted image is created.
By repeating this process over and over again, one develops a subconscious famil-
iarity with relationships of fundus landmarks in the condensing lens (Figure 3–18).
When a sufficient number of drawings have been made, and for most observers
this is about 25, the problem of orientation disappears and one is no longer trou-
bled by the inverted image.
Fundus charts
Drawings of the retinal fi ndings have obvious clinical and legal importance.
Standard fundus drawing charts can be obtained from many sources. These charts
often include three concentric circles representing the equator, the ora serrata, and
the anterior limit of the pars plana (Figures 3–19).
An inherent misrepresentation on any drawing results from reduction of the
three-dimensional eye to a two-dimensional drawing. The more peripheral the
lesion is, the more substantial this inaccuracy becomes.
Colored pencils or electronic medical record systems capable of capturing color
drawings are useful in giving a clear, concise reproduction of fundus pathology.
A B
12
11 1
10 2
6 7
5
4 8
3
9
9
3
2 10
1 12 11
8 4
7 5
6
Figure 3–17. (A) Fundus of right eye is shown. Fundus is seen directly as if cornea was removed,
and lesions are shown as they actually are in fundus. We can see two fields of interest: localized
retinal detachment with demarcation line and horseshoe tear at 11-o’clock position, and patch
of lattice degeneration of retina at 1-o’clock position. Beneath eye we see two fields as seen in
condensing lens of indirect ophthalmoscope. It should be noted that in each case we see the
field of view inverted. As we move in fundus from view of 11-o’clock lesion toward 1-o’clock
field, 12-o’clock and then 1-o’clock areas come into view from left side of condensing lens. (B)
Large circle represents inverted fundus chart upon which we will draw. Smaller central circle
is direct view of eye from previous figure. Numbers around smaller circle show true meridians
in that fundus. Drawings in two lower circles represent fields at 11-o’clock and 1-o’clock posi-
tions, respectively, as seen in condensing lens. These views in condensing lens should be drawn
directly on chart from position at which examiner stands to see field. Therefore, field seen at
1-o’clock position, since it is observed while standing at 7-o’clock position with respect to
patient, is drawn at 7-o’clock position on inverted chart as shown. Note that inverted meridians
on drawing chart are disregarded at fi rst. However, if one now considers true meridians, it will
be noted that if chart is turned right side up, field drawn will be in precisely the correct place.
The colors used for various lesions are not universally standardized, and prac-
tices vary from surgeon to surgeon, but each surgeon should establish a consis-
tent color coding practice. Table 3–3 is an attempt to outline some of the most
commonly used color codes. Because a color can have more than one meaning
and because of variations in the color code, it is important to label items in a
retinal drawing.
EXAMINATION THROUGH A SMALL PUPIL

Circumstances presenting a narrow optical aperture
Some pupils cannot be widely dilated. Posterior synechiae formation from uveitis
or prior surgery are common causes of poor pupillary dilation. Damage to the iris
from prior surgery or injury may also limit dilation. Chronic use of topical miotics
12
A B
c
9 3
b a
a 3 9
b
6
a b c 12
Figure 3–18. In large figure on top we note direct view of right fundus, which includes
superotemporal retinal detachment. Small circles within larger one represent three fields to
be studied with indirect ophthalmoscope; labeled a, b, and c. Three circles below large fig-
ure (labeled A, B, and C) show appearance in condensing lens of respective fundus fields with
image inverted. In large figure on bottom, it should be noted that in view C, ora serrata is
found in lower part of lens, since it is most peripheral, and in view A, disc is found in upper
part of lens, since it is most posterior. These fields are drawn on an inverted fundus chart as
indicated.
XII XII
XI I O.D XI I O.S
X II X II
IX III IX III
VIII IV VIII IV
VII V VII V
VI VI
Figure 3–19. Chart contains three concentric circles. Inner circle represents equator, middle cir-
cle represents ora serrata, and outer circle represents region of ciliary processes. Band between
middle and outer circles is pars plana. Small circle in center of chart represents disc. Chart for
right eye is usually drawn to the left and chart for left eye is usually drawn to the right, since
this represents how the examiner sees the patient, and keeps the relationships of the two draw-
ings anatomically correct relative to each other.
60
Table 3–3. Color Code for Retinal Drawings

Blue Detached retina
Retinoschisis (striped)
Lattice degeneration (cross-hatched)
Retinal veins (optional)
Red Retinal breaks (outlined in blue)
Retinal vessels (or arteries only)
Hemorrhage—preretinal, intraretinal, subretinal
Microaneurysms, macroaneurysms
Retinal neovascularization
Attached retina (optional)
Brown Choroidal or retinal pigmentation
Hypopigmentation (striped)
Photocoagulation scars (shaded or striped)
Green Vitreous opacities—hemorrhage, floaters
Media opacities—cataract, cornea (striped)
Periretinal fibrosis
Orange Exudation
Cotton-wool spots
Chorioretinitis
Yellow Retinal edema
Disc edema or disc pallor
or the presence of an iris-fi xated intraocular lens implant may prevent adequate
dilation. In an intensive care setting in which observation of pupillary reactions for
neurological monitoring is required, pharmacological dilation of the pupil may be
contraindicated. Lack of time or medications to dilate the pupil well can necessi-
tate examination through a constricted pupil.
Other conditions can mimic the circumstance of a small pupil. A pseudophakic
eye with a small clear aperture through capsular opacities can necessitate small-
pupil examination techniques, even though the pupil dilates well. In the presence
of irregular media opacities, such as corneal scars, posterior subcapsular cataracts,
and patchy vitreous hemorrhage, small-pupil examination techniques can be of
great assistance. When examining in the far periphery, visualization must occur
through a very tilted pupillary aperture, which also mimics the condition of a
small pupil.
Indirect viewing systems

Indirect visualization systems are generally those which result in an inverted image.
These include the indirect ophthalmoscope, slit lamp biomicroscopy through a
60- to 90-diopter noncontact lens or an indirect contact lens, and wide-angle con-
tact and noncontact surgical viewing systems. (In the surgical setting, the indirect
image is reinverted back to an erect image.)
Indirect systems generally provide remarkable visualization in spite of a narrow
optical aperture. When presented with a small pupil, an indirect system provides
a substantial advantage.
62 I: Principles
Using the indirect ophthalmoscope with a small pupil

Examination through a small pupil can challenge the most experienced observer.
Before attempting small-pupil examination, establish proficiency with the basic
techniques of indirect ophthalmoscopy in well-dilated eyes.
Using the following techniques of indirect ophthalmoscopy can dramatically
improve visualization through a narrow optical aperture:
1. Use a small-pupil indirect ophthalmoscope (see “Choice of Indirect

Ophthalmoscope” on page 47).
2. Use a higher-power condensing lens, such as a 28- or 30-diopter lens.
3. Reduce the size of the light patch from the indirect device.
4. Narrow the distance between the optical apertures.
5. Make sure the condensing lens is clean with intact anti-reflective coatings.
6. Examine at full arm’s length from the patient.
7. Minimize the light intensity if the pupil is reactive to light.
8. Establish good stability of the patient’s eye.
9. Optimize alignment of the optical system.
10. Examine in a dark room.
Using the indirect laser with a small pupil

Laser systems connected to an indirect ophthalmoscope present a significant
advantage in that they allow delivery of laser treatment to the far periphery of the
retina. They also improve treatment through a small pupil.
Indirect ophthalmoscopic lasers add an additional optical pathway to the
visual system: the path of the laser beam. This path must also fit through the
entry pupil in order to apply laser to the retina and avoid misdirected laser
applications.
Lasers differ significantly in their ability to treat through a small pupil, and also
in their ease of use in the far periphery. Select a laser that has a highly coaxial opti-
cal system, meaning that the angle of entry of the laser approximates the angle of
the viewing and illumination axes.
This can be tested with the indirect headset in place and the illumination
light and laser aiming beam turned on. Shine these lights on an outstretched
hand while viewing through the oculars of the headset. Move the hand closer
to and farther from the eyes. The less the aiming beam of the laser moves up
and down in the field of view during this maneuver, the more coaxial the laser
system is. Lasers that are mounted to small-pupil indirect ophthalmoscopes are
also advantageous.
When lasering the peripheral retina, a horizontally oval pupillary aperture pres-
ents. Delivery of laser to the periphery can be facilitated by tilting the examiner’s
head horizontally to align with the widest dimension of the pupil.
SCLERAL DEPRESSION
Only when the student has mastered the technique of fundus drawing is he/she
ready to attempt scleral depression. If the student has not mastered the problems
of moving the hand–head axis, he cannot possibly line up an additional element,

the depressor, on the axis (see Figure 3–12).
PURPOSES OF SCLERAL DEPRESSION

Scleral depression has two main functions. The fi rst is to make visible that part of
the fundus that lies anterior to the equator. This region is ordinarily not visible at
all without the use of scleral depression. A second and perhaps even more impor-
tant function is to enable the observer to “palpate” the retina, and to examine the
peripheral retina dynamically and from multiple angles in ways that can only be
appreciated with scleral depression.
The technique enables visualization of a retinal flap as it rises from the crest of
the indenter mound (Figure 3–20). A red spot might be shown to be a retinal break
instead of a retinal hemorrhage (Figure 3–21); an ill-defi ned gray area might be
revealed as an excavation; a white spot might turn out to be a tuft of tissue rising
from the retinal surface; and so on. A raised lesion can be differentiated from a
depressed lesion, and a hemorrhage or foreign body can be determined to lie on or
anterior to the retina.
TECHNIQUE OF SCLERAL DEPRESSION

Choice of depressor
Scleral depressors are metal or plastic shafts with knob-like tips of two different
sizes on each end (Figure 3–22). The broader tip is suited for more anterior depres-
sion, while the narrower tip allows more posterior depression. An alternative is
a small, curved shaft and tip mounted on a thimble. It can be held between the
Figure 3–20. Flap of retinal tear, clearly seen as it arises from crest of mound created by scleral
indentor. (Reproduced with permission of Medcom, Inc., from Conor O’Malley, MD, FACS,
and Patrick O’Malley, MD, FACS: “The Peripheral Fundus of the Eye.”)
64 I: Principles
Figure 3–21. Lattice degeneration with small retinal break and limited retinal detachment, seen
more clearly in Figure B with scleral depression than in Figure A without scleral depression.
thumb and index finger, or it can be placed upon the index or middle finger as
shown in Figure 3–23.
Initiating scleral depression

Using one common method, the scleral depressor is grasped between the thumb
and the index finger, and the patient is asked to look down. The depressor is applied
to the upper lid, without pressure, at the posterior tarsal margin (Figure 3–24A).
The patient is then asked to look up and, as the upper lid retracts, the depressor is
slid posteriorly, tangential to the surface of the globe (Figure 3–25).
Figure 3–22. Scleral depressor.
A B
Figure 3–23. Two techniques for manipulating thimble scleral depressor are shown. (A) Shows
method that is easier to learn for most people because it closely resembles the way pencil or
ophthalmic surgical instrument is held. (B) This method is better when third fi nger is needed
to hold patient’s lid.
A B
Figure 3–24. (A) Shows depressor being applied to posterior tarsal margin of patient’s upper
eyelid, with patient looking down. (B) With patient looking up and depressor introduced, exam-
iner is in position to see superior periphery.
66 I: Principles
A B C
Figure 3–25. (A) Depressor being applied to upper lid at posterior tarsal margin while patient
looks down. No pressure is being applied to eye at this time. (B) Patient is asked to look up,
and depressor is advanced into orbit alongside globe. (C) Tip of instrument is now depressed
gently, producing mound in fundus. Note that at all stages, shaft of depressor is approximately
tangential to globe and is inserted well back in orbit, minimizing danger of excessive pressure
at the limbus with subsequent pain.
The depressor now lies against the globe, but no pressure is being applied to
the globe. The light from the ophthalmoscope is projected onto the fundus supe-
riorly, the condensing lens is interposed, and the fundus at the equator is brought
into view (Figure 3–24B). The depressor is now gently pressed against the globe at
the equatorial region and, if it is applied in the correct meridian, a grayish mound
comes into view from the lower part of the lens. A small adjustment in the lens
should bring into clear focus the image of this indented part of the fundus. Slowly,
the depressor is slid anteriorly under direct visual control. The ora serrata should
slide into view in the inferior part of the lens.
Moving the axis of depression

Once the image of the indented part of the fundus is in view, one moves the
depressor, the lens, and the observer’s head in a coordinated manner to move from
one part of the retinal periphery to another. It is important to emphasize that
the observer’s eye, the eyepiece of the ophthalmoscope, the condensing lens, the
patient’s pupil, the object being studied in the fundus, and the scleral depressor all
must lie on a straight line as indicated in Figure 3–12. The depressor should be
applied in a direction as parallel to this axis as possible. It is not satisfactory to
depress with the instrument at a great angle to this viewing axis.
Causes of discomfort
The amount of pressure used for scleral depression is about the same as that used
when estimating intraocular pressure by taction. Most beginners use excessive
pressure. When poor alignment precludes a view of the depressed retina, the nov-
ice usually presses more vigorously, resulting in patient pain and lack of cooper-
ation. Instead, the examiner should assess the alignment of the depressor with
the other elements of the optical system. If the depressor is aligned correctly, lit-
tle or no intentional pressure on the eye is needed to visualize the mound of the
depressor. Too much pressure causes discomfort to the patient, who subsequently
squeezes the eyelids, and visualization may become impossible. A person who is
skilled with this technique can examine even young children without causing sig-
nificant discomfort.
Frequently the beginner applies his depressor too far anteriorly. This causes con-
siderable discomfort to the patient and, of course, will not permit visualization of
the retina.
Scleral depression in the horizontal meridia

In the majority of instances, scleral depression should be performed through the
lids. Even the 9-o’clock and 3-o’clock meridians can be examined in most patients
by careful application of the depressor on the superior lids (Figure 3–26). If the lid
is lax, it can be dragged down slightly with the depressor to enable these merid-
ians to be examined. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to examine the
9-o’clock and 3-o’clock meridians by direct application of the scleral depressor to
the bulbar conjunctiva (Figure 3–27). If this is necessary, it will be observed that
even less pressure is necessary to see the fundus than if one applies the pressure
through the lids. A drop of a suitable topical anesthetic will enable this maneuver
to be performed. In sensitive patients, a cotton-tipped applicator soaked in topical
anesthetic can be used as the depressor. Since topical anesthetics cause corneal epi-
thelial cloudiness, this portion of the examination should be performed after the
majority of the fundus examination has been completed.
It is never necessary to use a topical anesthetic when applying a scleral depres-
sor to the lids. The amount of pressure necessary to see the superior periphery is
A B
Figure 3–26. (A) Shows the approximately six positions of depressor on lids sufficient to provide
view of entire periphery, with exception of 9- and 3-o’clock positions. (B) Shows how, in most
patients, it is possible to drag upper lid down enough to visualize nasal horizontal meridian.
(C) Shows how it is usually possible to drag upper lid down enough to examine temporal
horizontal meridian.
68 I: Principles
A B
C D
Figure 3–27. In cases where lids are tight, or patient tends to excessively squeeze eyelids, it
may be necessary to apply depressor directly to globe in order to examine the 9- and 3-o’clock
meridians. Topical anesthesia is usually applied. With patient looking straight ahead, depressor
is introduced into lateral or nasal fornix tangential to globe. Patient is then asked to look to
right or left (as case may be), and depressor follows eye back.
somewhat less than that necessary to see the inferior periphery due to the some-
what greater thickness of the inferior lid.
Scleral depression nasally

When performing scleral depression in the far periphery in temporal meridia, it
helps to have the patient look in a temporal direction. However, this is not so when
examining in nasal meridia. If the patient looks in a nasal direction, the nasal
peripheral retina becomes buried into the bones of the orbit. Rather than hav-
ing the patient look in a nasal direction, turn the patient’s head about 30 degrees
nasally in order to perform scleral depression in the nasal periphery.
Examining the far periphery

In examining the ora serrata region, it is usually necessary to have the patient look
toward the meridian one wishes to examine. However, it is important to emphasize
the necessity for the observer to move his own body freely in examining the retinal
periphery. In examining the ora serrata, it is usually necessary to tilt the condens-
ing lens somewhat forward into a plane more nearly parallel to the iris. With this
technique, it should be possible, in an eye whose pupil dilates normally, to examine
the ora serrata for 360° and the posterior one third of the pars plana ciliaris.
Rolling the depressor

It must be emphasized that scleral depression is a dynamic and not a static tech-
nique. Significant help in interpreting fundus pathology is obtained by changes
in the image produced by movements of the scleral depressor. The experienced

observer is constantly moving the depressor with fine massaging movements ante-
riorly, posteriorly, and also sideways. These slight movements enable the observer
to examine lesions from many angles. This technique is sometimes referred to as
“rolling” a lesion. It is this dynamic aspect of scleral depression that enables one to
pick up lesions in the fundus that are invisible without scleral depression.
While performing scleral depression, a faint circumferential white line, which
marks the posterior aspect of the vitreous base, can frequently be observed. A
break in this line should be carefully “rolled,” inspecting it as a possible retinal
break (Figure 3–28).
The use of depression allows the examiner to detect and differentiate raised
lesions from flat lesions and to determine the difference between a hemorrhage
and a retinal break. It also enables one to detect a retinal break that may not be
visible until the depressor is applied under it (Figure 3–29A,B). Figure 3–30 illus-
trates how the movement of the depressor produces changes in the fundus mound,
which in turn alter the view of the lesion in question. Figure 3–30A shows the
appearance of the lesion without the use of the scleral depressor. Figure 3–30B
shows the appearance of the problem with the scleral depressor in place, with the
apex of the mound at approximately the equator. Well down on the anterior slope
of the mound, a round red lesion that is difficult to identify can nevertheless be
detected. After the depressor is slid anteriorly, the nondescript red spot is brought
up to the crest of the mound. At this point, it is recognized as a break in the ret-
ina (see Figure 3–30C). The depression has blanched the margins of the retinal
Figure 3–28. Retinal tear interrupts white line of posterior vitreous base.
70 I: Principles
Figure 3–29. Elevated lesion seen in (A) is confi rmed to be a retinal tear by moving the depressor,
as seen in (B).
break and increased the contrast between the edges of the break and the subjacent
choroid.
Sequence of scleral depression examination

In order to be certain that no area of the fundus escapes evaluation, a system
of examination is essential. Otherwise, lesions of considerable size and impor-
tance may be overlooked. One can start by examining the fundus posterior to the
A B
Figure 3–30. (A) Appearance of retinal lesion without use of scleral depression. (B) Shows view
of fundus in condensing lens, with scleral depressor in place. Crest of mound thus produced is
posterior to round red lesion seen on mound. Round gray disc floats in vitreous over mound in
fundus and casts shadow on retina. Exact nature of red lesion cannot be discerned in this view.
It could be either hemorrhage in retina or retinal break. (C) Shows change in appearance, which
occurs when depressor is moved anterior enough to position lesion precisely on crest of mound.
In this view, sharp edge of lesion identifies it as retinal break. Small gray disc in vitreous is now
identifiable as operculum—piece of retina torn out of break by vitreous traction. If red lesion in
this example were a cyst rather than a tear, it would appear on mound as a little lump. If it were
merely flat hemorrhage, no change in surface contour would be detected.
equator in all quadrants, and then proceeding to a 360-degree depressed examina-

tion of the periphery beyond the equator.
Since scleral depression nasally is more difficult than temporally, it helps to
examine the temporal periphery fi rst. This allows the patient time to accommo-
date to the bright lights, and also allows scleral depression to soften the eye a
little in preparation for examination nasally. If the examiner is standing on the
right side of the patient, it is convenient to begin by examining the left eye fi rst.
Starting at 12 o’clock and moving clockwise, scleral depression of the left tem-
poral periphery is performed. To examine the 12-o’clock periphery of the left
eye, the examiner stands to the right side of the supine patient’s legs, with the
patient looking up. Examining around the 3 o’clock periphery, he/she stands to the
right of the patient’s head, patient looking left. Moving to examine at 6 o’clock,
72 I: Principles
he/she has shifted position to stand at the top of the patient’s head as the patient
looks down. As he/she starts to examine inferonasally, the patient’s head is turned
about 30 degrees in a nasal direction, with the patient still looking down rather
than down and right. The 9-o’clock meridian is examined with the patient looking
straight ahead, with the examiner standing to the left of the patient’s head. The
patient looks up for the superonasal exam, and when exam is completed back to
12 o’clock, the examiner is standing to the left of the patient’s legs. He/she is then
in position to begin examination of the right eye, starting at 12 o’clock and moving
temporally to 9 o’clock. The exam continues as with the left eye, this time turning
the head to the left to examine the nasal periphery. When examination of the right
eye is completed, the examiner is back at the right of the patient’s legs where the
process began.
If the primary pathology is in the left eye, it may be preferable to begin with the
exam of the right eye, allowing time for the examiner to dark adapt and the patient
to get used to the exam.
SCLERAL DEPRESSION IN THE OPERATING ROOM

Scleral depression in the operating room is usually performed with a marking
depressor with one end designed to leave a mark by temporarily dehydrating the
sclera (Figure 3–31). The side of the marking tip is used to locate the retinal break.
Then the shaft of the depressor is turned into position directly over the tear, or over
the edge of the tear that one wishes to mark. The scleral surface is then exposed,
the mark is found, and a marking pen is used to make the mark permanent. (See
also Chapter 7, page 155.)
Some surgeons prefer diathermy for marking retinal tears. The fundus lesion is
fi rst localized with a cotton-tipped applicator or scleral depressor. Some surgeons
then have an Arruga retractor introduced by an assistant to straddle the location.
The cotton stick or depressor is then removed, without moving the eye. A flat dia-
thermy electrode is then introduced under ophthalmoscopic control, and scleral
depression is performed with it until the mound in the fundus caused by the elec-
trode is positioned to the examiner’s satisfaction. The current is then turned on
Figure 3–31. Marking scleral depressor.

and a burn on the sclera results. If the retina was not too highly detached, a retinal
burn will also result, corresponding exactly to the scleral burn.
SUMMARY
Indirect viewing systems present an inverted image but enable high-resolution,
wide-field binocular imaging extending into the far periphery of the retina. With
appropriate techniques and equipment, excellent visualization may be possible,
even with poor pupillary dilation or media opacities.
Mastery of the skill of binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy with scleral depression
is essential for examining the peripheral retina, and diagnosing and treating retinal
detachment. The dynamic technique of scleral depression, how to examine through
a small pupil, and ways to ensure patient comfort and cooperation are presented.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Rosenthal ML, Fradin S: The technique of binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy. Highlights
Ophthalmol 1966;9:179–257.
Rubin ML: The optics of indirect ophthalmoscopy. Surv Ophthalmol 1964;9:449–464.
Schepens CL, Hartnett ME, Hirose T: Schepens’ Retinal Detachment and Allied Diseases,
Second Edition. Boston:Butterworth-Heinemann; 2000; pp. 99–102.
Wilkinson CP, Rice TA: Michels Retinal Detachment. St Louis: CV Mosby Co; 1997;
pp. 335–374.
4
Evaluation and Management
E
valuation of a patient for retinal detachment includes a thorough history
and a complete ocular exam, including measurement of visual acuity, exter-
nal examination, ocular motility testing, testing of pupillary reactions,
anterior-segment biomicroscopy, tonometry, and binocular indirect ophthalmos-
copy with scleral depression. Posterior-segment biomicroscopy, perimetry, and
ultrasonography are also sometimes required.
OCULAR EVALUATION
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment is a diagnosis generally made by clinical exam-
ination of the retina alone, but a full history, ocular examination, and sometimes
selected ancillary tests are also important parts of the evaluation (Figure 4–1).
HISTORY RELEVANT TO RETINAL DETACHMENT

The symptoms of retinal detachment include flashes of light, new floaters, visual
field defect, decreased visual acuity, metamorphopsia, and rarely, defective color
vision.
Flashes of light
The perception of light flashes, or photopsia, is due to the production of pho-
sphenes by pathophysiologic stimulation of the retina. The retina is activated
by light but is also capable of responding to mechanical disturbances. In fact,
the most common cause of light flashes is posterior vitreous detachment. As the
75
76 I: Principles
Figure 4–1. Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment is a diagnosis generally made by clinical

examination alone, but sometimes ancillary tests are helpful. (Every effort has been made to
secure permission to reproduce this image.)
vitreous separates from the retinal surface, the retina is disturbed mechanically,
stimulating a sensation of light. This perception is more marked if there are focal
vitreoretinal adhesions. Generally, vitreous separation is benign and may almost
be regarded as normal in the senescent eye. In approximately 12% of symptomatic
posterior vitreous detachments, however, a careful search of the periphery reveals
a tear of the retina.
If the flashes are associated with floaters, it is wise to assume that a retinal
tear exists, until proved otherwise. These symptoms demand a prompt and careful
examination of the periphery with binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy and scleral
indentation. The patient’s localization of the photopsia is of little value in predict-
ing the location of the vitreoretinal pathology. If no breaks are evident in the fi rst
examination after symptomatic vitreous detachment, they rarely appear at a later
date.
If there is no associated hemorrhage or other pathologic condition, the patient
needs counseling only. However, if pigment or blood is detected in the vitreous, a
follow-up examination is often required. It is prudent to forewarn patients about
the symptoms of retinal detachment. Flashes alone or floaters alone are less signifi-
cant than if they occur together, in which case they are more likely to be associated
with a retinal break.
The light scintillations of an ocular migraine are correctly identified by the
typical history. However, ophthalmoscopic examination may be required to rule
out a retinal cause.
Floaters
While a few floaters (muscae volitantes) are experienced almost universally by the
general population, the acute onset of new floaters requires careful examination.
A patient describing hundreds of tiny black specks is virtually pathognomonic of
vitreous hemorrhage. The sudden appearance of one large floater near the visual
axis is ordinarily caused by posterior vitreous separation in which the glial annulus
4: Evaluation and Management 77
(Weiss’ ring) of the posterior vitreous has pulled loose from its peripapillary loca-
tion. The appearance of numerous curvilinear opacities within the visual field gen-
erally indicates vitreous degeneration. Small vitreous collagen fibrils resulting from
degeneration coalesce into large, coarse fibers, which cast curvilinear shadows on
the retina.
The most significant cause of floaters is vitreous hemorrhage, and the charac-
teristic numerous tiny black dots may be followed in a few hours by “cobwebs” as
the blood forms irregular clots. The cause of acute vitreous hemorrhage must be
assumed to be a retinal tear, until proved otherwise. There is a direct relationship
between the amount of vitreous hemorrhage and the likelihood of a retinal tear
being present.
If the superior fundus cannot be adequately visualized, bilateral patching should
be considered. The patient should be provided with patches for both eyes and told
to apply them with tape when going to bed. They should not be removed until
the patient returns for reevaluation the following morning, so a caregiver must be
involved in this process. The eye should then be promptly dilated, and the patch
should be immediately reapplied after the drops are instilled. Examination is car-
ried out following adequate dilatation. This practice will usually allow blood to
sufficiently settle so that the superior half of the retina can be adequately observed;
this is where the great majority of breaks occur.
Although examination by ultrasonography is frequently recommended in this
situation, detection of a retinal tear without detachment is a genuine art not per-
fected by most. If a retinal detachment is discovered in an eye with a poor view
that prevents discovery of a retinal tear, the eye should be managed with vitrec-
tomy. Otherwise, continued patching should be considered, but if this is unsuccess-
ful after another 24 hours, serial ultrasound studies can be considered.
Visual field defects

Awareness by the patient of a visual field defect or shadow is often the fi rst symp-
tom of post-equatorial retinal detachment. Detachments anterior to the equator
have no effect on the visual field and cannot be demonstrated with confronta-
tion visual fields or perimetry. Detachments posterior to the equator can usually
be so demonstrated, but patients rarely notice a field defect until the detachment
encroaches on the posterior pole. Patients tend to be less aware of superior than
inferior field defects, and those patients with inferior retinal detachments may
be totally unaware of superior field loss until the fovea is involved. High bul-
lous detachments cause dense field defects; flat detachments produce relative field
defects.
Visual field examination is highly specific for localizing retinal detachments.
When a patient with extensive retinal detachment is being examined, it is fre-
quently helpful to inquire about the position of the field defect when first seen, as
a clue to the location of the primary retinal break. For instance, if a patient with
a total retinal detachment has a history of an inferior nasal field defect that later
enlarged to involve the total field, the finding of a retinal break in the superior tem-
poral periphery is likely.
78 I: Principles
Decreased central acuity

Although the duration of retinal detachment symptoms is estimated from the time
of the onset of the visual field defect, the duration of foveal involvement dates from
the time of decreased central acuity. The prognosis for recovery of central vision
is approximately correlated with the duration of foveal detachment. Even a brief
detachment of the fovea will usually permanently reduce the best corrected visual
acuity after successful reattachment to the level of about 20/50 (6/15). Therefore,
a retinal detachment threatening imminent detachment of the fovea should either
be treated urgently, or the patient should be bilaterally patched until surgery can
be scheduled. Unfortunately, peripheral field loss may escape a patient’s notice, so
that medical help is frequently not sought until central vision is lost.
Trauma
The patient should be queried about a history of trauma, either accidental or sur-
gical. The examiner should carefully record the details of trauma in the patient’s
chart, remembering that it is a legal document that might later be reviewed. The
time, place, and nature of the accident should be entered. Direct trauma to the
globe should be clearly differentiated from any indirect trauma to the head or
elsewhere in the body. Details of previous surgery should be noted, particularly
cataract extraction, Nd:YAG capsulotomy, intraocular foreign body removal, and
retinal procedures. Frequently, a patient denies any trauma during the initial exam-
ination but recalls some remote trauma a few weeks later. The denial and recollec-
tion should be recorded under the date that each is reported by the patient.
Ocular diseases
The history must include questions regarding previous ocular diseases, such as
uveitis, vitreous hemorrhage, amblyopia, glaucoma, or diabetic retinopathy. Any
symptom of retinal detachment can be mimicked by other disease processes. Light
flashes might be due to posterior vitreous detachment, floaters might be due to
age-related vitreous degeneration or uveitis, and visual field defects might be due
to vascular occlusion or vitreous hemorrhage.
Systemic diseases
A careful history of the patient’s general health includes specific questions about
systemic disorders that are sometimes associated with retinal detachment, includ-
ing diabetes, tumors, angiomatosis of the central nervous system, sickle cell dis-
ease, leukemia, and eclampsia.
Family history
Although most retinal detachments occur as sporadic events, certain families are
susceptible to retinal detachment. A family history of retinal detachment is a clue
to prognosis and frequently indicates the need for examination of other family
members. The history influences decisions regarding prophylactic treatment of ret-
inal breaks.
GENERAL OCULAR EXAMINATION

Visual acuity
The best corrected visual acuity should be recorded for each eye. Generally, the
patient’s current eyeglasses or contact lenses suffice, but if there is any doubt, a
refraction should be performed. Visual acuity is usually measured with the Snellen
test. Low vision may be recorded with a decreasing numerator of the Snellen frac-
tion, such as 5/200 or 2/200. Because the examiner’s fingers are grossly equivalent
to the 20/200 letter, counting fi ngers at a distance of 5 feet is approximately equiv-
alent to 5/200. The visual acuity of illiterate or non-English-speaking patients or
of preliterate children can be measured with the E chart.
Decreased visual acuity always accompanies extension of the retinal detach-
ment into the fovea, but it does not necessarily mean detachment of the fovea. Poor
central vision may also be due to antecedent disease of the macula, opacities of the
media, optic nerve disease, or amblyopia.
External examination
The examiner should record the status of the brows, lashes, and lids. Accurate
recording of the preoperative state of these structures is a requisite base for post-
operative evaluation of the external anatomy. The early postoperative period may
be characterized by pseudoptosis, lid edema, chemosis, and, rarely, permanent
ptosis.
Ocular motility
Retinal reattachment surgery is occasionally accompanied by temporary changes
in the function of the extraocular muscles, and in rare cases the alterations are per-
manent. Therefore, a preoperative record of the state of ocular motility is impor-
tant. Although there are many tests of motility, the cover test and versions usually
suffice. But when the vision of one or both eyes is poor, the cover test is not reliable.
In such a case, the examiner should simply note the position of the light reflection
of the flashlight with reference to the visual axis of each cornea (Hirschberg test).
Each millimeter deviation of the corneal light reflex from the visual axis is equiva-
lent to approximately 12 prism diopters (∆). This test can be refined by selection of
the appropriate prism to restore the light reflex to the normal visual axis (Krimsky
test).
Pupillary reactions
Pupillary reactions should be noted, and the size of the maximally dilated pupil
recorded. Subtle differences in the direct light reflex might not be apparent unless
a comparison is made between the two eyes with a swinging flashlight (Marcus
Gunn test), by which the direct pupillary reflex is studied in comparison to the
consensual reflex. A test result is positive when the pupil dilates as the light is
directed into it, indicating that the direct reflex is weaker than the consensual. A
defect in the afferent pupillomotor system, including retinal detachment, resulting
in a positive test result is referred to as an afferent pupillary defect.
80 I: Principles
Anterior segment biomicroscopy

The cornea is usually clear in retinal detachment, but occasionally there is enough
hypotony to create folds in Descemet’s membrane. Anterior uveitis is rarely suffi-
cient to produce keratic precipitates. Mild flare and cells are frequently noted in
the anterior chamber, and occasionally the reaction is marked. The depth of the
anterior chamber should be noted. The angle of the chamber can be estimated
with the slit-lamp beam near the limbus. If the peripheral anterior chamber seems
unusually shallow, gonioscopy is indicated.
Any opacities of the lens should be noted. An objective assessment of the effect
of opacities on visual acuity is more accurate with use of the direct ophthalmo-
scope. A posterior subcapsular cataract might interfere with visual acuity, but it
often does not prevent a thorough examination of the fundus periphery. On the
other hand, peripheral cortical opacities may not interfere with visual acuity, but
they may seriously impair examination of the periphery and conceal the presence
of peripheral retinal breaks. The vitreous should be examined for evidence of vit-
reous detachment, hemorrhage, inflammatory cells, or pigment.
If there has been no previous intraocular disturbance (such as uveitis, trauma,
or intraocular surgery), the presence of pigment in the vitreous (“tobacco dust”)
is very suggestive of a retinal break. Pigmented cells from the retinal pigment epi-
thelium may pass through a retinal break into the vitreous cavity. Retinal breaks
have been found in more than 70% of eyes with “tobacco dust” if there is no other
obvious explanation for the presence of pigment in the vitreous.
The indirect ophthalmoscope can be used for examining the anterior segment
when a slit lamp is not available. With the examiner’s eyes positioned just 8 to 10
inches from the patient, the condensing lens functions as a magnifying loupe that
provides an erect real image.
Tonometry
The intraocular tension should be recorded for both eyes before the pressure is
artificially lowered by the massage effect of scleral indentation (scleral depression).
Usually, an eye with retinal detachment is relatively hypotonic, and the pressure
may be as much as 10 mm Hg less than the unaffected eye. Occasionally, the
hypotony is so profound that no tension can be recorded. Still rarer is the patient
who has a paradoxically elevated intraocular pressure in the presence of retinal
detachment (Schwartz syndrome). Either of these extremes is usually relieved by
retinal reattachment.
RETINAL EXAMINATION
BINOCULAR INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPY

Retinal surgeons rely primarily on the binocular indirect ophthalmoscope for diag-
nosing retinal detachment. Its main features are contrasted with those of the direct
ophthalmoscope in Table 3–1. Despite its low magnification and inverted image,
the binocular indirect ophthalmoscope is the instrument of choice due to its large
field of view, high illumination, depth of focus, stereopsis, and especially its ease
of use with the scleral depressor. The technique of binocular indirect ophthalmos-
copy and scleral indentation is discussed in Chapter 3.
POSTERIOR SEGMENT BIOMICROSCOPY

Biomicroscopic examination of the posterior segment is accomplished by the use
of a flat macular contact lens, a mirrored contact lens (Figures 4–2 and 4–3), an
indirect wide-field contact lens, or a 60- to 90-diopter noncontact indirect lens.
The Hruby noncontact technique has been superseded by the noncontact indirect
lenses. The biomicroscope provides stereopsis, high illumination, high magnifica-
tion, and the great advantage of a slit beam optical section. Routine use of bio-
microscopy of the peripheral retina is not required for every retinal detachment,
but in selected cases it reveals valuable information not obtainable by any other
method.
Through the flat central portion of a contact lens, it is possible to examine the
central and posterior vitreous with high resolution. There is no better way to
examine the optic nerve head and the fi ne details of macular anatomy. The tech-
nique is particularly valuable in the search for posterior retinal breaks, which are
particularly difficult to locate in the staphyloma of highly myopic eyes or in the ret-
inal detachment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy.
Figure 4–2. Goldmann’s three-mirror lens. (Reproduced with permission from Cockerham
WD, Schepens CL: Technique of vitreous cavity examination. In: Symposium on Retina and
Retinal Surgery [Transactions of the New Orleans Academy of Ophthalmology]. St Louis: CV
Mosby Co; 1969:66–89.)
82 I: Principles
Figure 4–3. Diagram of fundus areas visible with Goldmann’s three-mirror lens. (Redrawn with
permission from Havener WH, Gloeckner S: Atlas of Diagnostic Techniques and Treatment of
Retinal Detachment. St Louis: CV Mosby Co; 1967.)
Vitreoretinal relationships in the periphery can be examined with mirrored lenses

or with indirect lenses. Mirrored lenses have the advantage of a shallow depth of
focus, which is valuable when a questionable retinal break cannot be clearly defined
by ophthalmoscopy. By precise focus on the sensory retina, the presence of a break
can be detected. With difficulty, scleral depression can be performed in combi-
nation with biomicroscopic evaluation of the peripheral retina (Figure 4–4).
Biomicroscopy is the best way to defi ne the critical role of the detached vitre-
ous cortex in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. The mechanism of elevation of
previously flat neovascularization, avulsion of retinal vessels, and tractional retinal
detachment can be clearly seen.
Biomicroscopy is also valuable for the preoperative evaluation of a patient with
a giant retinal tear. The possible attachment of formed vitreous to the flap of the
tear or the presence of formed vitreous behind the retina is a preoperative clue to
the prognosis, and suggests the best technique of surgical management.
Binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy should be employed fi rst to obtain a pan-
oramic view of the entire posterior segment. Contact lens biomicroscopy can then
be used to define specific details; that is, the indirect ophthalmoscope can be used
to see the “forest,” and the slit lamp to see the individual “trees.” Exclusive reli-
ance on slit lamp examination of the retina is not recommended.
Figure 4–4. Examination of a peripheral retinal lesion using slit lamp biomicroscope, mirrored
contact lens, and scleral depression. Enables the determination of whether small retinal lesion
represents a full-thickness retinal defect.
ANCILLARY TESTS
Perimetry
Most cases of retinal detachment can be evaluated adequately without perimetry,
but there are certain instances in which it is helpful, and others in which it may be
important. The visual fields should be examined by confrontation, and if there is
any question about the correlation of the field defect with the detachment, formal
perimetry may be helpful. Perimetry is particularly indicated if there is antecedent
disease of the optic nerve, particularly glaucomatous cupping.
Perimetry may also be helpful in the differential diagnosis of retinoschisis.
Relatively flat retinoschisis can be readily differentiated from shallow retinal
detachment in that the former invariably causes an absolute field defect, while the
latter causes only a relative defect. Perimetry is less specific for bullous detach-
ment, because an absolute field defect could be found in either detachment or
retinoschisis. Perimetry may be helpful with a miotic pupil. As previously men-
tioned, perimetry only discloses disease posterior to the equator.
Ultrasonography
When confronted with opaque media, the physician can obtain valuable informa-
tion with ultrasonography—both A-scan and B-scan. The technique can reveal
both rhegmatogenous and nonrhegmatogenous detachments, such as those sec-
ondary to malignant melanoma of the choroid (Figure 4–5). Retinal tears in the
absence of retinal detachment can often be detected as well.
84 I: Principles
Lens
Vitreous
t
l fa
bita
Or
Retinal detachment
Vitreous
Orbital
fat
Retinal Malignant
detachment melanoma
Figure 4–5. Ultrasonograms. (A) Rhegmatogenous detachment. (B) Detachment secondary

to malignant melanoma. (Reproduced with permission from Coleman DJ, Jack RL: B-scan
ultrasonography in diagnosis and management of retinal detachments. Arch Ophthalmol
1973;90:29–34. Copyright 1973, American Medical Association.)
A detached retina always remains attached at the optic nerve. This feature of
insertion at the shadow of the optic nerve is easily observable with B-scan and
helps distinguish retinal detachment from posterior vitreous separation or vitreous
hemorrhage (Figure 4–6). A standardized A-scan can also be helpful in making
this distinction.
Laser test
The distinction between retinal detachment and retinoschisis can usually be made
by retinal examination alone. However, at times this can be a difficult diagnosis
to make; especially when retinal detachment and retinoschisis coexist, it can be
difficult to tell the extent of each.
The laser test can be helpful in this instance. Laser intensity is adjusted to create
a medium-intensity laser spot in normal retina. This same intensity is then applied
to the area of the retina in question. Where retinoschisis is present, a white spot
will result, but where retinal detachment is present, there will be no visible reaction
to the laser.
Figure 4–6. Pediatric patient with bilateral total retinal detachments. B-scan ultrasounds show
that detachments insert into optic nerves. (A) Right eye. (B) Left eye.
PREPARATION FOR SURGERY
PATIENT COUNSELING
Once the diagnosis of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment has been made and full
examination has been performed, the patient and family are counseled regarding
the nature of the diagnosis and its planned treatment. Informed consent is both a
medical and a legal requirement, and an informed patient is apt to be more coop-
erative and better reconciled to the therapeutic options and outcome.
86 I: Principles
The prognosis is presented, including the possible need for reoperation

and the possibility that even with reoperations the retina may not ultimately
be repairable. If the macula is not detached, the physician should explain that
some patients (5%–10%) may lose a few lines of visual acuity. If the macula is
detached, the ophthalmologist should explain that full visual recovery should
not be expected.
Surgical and nonsurgical alternatives are reviewed. The major complications of
retinal detachment surgery (including the rare possibility of blindness) should be
mentioned, with a thorough discussion if the patient desires. The patient’s finan-
cial obligations should be explained.
URGENCY OF SURGERY AND MACULAR DETACHMENT

The term “macular detachment” is usually used to refer specifically to detach-
ment of the center of the macula, the fovea. If macular detachment occurs or has
occurred, even if only briefly, the visual acuity will usually not return to 20/20
(6/6). Average best corrected visual acuity is about 20/50 (6/15), but the range of
outcomes is quite broad.
If the macula has not yet been detached, a judgment should be made about the
imminence of this adverse event. Proximity of the detachment to the fovea, degree
of bullousness of the detachment, direction from which the detachment approaches
the macula, size and location of the retinal break(s), and duration of symptoms are
all factors that are considered in making this judgment (Figure 4–7).
The rate of extension of detachment tends to be higher if the break is superior
or temporal, and lower if the break is inferior or nasal. Equatorial tears tend to
cause more rapid progression than tears near the ora serrata. Large retinal tears
are usually associated with a more rapid progression of detachment than small
Figure 4–7. Bullous retinal detachment threatening to detach the macula (M). (Reproduced
with permission from Pneumatic Retinopexy: A Collaborative Report of the First 100 Cases:
Hilton et al. Ophthalmology 1987;94:307–314.)
tears. However, even large dialyses in the young tend to progress slowly. Bullous
detachments tend to progress more rapidly than shallow ones.
If there is a risk that a currently attached fovea may soon detach, prompt surgi-
cal intervention is in order. Pneumatic retinopexy has a possible advantage in this
instance since, as an office-based procedure, it can usually be performed sooner
than an operating room procedure. Also, pneumatic retinopexy offers the oppor-
tunity to use the injected gas bubble to press the detachment away from the fovea
by appropriate positioning (see “Steamroller” in Chapter 8, page 196).
Until surgery can be performed, progression of the detachment can be slowed,
halted, or even reversed by having the patient stay at bed rest with both eyes
patched. Some surgeons believe that if the detachment is superior, the head of
the bed should be flat and the patient’s head should be turned to the side that
makes the detachment lowermost. Such measures can buy some needed time while
preparations are made for surgery. If a nondrainage procedure is being considered,
bilateral patching before surgery may also be helpful to encourage the absorption
of subretinal fluid.
Normal visual acuity rules out the existence of a detached macula, but poor
vision does not prove that the macula is detached. Poor vision may also be due to
antecedent macular or optic nerve disease, amblyopia, or opacities of the media.
Subtle degrees of macular detachment are best evaluated stereoscopically with the
slit lamp and contact lens and with ocular coherence tomography (OCT) if nec-
essary. The luteal pigment of the macula, xanthophyll, is not readily apparent in
the normal macula, but becomes more evident as a yellow color against the back-
ground of intraretinal edema when detachment includes the macula.
Macular detachment is not usually due to or associated with macular holes.
Macular breaks as a cause of retinal detachment are usually seen in association
with the staphyloma of high myopia or following trauma (Figure 4–8).
Figure 4–8. Retinal detachment caused by macular break in high myopia.

88 I: Principles
If the macula is already detached, the urgency is not high, but slow deterioration
of the detached retina occurs over time. Extent and elevation of the detached ret-
ina also usually progress, potentially making the surgical procedure more difficult.
Some cases are chronic and less urgent, but for most macula-off retinal detach-
ments we prefer to schedule surgery within a week.
COMPLICATING PREEXISTING CONDITIONS

Managing miosis
Poor pupillary dilation may occur because of posterior synechiae or chronic miotic
use. Visualization of the retina may be sufficiently impaired that examination and
surgical repair of the detachment is compromised. Use of small-pupil examination
techniques will often help (see “Examination through a Small Pupil” in Chapter
3), but sometimes this is insufficient.
One very effective solution to this problem is the intraoperative placement of iris
retracting hooks, usually used in conjunction with vitrectomy. Four small incisions
into the anterior chamber are made at the limbus at the points of a square. The
prolene hooks are inserted to catch the edges of the iris and retract it outward.
Another option is photocoagulation of the retina, or photomydriasis. Laser
application in at least eight meridia is sometimes sufficient to achieve adequate
dilation. Laser spots are placed midway between the pupillary margin and the iris
root, causing contraction of the dilator muscle. If pupillary fibrosis is present, it
may be amenable to Nd:YAG laser transection.
The effect of pupillary dilation is enhanced by subconjunctival injection of a
mydriatic-cycloplegic combination. Care should be used with subconjunctival
phenylephrine injections to avoid significant elevation in blood pressure.
Corneal opacities
Corneal opacities are rarely sufficient to preclude retinal surgery, but kerato-
plasty should be considered, if necessary. The corneal and retinal surgery may
be performed at the same time, facilitated by use of a temporary keratoprosthesis
during the retinal procedure. Edema of the corneal epithelium can substantially
impair visualization, but this can be resolved simply by scraping this layer during
surgery.
Cataract
Limited opacities of the lens are common in patients with retinal detachment, but
the binocular indirect ophthalmoscope usually enables adequate examination. The
most common site of cortical opacities is in the inferior nasal quadrant where, for-
tunately, retinal breaks occur least frequently. The obscuring effect of a moderate
degree of nuclear sclerosis can be overcome with the indirect ophthalmoscope at
maximum voltage. One can often see around limited central posterior subcapsular
(PSC) opacification with the indirect, but when PSC is diffuse, adequate visualiza-
tion may be impossible.
If, in the presence of a significant cataract, a fairly adequate ophthalmoscopic
examination is possible and reveals that the distribution of the subretinal fluid is
adequately explained by the apparent retinal breaks, it is reasonable to proceed

with retinal surgery without removing the cataract. However, in many such cases,
it may be appropriate to perform cataract surgery and retinal reattachment surgery
at the same time, particularly if a vitrectomy is planned.
If a retinal detachment is diagnosed soon after cataract surgery, reattachment
surgery need not be delayed if the cornea is sufficiently clear. In such cases, if there
is any question about the strength of the cataract wound from prior surgery, the
surgeon should place additional mattress sutures across the surgical incision site.
Peripheral capsular remnants following cataract surgery may also compromise
the visibility of the retinal periphery. Vitrectomy may occasionally be necessary to
allow widening of the capsular opening.
Vitreous opacities
Vitreous opacities, especially hemorrhage, are rather common with retinal detach-
ment, but usually adequate examination of the retina is possible. Vitreous hemor-
rhage may be somewhat cleared by binocular patching and positioning the patient
to allow blood to settle away from the area of the suspected retinal break, as men-
tioned earlier.
If a retinal break that explains the detachment is seen, it is frequently best to
proceed with scleral buckling instead of vitrectomy in a phakic eye. In an aphakic
or pseudophakic eye, vitrectomy may be the procedure of choice.
If the fundus cannot be seen in spite of patching, the eye should be examined
by ultrasonography. If a retinal detachment is demonstrated, the surgeon should
proceed with a pars plana vitrectomy and repair of the detachment.
External disease
Retinal surgery is not recommended in the presence of infection. Most retinal
detachments can be deferred for several days until external infection is brought
under control with appropriate antibiotic therapy. Postponement may not be nec-
essary for mild blepharitis.
Glaucoma
Preoperative gonioscopy is indicated when a history or signs of elevated intraoc-
ular pressure exist. The presence of open-angle glaucoma prior to retinal detach-
ment generally poses no problem. Miotics should be withheld prior to surgery.
Although retinal detachment usually produces a modest degree of hypotony,
in rare cases the detachment causes secondary elevation of the intraocular pres-
sure, which tends to be refractory to any treatment until the retina is reattached
(Schwartz syndrome). In the absence of significant trabecular damage from uveitis,
the intraocular pressure normalizes postoperatively.
Uveitis
A minimal degree of flare and cells in the anterior chamber is common in retinal
detachment and requires no medical treatment. Marked uveitis, however, should
be vigorously treated with cycloplegic drops, as well as topical and/or systemic
90 I: Principles
corticosteroids, as indicated. Surgery is usually delayed for a few days. Of course,

care must be taken to ensure that a rhegmatogenous retinal detachment is indeed
present and to rule out a nonrhegmatogenous detachment secondary to uveitis.
Choroidal detachment
Retinal detachment must always be differentiated from choroidal detachment,
especially in patients who have recently undergone intraocular surgery or expe-
rienced other ocular trauma. However, rhegmatogenous retinal detachment and
choroidal detachment occasionally coexist. The choroidal detachment is generally
associated with hypotony, which induces further choroidal detachment, perpetu-
ating the cycle. Such eyes often have significant uveitis as well.
The anatomic results of retinal reattachment surgery in the presence of choroi-
dal detachment and uveitis are relatively poor, due to a relatively high incidence
of postoperative proliferative vitreoretinopathy. In such cases, treatment with sys-
temic and topical corticosteroids for 1 or 2 weeks is sometimes beneficial, but
prolonged deferment of the retinal surgery is not recommended. If the choroidal
detachment is not in the area of the retinal break, the surgeon should simply pro-
ceed with retinal surgery. If, however, the choroidal detachment is in the area of
the retinal break or in the area where subretinal fluid must be drained, the sur-
geon should begin the operation with drainage of the suprachoroidal fluid. Normal
intraocular pressure can be maintained during drainage with use of a pars plana
cannula for the continuous infusion of a balanced salt solution into the vitreous
cavity. The surgeon may then proceed immediately with conventional retinal reat-
tachment surgery.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN PREPARATION FOR SURGERY

Preparation for operating room procedures
In preparation for scleral buckling or vitrectomy, a general preoperative physical
examination is indicated to ensure that the patient is prepared for the physical
stress of the surgical intervention and the associated anesthetic. It is important
to know of chronic or acute medical problems before starting the procedure.
Preoperative laboratory evaluation is ordered predicated on existing diseases and
risk factors. If poorly controlled medical problems exist, it may be appropriate to
postpone surgery for a time while these problems are addressed. However, retinal
reattachment surgery is rarely deemed elective, and it is likely not appropriate to
wait for an extended time while optimal control is established.
Except in instances of high urgency (such as intraocular infection), time is
allowed for the stomach to empty prior to surgery. When a referring doctor calls
to send a retinal detachment patient for prompt consultation, the retina surgeon
will often ask that the patient be advised not to eat or drink anything en route, in
case same-day surgery will be indicated.
If the patient is using anticoagulant medications such as warfarin, it may be
appropriate to consider, in consultation with the prescribing physician, discontinu-
ing them prior to surgery. However, many surgeons choose to proceed without mod-
ifying warfarin treatment. Surgery for retinal detachment is not usually delayed to
reverse antiplatelet medications such as aspirin and clopidogrel (Plavix).
Scleral buckling and vitrectomy procedures are most frequently performed

under local anesthesia, but general anesthesia is sometimes preferred. Variables
regarding this decision include surgeon and patient preference, expected duration
of the procedure, and the patient’s health and mental status. In selected cases, top-
ical anesthesia may be considered.
Preparation for office procedures

Pneumatic retinopexy is generally performed as an office procedure under local or
topical anesthesia. The medical history is relevant, but a full physical exam and
preoperative laboratory testing is usually not necessary. An empty stomach is not
required. The risk of hemorrhage with pneumatic retinopexy is low, even for a
patient on warfarin.
Retinal photocoagulation usually requires no anesthesia for indirect laser,
although topical anesthesia is applied if a contact lens is used with slit lamp laser
delivery. Sometimes patient sensitivity requires a retrobulbar anesthetic. Cryopexy
usually requires topical, subconjunctival, peribulbar, or retrobulbar anesthesia; an
empty stomach is not required.
POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
At the time of discharge after surgery, it is useful to supply the patient with written
postoperative instructions. The majority of patients probably would have a satis-
factory surgical result without most of these restrictions. However, imposing them
routinely seems justified because they can be important for the occasional patient.
ACTIVITY RESTRICTIONS AND POSITIONING

Surgeon preferences regarding postoperative restrictions will differ, but the follow-
ing guidelines may be helpful. Since most reattachment procedures are performed
on an outpatient basis, restrictions in general have become less stringent over the years.
As a general rule, postoperative restrictions are most important for the fi rst
week, or until subretinal fluid has reabsorbed. The majority of patients are able
to return to work within 1 to 2 weeks, but if a patient’s occupation requires clear
binocular vision or significant physical activity, convalescence may be longer.
Early ambulation minimizes postoperative problems such as decubitus ulcers,
thrombophlebitis, and generalized weakness. Unless gas has been injected into the
vitreous, it is usually not necessary for the patient to maintain a set head position,
but chemosis and lid edema are minimized if the patient rests on the unoperated
side. It is generally acknowledged that ocular rest encourages the absorption of
subretinal fluid. However, watching television or reading involves relatively small
eye movements, and is not restricted by most surgeons.
Most patients do well with patching of the affected eye only for 1 to 3 days.
Change the eye pad at least daily, or whenever wet.
Stooping, bending, and heavy lifting are often restricted initially following sur-
gery, especially if there has been intraocular hemorrhage, but the value of these
practices is uncertain.
92 I: Principles
If gas has been injected into the vitreous, the patient must be warned not to fly
until the bubble is relatively small. Specific positioning of the head to place the
causative retinal breaks uppermost is prescribed. Longer restrictions on activity
may be called for, particularly if a long-acting gas bubble is used.
POSTOPERATIVE MEDICATIONS
Patients who have had general anesthesia may have nausea and vomiting for a time
after surgery. An antiemetic, such as promethazine, droperidol, or prochlorpera-
zine, may be helpful.
Pain is rarely a problem for retinal patients. Meperidine, 50 to 100 mg, is seldom
required beyond the fi rst postoperative day. Propoxyphene napsylate with acet-
aminophen is an adequate analgesic thereafter. Unexpectedly severe or increasing
pain calls for prompt evaluation to rule out endophthalmitis, scleral abscess, or
markedly increased intraocular pressure.
Antibiotics and corticosteroids, either topical or systemic, are not mandatory
for routine cases, but many surgeons prefer a combination of drugs such as neomy-
cin, polymyxin B, and dexamethasone (Maxitrol) three times a day. Topical sco-
polamine 0.25% or homatropine 5% help prevent posterior synechiae formation
and add comfort in the presence of inflammation. These may be particularly help-
ful in pseudophakic eyes, especially in diabetic patients. Daily use of a cycloplegic
and an antibiotic–corticosteroid combination for 2 weeks is sufficient. In the occa-
sional case in which significant inflammation is noted, appropriate corticosteroid
medication should be prescribed.
FOLLOW-UP EXAMINATIONS
As a rough guideline, the routine patient should be examined on the first or second
postoperative day, at 1 and 3 weeks, and at 2 and 6 months, after which annual
examinations are recommended. However, more frequent examinations are fre-
quently necessary following pneumatic retinopexy, for giant retinal tears, or other
high risk cases, and particularly if complications develop. Therefore, no firm
guidelines can be recommended and follow-up examinations are scheduled on a
case-by-case basis. Examination should include an interval history, best corrected
visual acuity, tonometry, biomicroscopy, and thorough binocular indirect ophthal-
moscopy. Annual examinations help assure the discovery of such asymptomatic
problems as new retinal breaks, peripheral detachment, erosion of the implant, or
glaucoma.
Following an encircling scleral buckle, a refractive shift is often noted, which
generally stabilizes within 2 to 3 months and, if indicated, a permanent spectacle
lens may be ordered at that time.
IF THE RETINA FAILS TO SETTLE

Postoperative photocoagulation or cryopexy
Persistent leakage of fluid through a retinal break without evidence of settling is
an indication for intervention. If the break is only minimally elevated from the
retinal pigment epithelium, supplemental photocoagulation or cryopexy may be

considered. The goal is to induce swelling of the retina and choroid, thereby clos-
ing the edges of the break and allowing the subretinal fluid to be absorbed and
adhesions to permanently seal the break (Figure 4–9).
If a gas bubble is present in the eye, all that may be necessary is to prescribe a
new head position in order to get the retina to settle. Supplemental laser or cryo
would then be applied. In other situations, injection of a small expansile gas bub-
ble will provide closure of the open retinal break and allow laser therapy to be
performed.
Where any subretinal fluid persists, it is difficult to get retinal burns with
photocoagulation, and the tendency is to turn up the power of the laser. Care
must be taken to avoid treating with too much intensity, or retinal breaks or
hemorrhage may ensue. When photocoagulation is to be performed, it is recom-
mended that the physician patch the patient bilaterally and restrict activity before
the procedure to encourage as much settling as possible. Scleral depression at
the time of laser application may assist in bringing the retina in apposition to the
A B
Figure 4–9. Postoperative photocoagulation. (A) Inferior leakage of subretinal fluid, anteriorly
from horseshoe break and across buckle in inferior temporal quadrant. (B) Photocoagulation
around horseshoe tear and at 3:30-o’clock position. (C) Reattachment of retina after
photocoagulation.
94 I: Principles
retinal pigment epithelium. Retrobulbar anesthesia may be necessary because

of tenderness. Two or three rows of contiguous lesions should be placed around
the leaking break.
Supplemental cryopexy is impeded by the presence of an overlying scleral buckle,
but it is not as hindered by residual subretinal fluid. Still, the fluid should be shal-
low enough that supplemental treatment will allow the retina to settle.
Maximal restriction of activity and proper positioning following supplemental
laser application may preclude the need for surgical reoperation in some cases.
If the response to treatment is not adequate, the surgeon should not hesitate to
proceed with a gas injection or full reoperation.
Reoperation
If there is more than minimal postoperative nonsettling subretinal fluid around
the leaking break, photocoagulation or cryopexy will likely not be successful. If
the leaking break is in the superior eight clock hours of the retina, one may con-
sider pneumatic retinopexy (see Chapter 8). Pneumatic retinopexy can provide a
simple salvage for selected failing scleral buckling procedures, avoiding the need to
revise the buckle or perform vitrectomy. If pneumatic retinopexy is not appropri-
ate, reoperation with scleral buckling (Chapter 7) or vitrectomy (Chapter 9) can be
considered. If the break has remained open for more than a few days after surgery,
supplemental cryopexy or photocoagulation should be applied around the break.
Chronic persistent subretinal fluid

Sometimes limited subretinal fluid will persist but show no evidence of progres-
sion. If there is no open retinal break, the macula is not detached, and the amount
of subretinal fluid is not increasing, in most cases intervention is not required.
Shallow subretinal fluid may persist in the inferior retina for many years. Multiple
small, shallow blisters of residual fluid may also persist chronically after retinal
detachment repair.
SUMMARY
Knowledge of the patient’s health status along with a thorough evaluation of the
eye and retina provide an important basis for the diagnosis and treatment of reti-
nal detachment. Principles of preoperative and postoperative patient management
focus on detecting, avoiding, and treating potential complications.
Patients at risk for retinal detachment should be told to be seen promptly if
new-onset flashes, floaters, or visual field defects develop. If examination shows
detachment likely to extend soon into the macula, prompt surgery is indicated,
possibly with preoperative bilateral patching and positioning.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Burton TC, Arafat NL, Phelps CD: Intraocular pressure in retinal detachment.
Int Ophthalmol 1979;1:147–152.
McMeel JW, Wapner JM: Infections and retinal surgery. Arch Ophthalmol
1965;74:42–47.
Michels RG: Scleral buckling methods for rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Retina
1986;6:1–49.
Schepens CL: Diagnostic and prognostic factors as found in preoperative examination.
Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1952;56:398–412.
Second Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2000; pp. 221–234.
pp 335–390, 517–538, 907–934.
5
Establishing the Diagnosis
T
he differential diagnosis of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment includes
secondary (nonrhegmatogenous) retinal detachment and other entities that
may simulate a retinal detachment. Nonrhegmatogenous detachments are
categorized as exudative (serous) and tractional detachments. Conditions that may
be mistaken for retinal detachment include retinoschisis, choroidal detachment
or tumors, and vitreous membranes. Sometimes benign fi ndings in the peripheral
retina are mistaken for retinal breaks.
FUNDUS CHANGES UNRELATED TO RETINAL

DETACHMENT
The most prominent feature of the fundus is the optic nerve head or disc, the only
place in the human body that affords a direct view of a tract of the central nervous
system. The foveola, the functional center of the fundus, is located in the center of
the fovea, which has a diameter of about 5°. The macula is centered on the fovea
and has a diameter of about 17°. The multiple branches of the central retinal artery
are readily identified by their bright red color and relatively narrow caliber. The
multiple tributaries of the central retinal vein are recognized by their dark red
color and relatively wider caliber.
Choroidal vasculature
In a darkly pigmented fundus, the choroidal vessels in the posterior pole can be
obscured from view, but in an eye with minimal pigment, they are readily visible.
97
98 I: Principles
The venous tributaries of the choroid that make up the vortex veins are usually
easily seen. The most prominent features of the choroidal venous system are the
vortex ampullae, of which there are usually four (but sometimes more). They are
located approximately in the 1-, 5-, 7-, and 11-o’clock meridians, just posterior
to the equator. The horizontal meridians are usually identifiable by their radially
oriented, long posterior ciliary nerves, and infrequently the long posterior ciliary
artery can be seen adjacent to the nerve. The nerve is relatively broad and has a
yellow color, and the artery is identifiable by its red color. The artery is usually
inferior to the nerve temporally, and superior to it nasally (Figure 5–1).
Ora serrata
The ora serrata is the anterior limit of the sensory retina. It is characterized nasally
by prominent ora teeth, which point anteriorly. Between each pair of teeth is an
ora bay. There are approximately 48 ora teeth per eye. The pattern of serration is
not present temporally, where the ora teeth are small or absent (Figure 5–2).
Occasionally, a white line is evident on the retina just posterior to the ora ser-
rata, representing the posterior limit of the vitreous base. A similar circumferential
white line representing the anterior limit of the vitreous base is occasionally visible
in the middle of the pars plana.
The normal fusion of the sensory retina and retinal pigment epithelium along
the ora serrata is referred to as retinochoroidal adhesion. This zone is 3 or 4 mm
Short ciliary nerves

Short ciliary arteries Anatomic vertical meridian
Vortex ampullae
Long ciliary nerve
Long ciliary
artery
Vortex vein
Inverted vortex vein
Cystoid degeneration
Anatomic vertical meridian Short ciliary nerves
Figure 5–1. Normal fundus with principal structures labeled. (Reproduced from Rutnin U,
Schepens CL: Fundus appearance in normal eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 1967;64:821–852,
1040–1078. Published with permission from the American Journal of Ophthalmology.
Copyright by the Ophthalmic Publishing Company.)
5: Establishing the Diagnosis 99
Figure 5–2. (A) Temporal ora serrata. (B) Nasal ora serrata.
wide in the temporal periphery, but less than 1 mm wide in the nasal periphery.
It is pigmented, a feature easily demonstrated by transillumination. The anterior
progression of a retinal detachment is generally halted by this adhesion, but occa-
sionally the subretinal fluid breaks through to create a detachment of the pars
plana, in which there is separation of the nonpigmented and pigmented epithelial
layers. Detachment of the pars plana is more common on the nasal side, apparently
because of the narrower retinochoroidal adhesion. Detachment of the pars plana
epithelium is an important feature, and the pars plana must be carefully examined
with scleral indentation to detect the presence of breaks in the area, particularly
along the anterior limit of the vitreous base.
The periphery of the fundus extends from the equator to the anterior limit of the
pars plana, constituting about one third of the total fundus. It is the most impor-
tant area as far as detachment-producing lesions are concerned.
The equator is an important landmark for the recording of retinal fi ndings, but
the beginning ophthalmoscopist might have difficulty identifying it. It is helpful to
recall that the distance from the ora to the equator is approximately 4 disc diam-
eters and that the equator is just slightly anterior to the vortex ampullae.
Proceeding forward from the tip of an ora tooth, the examiner may find a faint
line extending anteriorly into the corresponding valley of the pars plicata. Such
lines are known as striae ciliares. The transition axis between the deep nasal ora
bays and the shallow temporal bays is a line that extends approximately from the
100 I: Principles
11- to the 5-o’clock position in the right eye and from the 1- to the 7-o’clock posi-
tion in the left. A fold of redundant retina is commonly associated with the ora
teeth, particularly in the superior nasal quadrant. Often found in an ora bay, these
meridional folds are usually benign, but occasionally there is an associated retinal
break, in most instances at the posterior limit of the fold.
Variations of the morphology of ora teeth include forked teeth, bridging teeth,
giant teeth, and ring-shaped teeth (Figure 5–3). Occasionally, an ora bay is sur-
rounded by retinal tissue, and such an enclosed bay must be differentiated from
a true retinal break, which it mimics. Sometimes, a deep ora bay is seen nasally
at the horizontal meridian. A dense, shiny-white spherical structure is sometimes
seen near the ora serrata. Known as an ora pearl, it has no clinical significance
despite its remarkable appearance (Figure 5–4A).
Tufts of redundant glial tissue at or near the ora are called cystic retinal tufts,
but also have been termed congenital retinal rosettes, glial spheres, and granular
tissue. Rarely, an elevated tuft of retinal tissue points toward the anterior segment.
This malformation is due to traction from a zonule and is therefore called a zonu-
lar traction tuft. Changes in the fundus thought to be clinically insignificant in the
production of retinal detachment include chorioretinal degeneration near the ora,
reticular pigmentary degeneration, equatorial drusen, paving-stone degeneration,
whitening of the retina, pars plana cysts, retinal erosion, and pigment clumps (see
Figure 5–4).
Chorioretinal degeneration
Chorioretinal degeneration is the term for a stippled salt-and-pepper type of pig-
ment alteration that often occurs adjacent to the ora. Infrequently, degeneration is
also found more posteriorly toward the equator and, when located between the ora
and the equator, it apparently halts the posterior progression of more anteriorly
located peripheral cystoid degeneration (see Figure 5–4B).
Reticular pigmentary degeneration

This condition occurs in the aging eye, and the frequency increases with advanc-
ing age. Also called honeycomb chorioretinal degeneration, it is caused by retinal
pigment epithelial degeneration and is most prominent along the nasal equator.
The pigment granules migrate into a pattern that looks like a fishnet or honeycomb
(Figures 5–5 and 5–4C). The course of the degeneration is benign.
Equatorial drusen
Drusen are more common in the equator than in the macula. Equatorial drusen
may be associated with reticular pigmentary degeneration and are most often
found in the elderly. They usually occur in the nasal periphery and are either punc-
tate or geographic (Figure 5–4D).
Cobblestone degeneration
Also known as paving-stone degeneration or peripheral chorioretinal atrophy,
cobblestone degeneration is frequently found in the fundus periphery, usually in
A B
C D
E F
Figure 5–3. Morphologic variations of ora serrata region in normal fundi. (A) Nasal periphery with
marked cystoid degeneration near horizontal meridian, giant tooth, and deep ora bay over long cili-
ary nerve. (B) Temporal periphery with marked cystoid degeneration near horizontal meridian, deep
ora bay over long ciliary nerve, with forked tooth (above) and tooth with pearl at its base (below).
(C) Upper temporal periphery with bridging tooth covered with cystoid degeneration; granular
globule (above) and white granular patch with large cystoid cavity on its anterior border (below).
(D) Nasal periphery near horizontal meridian, with marked cystoid degeneration; ring tooth (closed
ring). (E) Temporal periphery near horizontal meridian; deep ora bay over long ciliary nerve; tooth
above deep bay had part of tip broken off; ring tooth (hole-in-the-tooth; above). (F) Nasal periph-
ery, near horizontal meridian, with ring tooth (open ring) and deep ora bay over long ciliary nerve.
In next bay (below), two tiny tags. (Reproduced from Rutnin U, Schepens CL: Fundus appearance
in normal eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 1967;64:821–852, 1040–1078. Published with permission from
the American Journal of Ophthalmology. Copyright by the Ophthalmic Publishing Company.)
A B
C D
E F
G H
102
Figure 5–5. Fluorescein angiogram of reticular pigmentary degeneration.
the inferior periphery (Figures 5–6 and 5–4E). These lesions consist of circum-
scribed areas of atrophy in which there is loss of the outer layers of the retina,
retinal pigment epithelium, choriocapillaris, and most of the choroidal vessels.
Therefore, in an ophthalmoscopic examination of these lesions, the white sclera is
revealed, with perhaps a few intact choroidal vessels crossing the defect. Clumps
of pigment may be noted at the margin of each lesion.
An isolated lesion is 1 or 2 disc diameters in size, but adjacent lesions may
coalesce to form an elongated lesion with a scalloped margin parallel to the ora.
Sometimes the posterior edge of a large area of confluent paving-stones creates the
impression of a serrated dividing line and consequently has been called a pseudo-
ora (Figure 5–6). Rare secondary retinal breaks at the site of paving-stone lesions
have been reported, but this form of degeneration is not a significant cause of pri-
mary retinal breaks.
Retinal whitening
A common condition, whitening of the retina is ordinarily apparent without
pressure from the scleral indentor, and this fact is referred to by the notation
Figure 5–4. Changes of fundus periphery thought to be clinically insignificant. (A) Composite
picture of temporal periphery shows size, shape, and location of pearls. (B) Chorioretinal
degeneration at ora serrata. (C) Reticular pigmentary degeneration. (D) Equatorial drusen. (E)
Paving-stone degeneration. (F) White-with/without-pressure. (G) Pars plana cysts. (H) Retinal
erosion. (Reproduced from Rutnin U, Schepens CL: Fundus appearance in normal eyes. Am
J Ophthalmol 1967;64:821–852, 1040–1078. Published with permission from the American
Journal of Ophthalmology. Copyright by the Ophthalmic Publishing Company.)
104 I: Principles
Figure 5–6. Fundus photograph of confluent paving-stone lesions.
“white-without-pressure.” But if it is evident only when pressure is applied, it

is described as “white-with-pressure.” Areas of peripheral whitening sometimes
assume rather bizarre forms with geographic outlines, and they are not always
connected with the ora serrata. Generally, the areas of whiteness are anterior
to the equator, but occasionally they extend to the posterior pole. When exam-
ined with scleral indentation, they are discovered to be flat, which differentiates
them from retinal detachment or retinoschisis (Figure 5–4F). Infrequently, a
round area of normal fundus is surrounded by whitening, creating the incor-
rect impression of a retinal hole surrounded by a shallow retinal detachment
(Figure 5–7).
Whitening is assumed to result from alterations in the anatomy of the vitreo-
retinal interface. It is more marked in pigmented races and is virtually universal
among patients of African descent.
Pars plana cysts

Pars plana cysts are relatively common (Figures 5–8 and 5–4G). They average from
1 to 3 disc diameters in size and appear transparent. Scleral indentation clearly
reveals their elevation. Pars plana cysts are usually multiple, bilateral, located tem-
porally, and limited to the posterior half of the pars plana. They are clinically
benign and do not evolve into retinoschisis.
Retinal erosion
Isolated areas of loss of substance in the inner retinal layers are referred to as ret-
inal erosion. These focal lesions are curiosities and do not predispose to retinal
detachment (Figure 5–4H).
Figure 5–7. White-with-pressure with pseudohole. (Reproduced with permission from Norman
E. Byer, The Peripheral Retinal in Profile, A Stereoscopic Atlas.)
Figure 5–8. Fundus photograph of pars plana cyst. (Courtesy of Norman E. Byer, MD.)
Pigment clumps
Small pigment clumps frequently noted in the peripheral fundus are generally
insignificant. Occasionally, however, a vitreoretinal adhesion associated with pig-
ment clumps does appear, and this adhesion may produce a retinal tear. The prog-
nosis for pigment clumps without tears is good, and prophylactic therapy is not
indicated.
106 I: Principles
Hemiretinal differences
The temporal periphery is the most common site of lattice degeneration, retinal
breaks, pars plana cysts, dialysis of the young, and degenerative retinoschisis. The
nasal periphery is the most common site of prominent ora teeth, meridional folds
at the ora, granular tissue, and detachment of the pars plana.
FUNDUS CHANGES RELATED TO RETINAL

DETACHMENT
FINDINGS SUGGESTIVE OF RETINAL DETACHMENT

An obvious detachment is recognizable by the marked elevation of the retina. The
retina appears translucent or semiopaque, its blood vessels are relatively dark, it
may lie in folds, and the detached retina may undulate.
A shallow, slightly elevated detachment of the retina can be more difficult to
diagnose. Stereopsis afforded by the binocular indirect ophthalmoscope enhances
recognition and proper evaluation of the characteristics unique to each detach-
ment. It is helpful to examine the normal attached retina and then compare it with
the adjacent area in question for any changes in retinal transparency that may
suggest detachment. With fundus biomicroscopy, a shadow of the retinal vessels is
cast on the pigment epithelium. A small degree of shadow formation may be found
in the normal retina, but prominent separation between the retinal vessel and its
underlying shadow is the clue to a shallow detachment.
The detached retina may assume an “orange-peel appearance,” which is best
seen when the retina is viewed in light reflected from the choroid. If a shallow
detachment in the periphery is suspected, scleral indentation usually enables visu-
alization of the subtle retinal separation.
One of the best ways to recognize the presence of subtle retinal detachment is
to pay attention to the clarity of choroidal markings. In areas where the retina is
detached, choroidal vessels and pigment variations are relatively obscured. During
routine examination of the peripheral retina, this is often the finding alerting the
examiner to the possibility that detachment may exist, calling for closer inspection.
The limits of the retinal detachment should be recorded on the fundus chart.
In the search for retinal breaks, the distribution of fluid is a valuable clue to the
location of the break(s). It should not be assumed that the detachment is lim-
ited by the ora serrata, and a careful search for detachment of the pars plana is
required. The limit of the detachment may be accentuated by the presence of a
demarcation line, either pigmented or nonpigmented (Figure 5–9). The presence
of a demarcation line also calls for careful inspection for current or resolved ret-
inal detachment.
DETECTION OF RETINAL BREAKS

The entire retina should be carefully examined for retinal breaks by binocular
indirect ophthalmoscopy, supplemented by scleral indentation for the periphery.
Figure 5–9. Fundus photograph of subtle demarcation line.
Figure 5–10. Most probable site of retinal break as suggested by distribution of subretinal fluid.
(Courtesy of Charles L. Schepens, MD.)
While breaks may be found in any area, the distribution of the subretinal fluid is
a clue to the most likely location of a primary retinal break (Figure 5–10). If one
superior quadrant is detached, the break is apt to be near the upper edge of the
detachment. When the superior half of the retina is detached, the break is most
likely near the 12-o’clock meridian. An inferior quadrantic detachment usually has
the break near the upper edge of the detachment or in the meridian bisecting the
area of detachment. If the inferior half is symmetrically detached, the break could
108 I: Principles
be anywhere within the detachment, but when the fluid is higher on one side of an
inferior detachment than on the other, the break is usually on the higher side.
In a total retinal detachment, the break is often between the 10- and 2-o’clock
meridians. If there are inferior bullae, the examiner should assume that a retinal
break is above the horizontal meridian. In the presence of a demarcation line, the
break is often found in the meridian that bisects the demarcated area.
The history may provide a clue to the location of a break. When the detachment
has progressed rapidly, the break is usually superior, fairly large, and probably
located nearer the equator than the ora. If the history suggests slow progression of
the detachment, a small, inferior, or extremely peripheral break should be sought.
The quadrant of fi rst detectable field loss is a valuable indication of the location of
the primary break, particularly if the detachment has become total. Special atten-
tion should be paid to all areas of abnormality, particularly lattice degeneration,
meridional folds, pigmentation, opercula, and hemorrhage.
Distinguishing retinal breaks from retinal hemorrhage

A reddish lesion may be either a retinal hole or a retinal hemorrhage. Careful
examination will reveal a homogeneous red color for retinal hemorrhage, some-
what denser than the orangish-red choroid seen through a retinal break. Most
important, while both lesions are similar in color, a hemorrhage has a solid appear-
ance compared to the translucent quality of a retinal void. Parallax in ophthalmos-
copy is helpful because retinal hemorrhage is localized in the plane of the retina,
whereas the apparent redness of a hole is in the plane of the pigment epithelium.
The most valuable technique for differentiation is scleral indentation, which allows
the examiner to change the illumination of the underlying choroid. These changes
will show through a retinal hole but will not change the appearance of a retinal
hemorrhage.
Table 5–1. Classification of Retinal Detachment with Proliferative Viteroretinopathy,

1983
Grade Name Clinical Signs
A Minimal Vitreous haze, vitreous pigment clumps
B Moderate Wrinkling of inner retinal surface, rolled edge of retinal break,
retinal stiffness, vessel tortuosity
C Marked Full-thickness fi xed retinal folds
C-1 one quadrant
C-2 two quadrants
C-3 three quadrants
D Massive Fixed retinal folds in four quadrants
D-1 wide funnel shape
D-2 narrow funnel shape*
D-2 closed funnel (optic nerve head not visible)
* Existence of narrow funnel shape is evidenced by indirect opthalmoscopy when anterior end of funnel can
be seen within 45° field of 20D condensing lens (Nikon or equivalent).
Source: Retina Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detachment with proliferative
vitreretinopathy Opthalmology 1983;90:121–125. See also Machemer et al., in Selected References.
Figure 5–11. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) grade A, pigment clumps. (Reproduced with
permission from Retina Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detach-
ment with proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.)
The most common cause of failure in retinal surgery is the presence of intravitreal,
preretinal, or subretinal membranes. The various gradations of proliferative vit-
reoretinopathy (PVR), as published by the Retina Society Terminology Committee
in 1983 (see Selected References), are summarized in Table 5–1, and Figures 5–11
through 5–17. An updated classification, published by Machemer and associates in
1991 (see Selected References), offers several advantages, including recognition of
anterior PVR (Tables 5–2 and 5–3). The 1991 classification has been used in sev-
eral research publications, but most clinical papers and clinical practices continue
to employ the 1983 classification.
The presence of a preretinal membrane can be subtle and may not be directly
observed, but its presence can be inferred from the finding of fi xed retinal folds—
folds that do not undulate with eye movement (Figure 5–18). These folds may
be circumferential or meridional. Frequently these folds radiate out in all direc-
tions from a central nidus, called a star fold (Figure 5–19). Posterior rolling of
the posterior edge of the retinal break is another sign of periretinal organiza-
tion (Figure 5–20). Far-advanced PVR is recognized by contraction of the retina
toward the visual axis, with numerous fi xed folds centered about the optic disc
(Figure 5–21) and sometimes totally obscuring its view, constituting a D3 PVR
(Figure 5–22).
Some long-standing detachments develop subretinal fibrosis. This is clinically
recognized by linear, curved, or angular yellow-white lines on the retroretinal sur-
face of the detached retina (Figure 5–23). Severe subretinal fibrosis may form a
tight colarette around the optic nerve (Figure 5–24), necessitating a retinotomy
with removal of the subretinal band.
A B
Figure 5–12. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade B. (A) Surface wrinkling in 7:30-o’clock

meridian. (B) Rolled-over posterior edge of retinal break. (Reproduced with permission from
Retina Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detachment with prolifer-
ative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.)
A B
Figure 5–13. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade C. (A) Grade C-1, one quadrant of full-
thickness retinal folds. (B) Grade C-2, two quadrants of full-thickness retinal folds. (C) Grade
C-3, three quadrants of full-thickness retinal folds. (Reproduced with permission from Retina
Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detachment with proliferative
vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.)
A B
Figure 5–14. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade D-1. (A, B) Four quadrants of full-thickness
retinal folds with wide retinal funnel configuration. (Reproduced with permission from Retina
Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detachment with proliferative
vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.)
Figure 5–15. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade D-2. (A, B) Narrow retinal funnel con-
figuration. (Reproduced with permission from Retina Society Terminology Committee: The
classification of retinal detachment with proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology
1983;90:121–125.)
111
Figure 5–16. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade D-2. If the anterior entrance to retinal funnel
can be visualized within 45° field of +20 D indirect ophthalmoscope lens (Nikon or equivalent),
but optic nerve can be seen, funnel is designated as “narrow.” (Reproduced with permission
from Retina Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detachment with
proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.)
Figure 5–17. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade D-3. (A, B) Closed funnel, obscuring view of
optic nerve head. ([A] reproduced with permission from Retina Society Terminology Committee:
The classification of retinal detachment with proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology
1983;90:121-125. [B] courtesy of Stephen Gordon.)
112
Table 5–2. Classification of Proliferative Vitreoretionpathy, 1991

Grade Features
A Vitreous haze, vitreous pigment clumps, pigment clusters on inferior
retina
B Wrinkling of inner retinal surface, retinal stiffness, vessel tortuosity,
rolled and irregular edge of retinal break, decreased mobility of vitreous
CP1–12 Posterior to equator: focal, diffuse, or circumferential full-thickness
folds,* subretinal strands*
CA1–12 Anterior to equator: focal, diffuse, or circumferential full-thickness folds,*
subretinal strands,* anterior displacement,* condensed vitreous with
strands
* Expressed in number of clock-hours involved.
Source: Machemer R, Aaberg TM, Freeman HM, et al.: An updated classification of retinal detachment with
proliferative vitreretinopathy. Am J. Ophthalmic 1991;112:159–165. Published with permission from the American
Journal of Opthalmology. Copyright by the Ophthalmic Publishing Company.
Table 5–3. Grade C Proliferative Vitreretinopathy Described by Contraction Type,

1991
Type Location in Relation Features
to Equator
Focal Posterior Star folds posterior to vitreous base
Diffuse Posterior Confluent star folds posterior to vitreous
base; optic disc may not be visible
Subretinal Posterior/anterior Proliferations under retina: annular strand
near disc, linear strands, moth-eaten-
appearing sheets
Circumferential Anterior Contraction along posterior edge of vit-
reous base with central displacement of
retina, peripheral retina stretched,
posterior retina in radial folds
Anterior Anterior Vitreous base pulled anteriorly by prolif-
displacement erative tissue, peripheral retina trough,
ciliary processes may be stretched and
may be covered by membrane, iris may be
retracted
(Source: Machemer R, Aaberg TM, Freeman HM, et al: An updated classification of retinal detachment with
proliferative vitreretinopathy. Am J. Ophthalmic 1991;112:159–165. Published with permission from the American
Journal of Ophthalmology. Copyright by the Ophthalmic Publishing Company.)
The presence of PVR in conjunction with retinal detachment may rule out pneu-
matic retinopexy as the procedure of choice, and significant PVR may necessitate
vitrectomy.
Figure 5–18. Mild fi xed fold.
Figure 5–19. Star fold.
Figure 5–20. Rolled posterior edge of retinal break (proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade B).
114
Figure 5–21. Severe proliferative vitreoretinopathy.
Figure 5–22. Severe proliferative vitreoretinopathy (grade D-3).
A B
Figure 5–23. Subretinal fibrosis. (A) Diffuse sheet with strands. (B) Multiple strands. (Courtesy
of Elaine L. Chuang, MD.)
115
116 I: Principles
Figure 5–24. Severe subretinal fibrosis with tight peripapillary colarette.
NONRHEGMATOGENOUS RETINAL DETACHMENT

Rhegmatogenous retinal detachments must be differentiated from exudative
and tractional detachments. The diagnostic features of all three types of retinal
detachment are summarized in Table 5–4. More than 90% of all clinical detach-
ments are of the rhegmatogenous type. Rhegmatogenous detachments are termed
primary detachments, while exudative and tractional detachments are called
secondary or nonrhegmatogenous detachments. The terms serous detachment
and exudative detachment are used interchangeably.
The differential diagnosis of nonrhegmatogenous retinal detachment is
summarized in Table 5–5.
DISTINGUISHING SEROUS FROM RHEGMATOGENOUS DETACHMENT

If no retinal break can be found to account for the detachment, the possibility of
a serous (or tractional) detachment should be entertained. However, in about 10%
of rhegmatogenous detachments, no retinal break can be found. Therefore, lack of
a visible tear alone does not rule out rhegmatogenous detachment.
Pigmented vitreous cells will usually, but not always, be present with a rheg-
matogenous detachment. These cells are seen best with the slit lamp on high inten-
sity, looking posterior to the lens using no auxillary lens. Recent detachments
caused by small retinal breaks may not have these cells initially. Absence of pig-
mented cells may be part of a collection of features that leads to a suspicion of
serous rather than rhegmatogenous detachment.
When serous detachment is suspected, the patient is evaluated for shifting fluid,
and the presence of an underlying cause of serous detachment is sought in history,
with retinal examination, and potentially with laboratory evaluation. Ultrasound
may be helpful.
Serous subretinal fluid usually shifts with changes in position of the head.
“Shifting fluid” is defi ned as a changing of the detachment borders in response
Table 5–4. Diagnostic Features of the Three Types of Retinal Detachments
Rhegmatogenous Nonrhegmatogenous (Secondary)

(Primary)
Exudative Tractional
History Aphakia, myopia, Systemic factors such as Diabetes, prema-
blunt trauma, pho- malignant hypertension, turity, penetrating
topsia, floaters, field eclampsia, renal failure trauma, sickle cell
defect; generally disease
healthy
Retinal break Identified in 90% to No break, or No primary break;
95% of cases coincidential may develop sec-
ondary break
Extent of Extends to ora early Gravity-dependent; Frequently does not
detachment extension to ora is extend to ora
variable
Retinal mobility Undulating bullae or Smoothly elevated bul- Taut retina, concave
folds lae, usually without folds surface, peaks to
traction points
Retinal elevation Low to moderate, Varies—may be Elevated to level of
seldom extreme extremely high to focal traction
approximate lens
Evidence of Demarcation line, Usually none Demarcation lines
chronicity intraretinal macro-
cysts, atrophic retina
Pigment in Present in 70% of Not present Present in trauma
vitreous cases cases
Vitreous changes Frequently syner- Usually clear, except in Vitreoretinal traction
etic, posterior vit- uveitis
reous detachment,
traction on flap of
tear
Subretinal fluid Clear May be turbid and shift Clearly no shift
rapidly to dependent
location with changes in
head position
Choroidal mass None May be present None
Intraocular Frequently low Varies Usually normal
pressure
Transillumination Normal Blocked transillumina- Normal
tion if pigmented choroi-
dal lesion present
Examples of con- Retinal break Uveitis, metastatic Proliferative diabetic
ditions causing tumor, malignant mel- retinopathy, retinop-
detachment anoma, angiomatosis, athy of prematurity,
Coats’ disease, Eale’s toxocara, sickle cell
disease, Harada’s syn- retinopathy, post-
drome, retinoblastoma, traumatic vitreous
choroidal hemangioma, traction
senile exudative macu-
lopathy, optic pit, exu-
dative detachment after
cryotherapy or diathermy
117
118 I: Principles
Table 5–5. Differential Diagnosis of Nonrhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment

Exudative
Primary tumors
Malignant melanoma of choroid
Hemangioma of choroid
Retinoblastoma
Metastic tumors to choroid
Breast or lung cancer most common
Infl ammation
Scleritis
Choroiditis (e.g., Harada’s syndrome)
Retinitis (e.g., toxoplasmosis)
Vascular disease
Angiomatosis of retina (von Hippel’s disease)
Telangiectasia retinae (juvenile and adult Coats’ disease)
Eale’s disease
Retinal vein occlusion
Optic nerve disease
Pit or coloboma of optic nerve head with serous detachment of macula
Nerve head drusen with serosanguineous detachment of adjacent retina
Congenital disease
Nanophthalmos
Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR)
Macular disease
Central serous chorioretinopathy (rarely can extend to ora serrata)
Age-related macular degeneration
Other causes of disciform detachment
Ocular histoplasmosis, angioid streaks, high myopia
Systemic disease
Toxemia
Uremia
Lupus erythematosus
Leukemia
Tractional
Proliferative diabetic retinopathy
Retinopathy of prematurity
Sickle cell retinopathy
Posttraumatic vitreous membranes
Retinal vein occlusion
to changes in head position; it does not mean movement of the fluid within stable
detachment borders. Shifting fluid is common in exudative detachments, and in
rare instances is also seen in old rhegmatogenous detachments.
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment usually has a characteristic undulation
or “tobacco-paper wrinkle.” Usually there is a visible distinction between the
detached and nondetached portions of the retina (unless total retinal detachment
is present or the view is quite poor). With serous retinal detachment, the exact
extent of the detachment is not distinct, and shifting of the borders of the detach-
ment should be sought.
CAUSES OF SEROUS RETINAL DETACHMENT

Choroidal tumors with serous retinal detachment
Choroidal tumors (such as malignant melanoma) may have some associated serous
subretinal fluid. Retinal detachments associated with choroidal tumors are usually
readily identified by visualizing the tumor under the retina with binocular indi-
rect ophthalmoscopy (Figure 5–25), but in the presence of extensive serous fluid,
the causative tumor may be obscured. When serous rather than rhegmatogenous
detachment is suspected, ultrasonography can confi rm the presence of an underly-
ing tumor. Scleral transillumination can also help, demonstrating a shadow where
a pigmented tumor exists.
The distinction is critical because the management is very different. Surgical
repair of retinal detachment is contraindicated in this circumstance. If a malig-
nancy is suspected, full systemic evaluation for lesions metastasized from the eye
or for a primary source of cancer metastatic to the eye is usually indicated, with
subsequent treatment predicated on the fi ndings.
Inflammatory serous detachment

Choroiditis, posterior scleritis, and orbital pseudotumor are inflammatory condi-
tions that can cause serous detachment. Harada’s disease (Figure 5–26) and sym-
pathetic ophthalmia are examples of the former. Panretinal photocoagulation or
cryopexy can cause inflammation with serous detachment. Infectious etiologies
include orbital cellulitis, infected scleral buckle, and retinitis; for example, toxo-
plasmosis and CMV retinitis.
Figure 5–25. Retinal detachment associated with malignant melanoma. (Courtesy of Devron
R. Char, MD.)
120 I: Principles
Figure 5–26. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome with serous retinal detachment.
Figure 5–27. Capillary hemangioma with dilated, tortuous feeder vessel in von Hippel’s disease.
An inflammatory detachment is characterized by a transparent retina with an

unusually clear view of the underlying choroid. Signs of inflammation with flare
and cells are seen during slit-lamp examination of the vitreous; inflammatory
lesions of the choroid can usually be seen with indirect ophthalmoscopy. Retinitis
is manifested by a fluffy white retinal lesion with turbidity of the vitreous.
Figure 5–28. Optic pit with serous retinal detachment.
Vascular lesions with serous detachment

Vascular lesions capable of causing serous detachment include Coats’ disease,
Eale’s disease, and retinal vein occlusion. Choroidal hemangiomas and retinal
angiomatosis as seen in von Hippel’s disease (Figure 5–27) are vascular tumors
that can cause serous detachment.
Congenital causes of serous detachment

Nanophthalmos is a congenital condition that can cause uveal effusion and serous
retinal detachment. Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy causes exudative and
tractional detachment. Congenital optic nerve pits and optic nerve colobomas may
also cause serous macular detachments (Figure 5–28).
Macular lesions with serous detachment

Age-related macular detachment with choroidal neovascularization is a common
vascular lesion of the macula that occasionally causes extensive exudation and
serous detachment. This process can also occur in the periphery with periph-
eral disciform scarring and exudation. Extensive subretinal hemorrhagic retinal
detachment may also occur.
Central serous chorioretinopathy typically involves serous detachment of the
macula. Occasionally, serous subretinal fluid will also settle inferiorly into the
peripheral fundus.
DISTINGUISHING TRACTIONAL FROM

RHEGMATOGENOUS DETACHMENT
Fibrous proliferation on or under the retina may cause retinal detachment in the
absence of retinal breaks. The causative fibrous or fibrovascular proliferation is
generally clinically evident, but vitreoretinal traction can be subtle. Tractional
detachments typically have a concave contour rather than the convex contour of
122 I: Principles
rhegmatogenous detachments. The retina is generally tight and on stretch in trac-

tional detachments, whereas rhegmatogenous detachments are more loose and
undulating. Tractional detachments may be complicated by the development of
a retinal tear with the development of features of rhegmatogenous detachment.
Since PVR is primarily a tractional process, rhegmatogenous retinal detachment
may likewise develop some features of tractional detachment. Because vitreoreti-
nal traction is the cause of retinal tears, traction is a factor in the development of
most rhegmatogenous detachments.
CAUSES OF TRACTIONAL RETINAL DETACHMENT

Tractional detachments are frequently due to vascular proliferation triggered by
ischemia; thus they are caused by proliferative diabetic retinopathy, retinal vein
occlusion, cicatricial retinopathy of prematurity, or proliferative sickle retinopa-
thy. Penetrating trauma may also cause tractional detachment. Underlying causes
of the tractional process should be sought.
The treatment for tractional retinal detachment usually involves a vitrectomy
with peeling or dissection of the tractional membranes, and treatment of any coex-
isting retinal breaks (see Chapter 9). Treatment of underlying conditions (such as
diabetes) is emphasized.
LESIONS SIMULATING RETINAL DETACHMENT

Lesions that might be confused with retinal detachment include degenerative retin-
oschisis, choroidal detachment, tumors of the choroid, vitreous membranes, and
white-with-pressure or white-without-pressure.
Retinoschisis
Elevation of the retinal surface may be due to retinoschisis instead of retinal detach-
ment. Retinoschisis constitutes splitting of the sensory retina into two sheets, like
separating the two plies of a tissue. It differs from retinal detachment in that the
outer retina is still attached to the eye wall. (See also Chapter 2, page 25.)
Retinoschisis can also coexist with retinal detachment, called schisis detach-
ment. When retinoschisis accompanies detachment, it predates the onset of
detachment. An attempt should be made to record the extent of the schisis cav-
ity, as well as the area of detached retina. Determining the extent of each where
there is overlap is often difficult, but this becomes better defi ned during cryopexy.
A diagnostic feature of retinoschisis is the “white Swiss cheese” appearance of the
outer layer of the schistic retina as it is frozen. In contrast, the retinal pigment
epithelium deep to an overlying detached retina appears dull orange when viewed
during cryopexy.
Type 1 schisis detachment refers to detachment that does not extend beyond the
area of retinoschisis, whereas type 2 schisis detachment extends beyond the schisis
(Figure 5–29). Type 2 schisis detachments generally require retinal detachment
repair, whereas type 1 generally do not. Type 2 schisis detachments accompanied
SCHISIS
RD
PE
choroid
sclera
Figure 5–29. Cross-section of type 2 schisis detachment.
by extensive schisis generally have a poorer prognosis for surgical repair than
detachments without schisis.
Surgical repair of schisis detachments focuses on closing outer layer breaks and
full-thickness retinal breaks. Inner layer breaks do not require treatment.
Retinoschisis is classified as flat or bullous. As a rule, flat retinoschisis is not
progressive or slowly progressive. Occasionally, bullous retinoschisis will progress
and threaten to involve the macula.
Intraretinal macrocysts
Intraretinal macrocysts, which are defi ned as focal secondary retinoschisis, may
mimic degenerative retinoschisis. They occur only in areas of long-standing retinal
detachment. Intraretinal macrocysts are usually 2 or 3 disc diameters in size and
are most often found in the periphery. Macrocysts require no special treatment and
disappear after retinal reattachment. (see Figure 2–27)
Choroidal detachment is usually bullous, with a smooth rather than undulating
contour. Nasal or temporal bullae tend to be larger than superior and inferior
bullae. Usually, the brown choroid can be seen immediately beneath the ret-
ina, and the translucent appearance seen with a retinal detachment is lacking
(Figure 5–30).
In the deep valleys between choroidal bullae, the choroid is tethered to the
sclera by the vortex veins or along the course of the long posterior ciliary artery
and nerve. The result is a characteristic “hour glass” configuration to the bul-
lae (Figure 5–31). The tethering effect tends to limit the posterior extension of
the detachment, and therefore the posterior pole is often spared. While retinal
detachment usually extends anteriorly only as far as the ora serrata, detachment
of the choroid extends anteriorly to the scleral spur. There may be folds in the
retina, but usually there is little or no retinal detachment associated with choroidal
detachment.
Most choroidal detachments are serous, but occasionally a hemorrhagic detach-
ment is seen. Serous and hemorrhagic detachments can be readily differentiated
by scleral transillumination. There are many causes for choroidal detachment, but
the most common is hypotony following intraocular surgery, especially trabeculec-
tomy and sometimes cataract surgery.
124 I: Principles
Figure 5–30. Choroidal detachment.
Figure 5–31. Typical configuration of choroidal detachment with limited serous retinal
detachment.
Choroidal detachment usually requires no intervention. However, if the ante-

rior chamber angle has been closed because of pressure from behind, resulting
in a marked increase in intraocular pressure, surgical drainage of the choroidal
detachments may be necessary to reduce the pressure. Also, when choroidal detach-
ment is so massive that it brings the retina from opposite sides of the eye together
in the middle of the vitreous cavity, retina-to-retina adhesions may develop over
time, and surgical intervention may be necessary to prevent this.
Figure 5–32. Malignant melanoma.
Choroidal tumors
Occasionally, elevated choroidal lesions are confused with retinal detachments. An
experienced observer can tell the difference between a choroidal detachment or
choroidal mass and a retinal detachment. The choroidal lesion appears more solid,
lacking the translucent appearance of a retinal detachment. Choroidal lesions
also tend to be smooth in contour, lacking the undulations of retinal detachment
(Figure 5–32). However, secondary serous retinal detachment may also be present,
which can make the distinction more difficult (as discussed above).
Vitreous opacities
When the view is cloudy, vitreal membranes or hemorrhage may mimic retinal
detachment. In contrast to retinal detachment, vitreal membranes are avascular or
have abnormal neovascularization, unlike normal retinal vasculature. With cloudy
media, ultrasound may be helpful in making the distinction. Sometimes retinal
detachment cannot be ruled out. Serial observations can rule out progression, or
a vitrectomy may be indicated to clear the media and allow treatment of retinal
detachment if present.
White-with-pressure and white-without-pressure

Where the vitreous is adherent to the peripheral retina, the retina may take on a
whiter color than the surrounding area, visible at all times or only visible with
pressure from scleral depression. This is usually fairly well demarcated and geo-
graphic in shape, and may mimic the coloration of a shallow retinal detachment.
By placing the area in question on the crest of scleral indentation while examining
with an indirect ophthalmoscope, the absence of separation from the underlying
retina can be determined.
126 I: Principles
SUMMARY
Benign peripheral retinal findings are important to recognize in order to distinguish
them from retinal detachments or tears and their potential precursors. Findings in
early retinal detachment may be subtle and may include loss of choroidal details,
slight undulation of the retina, minimal separation of the retina from the mound of
the depression, and shadowing of retinal vessels. Scleral depression is important in
consistently detecting retinal detachments and breaks. The presence and severity
of PVR should also be assessed.
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment is to be distinguished from serous and
tractional retinal detachment, since the management is very different. In nonrheg-
matogenous detachments, underlying etiologies should be sought. Retinal detach-
ment is also to be distinguished from retinoschisis, and from choroidal detachments
and tumors.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Brockhurst RJ: Nanophthalmos with uveal effusion: A new clinical entity. Arch Ophthalmol
1975;93:1989–1999.
Gass JDM: Bullous retinal detachment: An unusual manifestation of idiopathic central
serous choroidopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1973;75:810–821.
Gass JB, Jallow S: Idiopathic serous detachment of the choroid, ciliary body, and retina
(uveal effusion syndrome). Ophthalmology 1982;89:1018–1032.
Griffith RD, Ryan EA, Hilton GF: Primary retinal detachments without apparent breaks.
Am J Ophthalmol 1976;81:420–427.
Machemer R, Aaberg TM, Freeman HM, et al.: An updated classification of retinal detach-
ment with proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1991;112:159–165.
Marcus DF, Aaberg TM: Intraretinal macrocysts in retinal detachment. Arch Ophthalmol
1979;97:1273–1275.
Phelps CD, Burton TC: Glaucoma and retinal detachment. Arch Ophthalmol
1977;95:418–422.
Retinal Society Terminology Committee: The classification of retinal detachment with
proliferative vitreoretinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983;90:121–125.
Rutnin U, Schepens CL: Fundus appearance in normal eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 1967;64:
821–852, 1040–1078.
Schepens CL, Hartnett ME, Hirose T. Schepens’ Retinal Detachment and Allied Diseases.
Second Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000. pp. 201–220.
Seelenfreund MH, Kraushar MF, Schepens CL, et al.: Choroidal detachment associated
with primary retinal detachment. Arch Ophthalmol 1974;91:254–258.
PART II
Practice
6
Prevention of Retinal Detachment
R
etinal detachment is an uncommon disease, affecting approximately 1 in
10,000 people in the general population per year. However, the incidence
of retinal breaks is relatively high, affecting 5% to 7% of the population.
Obviously, many retinal breaks have minimal, if any, risk for the possible develop-
ment of a retinal detachment. This includes macular holes that occur as a degener-
ative process, and asymptomatic, small, round atrophic holes near the ora serrata.
However, equatorial horseshoe tears with relevant symptoms progress to retinal
detachment in most cases.
Probably all surgeons would agree that a large horseshoe tear near the equa-
tor in the superior temporal quadrant, with new-onset symptoms of flashes and
floaters and associated vitreous hemorrhage, should be treated prophylactically to
avoid retinal detachment. In contrast, most would not advise treatment of a small,
round atrophic hole near the inferior ora serrata in an asymptomatic patient with
no history of prior detachment. Between these two obvious examples lies a broad
spectrum of retinal breaks for which the surgeon must exercise judgment about
instituting prophylactic treatment.
Most of the breaks reported in surveys of asymptomatic patients or in autopsy
series are of the atrophic type, and only a small proportion are horseshoe tears.
Although there are no specific rules for the selection of patients for treatment, and
each case has to be judged on its own characteristics, the application of evidence-
based medicine to this topic has modified the opinions of many regarding the gen-
uine value of prophylactic therapy for most retinal breaks.
The American Academy of Ophthalmology has used this approach in developing
a Preferred Practice Pattern (PPP) entitled “Posterior Vitreous Detachment, Retinal
Breaks, and Lattice Degeneration,” the latest version of which was published in
129
130 II: Practice
2008. The evidence base described in this PPP will be employed in the following
discussion.
RISK FACTORS FOR RETINAL DETACHMENT

Characteristics associated with a relatively high risk of retinal detachment in an
eye with visible retinal breaks are listed in Table 6–1. Symptoms and signs of PVD
place an eye at particularly high risk. Additional factors include a variety of hered-
itary, congenital, acquired, and iatrogenic problems.
The risk of retinal detachment is substantially different among subgroups of
eyes, a fact that influences interpretation of both natural history data and treat-
ment results. For example, since an acute PVD is the primary cause of most ret-
inal detachments, and since most retinal tears occur during or soon after PVD,
it is likely that eyes without a PVD have a higher risk of later retinal detachment
than eyes with a history of prior PVD. Similarly, vitreous liquefaction and PVD
occur with greater frequency in older patients and in myopic and nonphakic eyes.
Thus, data regarding lesions in otherwise normal, young, nonmyopic eyes are not
comparable with data from cases with other risk factors that greatly increase the
likelihood of PVD. Since more than one factor is often present, data analysis is
difficult if all features are not recorded. For example, myopic pseudophakic eyes
with lattice degeneration and with a history of retinal detachment in the fellow eye
have a substantially greater risk of retinal detachment than otherwise normal eyes
with lattice degeneration.
Table 6–1. Risk Factors for Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment

Symptomatic posterior vitreous detachment (PVD)
Hereditary/congenital/developmental/degenerative lesions
Male gender
Hereditary vitreoretinopathies
Myopia
Lattice degeneration with and without holes
Cystic retinal tuft
Degenerative retinoschisis
Retinal breaks
Symptomatic horseshoe tear
Dialysis
Prior ocular surgery
Aphakia/pseudophakia
Nd:YAG posterior capsulotomy
Other surgery involving vitreous gel
Prior trauma
Inflammation
CMV retinitis
Acute retinal necrosis
Other
Fellow eye non-traumatic retinal detachment
6: Prevention of Retinal Detachment 131
As noted in the Academy PPP, no prospective randomized trials of therapy to

prevent retinal detachment have been performed. The few meaningful published
studies of treated and untreated comparable eyes have been retrospective, and
most reports regarding prophylactic therapy have simply described results of a
treatment series.
This chapter briefly discusses published outcomes regarding both the natural
course of lesions that predispose an eye to retinal detachment and results of pro-
phylactic therapy for these lesions. A thorough review of treatment techniques is
beyond the scope of this chapter, although they will be briefly discussed along with
complications of therapy.
SYMPTOMATIC EYES
Patients are considered symptomatic if they describe suddenly increased vitreous
floaters and/or photopsia associated with an acute posterior vitreous detachment.
Approximately 15% of eyes with an acute symptomatic PVD develop retinal tears
of various types. The risk of retinal tears is directly related to the amount of vitre-
ous hemorrhage, and the finding of pigmented cells in the vitreous is a sign asso-
ciated with a particularly high chance of associated retinal tear(s). In symptomatic
eyes, retinal tears associated with persistent vitreoretinal traction are especially
likely to cause retinal detachment.
Retinal tears resulting from a symptomatic PVD should be distinguished from
preexisting retinal breaks detected after the PVD but not caused by it. Thus, atro-
phic retinal holes within areas of lattice degeneration are not considered “symp-
tomatic,” even if they were fi rst observed during an examination prompted by
symptoms of an acute PVD. Symptomatic retinal tears are subdivided into those
with persistent vitreoretinal traction and those in which all traction in the region
of the retinal defect has resolved (Figure 6–1).
TEARS WITH PERSISTENT VITREORETINAL TRACTION

Symptomatic horseshoe-shaped tears
Most symptomatic tears with persistent vitreoretinal traction are horseshoe shaped
and have a high risk of causing clinical retinal detachment. That risk has been
reported to be in the range of 33% to 55% of cases. Treatment of this type of break
substantially reduces the risk of retinal detachment, and immediate prophylactic
therapy for these lesions is indicated to prevent an accumulation of subretinal fluid
(Academy PPP evidence level A:II). A chorioretinal adhesion is created in flat retina
immediately adjacent to localized subretinal fluid.
Symptomatic round tears

Rarely, a retinal tear with a free operculum may have persistent vitreoretinal traction
as a result of a residual vitreoretinal adhesion near the retinal break, most frequently
at the location of a retinal blood vessel. Only two symptomatic operculated retinal
breaks have been reported to progress from initial observation to retinal detachment,
132 II: Practice
Figure 6–1. Horseshoe tears are associated with persistent vitreoretinal traction upon the flap
of the tear (white arrow), whereas operculated tears no longer have traction forces acting upon
them (dark arrow) unless there is a nearby vitreoretinal adhesion.
and both were associated with persistent vitreoretinal traction on nearby retinal ves-
sels. In unusual cases in which an operculated retinal hole is the only retinal break
associated with a clinical retinal detachment, it is presumed that anomalous persis-
tent vitreoretinal adhesions are located in the vicinity of the retinal tear. Treatment of
these breaks may be recommended if the presence of a nearby vitreoretinal adhesion
cannot be ruled out (Academy PPP evidence level A:III). Failures following treatment
of operculated retinal holes have not been reported.
BREAKS UNASSOCIATED WITH PERSISTENT VITREORETINAL TRACTION

Symptomatic operculated retinal tears
Tears unassociated with persistent vitreoretinal traction in the vicinity of the
retinal break have not been reported to progress to clinical retinal detachment.
Similarly, although large numbers of these breaks have been treated prophylacti-
cally, there are no reports in the literature of a treatment failure. Treatment of this
type of retinal break appears to be unnecessary unless the possibility of persistent
vitreoretinal traction cannot be excluded (Academy PPP evidence level A:III).
Symptomatic atrophic retinal holes and precursors of retinal breaks

Eyes with symptoms and signs of acute PVD frequently contain atrophic retinal
breaks that are not due to acute vitreoretinal traction. For the purposes of this dis-
cussion, these lesions are considered to be preexisting and not symptomatic and are
discussed in a later section. Similarly, precursors of retinal breaks or detachment,
including lattice degeneration, cystic retinal tufts, and age-related retinoschisis,
are managed as if they were originally discovered in asymptomatic eyes.
ASYMPTOMATIC EYES
Asymptomatic eyes include those with and without additional risk features. Cases
in which lesions are diagnosed in a second (“fellow”) eye following a detachment
in the fi rst eye are discussed in a separate section below.
ASYMPTOMATIC NON-FELLOW EYES AT HIGH RISK

The term “non-fellow eye” indicates absence of a history of retinal detachment in
the other eye. Myopia, previous cataract extraction, and a positive family history
for retinal detachment are considered as additional risk factors in patients with
vitreoretinal lesions believed to predispose a non-fellow eye to retinal detachment.
The existence of any of these factors in non-fellow eyes has been associated with an
increased enthusiasm for prophylactic therapy, despite the absence of appropriate
supporting data.
Asymptomatic myopic non-fellow eyes

Myopia is obviously associated with an increased risk of retinal detachment, and
there is a direct correlation between amount of myopia and incidence of retinal
detachment. Lattice degeneration associated with retinal holes did not correlate
with degree of myopia in one large natural history study, although most slowly
progressive clinical retinal detachments associated with lattice degeneration and
an absence of extensive PVD occur in young myopic patients, as noted above.
There appears to be no increased value for treatment of myopic eyes with lattice
degeneration in non-fellow eyes (Academy PPP evidence level A:III), and it is note-
worthy that the small favorable effect of preventive treatment of lattice lesions in
phakic fellow eyes in one important report could not be demonstrated if the degree
of myopia exceeded 6 diopters.
Cystic retinal tufts and degenerative retinoschisis are not more common in myo-
pic eyes, and prophylactic therapy is not recommended in the absence of a progres-
sive subclinical detachment.
Asymptomatic retinal breaks are more common in myopic eyes than in emme-
tropic or hyperopic cases. However, clinical retinal detachments in these cases are
rare in the absence of new symptoms, and prophylactic treatment is usually not
advised in non-fellow eyes (Academy PPP evidence level A:III).
Asymptomatic nonphakic non-fellow eyes

Removal of the crystalline lens is associated with a substantial increase in the rate
of later retinal tears and detachments, regardless of the method of cataract surgery;
this probably is due to vitreous changes in the nonphakic eye. An intact posterior
lens capsule appears to be associated with a reduced rate of retinal detachment fol-
lowing cataract surgery, whereas Nd:YAG capsulotomy is clearly associated with
an increased risk of subsequent detachment.
The natural course of lattice degeneration in nonphakic non-fellow eyes is not
well documented, and results of preventive treatment in these particular cases are
not available.
134 II: Practice
Similarly, meaningful information regarding cystic retinal tufts and degenera-

tive retinoschisis has not been published. Treatment of these lesions in non-fellow
eyes is not advised (Academy PPP evidence level A:III).
Asymptomatic retinal breaks in nonphakic non-fellow eyes or eyes undergoing
cataract surgery have sometimes been regarded as an indication for prophylactic
therapy. However, in one study, 18 retinal breaks in nonmyopic aphakic eyes were
followed up for 3 to 7 years, and none detached. In another study of 103 myopic
aphakic eyes, 25 asymptomatic retinal breaks were discovered in 19 eyes. Although
6 of the 25 were horseshoe-shaped tears, later retinal detachment occurred in no
cases. Treatment of asymptomatic retinal breaks in non-fellow eyes that are non-
phakic or scheduled for cataract surgery is usually not recommended (Academy
PPP evidence level A:III). Horseshoe-shaped tears should be followed more closely
than round breaks.
Family history of retinal detachment

Heredity clearly influences the chances of retinal detachment, particularly in
families with vitreoretinal degenerative disorders such as Stickler syndrome.
Prophylactic therapy is frequently considered in these cases, particularly if retinal
detachment has occurred in the primary eye. However, studies have not properly
stratified the several high-risk factors associated with retinal detachment and eval-
uated the natural course and the effects of prophylactic therapy in patients with a
familial predisposition to retinal detachment.
Stickler syndrome
Individuals at risk for Stickler syndrome due to family history or systemic fi nd-
ings should have a thorough retinal evaluation. Vitreous liquefaction and vitreous
membranes are characteristic. Retinal pigmentation in lattice-like patches, retinal
tears, and detachments are also common.
Early diagnosis is important, since Stickler patients have about a 50% lifetime risk
of retinal detachment. In addition, these patients have a poorer than usual prognosis
with surgical repair of detachment. Therefore, all new retinal tears should be treated,
and some clinicians recommend prophylactic treatment for all areas of lattice-like
degeneration as well, in spite of a lack of data supporting the value of this therapy.
Frequent examinations, at least every six months, are recommended, and patients
should be well-educated regarding the symptoms of PVD and peripheral field loss.
ASYMPTOMATIC PRECURSORS OF RETINAL BREAKS

WITHOUT HIGH-RISK FEATURES
Asymptomatic nonmyopic phakic eyes in patients without a personal or fam-
ily history of nontraumatic retinal detachment are unlikely to develop a retinal
detachment, regardless of the presence of vitreoretinal pathology. Nevertheless,
prophylactic therapy has sometimes been recommended to treat visible precursors
of retinal detachment or retinal breaks.
Precursors of retinal breaks and detachment include lattice degeneration, cystic
retinal tufts, and degenerative retinoschisis. Of these, lattice degeneration is clearly
the most important. Both lattice degeneration and cystic retinal tufts can be sites
of retinal tears resulting from vitreoretinal traction at the time of PVD. Atrophic
retinal holes commonly occur within areas of lattice degeneration and also in the
outer layer of degenerative retinoschisis. However, these holes are a relatively infre-
quent cause of progressive retinal detachment.
Asymptomatic lattice degeneration

Lattice degeneration is present in approximately 30% of retinal detachments,
and approximately 94% of these detachments occur in primary (non-fellow) eyes.
Because lattice lesions are visible and occur in approximately 8% of the popula-
tion, they have commonly been considered as candidates for prophylactic therapy.
However, an important natural history study of 276 patients and 423 involved
eyes, followed up for an average of almost 11 years, indicated that lattice lesions
in phakic non-fellow eyes were not particularly dangerous. At the end of the fol-
low-up period, atrophic retinal holes were present in 150 eyes (35%).
Subclinical retinal detachments, defi ned as subretinal fluid extending more than
one disc diameter from the break but not posterior to the equator (Figure 6–2),
were observed in 10 of the eyes with holes. In six of these eyes the subclinical
detachment developed during the observation period, whereas four eyes exhibited
the changes at the initial examination. Only one subclinical detachment was con-
sidered in need of treatment after a small asymptomatic posterior extension of
subretinal fluid.
Figure 6–2. Subclinical retinal detachments are frequently defi ned as those associated with
subretinal fluid extending more than one disc diameter from the break, but not posterior to
the equator.
136 II: Practice
Four asymptomatic tractional retinal tears were observed in three of these 423
eyes at the initial examination, and symptomatic tractional tears without clinical
detachment developed in five additional eyes during follow-up periods of 1.5 to 18
years. Three of five symptomatic and all asymptomatic breaks occurred adjacent to
lattice lesions. All symptomatic breaks were successfully treated; no asymptomatic
tractional tears were treated, and none changed over follow-up periods of 7, 10,
and 15 years. Clinical retinal detachments developed in three of the 423 eyes. Two
were due to round retinal holes in lattice lesions of patients in their mid-twenties,
and one was due to a symptomatic tractional tear.
These figures clearly indicate that patients with lattice degeneration in a phakic
non-fellow eye should usually not be treated prophylactically unless symptoms
occur (Academy PPP evidence level A:III). However, retinal detachments associ-
ated with vitreoretinal traction upon lattice lesions containing atrophic retinal
holes are relatively common in eyes with significant amounts of myopia. A discus-
sion regarding self-examination of peripheral visual fields and periodic follow-up
examinations are in order in myopic patients to reduce the chances of macular
involvement by slowly progressive detachments resulting from round holes in lat-
tice lesions.
Asymptomatic cystic retinal tufts

Retinal tears at sites of cystic retinal tufts may be responsible for as many as 10%
of clinical retinal detachments associated with posterior vitreous detachment, and
they are also associated with asymptomatic small horseshoe-shaped tears and min-
imal subretinal fluid in the absence of PVD. The chances of clinical retinal detach-
ment in eyes with cystic retinal tufts have been estimated by one expert to be 1 in
357, and these lesions are not worthy of prophylactic therapy in otherwise normal
eyes.
Asymptomatic degenerative retinoschisis

Clinical retinal detachments occur in association with degenerative retinoschisis
in up to 6% of consecutive detachment cases, and the presence of retinoschisis
and outer layer breaks has sometimes been considered an indication for prophy-
lactic therapy. However, a natural course study of 218 eyes in 123 patients dem-
onstrated no clinical retinal detachments during a follow-up period averaging 9.1
years. The vast majority of small subclinical detachments that develop in associa-
tion with outer layer breaks remain small, and prophylactic therapy is indicated
only in the presence of obvious significant progression of subretinal fluid posterior
to the equator.
ASYMPTOMATIC RETINAL BREAKS

In phakic non-fellow eyes, asymptomatic retinal breaks that are routinely discov-
ered during an evaluation of the peripheral retina are extremely unlikely to lead
to clinical retinal detachment, even if they are flap tears and even if posterior
vitreous detachment occurs. In one study, during a follow-up period averaging
11 years, asymptomatic retinal breaks were detected in 235 eyes of 196 patients,
and horseshoe-shaped tears were present in 45 cases. Acute PVD occurred in nine
eyes without adversely affecting the preexisting breaks, although new horseshoe-
shaped tears developed in three cases, and these were promptly treated. Subclinical
retinal detachments were observed in 19 eyes (8%). Modest extension of subretinal
fluid required therapy in two of these cases, and in a third case a peripheral clinical
retinal detachment slowly developed after 14 years of observation.
Prophylactic therapy for asymptomatic retinal breaks in phakic non-fellow eyes
is usually not recommended (Academy PPP evidence level A:III). An occasionally
observed exception to this rule is an inferior retinal dialysis. These breaks can
cause slowly progressive retinal detachments that frequently become symptomatic
only after macular involvement.
PATIENTS WITH RETINAL DETACHMENT

IN THE FELLOW EYE
Pathologic vitreoretinal changes often occur bilaterally, and patients with retinal
detachment in one eye have a significantly increased risk of retinal detachment in
the other eye. This risk has been estimated as ranging from as low as 9% to as
high as 40%. Thus, attempts to prevent retinal detachment in the second eye have
received considerable attention. Prospective randomized studies have not been per-
formed, but retrospective data regarding precursors of retinal detachments and
asymptomatic retinal breaks have been published. These can be further catego-
rized as phakic and nonphakic fellow eyes.
ASYMPTOMATIC PHAKIC FELLOW EYES

Phakic fellow eyes have a lower risk of subsequent retinal detachment than com-
parable nonphakic eyes.
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with lattice degeneration

Lattice degeneration is the most extensively studied indication for prophylactic
therapy in fellow eyes. One widely quoted study retrospectively evaluated 388 con-
secutive cases in which phakic retinal detachment associated with lattice degen-
eration occurred in one eye and lattice degeneration was present in the second
eye. During an average follow-up period of over 7 years, new retinal breaks or
detachments occurred in 31 (20%) of 151 untreated eyes. New tears with retinal
detachment developed in nine eyes, and new tears without detachment developed
in 10 cases. In 10 eyes, new holes developed within areas of lattice degeneration,
and atrophic retinal breaks occurred in areas distant from lattice lesions in the
remaining two cases.
A reduction in the incidence of new retinal tears and detachments in eyes receiv-
ing prophylactic therapy for all lattice lesions was observed. New tears without
detachment occurred in five (3.0%) of these fully treated eyes. Retinal detachment
occurred in three additional eyes (1.8%), compared with 5.1% in the 151 untreated
phakic fellow eyes. The small beneficial effect of treating all lattice lesions was
138 II: Practice
apparent when follow-up periods of 3, 5, and 7 years were analyzed separately.

The beneficial effect was statistically significant for all patient subgroups, except
in eyes with myopia of 6 diopters or more, and in eyes with both high myopia and
more than 6 clock-hours of lattice degeneration. Importantly, in these subgroups,
treatment did not reduce the risk of retinal tears or detachment. Conversely, no
detachments occurred after full treatment in eyes with less than 6 clock-hours of
lattice degeneration, or with less than 1.25 diopters of myopia. New horseshoe-
shaped tears developed in areas unassociated with lattice degeneration in approx-
imately 30% of treated cases.
One expert has estimated that as many as 58% of retinal detachments in eyes
with lattice degeneration arise in areas that exhibit no visible vitreoretinal abnor-
malities (Figure 6–3). Because of this reality, some surgeons have recommended pro-
phylactic therapy featuring the production of laser or cryotherapy burns over 360°
of the peripheral retina (Figure 6–4). However, the precise indications, intraocular
findings, long-term results, and complications of this form of therapy have not been
thoroughly described, and remarkably different success rates have been reported.
Studies of prophylactic therapy of lattice degeneration, with and without holes,
in phakic fellow eyes have been of limited value because they have not been pro-
spective and because important information has been missing from available retro-
spective analyses. In particular, the outcomes have not been studied as a function
of the presence of a posterior vitreous detachment. It has been noted by several
authors that retinal detachments are unusual in phakic fellow eyes if a PVD was
present at the time of the initial examination.
Figure 6–3. Adequate treatment of lattice lesions does not prevent the development of retinal
tears at sites of invisible vitreoretinal adhesions.
Figure 6–4. Some surgeons have recommended prophylactic therapy featuring the production
of laser or cryotherapy burns over 360° of the peripheral retina.
The relatively low incidence of retinal detachment in untreated cases, the

frequency of new tears in normal-appearing retina, the apparent ineffectiveness
of therapy in eyes with extensive lattice degeneration and high myopia, and the
known success rate following treatment of symptomatic retinal tears and detach-
ments indicate that prophylactic treatment is of limited value in these cases. The
apparently modest benefit following treatment of all lattice lesions may be of value
in selected patients, such as those with a poor surgical result in the fi rst eye, patients
who are incapable of recognizing symptoms of vitreous and/or retinal detachment,
or those who live in areas with limited access to ophthalmologic care. In addi-
tion, as noted above, myopic patients with atrophic holes in lattice lesions should
be evaluated periodically and counseled about loss of peripheral vision, because
slowly progressive retinal detachments can occur.
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with cystic retinal tufts

Cystic retinal tufts are bilateral in only 6% of cases, so they are not a common
cause of bilateral retinal detachment, and there are no data supporting the value
of prophylactic therapy.
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with degenerative retinoschisis

This is an unusual cause of progressive retinal detachment, but retinoschisis is
both common and frequently bilateral. Thus, patients with both retinal detach-
ment and retinoschisis in one eye frequently have retinoschisis in the fellow eye.
An evaluation of the literature regarding prophylactic therapy for retinoschisis
140 II: Practice
in phakic fellow eyes is very difficult because of a lack of complete information

regarding the cases Academy PPP evidence level: no consensus. In the unusual
case in which outer layer retinal breaks have been responsible for retinal detach-
ment in the fi rst eye, and outer layer breaks and retinoschisis are present in the
fellow eye, prophylactic therapy is frequently recommended.
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with retinal breaks

Asymptomatic retinal breaks in phakic fellow eyes of patients with previous ret-
inal detachment are frequently cited as an indication for prophylactic therapy.
Flap tears appear to be much more likely to cause retinal detachment than round
or operculated retinal holes. In one study, retinal breaks were discovered in 186
(19%) of 966 fellow eyes, 28 of which (15%) later developed retinal detachment.
Horseshoe-shaped tears were the cause of the detachment in 20 (71%) of the 28
eyes, whereas only 19% of breaks were flap tears in the 158 eyes that did not pro-
gress to retinal detachment. However, one author followed 10 untreated asymp-
tomatic horseshoe-shaped tears in phakic fellow eyes, and no retinal detachments
occurred. Deficiencies in prior reports have made it difficult to assess both the
natural course of asymptomatic retinal breaks that are discovered on an exami-
nation of a fellow eye and the results of treatment of these lesions. Most of these
breaks are round and located within areas of lattice degeneration, and these cases
were discussed earlier. Data regarding therapy for asymptomatic horseshoe-shaped
tears in fellow eyes suffer from a lack of details, including the status of the vitre-
ous gel and the relationship between the original retinal break and the cause of
subsequent retinal detachment. Still, treatment of horseshoe-shaped tears that are
discovered in asymptomatic fellow eyes is sometimes recommended despite the
absence of optimal supportive data (Academy PPP evidence level A:III)
Asymptomatic phakic eyes with a history of giant retinal

tear in the fellow eye
Prophylactic treatment is frequently recommended in phakic fellow eyes in which
a non-traumatic giant retinal tear has occurred in the fi rst eye. In one important
study, 321 cases were followed for 12 months through 29 years. New giant retinal
tears occurred in 14 untreated eyes (4.4%), 13 of which had developed “high-risk
features” of high myopia, vitreous degenerative changes, and “white-with-pres-
sure” that increased in extent. In a more recent report, 48 patients were followed
for a mean of 84 months after repair of a giant retinal tear in one eye and 360°
cryotherapy of the second eye. During the follow-up period, retinal detachment
developed in three patients, and a retinal tear alone was observed in a fourth.
ASYMPTOMATIC APHAKIC AND PSEUDOPHAKIC FELLOW EYES

All eyes have an increased risk of retinal detachment after cataract extraction,
and the post-cataract surgery risk for fellow eyes in patients with previous retinal
detachment in the fi rst eye has been estimated to be 14% to 41%. The chance of
detachment is higher if secondary Nd:YAG capsulotomy was required. Thus pro-
phylactic therapy has frequently been recommended for vitreoretinal lesions in
fellow eyes that are nonphakic (aphakic or pseudophakic) or that are scheduled to
undergo cataract extraction.
Asymptomatic nonphakic fellow eyes with lattice degeneration

Of the precursors of retinal tears that have been considered for prophylactic ther-
apy before or after cataract extraction, only lattice degeneration has been exten-
sively studied, and reviews of the literature have been published. However, no
prospective randomized studies have compared the natural course in these cases
with outcomes following preventive treatment. As is true of phakic fellow eyes, a
major problem in treating only visible pathology is the frequency of new retinal
tears that develop in areas of the peripheral retina that appear normal. Although
treatment of visible lesions appears to reduce the chances of retinal tears occurring
at the treated site, the retinal detachments that frequently develop in these fellow
eyes are not prevented by this focal therapy.
Studies of prophylactic treatment of lattice degeneration in fellow nonphakic
eyes have not been stratified on the basis of posterior vitreous detachment. In
one important study, the critical importance of this variable was evaluated by
studying aphakic eyes of patients with aphakic retinal detachment in the primary
eye. Retinal detachment subsequently occurred in one (2.3%) of 43 eyes with a
PVD in the fellow eye. In the 40 eyes without a previous PVD, retinal detachment
later occurred in eight eyes (21%). Similarly, in another study, retinal detachments
occurred in five (24%) of 21 aphakic fellow eyes without PVD at the initial exam-
ination, but no detachments occurred in 15 additional cases in which a PVD was
initially present.
Because of the tendency for new retinal breaks to develop in areas of the ret-
ina that appear normal, 360° treatment has been advocated, as noted earlier. In a
non-randomized retrospective study of eyes following vitrectomy and silicone oil
installation, this form of therapy appeared to be of value following removal of the
oil. Still, the risk–benefit ratio of this form of treatment is unknown. Treatment
of lattice lesions in nonphakic fellow eyes is frequently performed despite the lack
of supportive data. In eyes in which a PVD has previously occurred, it is doubtful
if therapy is particularly effective or necessary. The value of various forms of pro-
phylactic treatment in eyes without a PVD will remain debatable until appropriate
trials are conducted.
Cystic retinal tufts and degenerative retinoschisis are unusual causes of bilateral
retinal detachment, and data discussing the importance of these entities follow-
ing cataract surgery are not available. They are managed as discussed under
Asymptomatic Phakic Fellow Eyes.
Asymptomatic nonphakic fellow eyes with retinal breaks

Retinal breaks in nonphakic eyes of patients with a previous retinal detachment
in the other eye appear to have a higher rate of causing detachment. One author
described asymptomatic retinal breaks in 10 aphakic fellow eyes. Subsequent ret-
inal detachments occurred in five of these cases. Four of the five breaks causing
retinal detachment were horseshoe-shaped tears, and the type of the fi fth break
142 II: Practice
was not reported. The literature regarding the value of treating round holes unas-
sociated with lattice lesions is not clear. Treatment can be expected to prevent ret-
inal detachment resulting from the identified break but not detachment resulting
from breaks in other areas of the retina. Treatment of asymptomatic horseshoe-
shaped tears in aphakic fellow eyes and in fellow eyes scheduled to undergo cata-
ract extraction is usually recommended, despite the absence of supportive data.
Asymptomatic nonphakic eyes with a history

of giant retinal tear in the fellow eye
Aphakic fellow eyes in nontraumatic giant retinal tear cases have a high risk of
retinal detachment. Prophylactic therapy has been recommended for fellow eyes
of these patients, particularly if significant vitreous liquefaction and progressive
“white-with-pressure” are observed.
TREATMENT TO PREVENT RETINAL DETACHMENT

Photocoagulation, cryotherapy, diathermy, and, in certain rare instances, scleral
buckling have all been used for prophylactic treatment of retinal breaks without
detachment. The choice of treatment technique depends on the surgeon’s experi-
ence and the availability of equipment. The laser indirect ophthalmoscope (LIO)
with scleral indentation has become a frequent choice where this equipment is
available. Alternatively, far anterior tears can be treated with cryotherapy, and
more posterior tears can be treated with photocoagulation using a slit-lamp laser
with a mirrored contact lens. Diathermy is infrequently used at present because of
the need for conjunctival peritomy, but good results can be obtained with it.
CRYOTHERAPY
Tanks of compressed gas are connected to a pressure regulator, and tubing directs
the gas under pressure to the cryoprobe. The gas is allowed to expand at the tip of
the cryo probe, which causes the probe to freeze. When the probe is pressed onto
the scleral wall, the freeze will extend into the interior of the eye and achieve the
desired thermal burn in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium. Cryotherapy
can also be applied directly to the retina through the interior of the eye during vit-
rectomy, although this practice has rarely been employed since the development of
contemporary laser equipment and techniques.
Good anesthesia is obtained by supplementing topical 4% lidocaine with
an injection of subconjunctival 1% or 2% lidocaine in the involved quadrants.
Retrobulbar anesthesia may be necessary in some patients, but the patient then
loses the ability to position the eye in accordance with the surgeon’s instructions.
To apply cryotherapy for a retinal break near the ora, the surgeon instructs the
patient to move the eye in the direction of the break. Breaks near the equator are
most easily indented with the cryoprobe when the eye is approximately in the pri-
mary position. Breaks posterior to the equator can often be reached with the cryo-
probe if the patient is instructed to move the eye away from the meridian of the
Figure 6–5. Prophylactic treatment should be limited to flat retina and extend only to the
margin of the subretinal fluid.
break and slightly toward the surgeon, who is positioned in the meridian opposite
that of the break. More posterior lesions can be reached by a small incision in the
conjunctiva but are more easily treated by laser.
A number of applications should be used to surround the break completely with
an adequate margin, and treatment of horseshoe tears should extend anteriorly
into the vitreous base (Figure 6–5). Treatment should be limited to flat retina and
extend only to the margin of the subretinal fluid. Freezing of the exposed pigment
epithelium within the tear should particularly be avoided, because this will encour-
age the migration of retinal pigment epithelial cells into the vitreous cavity. In a
patient with lattice degeneration, the treatment should include not only the lattice
patch but also adjacent normal retina on all sides of the patch.
If there is significant subretinal fluid associated with the break(s), the patient is
generally restricted in activities until some pigmentation appears around the focal
detachment; this generally occurs within 7 to 10 days. Extension of subretinal fluid
before an effective chorioretinal adhesion develops may be more common follow-
ing cryotherapy than after laser photocoagulation, because the adhesion forms
more quickly after laser.
L ASER PHOTOCOAGULATION
For various reasons (including the more rapid development of an adhesive reaction
and avoiding any liberation of viable retinal pigment epithelial cells), laser therapy
has become a more popular means of creating an adhesion. A laser photocoagula-
tor provides an excellent viewing system, with either the laser indirect ophthalmo-
scope (LIO) or the binocular biomicroscope and slit lamp used in association with
144 II: Practice
Figure 6–6. Laser burns surrounding a retinal tear and focal retinal detachment.
the Goldmann three-mirror or panfunduscopic contact lens. The appropriate end

point for these lesions is the development of a dull white reaction within the retina
(Figure 6–6). The entire retinal break should be surrounded by a series of photo-
coagulation lesions, and treatment should be extended into the vitreous base with
flap tears.
RESULTS OF TREATMENT
The efficacy of prophylactic treatment obviously depends on the relative risk of
detachment before and after treatment. If a retinal detachment ensues within a
few days of a prophylactic procedure, it might be argued that the treatment actu-
ally precipitated the detachment. But the detachment could very well be due to
progression of the disease despite treatment. If the detachment develops several
weeks later, it is more likely due to the ongoing, progressive nature of the basic vit-
reoretinal disease, and is not to be regarded as an iatrogenic complication. While
some detachments are caused by the treated breaks, in most cases detachment sub-
sequent to treatment is due to a new break in a different meridian.
Reports of prophylactic therapy results are all somewhat incomplete, as most
do not describe information about important variables, including the refractive
error, the status of the crystalline lens, the status of the posterior vitreous surface,
the type of retinal breaks, and whether there had been a detachment in the fellow
eye. In addition, long-term follow-up information is lacking in most reports. In
one important study, it was demonstrated that new retinal breaks continued to
occur long after the initial prophylactic therapy. In symptomatic eyes that were
treated, new retinal breaks were observed in 13% of cases after 3 months, and in
21% of cases 2 years postoperatively. The outcomes in this report were not strat-
ified as a function of the type of retinal break. Another study demonstrated that
most detachments that occurred after prophylactic therapy were associated with
progression of an incomplete initial PVD.
Flap tears
Horseshoe-shaped tears are most responsible for clinical retinal detachment.
Symptomatic horseshoe-shaped tears are much more likely to cause retinal detach-
ment than are asymptomatic tears, but many studies have not distinguished
between these groups. However, failure of treatment appears to be more common
following therapy of symptomatic cases. Early failures usually are due to vitreo-
retinal traction forces that cause an accumulation of subretinal fluid before the
establishment of an adequate chorioretinal adhesion, or are due to incomplete or
inadequate therapy. Treatment should be placed in flat retina immediately adjacent
to the location of subretinal fluid, and treatment should extend well anterior to the
“horns” of the tear and into the vitreous base.
There are many difficulties in analyzing results of treatment of lattice degenera-
tion, as mentioned earlier. Most new tears following therapy occur in areas not
previously treated.
Retinal holes
The prognosis for round holes after treatment is substantially better than that
for flap tears with persistent vitreoretinal traction. As noted earlier, round holes
unassociated with persistent vitreoretinal traction or with lattice degeneration are
usually not treated.
Patients with previous retinal detachment in the fellow eye

Fellow eyes of patients with retinal detachment in a fi rst eye have a substantial
risk of retinal detachment, and the risk is even higher after cataract extraction.
Aphakia and pseudophakia appear to be statistically significant risk factors for
failure after prophylactic therapy for retinal breaks, and treatment of the visible
lesions in these cases does not appear to prevent many retinal detachments.
COMPLICATIONS OF TREATMENT
Retinal detachments that occur despite prophylactic therapy are a result of either
inadequate adhesion around a retinal break or a new retinal break. Extension of
the detachment is considered a complication of therapy if the treatment is inade-
quate in extent or intensity, and a particularly common cause of failure in treating
horseshoe-shaped tears is the absence of an adequate chorioretinal adhesion sur-
rounding the anterior margins of the break, where vitreoretinal traction persists.
New retinal breaks are a complication of prophylactic therapy if the treatment
causes excessive damage to the retina, resulting in a break at that location, or if it
aggravates vitreous degenerative changes and vitreoretinal traction, causing a tear
elsewhere.
Epiretinal proliferation that causes macular pucker has been considered a
potential complication of prophylactic therapy, but the association between treat-
ment and membrane formation is uncertain. Symptomatic retinal tears are almost
always due to a posterior vitreous detachment, and a PVD is present in more than
146 II: Practice
Table 6–2. Summary of Treatment of Retinal Breaks

Type of Break With Asymptomatic
Symptoms No Risk Factors High Myopia Fellow Eye1 Pseudophakia2
Dialyses Always3 Always3 Always3 Always3 Always3

Subclinical RD Always3 Sometimes Frequently Frequently Frequently
Horseshoe tear Always3 Sometimes Sometimes Frequently Frequently
Lattice c/s hole4 Sometimes No Rarely Sometimes Rarely
Operculated tear Sometimes No Rarely Rarely Rarely
Atrophic break Rarely Rarely Rarely Rarely Rarely
1
Applies to patients who have had a retinal detachment in the other eye.
2
Applies to pseudophakes, aphakes, and patients prior to cataract surgery.
3
Exceptions may apply.
4
Lattice degeneration with or without a retinal hole.
(Adapted from American Academy of Ophthalmology Retina Panel. Preferred Practice Pattern® Guidelines.
Precursors of Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in Adults. San Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology;
2008.)
90% of eyes with idiopathic epimacular proliferation. Also, when vitreoretinal

traction causes a retinal tear, pigment epithelial cells are usually liberated into the
vitreous cavity, and these may be a source of subsequent epimacular proliferation.
The method of creating a chorioretinal adhesion appears to be unrelated to the
incidence of postoperative macular pucker.
SUMMARY
Although prevention of retinal detachment is an important goal, the genuine value
of prophylactic therapy for most vitreoretinal lesions remains unknown because
of a lack of appropriate trials. Treatment of symptomatic flap tears is an accepted
method of preventing clinical retinal detachments, because the natural course
of these breaks and the results of therapy are well documented. In most other
instances, treatment of visible abnormal vitreoretinal lesions is of limited value,
even in eyes with additional risk features such as high myopia, pseudophakia, and
history of retinal detachment in the fellow eye.
This chapter attempts to summarize briefly the literature on this topic (Table 6–2).
Specific decisions regarding prophylaxis for a given eye should be made on the basis
of the features of the case and expanding medical knowledge. Patients with high-
risk features should be made aware of symptoms of posterior vitreous detachment
and loss of visual field, and any patient with such symptoms should be promptly
evaluated. In addition, periodic evaluations may be indicated.
SELECTED REFERENCES
American Academy of Ophthalmology Retina Panel. Preferred Practice Pattern® Guidelines:
Posterior Vitreous Detachment, Retinal Breaks, and Lattice Degeneration. San
Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2008.
Byer NE: Lattice degeneration of the retina. Surv Ophthalmol 1979;23:213–248.

Byer NE: Cystic retinal tufts and their relationship to retinal detachment. Arch Ophthalmol
1981;99:1788–1790.
Byer NE: The natural history of asymptomatic retinal breaks. Ophthalmology
1982;89:1033–1039.
Byer NE: Long-term natural history study of senile retinoschisis with implications for
management. Ophthalmology 1986;93:1127–1137.
Combs JL, Welch RB: Retinal breaks without detachment: Natural history, management
and long-term follow-up. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1982;80:64–97.
Davis MD: Natural history of retinal breaks without detachment. Arch Ophthalmol
1974;92:183–184.
Kramer SG, Benson WE: Prophylactic therapy of retinal breaks. Surv Ophthalmol
1977;22:41–47.
Roseman RC, Olk RJ, Arribas NP, et al.: Limited retinal detachment: A retrospec-
tive analysis of treatment with transconjunctival retinocryopexy. Ophthalmology
1986;93:216–233.
2nd Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000. pp. 271–290.
Sigelman J: Vitreous base classification of retinal tears: Clinical application. Surv
Smiddy WE, Flynn HW, Nicholson DH, et al.: Results and complications in treated retinal
breaks. Am J Ophthalmol 1991;98:1769–1775.
Straatsma BR, Zeegen PD, Foos RY, et al.: Lattice degeneration of the retina. XXX
1974;78:OP87–113.
Wilkinson CP: Prevention of retinal detachment, in: Ryan SJ, Wilkinson CP (eds): Retina.
4th Edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby, 2005; pp. 2107–2120.
7
Scleral Buckling
I
nflammatory detachments are usually treated medically. Some serous detach-
ments, such as choroidal hemangioma, respond to photocoagulation or pho-
todynamic therapy (PDT). Selected traction detachments, such as diabetic or
post-traumatic detachments, may be cured with intraocular microsurgery (vitrec-
tomy). Radiation therapy is often used for detachments secondary to metastatic
tumors. This chapter is confined to the surgical management of rhegmatogenous
detachments with scleral buckling. Alternative methods of repair are discussed in
Chapters 8 and 9, and the three techniques are compared in Chapter 10.
Controversy exists regarding the details of the surgical technique, but surgeons
generally agree on the three basic steps in closing retinal breaks and reattaching
the retina:
1. Conducting thorough preoperative and intraoperative examinations with the

goal of locating all retinal breaks and assessing any vitreous traction on the
retina.
2. Creating a controlled injury to the retinal pigment epithelium and retina to
produce a chorioretinal adhesion surrounding all retinal breaks so that intra-
vitreal fluid can no longer reach the subretinal space.
3. Employing an appropriate technique, such as scleral buckling and/or intrav-
itreal gas, to approximate the retinal breaks to the underlying treated retinal
pigment epithelium.
If the surgeon follows these basics and applies modern surgical techniques, reti-
nal reattachment may be expected following a single operation in more than 85%
of uncomplicated primary detachments, and in more than 95% following addi-
tional procedures.
149
150 II: Practice
The traditional scleral buckle has served very well since the 1950’s. However,
more recent developments have produced a more comprehensive menu for retinal
reattachment surgery from which the surgeon may select the appropriate proce-
dure for each case. By the turn of the millennium, surveys had demonstrated that
scleral buckling alone was no longer the most popular means of repairing uncom-
plicated primary retinal detachments. Still, it is a valuable technique that is indi-
cated in many situations.
Temporary scleral buckling can be performed with scleral infolding, gelatin, or
orbital balloon. The term scleral buckling without a qualifying adjective is gener-
ally recognized as referring to a “permanent” scleral buckle with the implantation
of a foreign material usually made of silicone.
Successful scleral buckling depends upon a thorough understanding of the ana-
tomical and physiological effects of the procedure. These are substantially differ-
ent from those associated with Pneumatic Retinopexy (Chapter 8) or Vitrectomy
(Chapter 9).
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

OF SCLERAL BUCKLES
Anatomical changes in the vitreous gel and defects in the retina are of fundamen-
tal importance as causes of subsequent retinal detachment, as noted in Chapter 2.
Scleral buckling of the eye wall and retina favorably alters pathoanatomy and
allows normal physiological forces to reattach the retina.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF RHEGMATOGENOUS RETINAL DETACHMENT

Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment occurs when factors maintaining attachment
are overwhelmed by the volume of intravitreal fluid entering the potential sub-
retinal space through retinal breaks, as noted in Chapter 2. Isolated defects in the
retina are usually not solely responsible for clinical retinal detachments. In the vast
majority of cases, vitreoretinal traction forces upon the retina near the location of
the break(s) are required for a progressive accumulation of fluid in the subretinal
space. Liquid currents in front of retinal breaks and in the subretinal space contrib-
ute secondarily to progression of retinal detachment.
REATTACHMENT FORCES INFLUENCED BY SCLERAL BUCKLES

Localized indentation of the sclera, choroid, and pigment epithelium beneath a
retinal break alters the anatomical and physiological factors associated with the
production of a retinal detachment. The fundamental goal of scleral buckling is
the functional closure of all retinal breaks, so that normal physiological forces can
maintain a permanent state of attachment. Drainage of subretinal fluid and scleral
buckling will usually close the responsible break(s) immediately.
In a non-drainage procedure, functional closure of retinal breaks can result
from several beneficial effects of a scleral buckle, including:
7: Scleral Buckling 151
1. reduction of vitreoretinal traction by displacing the eye wall and retina

centrally;
2. displacement of subretinal fluid away from the location of the retinal break
and scleral buckle;
3. postoperative increase in the height of the scleral buckle;
4. approximation of the retinal break and adjacent vitreous gel;
5. increase in resistance to fluid flow through the retinal break, with consequent
increase in the relative reattachment forces;
6. alteration in the concave shape of the eyeball, resulting in a change in the
effect of intraocular currents that encourage liquid vitreous to enter the sub-
retinal space.
These effects are probably synergistic, and are also important in drainage cases.
Although contemporary scleral buckling procedures routinely include the crea-
tion of a chorioretinal burn, such an adhesion is not always necessary to maintain
retinal reattachment.
PRINCIPLES OF SCLERAL BUCKLING

The most important skill required in surgery for retinal detachment is the ability
to detect all retinal breaks and additional areas of vitreoretinal pathology. Scleral
buckling is performed to produce functional closure of retinal breaks responsible
for retinal detachment and to reduce the chances of recurrent detachment. Various
kinds and shapes of silicone are used, including segments of silicone sponge as well
as solid silicone shaped into bands for encircling the eye and into additional forms
to augment the width and height of the buckle in selected areas (Figure 7–1). The
specific configuration of the scleral buckle depends upon a number of factors.
Following localization and treatment of retinal breaks and areas of vitreoretinal
degeneration, the silicone buckling element is sutured to the scleral surface. Drainage
of subretinal fluid is performed in the majority of cases. Intravitreal gas injection is
sometimes employed in conjunction with scleral buckling. Problems encountered
at any point of the procedure may require modifications in technique.
SCLERAL BUCKLE CONFIGURATION

The location, number, size, and types of retinal breaks are important variables
affecting the selection of a specific buckling technique. Similarly, the presence of
vitreoretinal degeneration, with or without retinal breaks, and of significant vit-
reoretinal traction unassociated with retinal breaks should be considered in the
preoperative assessment (Figure 7–2).
If retinal breaks, vitreoretinal degenerative disorders, and significant vitreoreti-
nal traction are present in multiple quadrants, a circumferential buckle is probably
favored. A single retinal break unassociated with additional significant problems
is usually managed with an isolated segmental buckle, if not with pneumatic
retinopexy.
152 II: Practice
TIRES IMPLANTS
275
BANDS AND STRIPS 276 Band
6.7 40 240
6.2
2
278 9 Clip
40 0.75
7.0
10.0 277 50 250
8.5
20 286 9 51 52
5.7
4.0 7.0
6.6 Boat
260
6.0 60
31
7.2 287
Sleeve
4.5
9 70 270
7.0
ID = 1.0 ID = .76
32 OD = 2.1 OD = 1.65
9.2 289 71 72
5.0 ID = 1.0 ID = 1.6
12 OD = 2.2 OD = 2.4
41 0.75 10.0
4.8
3.5 IMPLANTS
1.25 279
42 11
5.9 103 22
4 9.0
4.0 15.0 5.0 5.0

2.5 280
240 0.6 12
10.0 106 80
219 4.0
280LG 6.0 10.5 4.0 8.0
6
4.5
12
10.0 112 190
220
7.5
6.0 78G
12.0 12.0 5.0 10.0
12
225 10.0 RADIAL WEDGES

281
8
5.0 16 135 16
12.5
HEMISPHERE 14.0
77G 287WG
7.0
288
26.0 137 14
2.0 10.0 12.0
Figure 7–1. A wide variety of solid silicone and silicone sponge materials are available for
scleral buckling. (Courtesy of MIRA, Inc.)
The anterior–posterior dimensions of retinal break(s) and areas of significant

vitreoretinal degeneration and vitreoretinal traction are also important consider-
ations in planning a buckling procedure. Scleral buckles should support all edges
of the retinal breaks and associated areas of vitreoretinal degeneration. In general,
the buckling effect should extend into the zone of the vitreous base to eliminate
current and future traction forces.
Circumferential extent of
vitreoretinal pathology
Low: Radial Sponge
Medium: Circumferential Sponge
High: 360 - Degree Encircling Buckle
Figure 7–2. The circumferential extent of vitreoretinal pathology usually indicates the type
and extent of the buckle that will be employed.
The internal changes caused by scleral buckling are determined by the size,
shape, and consistency of the buckling material, the width of the suture bites
placed to attach the silicone to the sclera, the tightness of the tied sutures, and the
extent to which an encircling element is tightened.
A scleral buckle is associated with a significant displacement of intraocular
volume. In order to avoid a large increase in intraocular pressure, drainage of
subretinal fluid, paracentesis, or removal of liquid vitreous is usually necessary in
cases in which an extensive buckling effect is desired. This is particularly true in
eyes with compromised aqueous outflow and in those in which recent anterior seg-
ment surgery has been performed.
THE SCLERAL BUCKLING OPERATION

The procedure involves routine prepping and draping, conjunctival incision, identi-
fication and treatment of all retina breaks and areas of vitreoretinal degeneration,
suturing buckling material to the sclera, and additional techniques as indicated.
PREP AND DRAPE

For scleral buckling, the face, eyelids, and conjunctiva are prepared with appropri-
ate antiseptic techniques, including povidone iodine solution, and the drapes are
applied. The eyelid margins are the part of the operative field most susceptible to
infection; therefore, a plastic adhesive drape placed over the opened lids so that
the drape adheres to the eyelids and adjacent part of the face is recommended. An
incision is made in the plastic drape in the plane of the palpebral fissure, and the
free margins of the cut drape are rolled posteriorly over the lid margins and held
securely in place with the eyelid speculum.
154 II: Practice
CONJUNCTIVAL INCISION AND ISOLATION OF RECTUS MUSCLES

A 360-degree limbal conjunctival incision is usually made, but a circumferential
incision 4–5 mm posterior to the limbus is sometimes done. The conjunctiva and
Tenon’s capsule are fused together near the limbus, so both tissues can be incised
together. The peritomy is usually supplemented by two relaxing incisions perpen-
dicular to the limbus over the lateral rectus muscles. A five clock-hour peritomy
may be sufficient for a quadrantic detachment when a radial buckle is planned,
exposing the two rectus muscles bordering the involved quadrant.
Traction sutures are placed beneath the insertions of the exposed rectus mus-
cles to facilitate positioning the globe (Figure 7–3). Rather heavy suture material,
such as 2-0 silk, is recommended. After the traction sutures are placed, the sclera
should be examined. It can be exposed for inspection by rotating the globe with
two adjacent traction sutures and pushing the intermuscular fascia posteriorly
with a cotton-tipped applicator. The surgeon should look for abnormalities such
as anomalous vortex veins or scleral thinning. Thinning is usually seen as radial
gray lines in the equatorial or pre-equatorial area, particularly superior tempo-
rally. These lines are called radial staphylomas, scleral cracks, or scleral dehis-
cences (Figure 7–4).
After examination of the sclera, the surgeon should carefully examine the ret-
ina 360 degrees with binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy and scleral indentation.
The investment of a few minutes at this time will pay dividends. Important lesions
that were not disclosed preoperatively may become apparent, and occasionally this
Figure 7–3. A 360-degree peritomy 2–3 mm behind the limbus. The four rectus muscles have
been exposed and isolated on large sutures. Depending upon surgeon preferences, peritomies
can be limited in extent and/or located at the limbus.
Figure 7–4. The dark linear zones represent significant scleral thinning, and are termed “radial
staphylomas.”
examination reveals significant changes that have developed since the preoperative
examination.
LOCALIZATION OF BREAKS
A localizing mark is made on the sclera overlying the posterior edge of the retinal
break(s) with a scleral marking device. The tip of the scleral marker is fi rmly pressed
against the eye for a few seconds, and the pressure creates a temporary black mark
on the sclera by dehydrating the sclera. Alternatively, a flat diathermy probe can
be used, yielding a light burn. The localization site is immediately touched with
a marking pen, because the pressure effect or light scleral burn disappear quickly
(Figure 7–5).
If a break is large, marks should ideally be placed at the posterior, anterior, and
lateral margins (Figure 7–6). For smaller, routine tears, some surgeons prefer to
localize with a single mark placed at the center of the anterior edge of the tear,
preferring this location because (1) the anterior edge is the usual site of persistent
vitreoretinal traction, (2) the anterior edge is always easier to mark than the poste-
rior border, (3) a buckling effect extending from the anterior edge into the area of
the vitreous base is desirable, and (4) it is relatively easy to estimate the amount of
buckling effect required more posteriorly to support the respective break(s). Other
surgeons prefer a single mark placed at the center of the posterior edge of the tear
to help ensure that no part of the tear falls too far back on the posterior slope of the
buckle. When positioning the buckle relative to the mark, the surgeon must keep in
mind whether the posterior or anterior edge of the tear was marked.
Accurate marking is easily performed if the detachment is sufficiently flat to
allow the retinal pigment epithelium to be pressed inward against the sensory ret-
ina. If the detachment is highly bullous, this is not possible and the surgeon must
try to compensate for the parallax effect. With bullous detachments, the tendency
is to localize the break too far posteriorly. If the surgeon is aware of the problem,
an adequate anterior compensation can be made.
156 II: Practice
Figure 7–5. Retinal breaks are located precisely with a variety of devices, and a marking pencil
is usually employed to document the locations.
Figure 7–6. The anterior and posterior margins of a large retinal break have fi rst been localized
and then marked with a marking pencil.
THERMAL TREATMENT
Diathermy, cryotherapy, and laser photocoagulation have been employed to irri-
tate the choroid and pigment epithelium so that they form chorioretinal adhesions
to seal retinal breaks. Cryopexy is most commonly used with scleral buckling.
Cryotherapy
The use of cryotherapy has gained wide acceptance since its reintroduction in
1964. A survey of retinal surgeons revealed that the vast majority of surgeons now
employ it for most buckling cases. Although it is possible to apply cryotherapy
beneath partial-thickness scleral flaps, it is not necessary to do so.
The goal of cryotherapy is to apply contiguous lesions completely surround-
ing each retinal break and areas of vitreoretinal degeneration. A single row of
Figure 7–7. Cryotherapy is applied by the surgeon under direct visualization with indirect
ophthalmoscopy.
confluent freeze spots is generally sufficient, although more than one row may be
required anteriorly to extend the future adhesion into the vitreous base.
Cryotherapy should be applied while observing the fundus with the ophthal-
moscope, using the cryoprobe in place of a scleral depressor (Figure 7–7). A
prominent white change develops at the area of retinal freezing. The freezing is
generally terminated soon after the surgeon observes the appearance of an ice ball
in the plane of the neurosensory retina. In bullous detachments, the ice ball is not
allowed to reach the retina itself, and the freezing of the retinal pigment epithelium
is discerned by a change of color to dull orange or gray. If portions of the break
remain highly elevated during scleral depression with the cryoprobe, treatment can
be postponed until some of the subretinal fluid is drained.
A challenge with using cryotherapy is the inability to see what areas of the ret-
ina have been treated for many minutes to days following treatment. This can lead
to overtreatment if sequential freezes overlap much, and this excessive therapy
should be avoided. However, an inadequate adhesion will result if the burns are
not confluent in appropriate areas. Thus, the surgeon must form an optimal visual
image of the precise limits of prior applications of cryotherapy, and considerable
experience is usually required to master this technique.
Cryotherapy burns should extend only to the edges of medium and large reti-
nal breaks from retina surrounding them. If the pigment epithelium lying beneath
158 II: Practice
Figure 7–8. Cryotherapy applied directly beneath a large retinal break will push exploded RPE
cells into the vitreous cavity; this practice should be avoided.
the break is included in the cryo burn, an intravitreal dispersion of pigmented

cells capable of proliferation can occur (Figure 7–8). For the same reason, scleral
depression of a treated area at the edge of a break should not be repeated after the
treatment, and localization of retinal breaks should always precede cryotherapy.
Diathermy
Diathermy is no longer employed by most surgeons. It should only be applied
through thinned sclera, beneath partial-thickness scleral flaps, to avoid full-
thickness destruction of sclera and achieve a more uniform intraocular reaction.
The surgeon may apply the diathermy while inspecting the retina with the oph-
thalmoscope, limiting the intensity to that required to produce a moderately white
lesion in the retina. Alternatively, an experienced surgeon can apply diathermy
without ophthalmoscopic control, predicting the probable ophthalmoscopic result
on the basis of the scleral reaction. Diathermy burns are spaced approximately
1.5 mm apart, producing intermittent pigmentary changes in the fundus that have
been referred to as “leopard skin.”
Intraoperative laser photocoagulation

Photocoagulation is not usually used to induce adhesive lesions in detached ret-
ina, because the retinal pigment epithelium is not sufficiently close to the retina to
cause a burn. Although the surgeon can close retinal breaks with scleral buckling
and/or intravitreal gas and then attempt to apply laser photocoagulation, this may
lead to overtreatment. Laser photocoagulation to detached areas is usually easier a

day or so following the operation. Attached retinal breaks may be lasered intraop-
eratively with the laser indirect ophthalmoscope.
BUCKLING MATERIALS
Various materials have been used for scleral buckling, including fascia lata, pal-
maris tendon, plantaris tendon, knee cartilage, donor sclera, dura mater, polyviol,
polyethylene, encircling nonabsorbable and absorbable sutures, gelatin, hydrogel,
and silicone. By far the most popular, silicone, is a soft, synthetic rubber material
that is nontoxic and nonallergenic. Readily available, it is produced in a variety
of molded shapes that can be modified by the surgeon and used in either solid
or sponge form (Figure 7–1). Implants can be placed within the sclera or on its
surface. Although they are not technically “implants” in the latter position, the
term has persisted for decades and will be employed in this monograph. Episcleral
implants are currently employed in the vast majority of cases. These can be seg-
mental or encircling. Silicone implants are safe and very different from the silicone
materials used for breast implants.
Segmental episcleral buckles

Segmental silicone exoplants are secured to the sclera with 5-0 nonabsorbable syn-
thetic mattress sutures attached to spatula needles with cutting tips. One half to
two-thirds thickness intrascleral passes at least 6 mm long are usually attempted
for sponges and broad exoplants, whereas shorter intrascleral passes can be used to
support encircling bands. The surgeon applies focal pressure with a cotton appli-
cator near the intended suture site to prevent buckling of the sclera in front of the
needle as it is passed through the sclera. Alternatively, a nearby muscle insertion
can be grasped with forceps to provide increased stability and to elevate intraocu-
lar pressure. The location of the needle tip should be visualized at all times during
its passage through the sclera.
Localized scleral buckles may be radially or circumferentially oriented, and a
combination of the two may be considered if more extensive buckling is required.
Radial scleral buckles provide focal support for a retinal tear and minimize the
development of radial retinal folds commonly associated with circumferential
buckles, which shorten the circumference of the eye wall but not the circumference
of the retina. Circumferential buckles provide a zone of support oriented parallel
to the region where vitreous traction is usually most severe, and are an efficient
means of supporting multiple areas of vitreoretinal pathology.
When tightened, the sutures indent the exoplant and underlying eye wall. Using
an exoplant of a given shape, the height of the buckling effect is determined by the
distance between the suture bites and the tightness of the sutures when they are
tied. Calipers are used to measure the distance between the suture bites, and these
should be 2–3 mm wider than the exoplant for a modest buckling effect, and 4–8
mm wider for a relatively high buckle.
When a radially oriented segmental buckle is needed, intrascleral suture limbs
are placed parallel to the meridian of the retinal break and equidistant from its
160 II: Practice
Figure 7–9. For a meridional segmental buckle, broad and long mattress sutures are placed per-
pendicular to the limbus in an effort to place the intended silicone sponge directly beneath the
marked and treated retinal break.
edges, and the needle is passed so that the knot can be tied posteriorly (Figure 7–9).
The size and type of the retinal break usually dictate the width and length of the
exoplant. In general, the width of the silicone element should be at least as wide as
the edges of the break marked on the sclera, and the buckle length should support
both the posterior end of the break and the vitreous base anterior to the break.
If a circumferentially oriented segmental buckle is required, suture limbs are
placed parallel to the limbus. The anterior bite is usually placed just anterior to the
posterior margin of the vitreous base, a location estimated as lying about 2–3 mm
posterior to an imaginary line drawn between the muscle insertions (and forming
a portion of the spiral of Tillaux). A silicone element of sufficient width to support
both the anterior and posterior edges of the retinal break(s) or other pathology is
used, and the posterior suture bite is placed in a position that will produce an opti-
mal buckling effect.
Encircling episcleral buckles

If a 360-degree encircling circumferential buckle of modest width and height is
needed, an encircling 240, 41, 42, or other style silicone band is passed around the
circumference of the globe and beneath the rectus muscles. Sutures are then placed.
The band is traditionally anchored with a single mattress suture with bites parallel
to the limbus placed in the center of each quadrant (Figure 7–10). Although they
are an elegant and effective means of securing a band, scleral tunnels are usually
not employed by most surgeons.
Suture bites that straddle a silicone band should be placed just far enough apart
to allow the band to move freely beneath the suture, and this distance equals the
width of the band plus two times its thickness. Narrower bites inhibit circumferential
Figure 7–10. Encircling silicone bands are traditionally fi xed with a single mattress suture
located in the center of each quadrant. Some surgeons prefer scleral “belt loops” for this
purpose.
movement of the band, particularly if the sutures are pulled tight. Wider bites will
allow the band to move anterior to its desired location when its ends are joined. In
its proper position, the band is usually intended to support breaks in the region of
the posterior edge of the vitreous base, and these are marked and treated before
suture placement. In quadrants without retinal breaks, the vitreous base margin
can be marked, or its location can be estimated and the anterior suture bite placed
about 2–3 mm posterior to the imaginary line mentioned earlier.
When using segmental scleral buckles produced by circumferentially oriented
silicone materials, suture bites are always placed in the location overlying the
responsible retinal break(s), because the maximum buckle height is produced in
this spot. However, with encircling buckles, if additional height may be required
in a localized zone, the sutures over the band should be placed elsewhere so that
additional elements can easily be inserted beneath the band in that location. If an
increased buckling effect is needed in only a small area, a radially oriented piece
is used in this situation. If a grooved segment of silicone tire is required because of
a need for more extensive circumferential augmentation of the buckle, additional
sutures may be required, depending upon the characteristics of the specific case.
If a high, broad 360-degree encircling scleral buckle is required, two broad
mattress sutures are placed in each quadrant to accommodate a silicone tire of
at least 7 mm width and an overlying silicone band. The anterior suture bite is
placed at the estimated location of the ora serrata, and the posterior bite is placed
far posteriorly, at a spot dictated by the width of the tire, the desired amount of
indentation, and the location of tears. Frequently, this distance is equal to twice the
distance from the anterior bite to the marked posterior edge of the retinal break(s)
(Figure 7–11). If a vortex vein must be avoided with the posterior suture bite, two
small circumferential passes can be made on either side of the vessel.
162 II: Practice
Figure 7–11. If a high and broad buckling effect is desired, a broad silicone element is employed.
(A) Two broad mattress sutures are placed in each quadrant in which such a buckling effect is
needed. (B) An encircling band is usually placed in the groove of a wide silicone element.
The ends of an encircling band are joined with a silicone Watzke sleeve, suture,
or tantalum clip. Tantalum clips are less popular than the sleeve or suture, primar-
ily because of the extra time required for their use, particularly if later adjustment
of the length of the band is required. Some degree of twisting of the band near the
elastic sleeve can occur when the band is tightened, and this can be avoided by
grasping each end near the sleeve and by keeping the ends flat against the periscleral
portion already in place. The ends should be rejoined if twisting causes a narrow
edge of the band to indent the sclera, as this can lead to later intrusion problems.
Since even minimal twisting of the sleeve can affect the inner morphology of the
buckling effect, the sleeve should be located in a quadrant relatively free of signif-
icant vitreoretinal pathology.
Alternatively, a 5-0 synthetic suture tied in a single loop around the overlapped
ends of the encircling band minimizes twisting while allowing adjustment. To
Figure 7–12. Ideally, the treated retinal break(s) should lie on the posterior visible crest of the
buckle.
increase the tension on the band, traction is placed on the two cut ends of the band,
while a needle holder grasps the suture and allows it to slip. To decrease tension on
the band, traction is placed on the two encircling ends instead.
The final result is a custom-fitted encircling indentation, with all retinal tears
mounted on or just anterior to the crest (Figure 7–12). Indentation is modest in
the uninvolved meridian of the retina and more pronounced as needed in areas of
pathology.
THIN SCLERA
The most common problem requiring a modification in technique is the presence
of thin sclera. When this is encountered, scleral suture bites must be placed in
positions that are less potentially hazardous. In most such situations, this can be
accomplished with suture passes on either side of the ectatic sclera and/or with the
use of a wider piece of silicone buckling material. More exotic means of manag-
ing thin sclera with donor sclera or tissue glue have been described, but pneumatic
retinopexy or vitrectomy without scleral buckling is usually employed if scleral
suturing appears to be impossible.
INTRASCLERAL BUCKLES
Rarely used today, intrascleral buckles involve lamellar dissection to create a par-
tial-thickness scleral bed. They usually involve only a limited part of the circum-
ference of the globe, but can vary in length from one to twelve hours of the clock
and in width from 4 mm to 12 mm. An encircling band is usually used, attached
directly to the surface of the sclera in the areas not undermined, and the ends are
joined together with only moderate tension. The implant is placed in the bed of the
undermining, and the flaps are then closed over the top with sutures. This “trap-
door procedure” creates a satisfactory buckle (Figure 7–13).
164 II: Practice
Figure 7–13. Creation of scleral flaps for a segmental “trap door” buckling procedure. Buckling
procedures featuring scleral dissection have become much less popular over the past three
decades.
MANAGEMENT OF SUBRETINAL FLUID

Decisions regarding the drainage of subretinal fluid are among the most difficult
associated with scleral buckling procedures, and considerable differences in opin-
ion exist. Drainage is almost never performed if responsible breaks can be easily
and almost completely approximated to the pigment epithelium with a non-drain-
age technique. Drainage is almost always performed if a high and broad encircling
scleral buckle is required. However, in most cases the criteria for drainage or non-
drainage are less obvious. In eyes in which drainage was considered to be neither
clearly unnecessary nor mandatory, a small randomized trial demonstrated com-
parable results with both techniques.
In most cases, the decision regarding drainage depends upon the size and con-
figuration of retinal tears, the amount of traction, the appearance after the scleral
buckle has been elevated beneath the retinal break(s), and the experience of the
surgeon regarding the amount of subretinal fluid that can be allowed to remain
between the crest of the buckle and the break(s). Most non-drainage procedures
are effective if the crest of the buckle is within 3 mm of the respective retinal break.
Although this may be relatively easy to accomplish when buckling a single break,
the need for more extensive buckling of multiple breaks makes this a more difficult
goal and favors a drainage procedure.
Because of complications associated with drainage of subretinal fluid, it is
avoided unless considered to be necessary for surgical success. If failure to drain
results in persistent subretinal fluid postoperatively, an intravitreal gas injection
performed in the office can frequently cause the fluid to settle.
Nevertheless, most surgeons perform transcleral drainage of subretinal fluid in
approximately 75% of retinal detachment cases managed with scleral buckling.
However, with increasing popularity of primary vitrectomy for retinal detach-
ment, many surgeons now consider vitrectomy in cases which are likely to require
drainage, and use drainage in a smaller percentage of scleral buckle cases. Still,
drainage and non-drainage techniques play a major role in the management of a
routine series of cases, and familiarity with both techniques is essential.
Non-drainage technique
Some surgeons perform drainage of subretinal fluid in a large majority of cases,
whereas other surgeons drain infrequently. The most common indication for a
non-drainage technique is a retinal detachment due to a single break that can be
approximated close to the pigment epithelium by scleral depression.
Following the placement of appropriate sutures, the scleral buckle is elevated
to the desired height, and the proximity of the retinal break to the surface of the
buckle is reevaluated. If the break is not perfectly positioned, the scleral buckle
must be adjusted. The breadth of the buckling effect can be extended with addi-
tional sutures placed anterior or posterior to those already holding the buckle. If
the posterior edge of the break is not positioned on the center of the buckle crest,
at least one arm of the mattress suture must be repositioned.
Assuring perfusion of the central retinal artery

Unless fluid has been removed from the eye, placement of a scleral buckle will usu-
ally raise intraocular pressure so high that the central retinal artery is no longer
normally perfused. This is temporarily tolerable, but pressure must be lowered
and at least pulsating perfusion restored within five or ten minutes. Whether or
not subretinal fluid is drained, some perfusion of the central retinal artery must be
confi rmed by the end of the case.
It can be difficult to tell whether the central retinal artery is patent. If pulsations
of the central retinal artery are observed, perfusion is marginally sufficient. If pul-
sations are not visualized and perfusion is questioned, additional digital pressure
should be applied to the globe to elicit pulsations. If these do not occur, the arterial
flow into the eye has probably ceased, and intraocular pressure must be reduced
if pulsations do not begin soon. Intraocular pressure can be reduced by drainage
of subretinal fluid, paracentesis, aspiration of fluid vitreous, reduction in circum-
ferential contraction of the buckle, or relaxation of sutures causing indentation of
the buckle.
Paracentesis is usually performed in non-drainage procedures to achieve timely
reduction of intraocular pressure after placement of the buckle, although this may
not be necessary if only a single radial buckle is placed. If repeated paracenteses
cannot reduce intraocular pressure sufficient to reopen the central retinal artery,
pressure can also be reduced by aspirating fluid from the posterior vitreous cavity.
However, this maneuver is associated with many more potential complications
than paracentesis.
If optimal buckle size and suture width have been employed, the height of the
buckle can be increased by a further tightening of mattress sutures after intraocu-
lar pressure has returned to relatively normal levels. Sutures are initially tied tem-
porarily to facilitate this adjustment. Perfusion (or at least pulsation) of the central
retinal artery must be documented each time that the sutures are tightened; this is
particularly important in eyes with reduced outflow facility.
166 II: Practice
Drainage technique
Drainage of subretinal fluid is performed at a site determined by the configuration
of the retinal detachment, where sufficient subretinal fluid allows for safe drainage.
Factors considered in the selection of a drainage site include (1) the distribution of
subretinal fluid when the eye is in a position at which drainage will be performed, (2)
the location and size of the retinal break(s), (3) the location and configuration of the
buckle, (4) the vascularity of the choroid, (5) features of vitreoretinal and epiretinal
membrane traction, and (6) the ease of exposure of the proposed drainage site.
The optimal locations for drainage are usually just above or below the lateral
rectus muscle, because major choroidal vessels are avoided and exposure of sclera
is excellent. Choroidal vessels are also avoided by draining on either side of the
three remaining rectus muscles, but exposure is frequently more difficult. If pos-
sible, drainage is usually performed some distance from retinal breaks (especially
large retinal breaks) so that the passage of vitreous through the break(s) and out
of the eye can be minimized. The scleral depression effect provided by the buckle
or by a cotton-tipped applicator can help prevent this occurrence. In unusual situ-
ations in which a large buckling effect is required and very little subretinal fluid
exists, drainage can be performed immediately beneath a large tear to allow both
subretinal and intravitreal fluids to exit the globe.
Drainage is performed prior to tightening the scleral buckling elements onto
the eye, since a high intraocular pressure at the time of drainage increases the risk
of complications. A site is usually selected at or slightly anterior to the equator; a
location that will ultimately be closed by the exoplant is always preferred. This
avoids the need for a preplaced suture at the sclerotomy site, and it facilitates sub-
sequent management of drainage complications, as is noted later. In the situation
in which drainage cannot be performed optimally at a site intended to be covered
by the buckle, a preplaced suture is employed to close the scleral incision follow-
ing drainage. This suture is placed after the sclera incision is made, but before the
choroid is penetrated.
A 3–4 mm radial incision through the sclera is then performed so that the center
of the sclerotomy will be at the appropriate location. All scleral fibers are carefully
divided until subtle prolapse of uveal tissue is observed (Figure 7–14). The choroid
is then closely inspected for prominent choroidal vessels, using loupes and/or the
20 diopter condensing lens and indirect ophthalmoscope. If large visible vessels
cannot be avoided during penetration, a second site nearby is selected, and another
scleral incision is performed. If the area of exposed choroid is free of prominent
vessels, it is lightly treated with a flat diathermy probe. This causes minimal retrac-
tion of the edges of the sclera to improve visualization, and it may reduce the risk
of hemorrhage.
All significant traction upon the eye is eliminated to reduce intraocular pressure
as much as possible. The choroid is then penetrated with a sharp-tipped conical
penetrating diathermy electrode or suture needle. Modest pressure is used to insert
the device perpendicular to the surface of the sclera until the subretinal space is
entered.
If the conical diathermy electrode is used, this event is usually heralded by a
sudden, subtle “pop,” which is usually perceived by touch or observation. Because
Figure 7–14. Traditional drainage of subretinal fluid is performed through a scleral incision
that exposes bare choroid. A penetrating diathermy pin, suture needle, or other sharp instru-
ment may be employed for this purpose.
of the tapered shape of the electrode, significant amounts of subretinal fluid do

not exit the eye until this device is very slowly withdrawn from the eye. The pen-
etrating diathermy electrode is relatively blunt, compared to a suture needle, and
penetration of a soft eye with congested choroid may be somewhat difficult. This
is managed by modest elevation of intraocular pressure with traction upon the
muscle fi xation sutures.
An oblique or tangential path of penetration is recommended by some authors
to avoid perforating the retina, but this can result in a flap valve of the choroid,
which can limit drainage. If a proper drainage site has been selected, penetration
of the retina with the tapered diathermy is exceptionally rare, because it is removed
prior to the release of significant amounts of subretinal fluid. Lasers have also been
employed to drain subretinal fluid, but the expense and time required to use them
likely aren’t justified by a significant reduction in the rate of complications.
As the globe softens during drainage, intraocular pressure is very slowly
increased to encourage further drainage and to avoid complications associated
with hypotony. If a large tear is present, the sclera or the buckle and sclera over-
lying the break are indented with a cotton applicator. This maintains intraocular
pressure and inhibits passage of intravitreal fluid to the subretinal space. Pressure
can also be increased by placing applicators on either side of the sclerotomy site
and gently pushing them toward the center of the eye; these maneuvers also tend
to keep the sclerotomy open. Relatively normal intraocular pressure can also be
maintained by indenting the sclera at a location far from the sclerotomy site with
a number of cotton applicators.
The drainage site is not touched as long as fluid flows through it. Sudden and
significant increases in intraocular pressure are avoided to reduce chances of incar-
ceration of the retina in the sclerotomy, and any sudden cessation of drainage
requires immediate closure of the sclerotomy and internal examination of the
sclerotomy site with the indirect ophthalmoscope. The appearance of pigment
168 II: Practice
granules suspended in the draining subretinal fluid usually indicates that the last
of the subretinal fluid is exiting the eye. When drainage ceases, the sclerotomy site
is closed by temporarily tying the sutures over an exoplant or by pulling together
the ends of an encircling band. If the buckling material does not adequately close
the sclerotomy, the scleral incision is closed with a suture prior to significant eleva-
tion of intraocular pressure with the buckle.
The eye is quickly inspected following closure of the sclerotomy site and pre-
liminary adjustment of the scleral buckle. The site of drainage is fi rst evaluated for
signs of subretinal bleeding, retinal incarceration, and iatrogenic hole formation;
management of these relatively unusual intraoperative problems is discussed later.
The amount of persistent subretinal fluid is then determined, and the need for fur-
ther drainage is considered. Significant subretinal fluid is allowed to persist if the
optimal amount of buckling nearly closes the retinal break(s).
If drainage of additional subretinal fluid is required, the initial sclerotomy site
must be closely evaluated with mobile scleral depression, in which a cotton-tipped
applicator is rolled circumferentially beneath the area of drainage. If the pigment
epithelium is clearly not in contact with the retina, the sclerotomy site can be
reopened by reducing intraocular pressure and/or removing the portion of the exo-
plant that covers the scleral incision. Additional drainage usually occurs spon-
taneously, or it can be initiated by gently manipulating the edges of the sclerotomy
with applicators or forceps. In some cases, particularly those with exceptionally
viscous subretinal fluid, the retina may flatten completely at the site of the sclero-
tomy, while large amounts of subretinal fluid persist elsewhere. In this situation,
additional sclerotomies must be performed if additional drainage is required to
produce an adequate buckling effect.
An alternative and increasingly popular method of draining subretinal fluid is
to insert a small 25–27-gauge needle into the subretinal space under direct visu-
alization with the indirect ophthalmoscope (Figure 7–15). The needle is usually
attached to a tuberculin syringe from which the plunger has been removed. Digital
pressure is exerted on the eye or significant intraocular pressure is maintained with
traction sutures as the subretinal fluid passively exits the eye. The needle is dynam-
ically positioned to remain within subretinal fluid, and it is slowly retracted as the
retina approximates its tip.
ADJUSTMENT OF SCLERAL BUCKLE

Following drainage of appropriate amounts of subretinal fluid, an optimal scleral
buckling effect is created by adjusting the scleral sutures and the length of the
segmental element or the tightness of the encircling band. Broad sutures over the
portion of the buckle supporting large retinal breaks are fi rst temporarily tied in
a manner intended to provide optimal width and height. If intraocular pressure
remains low and the breaks are in optimal position, the sutures are permanently
tied. The height of the buckle is adjusted if it is inadequate or excessive. If a fold
of retina continues to communicate with an open retinal break (“fish-mouth phe-
nomenon”) following buckle adjustment, a variety of manipulations can be used to
solve the dilemma, as is noted later.
Figure 7–15. The “Charles technique” of draining subretinal fluid. A 25–27-gauge needle,
attached to a tuberculin syringe from which the plunger has been removed, is inserted into the
subretinal space under direct visualization.
If an encircling band has been used in combination with a wider circumfer-

ential tire of hard silicone, its ends are overlapped to provide a modest buckling
effect supporting the posterior edge of the vitreous base in areas not occupied by
the tire. If the encircling band is used without a tire, it is adjusted to create an
indentation of somewhat greater height. The degree to which the band should be
tightened depends upon the intraocular pressure, the nature and extent of vitreo-
retinal pathology, and the necessity of a subsequent intravitreal gas injection. If
the intraocular pressure remains quite soft following appropriate adjustment of
the scleral buckle and the retinal breaks are flat, a balanced salt solution should
be injected into the vitreous cavity via the pars plana. Attempts to restore normal
pressure with further increases in buckle height can lead to a number of postoper-
ative problems. Indications for gas injections are described below.
The need to replace buckling materials or sutures is quite unusual if appropriate
localization of retinal breaks has been performed. However, augmentation of the
buckle in certain areas is frequently desired. This can be accomplished with suture
adjustments if wide elements are already in place. If an encircling band has been
used, and an augmentation of the buckle is needed in an area supported only by the
band, hard silicone pieces of an appropriate size may be placed beneath the band;
these usually are not sutured.
ACCESSORY TECHNIQUES
Although scleral buckles are successful in producing a functional closure of reti-
nal breaks in most cases, their effectiveness can be enhanced with accessory tech-
niques, including intravitreal fluid and gas injections, gas–fluid exchanges, and
postoperative laser photocoagulation. The first option, injection of a balanced salt
170 II: Practice
solution, is employed primarily to restore normal intraocular pressure to a hypo-

tonous eye. Intravitreal gas injection and air fluid exchange are usually used to
assist in the internal closure of retinal breaks. Laser photocoagulation is usually
not used at the time of scleral buckling, but can be employed to create or augment
a chorioretinal adhesion postoperatively.
Intravitreal injection of balanced salt solution

The solution is drawn into a syringe, and all air is carefully eliminated. A 0.5-inch,
30-gauge disposable needle is recommended. As the surgeon grasps the sclera with
a twist pick or forceps, the needle is introduced into the vitreous cavity 3 mm
(pseudophakic/aphakic eye) or 4 mm (phakic eye) posterior to the limbus. The
tip of the needle is directed toward the geometric center of the globe. In a very
soft eye, the tip of the needle may occasionally elevate the pars plana epithelium
without perforation. Injection in that situation would produce detachment of the
pars plana and retina. This can be avoided by direct visualization of the tip of the
needle through the pupil and, when the needle is definitely within the vitreous cav-
ity, the injection can be safely carried out. In phakic eyes, care must be taken to
keep the tip of the needle near the middle of the vitreous cavity to avoid touching
the lens and causing a subsequent cataract. After injection of the required volume
to restore normal intraocular pressure, the needle is withdrawn. The self-sealing
wound does not require suturing.
Intravitreal gas injection

Gas injections to internally tamponade retinal breaks are commonly performed
in association with scleral buckling procedures. Gas is usually injected after the
breaks have been treated and well positioned on the scleral buckle. The type and
volume of injected gas depend upon the available potential space within the vit-
reous cavity, as well as the size of retinal break(s) and the desired duration of
tamponade.
In the vast majority of cases in which the buckle is in appropriate position, an
effective tamponade is necessary for only 24–48 hours. A 1.0 ml bubble of air is
usually quite sufficient to tamponade a large retinal break, as a 0.30 ml bubble
will maintain contact with a 90-degree arc of the retina. A 1.0 ml bubble of air is
not absorbed for three to four days. However, an injection of even 0.3 ml of gas
into an eye with normal intraocular pressure will cause a marked increase in intra-
ocular pressure and a transient occlusion of the central retinal artery. Therefore,
the eye must be quite soft prior to an injection of a large gas bubble, or a smaller
volume of an expansile gas is employed. In cases in which a longer tamponade
effect is desired, more insoluble gases such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and perfluo-
ropropane (C3F8) are used. These possess two potentially favorable characteristics:
expansile qualities if injected as pure gas, and longer duration in the eye.
Numerous techniques of gas injection have been described. A simple method is to
grasp a muscle insertion to fixate the eye and to penetrate the globe with a 30-gauge
needle attached to a tuberculin or 3 ml syringe containing the desired amount and
concentration of gas. The injection is performed 4 mm posterior to the limbus in a
phakic eye, and 1 mm closer to the limbus in an aphakic or pseudophakic case. The
site of injection is made uppermost so the bubble will tend to remain at the site of
the needle tip, to avoid formation of multiple small bubbles. Using indirect ophthal-
moscopy, passage of the needle tip through the pars plana epithelium may be con-
firmed. The needle is then withdrawn enough to leave about 3 mm of the needle
in the eye. The predetermined volume of gas is injected moderately rapidly.
The optic nerve is then inspected to document perfusion of the retinal vessels.
If pulsations are visualized in a patient with normal blood pressure, no tension-
lowering manipulations are performed. If pulsations are not observed and can-
not be produced with digital pressure, the intraocular pressure is lowered with a
paracentesis if pulsations have not resumed after several minutes. The height of
the buckle can also be reduced or some of the gas can be removed if necessary to
restore patency of the central retinal artery.
Gas–fluid exchange
When a relatively large volume of gas is required and intraocular pressure cannot
be adequately lowered by any other means, fluid can be removed from the vitreous
cavity prior to gas injection. This is commonly performed during vitreous surgery,
but rarely during routine scleral buckling operations. If a total posterior vitreous
detachment has been documented preoperatively, and the retina is relatively flat,
fluid can be aspirated from the space behind the posterior hyaloid with a 25-gauge
needle inserted via the pars plana. It is helpful to have a very small volume of bal-
anced salt solution in the syringe. When the needle is in place, 0.1 ml of solution
should be injected. This displaces vitreous gel at the tip of the needle and thereby
facilitates the aspiration of fluid vitreous. Alternatively, a vitrectomy-cutting instru-
ment can be used under indirect ophthalmoscopic control. This alternative has the
advantage of reducing possible vitreoretinal traction, but involves extra cost and
time for setting up equipment. Gas is injected after the eye has been softened by
either technique.
Postoperative laser photocoagulation

In cases in which cryotherapy can not be appropriately performed or excessive
treatment is feared, retinal breaks can be treated with laser therapy after the retina
is totally reattached with a scleral buckle. Some surgeons prefer this technique as
a routine. In selected cases, recurrent retinal detachments following routine scleral
buckling can be repaired by reattaching the retina with a gas bubble, followed later
by laser photocoagulation.
CLOSURE OF INCISIONS
After placement and adjustment of the scleral buckle have been completed, any
excess silicone or relatively sharp edges should be carefully trimmed, especially
with very anterior buckles. Irrigation of the operative field with an antibiotic solu-
tion is usually performed. Approximately 5–10 ml is drawn into a syringe, and the
field is then irrigated using a blunt-tipped needle. The irrigation should be deep in
the plane between Tenon’s capsule and the sclera in all opened quadrants. Before
any implant material is used, it should be soaked in the same antibiotic solution.
172 II: Practice
Limbal peritomies are frequently associated with two relaxing incisions perpen-
dicular to the limbus. Each can be closed with one or two interrupted sutures or a
running suture. Some postoperative suture discomfort can be eliminated by bury-
ing the suture knots in Tenon’s space. Both Tenon’s capsule and the conjunctiva
may be closed together.
COMMON COMPLICATIONS OF SCLERAL BUCKLING

Complications have traditionally been divided into intraoperative and postoper-
ative categories. Common intraoperative complications can make the operation
more difficult and interfere with the ability to achieve surgical goals in an efficient
fashion; familiarity with their management is essential. Complications that follow
scleral buckling procedures include factors that affect anatomical and/or visual
outcomes and patient satisfaction.
SELECTED INTRAOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS

Corneal complications
Corneal epithelial edema or trauma to the epithelium impairs the clarity of the
cornea and impedes optimal visualization of the retina at surgery. Several factors
are responsible for a majority of the cases. It is routine in some operating rooms
to instill preoperative topical anesthetics prior to dilating drops, and this practice
should be discontinued. Topical anesthetics adversely affect the epithelium. For the
same reason, concentrated detergents should not be used in the surgical prep.
Prolonged elevated intraocular pressure during surgery may result in edema of
the epithelium, especially in elderly adults with an aging endothelium and in dia-
betic patients. Some cases respond well to mechanical expression of the edema
fluid by pressing firmly on a dry, cotton-tipped applicator as it is rolled across the
cornea. This maneuver expresses the edema but does not remove the epithelium. In
persistent cases of epithelial edema, the central portion of the epithelium must be
removed with gentle strokes of a tilted knife blade, avoiding damage to Bowman’s
membrane.
Pupillary complications
Infrequently, there is minimal bleeding into the anterior chamber. As the blood
settles onto the anterior lens capsule, the view of the fundus is obscured. A clear
view can be regained by pushing the blood into the chamber angle by means of an
intracameral injection of sodium hyaluronate.
Intraoperative miosis is due most commonly to hypotony. Intravitreal gas that
comes in contact with the iris can also cause miosis. If the pupil does not dilate
with cycloplegic and mydriatic drops, intracameral epinephrine and/or iris retrac-
tors may be considered.
Scleral perforation with suture needles

Penetration of the sclera with a suture needle most commonly occurs when non-
drainage techniques are planned and a long, deep intrascleral pass of the suture
needle is required. Penetration of the globe is usually heralded by the sudden

appearance of subretinal fluid at either end of the suture bite. Occasionally, pig-
ment granules and blood are also observed. When an inadvertent penetration is
recognized, all traction upon the eye should be immediately released, and the ret-
ina should be inspected with the indirect ophthalmoscope. The suture is temporar-
ily left in place to minimize further drainage.
Choroidal hemorrhage is the most common complication of inadvertent pene-
tration, occurring in approximately one-fourth of cases. Usually it is minimal, but
if active bleeding is observed, the pressure in the eye should be immediately raised
with scleral depression over the bleeding site. If the macula was involved in the
detachment, blood can ultimately settle in that location and severely compromise
visual acuity. This is best prevented by draining no additional subretinal fluid after
the penetration. Postoperatively the patient is positioned so that the blood will set-
tle away from the macula, and intraocular gas may also help express heme away
from the macula in a face-down position.
If an inadvertent penetration causes an iatrogenic hole in the attached or
detached retina, or if an iatrogenic hole cannot be ruled out, the site is treated with
cryotherapy and supported on a modified scleral buckle. If it is near a retinal tear,
a wider piece of silicone is sutured in place to support both the break(s) and the
penetration site. In the rare circumstance in which formed vitreous passes into the
penetration site through a large nearby tear or a new iatrogenic hole, the gel should
be amputated at the sclerotomy site, which should be supported on a buckle.
Complications of draining subretinal fluid

This step of a scleral buckling procedure is usually considered the most hazardous.
Although drainage complications are not statistically associated with subsequent
anatomic failure, they can require a modification of the surgical plan and compro-
mise postoperative visual acuity.
The three classic complications associated with drainage of subretinal fluid are
hemorrhage, retinal incarceration, and iatrogenic retinal holes. The fi rst of these
is the most common, occurring in approximately 3%–4% of cases. Most hemor-
rhage is confi ned to a small area surrounding the sclerotomy site, and additional
surgical maneuvers are not required. More significant hemorrhages are managed
in a fashion similar to that described following inadvertent penetration of the globe
with a suture needle.
Retinal incarceration is observed following drainage in 1%–3% of cases. This
usually occurs soon after penetration of the choroid, and is associated with a
sudden cessation of drainage. Increased intraocular pressure contributes to this
problem. When retinal incarceration is suspected, all traction upon the eye is
released, and the fundus is quickly examined with indirect ophthalmoscopy.
Usually the incarceration is mild, with only a localized depression in the retina
surrounded by radiating striae. The drainage site should be closed immediately
with the exoplant or with a suture, then the retina should be more thoroughly
evaluated with scleral depression. If an iatrogenic retinal break is discovered,
it is treated with light cryotherapy. Incarceration sites are generally supported
on a buckle in a manner similar to that described regarding inadvertent suture
penetrations.
174 II: Practice
In the absence of incarceration of the retina, drainage of subretinal fluid rarely

causes iatrogenic retinal breaks, but the drainage site is carefully evaluated by indi-
rect ophthalmoscopy following completion of drainage to rule this out.
“Fish-Mouthing” of retinal breaks

This radial folding of the retina at the site of a large horseshoe tear is frequently
observed following a circumferential scleral buckling procedure. The open break
may prevent reattachment if it is not functionally closed. Increasing the height of the
circumferential buckle is tempting but counterproductive, as it worsens the radial
folding. The best way to manage this phenomenon is to reduce the height of the
buckle beneath the break(s) and to inject an intravitreal gas bubble. Alternatively,
an additional radial buckle may help.
Complications of intravitreal gas injections

The two common dilemmas that arise following intravitreal gas injections are dif-
ficulties in visualization and elevation of intraocular pressure, and the former can
aggravate the management of the latter.
Although the minification of details and altered reflexes due to intravitreal gas
bubbles makes visualization more difficult, it is relatively easy to see through the
center of a bubble 1 cc or more in volume. Alternatively, the eye can be tilted so
that the bubble will float out of the way. A more difficult problem occurs when
a multitude of tiny bubbles prevent a meaningful view, and the frequency of this
problem is reduced by employing optimal injection techniques as discussed above.
If it occurs, the mass of bubbles will frequently float out of the way with appropri-
ate tilting of the eye. Otherwise, a coalescence of bubbles can be encouraged by a
series of jerks of the globe and the passage of time.
The optic nerve must always be visualized following an intravitreal injection of
gas. Occasionally, extreme repositioning of the patient is required to be certain that
the optic nerve and retina are perfused. If perfusion is questionable, increased digi-
tal pressure should be placed upon the eye to elicit pulsations. If these do not occur
and if they are not visualized after several minutes, pressure-lowering maneuvers
should be immediately instituted. The common options include paracentesis and
lowering the scleral buckle height. In some pseudophakic cases, paracentesis is best
performed via the pars plana.
SELECTED POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS

Increased intraocular pressure
During the early postoperative period, corneal epithelial edema, pain, or pulsa-
tion of the central retinal artery can occur due to increased intraocular pressure.
Patients likely to develop the complication include narrow-angle glaucoma sus-
pects, elderly patients with enlarged lenses, those who have subluxated lenses,
patients with preexisting open-angle glaucoma, those who received relatively large
injections of intraocular gas or intracameral injections of sodium hyaluronate, and
especially those with prominent postoperative choroidal detachment.
Moderate elevations to 30 mm Hg are frequently transient and usually do not

require treatment. Higher pressures may be due to some degree of angle closure.
The most common causative mechanism is anterior displacement of the lens and
iris by the presence of choroidal detachment or swelling and subsequent compro-
mise of the filtration angle. The condition is usually self-limiting and responds
well to intravenous or oral acetazolamide (Diamox). Topical corticosteroids can
be useful to discourage the development of peripheral anterior synechiae. If the
administration of acetazolamide, topical glaucoma drops, hyperosmotic agents,
systemic corticosteroids, and/or cycloplegic drops fails to control the pressure, and
the fi ltration angle is obscured by peripheral iris, it may be necessary to drain the
choroidal detachment via posterior sclerotomies to reopen the angle and prevent
permanent anterior synechiae.
Endophthalmitis
Bacterial endophthalmitis is an exceptionally rare but potentially devastating com-
plication following retinal detachment surgery. Possible routes of infection include
the perforation site for draining subretinal fluid, accidental penetration or rupture
of the globe, and intraocular injections. Lengthy procedures, extensive scleral sur-
gery, reoperation, and multiple drainage attempts also increase the risk of bacterial
contamination and postoperative endophthalmitis.
The earliest clinical symptoms and signs, developing by the third to fi fth post-
operative day, are pain, chemosis, lid edema, the appearance of localized vitreous
opacification or petechial hemorrhages, and acute subretinal exudate at the level of
the scleral buckle, noticeable in an examination by indirect ophthalmoscopy. The
prompt recognition of such symptoms and signs, even if relatively subtle, is critical
to proper management of endophthalmitis, for retinal damage is rapid, and soon
the vitreous becomes opaque with inflammatory reaction.
The contemporary management of genuine endophthalmitis is beyond the scope
of this chapter. A related condition, “scleral abscess,” usually presents as a sterile
vitreous inflammatory reaction combined with evidence of severe presumed infec-
tion of the sclera. When this rare syndrome is recognized, the buckling material is
removed, and prompt and intense periocular, and sometimes intraocular, antibi-
otic therapy is instituted.
Some degree of choroidal detachment develops in approximately 5% to 10% of
scleral buckling procedures. The fluid is assumed to be a transudation from the
choroid. Its formation is related in part to advanced age and in part to surgical
factors, such as thermal treatment, trauma to the choroid, hypotony, and obstruc-
tion of vortex vein outflow (particularly with very broad buckles), with resul-
tant increased intravascular pressure throughout the choroidal vascular system.
Although care is taken at surgery to minimize the procedural factors, choroidal
detachment is not entirely avoidable.
In a majority of cases, the overlying retina remains in satisfactory apposition
to the treated retinal pigment epithelium, and because of eventual spontaneous
176 II: Practice
resolution of the choroidal detachment, the prognosis is usually good. Choroidal

detachments that cause angle closure and glaucoma are a more serious problem,
and their management was discussed above. Massive detachments of the choroid
may actually touch in the central vitreous (“kissing choroidals”). This problem
requires surgical drainage to prevent the possibility of adhesion of retina to retina
with subsequent tractional retinal redetachment.
Hemorrhagic choroidal detachments are less frequent than the common serous
detachment, and the prognosis is poorer. The loculated hemorrhage is analogous to
a hematoma elsewhere. The majority of cases follow a self-limiting course to spon-
taneous resolution, but some have a considerable chronic inflammatory response
characterized by proteinaceous transudation, opacification of the vitreous, glau-
coma, and occasional failure of the retina to reattach successfully. In some cases,
the hemorrhage passes through the retina to produce a dense vitreous hemorrhage.
Later periocular infection and implant extrusion

The various implant materials and sutures used in retinal detachment surgery are
foreign bodies and can become nidi of infection. Normally, the scleral buckling
material becomes enveloped within a connective tissue sheath that develops soon
after the initial buckling procedure. Therefore, a potential space exists for inva-
sion of organisms between the buckle material and the tissue sheath over the entire
extent of the buckle. The organisms responsible are frequently coagulase-positive
staphylococci, but may be Gram-negative bacteria. The incidence varies, depend-
ing on the surgical technique and observance of the principles of asepsis.
The major clinical indication is pain, which should be considered a symptom of
periocular infection until proved otherwise. Other signs are localized inflamma-
tion of the conjunctiva, subconjunctival hemorrhage, point tenderness, purulent
discharge, and occasionally a draining of the sinus tract through the conjunctiva.
Fortunately, associated intraocular involvement is exceptionally rare.
For infections diagnosed after a few weeks, treatment consists of removal of
the scleral buckle, identification of the organism, and appropriate antibiotics. For
extraocular infections occurring within the fi rst few weeks of surgery, medical
treatment may be administered to suppress the infection and gain sufficient time
for the retina to fi rmly reattach before the scleral buckle is removed. Any evidence
of intraocular extension of infection, however, demands immediate removal of the
buckle. When the retina appears to be reattached and the chorioretinal adhesion
matures, removal of the buckle only infrequently leads to redetachment. A second
scleral buckling procedure, if required for detachment, may be undertaken as soon
as all evidence of residual infection has disappeared.
Exposure of implant materials occurs as a consequence of disintegration of
overlying tissues such as from infection, inadequate coverage of scleral implants at
surgery, or migration of the implant. Segments of buckle material erode through
overlying Tenon’s capsule and conjunctiva (Figure 7–16). Segmental episcleral
buckles have a greater tendency to erode than narrower encircling bands. Although
clinical signs of bacterial infection may or may not be present, virtually all such
cases can be assumed to be infected. Providing the retina is well attached, there
is no advantage in attempting to modify the scleral buckle or to patch over the
Figure 7–16. A large piece of silicone tire and the encircling band have become exposed
superiorly.
exposed portion. Most exposed buckles eventually have to be removed. Indications

for removal include clinical infection, pain, or a cosmetic problem.
Cystoid macular edema

Cystoid macular edema (CME) is a common complication of ocular inflamma-
tory diseases and surgery. Abnormal leakage from perifoveal capillaries causes
intraretinal edema that accumulates in a characteristic cystoid pattern. Three to
six weeks following successful scleral buckling, some degree of CME can develop
in as many as one-third of patients. Pseudophakia is associated with an increased
incidence of CME, which is also more likely to develop in older patients. There is
no strong relationship between the incidence of CME and preoperative macular
detachment, drainage of subretinal fluid, or the type of scleral buckle.
The effect of CME upon final visual acuity is uncertain, primarily because of a
lack of studies correlating preoperative vision with a variety of additional variables
associated with scleral buckling procedures. Nevertheless, CME contributes to a
loss of visual acuity in eyes without preoperative macular detachment, and it prob-
ably limits recovery of vision in eyes in which the macula was detached. Eyes with
objective signs of intraocular inflammation are treated with topical and periocular
corticosteroids. Eyes without visible intraocular inflammation are given a trial of
topical steroids and/or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents.
Epimacular proliferation
Epiretinal membranes that distort or cover the macula are a relatively common
cause of disappointing visual acuity following successful scleral buckling surgery.
The reported incidence of this problem varies considerably due to varying criteria
employed for its diagnosis. Macular puckers have been reported in 2%–17% of
successfully buckled cases.
Although the precise cause of macular pucker following reattachment surgery
is unknown, it is likely that many epiretinal membranes develop from pigment
178 II: Practice
epithelial cells that pass through the retinal break(s) into the vitreous cavity. The
cells then become attached to the surface of the retina in the posterior pole and
subsequently proliferate and contract (Figure 7–17). The development of macular
puckers may be associated with a variety of factors, including vitreous hemorrhage
and intraocular inflammation associated with preoperative problems and/or oper-
ative techniques.
Removal of epiretinal membranes with vitrectomy techniques is the only effec-
tive means of treating macular puckers. Surgery is advisable in cases of significant
epimacular fibrosis in which relatively poor postoperative visual acuity is associ-
ated with a history suggesting a potential for relatively good macular function.
Proliferative vitreoretinopathy
Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) is the only common cause of ultimate failure
following retinal reattachment surgery. Unless this occurs, the vast majority of ini-
tial failures can be successfully repaired. This cell-mediated process is associated
with the production of fibrocellular membranes on the posterior vitreous surface
and on both surfaces of the retina (see Chapter 5, page 109). Subsequent contraction
of the membranes causes significant shortening of the retina, which prevents reat-
tachment or causes recurrence of detachment, even if all retinal breaks are closed.
Factors which cause a significant breakdown in the blood–aqueous barrier and
which allow an increased number of pigment epithelial cells to enter the vitreous
cavity are also associated with an increased incidence of PVR. Although cryo-
therapy has been experimentally implicated as a possible cause of PVR, a positive
relationship in appropriately managed cases has not been demonstrated. Still, pre-
operative intraocular inflammation is clearly related to the incidence of postopera-
tive PVR, and relatively atraumatic surgical techniques are employed in an attempt
to reduce the likelihood of postoperative PVR.
Figure 7–17. A “macular pucker” following retinal reattachment surgery is due to cellular pro-
liferation and subsequent membrane formation and contraction upon the central retina.
Although scleral buckling procedures alone are successful in the management of

selected cases with limited PVR, vitrectomy techniques are routinely employed to
reattach retinas associated with more extensive intravitreal and periretinal mem-
branes, and these are discussed in Chapter 9. In combination with vitrectomy, an
encircling scleral buckle is also an important component of surgery for the repair
of retinal detachments associated with PVR. At the time of vitreous surgery, previ-
ously placed segmental buckles are replaced or augmented with encircling pro-
cedures, and selected previously placed encircling buckles may be modified in an
effort to counteract significant peripheral traction forces.
Recurrent retinal detachment

Recurrent or persistent retinal detachment is the most significant complication of
scleral buckling, and the severity of this problem is related to its cause. Retinal
detachment following scleral buckling surgery occurs in 9%–25% of primary
operations, and the vast majority is associated with open retinal breaks.
If postoperative retinal detachment is due to a new tear or an inadequate buckling
effect unassociated with proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), modification of the
scleral buckle and creation of a chorioretinal adhesion will usually reattach the ret-
ina. In selected cases, intraocular injection of a gas bubble, supplemental cryopexy
or laser, and appropriate positioning may be sufficient to achieve reattachment and
avoid revision of the buckle. If extensive PVR is responsible for the surgical failure,
vitrectomy techniques are usually required for a successful reoperation.
Altered refractive error

Scleral buckling techniques with an encircling component usually cause a myopic
change in the refractive error because of their effect upon axial length. An average
increase in axial length of approximately 1 mm induces an average myopic shift of
approximately –2.75 diopters.
The effect of radial scleral buckles is usually less significant. Significant astig-
matic changes are very unusual unless the buckles are quite anterior, but some
degree of astigmatism is occasionally caused by indenting the sclera near the ora
serrata.
Although changes in refractive error may be relatively unimportant in eyes with
poor postoperative visual acuity, the induction of significant anisometropia can be
devastating to some patients, particularly those with excellent postoperative visual
acuity and an emmetropic fellow eye. Avoiding anisometropia is an important goal
of some alternatives to scleral buckling.
Strabismus
Some degree of extraocular muscle imbalance can occur in up to 50% of patients
undergoing scleral buckling procedures. Most of these abnormalities are tempo-
rary and due to intraoperative muscle damage. Nevertheless, some degree of per-
manent muscle imbalance is observed in approximately one-fourth of patients after
primary buckling operations.
Causes of strabismus include the following: (1) abnormal adhesions between the
muscle and the sclera or Tenon’s capsule, (2) injury to the muscle from surgical
180 II: Practice
trauma, (3) mechanical disturbances due to the location and shape of buckling mate-
rials, and (4) problems associated with disinsertion or repositioning of a muscle.
Factors associated with postoperative muscle imbalance include placement of a buckle
beneath a muscle, size of buckling material beneath a muscle, and reoperations.
Therapy for patients with good bilateral vision usually includes an attempt to
prescribe prisms to restore fusion. If this is unsuccessful, surgery is considered.
Avoiding postoperative muscle imbalance is a major benefit attributed to alterna-
tive reattachment procedures.
SUMMARY
Scleral buckling repairs retinal detachments by indenting the sclera under the ret-
inal breaks. Retinal breaks are localized, cryopexy or other thermal treatment is
applied to establish a permanent seal around the breaks, and silicone is usually
sewn onto the scleral surface. Subretinal fluid may be drained, and gas or fluid may
be injected into the eye. Scleral buckling can also be combined with vitrectomy.
Failure to permanently repair the detachment, often with the development of
proliferative vitreoretinopathy, is a possible outcome. Potential complications
include endophthalmitis, choroidal detachment, increased intraocular pressure,
and diplopia.
SELECTED REFERENCES
American Academy of Ophthalmology: The repair of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment.
Information Statement. Ophthalmology 1990;97:1562–1572.
Griffith RD, Ryan EA, Hilton GF: Primary retinal detachments without apparent breaks.
Am J Ophthalmol 1976;81:420–427.
Hilton, GF, Grizzard WS, Avins LR, et al.: The drainage of subretinal fluid: A randomized
controlled clinical trial. Retina 1981;1:271–280.
Lincoff H, Coleman J, Kreissig I, et al.: The perfluorocarbon gases in the treatment of ret-
inal detachment. Ophthalmology 1983;90:546–551.
Lincoff H, Kreissig I: Advantages of radial buckling. Am J Ophthalmol 1975;79:955–957.
Michels RG: Scleral buckling methods for rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Retina
1986;6:1–49.
Norton EWD: Intraocular gas in the management of selected retinal detachments. XXIX
1973;77:OP85–98.
Robertson DM: Delayed absorption of subretinal fluid after scleral buckling procedures.
Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1978;76:557–583.
Schepens CL, Hartnett ME, Hirose T. Schepens’ Retinal Detachment and Allied Diseases.
2nd Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000; pp. 303–324.
Wilkinson CP, Rice TA: Michels Retinal Detachment. St Louis: CV Mosby Co; 1997,
pp. 537–594.
Williams GA, Aaberg TM Jr.: Techniques of scleral buckling. In Ryan SJ, Wilkinson CP
(eds): Retina. St Louis: CV Mosby Co; 2005; pp. 2035–2070.
8
Pneumatic Retinopexy
P
neumatic retinopexy (PR) is an office-based, sutureless, no-incision alter-
native to scleral buckling or vitrectomy for the surgical repair of selected
retinal detachments. Cryotherapy is applied around the retinal break(s) to
form a permanent seal. A gas bubble is injected into the vitreous cavity, and the
patient is positioned so that the bubble closes the retinal break(s), allowing resorp-
tion of the subretinal fluid (Figure 8–1A–F). As an alternative to cryotherapy, laser
photocoagulation can be applied after the intraocular gas has caused the retina to
reattach.
INTRAOCULAR GASES
CHOICE OF GASES
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is the gas most frequently used with pneumatic retin-
opexy. Perfluorocarbon gases such as perfluoropropane (C3F8) are sometimes used,
and success has also been reported with sterile room air.
In selecting a gas, it is important to understand the longevity and expansion
characteristics of the gases. SF6 doubles in volume within the eye, reaching its max-
imum size at about 36 hours. It will generally disappear within about 10–14 days,
depending on the amount injected. Perfluoropropane nearly quadruples in volume,
reaching maximum size in about three days. The bubble will last 30–45 days in the
eye. Room air does not expand, but immediately starts to reabsorb. The air bubble
will be gone within just a few days (Table 8–1).
181
A B
C D
E F
Figure 8–1. Pneumatic retinopexy procedure. (A) Volume of subretinal fluid is determined by
inflow of fluid vitreous (green arrow) and outflow through retinal pigment epithelial pump
into the choroid (red arrow). (B) Area of retinal break is treated with contiguous applications
of transconjunctival cryotherapy. (C) With pars plana injection site uppermost, gas bubble is
injected into vitreous with 0.5-inch, 30-gauge needle. (D) Head is positioned to place retinal
break uppermost, thereby sealing break with intravitreal gas bubble. (E) With break closed, ret-
ina is usually reattached by fi rst postoperative day. (F) Gas bubble is spontaneously absorbed.
(Published with permission from Hilton GF, Grizzard WS: Pneumatic retinopexy: a two-step
out-patient operation without conjunctival incision. Ophthalmology 1986;93:626–641.)
182
8: Pneumatic Retinopexy 183
Table 8–1. Intravitreal Gas Duration and Expansion

Gas Average Duration Largest Size By Average Expansion
Air 3 days Immediately No expansion
SF6 12 days 36 hours Doubles
C 3F 8 38 days 3 days 3X–4X
The initial expansion of SF6 and C3F8 is due to the law of partial pressures and
the solubility coefficients of the gases involved. A 100% SF6 bubble injected into
the eye contains no nitrogen or oxygen, but these gases are dissolved in the fluid
around the bubble. Due to the law of partial pressures, nitrogen and oxygen will
diffuse into the gas bubble. SF6 also starts to diffuse out of the gas bubble into the
surrounding fluid which contains no SF6. However, nitrogen and oxygen diffuse
across the gas–fluid interface much more quickly than SF6 because of the rela-
tive insolubility of SF6. The net result is an initial influx of gas molecules into the
bubble, expanding its size until partial pressures equilibrate, net influx equals net
egress, and maximum expansion is reached. Then the bubble gradually reabsorbs
as the SF6 is slowly dissolved in the surrounding fluid. The diameter of the bubble
shrinks at an approximately constant rate until the gas is gone. C3F8 expands more
and reabsorbs more slowly because it is even less soluble than SF6.
The choice of type and amount of gas depends on the following considerations.
What size gas bubble is needed?

One must usually plan for a gas bubble more than large enough to cover all detached
breaks simultaneously, and keep them covered for three to five days.
Computerized tomography studies on eyes with intravitreal gas bubbles showed
that a 0.3 ml gas bubble covers over 45 degrees of arc of the retina (Figure 8–2),
but it takes approximately a 1.2 ml bubble to cover 80–90 degrees. A highly myo-
pic eye will require a larger volume of gas than an emmetropic eye to cover the
same arc of the retina.
Usually, 0.4 to 0.6 ml of gas is injected into the eye. For room air PR, a larger
bubble is generally needed, perhaps 0.8 ml, depending on the characteristics of the
case. If it is desired to inject more than 0.6 ml, multiple paracenteses will likely be
needed, one before the gas injection, and usually one or more after the gas injec-
tion. Alternatively, multiple gas injections may be performed, allowing the return
of intraocular pressure toward normal between injections.
How long should the bubble remain in the eye?

It is optimal for the gas bubble to cover the break(s) for five days and then disap-
pear as soon as possible. However, good results have been reported with only 3–4
days of tamponade, as with room air. The longevity of air is probably sufficient
for most cases, but sometimes the chorioretinal adhesion may not be sufficiently
mature when the air has been reabsorbed. Air also forfeits the advantage of post-
injection expansion within the eye, necessitating an injection of a large volume.
184 II: Practice
Figure 8–2. Computerized tomography scan of gas bubble in eye. Surface tension results in
rounding of bubble, decreasing arc of retina covered by bubble.
In most cases, the prolonged longevity of a perfluoropropane bubble is a dis-

advantage. A lingering gas bubble may induce tears, since movement of the head
causes forcible movements of the vitreous when a gas bubble is in the eye. Also, air
travel is contraindicated for a longer period of time with C3F8. However, it may
also eliminate the need to reinject gas if a new break develops, and C3F8 allows
the injection of a smaller amount of gas initially, thereby reducing the need for
paracentesis.
Our gas of choice in most cases is SF6. We use C3F8 for the occasional case which
requires an exceptionally large and long-acting gas bubble to tamponade large or
widespread breaks. Most of the time we inject 0.4 to 0.6 ml of 100% SF6.
WHY GAS WORKS

The following characteristics of intraocular gases account for their efficacy in reat-
taching the retina:
1. Surface tension allows the gas bubble to occlude a retinal break instead of
passing into the subretinal space. The surface tension of any gas is much
higher than that of other substances in the eye. Once the break is occluded,
the retinal pigment epithelial pump can reabsorb the subretinal fluid
(Figure 8–1D).
2. Buoyancy of the gas provides the force which pushes the uppermost retina
back against the wall of the eye. Apposition of the retina against the retinal
pigment epithelium is necessary in order that an adhesion can occur, just as
two surfaces to which glue has been applied must be clamped together while
the glue dries (Figure 8–1E). When the gas is gone, a permanent seal remains,
preventing reopening of the tear (Figure 8–1F).
PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION
Good preoperative evaluation is vital to the success of pneumatic retinopexy. PR is
not a good procedure for surgeons lacking in excellent retinal examination skills,
for three reasons:
1. Scleral buckling with encirclement may achieve retinal reattachment even

if a retinal break is missed. It can be a very “forgiving” procedure in this
sense. With pneumatic retinopexy, any missed retinal break might open
into a detachment. The presence of a gas bubble within the vitreous cavity
causes shifting of the subretinal fluid or vitreous which can open previously
attached breaks.
2. When scleral buckling or vitrectomy are performed, the surgeon gets a sec-
ond look in the operating room with the patient sedated, with full control of
the globe, and with open conjunctiva for deep scleral depression. With pneu-
matic retinopexy, this is not available.
3. Scleral buckling, especially encirclement, supports the peripheral retina, reduc-
ing the traction which the vitreous will be able to exert on the retina in the
future. Lacking this with pneumatic retinopexy, careful follow-up examina-
tions are required to fi nd any retinal breaks which develop postoperatively.
In addition to a thorough examination of the retina, the preoperative evaluation

for possible pneumatic retinopexy should include assessment of the following:
1. Is the patient mentally capable of following positioning directions?

2. Is the patient physically capable of maintaining positioning as needed, espe-
cially with regard to neck and back problems?
3. Will it be feasible from the standpoint of the patient’s home situation for the
patient to maintain the appropriate position postoperatively?
4. Will the patient be able to return to the surgeon’s office for frequent follow-up
as required?
5. Does the patient have plans to travel in the near future, especially by air,
which might pose a hazard with an intraocular gas bubble?
6. Does the patient have evidence of severe glaucoma?
7. Has the patient had recent surgery on this eye which would require care to
avoid dehiscence of the healing incision?
8. Does the presence of a filtering bleb or a corneal transplant require special
handling?
186 II: Practice
9. Would the induction of increased myopia that generally occurs following an

encircling buckle be an advantage or disadvantage given the patient’s refrac-
tive status?
Because postoperative patient cooperation is essential, the nature of the proce-

dure and what will be expected of him should be discussed thoroughly with the
patient before surgery.
INDICATIONS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

In the multicenter clinical trial which compared pneumatic retinopexy with scleral
buckling, cases with the following characteristics were excluded:
1. Breaks larger than one clock-hour or multiple breaks extending over more
than one clock-hour of the retina.
2. Breaks in the inferior four clock-hours of the retina.
3. Presence of proliferative vitreoretinopathy grade C or D.
4. Cloudy media precluding full assessment of the retina.
5. Physical disability or mental incompetence precluding maintenance of the
required positioning.
6. Severe or uncontrolled glaucoma.
Subsequent experience has demonstrated that selected cases that do not strictly
meet these criteria can be successfully treated with pneumatic retinopexy, subject
to certain limits.
LIMITS TO INDICATIONS
Extent of breaks
Clearly, breaks spanning more than one clock-hour can be treated with pneumatic
retinopexy. Single or multiple tears or dialyses spanning three clock-hours pose no
particular problem. Detached tears six clock-hours apart are difficult to fi x with
pneumatic retinopexy, although alternating positioning has been used successfully.
Even detachments with giant retinal tears have been cured with pneumatic retin-
opexy, but it is rarely the procedure of choice. The size of the gas bubble should
generally reflect the size of the problem, although it is not always necessary to
cover all breaks simultaneously with a single bubble.
When deciding whether a case is amenable to pneumatic retinopexy, recognize
that there is a difference between attached and detached breaks. In cases where an
attached break is present on the opposite side of the eye from the detached breaks,
alternate positioning would not be needed. The attached break should probably
be treated with laser prior to the gas injection. Care should then be taken, such as
by using the steamroller technique (described below) if necessary, to prevent the
bubble from pushing the subretinal fluid into the attached break and causing it to
detach. By following these two steps, multiple flat breaks may be ignored in posi-
tioning and in determining bubble size.
Inferior breaks
Most cases with breaks in the inferior four clock-hours of the eye have been dif-
ficult to treat with pneumatic retinopexy. Even for limber patients, it is very dif-
ficult to tilt the head below the horizontal for very long. As a rule, a detached
break in the inferior four clock-hours represents a contraindication to pneumatic
retinopexy.
Proliferative vitreoretinopathy
Since pneumatic retinopexy does not relieve traction like scleral buckling or vit-
rectomy can, significant preoperative traction on a retinal tear is a relative con-
traindication to the pneumatic procedure. When a tear is adjacent to a star fold,
pneumatic retinopexy is usually not the procedure of choice. Mild to moderate
proliferative vitreoretinopathy which is distant from any retinal breaks does not
necessarily contraindicate pneumatic retinopexy. More severe PVR usually calls
for vitrectomy and scleral buckling.
Cloudy media
It is important to the success of pneumatic retinopexy that all retinal breaks be
identified and treated. Opacities such as peripheral vitreous hemorrhage represent
relative contraindications to pneumatic retinopexy. Since pneumatic retinopexy
does not seem to jeopardize an eye for future scleral buckling if needed, it may not
be unreasonable to use the pneumatic procedure even when opacities obscure part
of the attached retina, but this represents a calculated risk.
Inability to maintain positioning

Failure to faithfully maintain the appropriate position is probably an important
cause of failure of pneumatic retinopexy. It is important to inquire regarding back
or neck problems and to assess mental competence before deciding on pneumatic
retinopexy. Recognize that some positions are quite easy to maintain, while others
require excellent cooperation. Positioning is easiest with tears between 11:00 and
1:00.
Glaucoma
Glaucoma has proven to be relatively unimportant as a contraindication to pneu-
matic retinopexy. The large majority of glaucoma patients can be treated with
pneumatic retinopexy without problem. Patients with quite severe glaucoma, such
as with splitting of the macular field due to glaucoma, might suffer noticeable dam-
age (even from brief elevations in intraocular pressure), but pneumatic retinopexy
can be performed in a manner to avoid elevations in pressure. Except in cases of
severely impaired trabecular outflow facility, serial measurements of intraocular
pressure following gas injection are not necessary.
188 II: Practice
In several series, patients with extensive lattice degeneration tended to do rather
poorly with pneumatic retinopexy. It does not appear that mild to moderate lattice
should be considered a contraindication.
Aphakia/pseudophakia
In some series, aphakic/pseudophakic eyes did poorly with pneumatic retin-
opexy, but in other reports this was not the case. These eyes, prone to multiple
tiny far-peripheral holes, require an especially careful preoperative examina-
tion. With peripheral capsular opacities frequently present, the view of the
peripheral retina can be quite limited. Such cases should probably not be treated
with pneumatic retinopexy. If the peripheral retina can be adequately examined,
aphakia and pseudophakia are not contraindications to pneumatic retinopexy.
Experience has shown that eyes with an open posterior capsule tend to develop
breaks more frequently than eyes with the capsule intact. Like severe lattice
degeneration, aphakia/pseudophakia with an open posterior capsule warrants
extra caution.
RELATIVE INDICATIONS FOR PNEUMATIC RETINOPEXY

Pneumatic retinopexy has particular advantages in the management of several
types of cases:
Retinal detachment imminently threatening the fovea

Pneumatic retinopexy allows immediate treatment in urgent situations, avoiding
delays inherent in taking a patient to the operating room. Furthermore, by using
the steamroller technique described below, PR can be used to sweep subretinal fluid
away from the fovea, providing additional protection against foveal detachment.
Macular holes and other posterior retinal breaks

Retinal detachments secondary to posterior retinal breaks are difficult to treat
with scleral buckling. For many surgeons, pneumatic retinopexy is the procedure
of choice in many of these cases.
Redetachment following scleral buckling

Following scleral buckling, when subretinal fluid accumulates due to a break in the
superior eight clock-hours, pneumatic retinopexy is frequently much easier than
revising the buckle. Because external cryopexy has difficulty treating through the
insulating effect of a scleral buckle, laser treatment is applied after the gas bubble
settles the detachment.
Filtering blebs
If a functioning filtering bleb is present, or if an eye may need a filtering procedure
in the future, pneumatic retinopexy should be considered to minimize conjunctival
scarring and inflammation.
Isolated tears under the superior rectus

Placing a segmental buckle under a vertically acting muscle runs the risk of iatrogenic
diplopia; this potential complication is eliminated with pneumatic retinopexy.
Contraindications to general anesthesia

If performing scleral buckling or vitrectomy under local anesthetic is not an
option, medical contraindications to general anesthesia may indicate pneumatic
retinopexy as an optimal alternative.
Optic pit with macular detachment

Pneumatic retinopexy may be an effective option in the treatment of optic pits with
serous macular detachment.
Extensively scarred conjunctiva

Conjunctival scarring may make dissection for a scleral buckle difficult, and may
make it difficult to get the conjunctiva to cover adequately at the end of the case.
These problems are avoided with pneumatic retinopexy.
Very thin sclera

With scleral buckling, thin sclera poses a risk of needle penetration or inadequate
anchoring of sutures to secure the buckle, problems that are avoided with pneu-
matic retinopexy or vitrectomy. When ultra-thin sclera is discovered in the operat-
ing room, a pneumatic procedure combined with drainage of subretinal fluid can
provide a means of repairing relatively extensive detachments, since a very large
gas bubble can be obtained.
Need to retain emmetropia or to prevent anisometropia

Patients with excellent preoperative vision, particularly if they are uncorrected or
have a history of refractive surgery, may consider the loss of emmetropia to be a
substantial disadvantage of scleral buckling.
Cosmetic concerns
Scleral buckling is associated with a higher risk of ptosis, enophthalmos, and stra-
bismus than that seen after pneumatic retinopexy.
Operating room not available

In some settings or at some times, an adequately equipped and staffed operat-
ing room may not be available or may require an unacceptable delay. In these
instances, an office-based procedure may be a good alternative.
Limited financial resources

Pneumatic retinopexy is much less expensive than scleral buckling or vitrectomy
because all operating room expenses, ancillary hospital or surgicenter charges, and
anesthesia fees are avoided. Preoperative medical and laboratory evaluation is also
generally not necessary.
190 II: Practice
OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE
The technique detailed here is essentially the same as that originally described by
Hilton and Grizzard in 1986, with a few modifications. The operation is usually
performed in an outpatient department or in the surgeon’s office.
ANESTHESIA
Pneumatic retinopexy can be accomplished with topical, subconjunctival, or ret-
robulbar anesthesia, depending on the surgeon’s and patient’s preferences. Sensitive
patients may do better with a retrobulbar injection.
An injection into the anterior muscle cone will usually produce anesthesia with-
out akinesia initially. This has the advantage of allowing the patient to position his
eye to cooperate with cryopexy. After the retrobulbar anesthetic is given, cryopexy
is administered promptly before the eye becomes akinetic.
Rarely, general anesthesia (avoiding the use of nitrous oxide) may be indicated
if the patient is very young and/or apprehensive.
RETINOPEXY
Pneumatic retinopexy is generally performed in one session with cryopexy applied
to the retinal breaks prior to gas injection (Figure 8–1B). An alternative technique
involves a two-part procedure, utilizing laser instead of cryotherapy. The first
part of the procedure consists of injection of a gas bubble into the vitreous cavity.
The patient maintains appropriate head positioning at home, with follow-up in the
surgeon’s office. Once the break is reattached, usually the next day, laser treatment
is applied.
The photocoagulation is greatly facilitated by use of the laser indirect ophthal-
moscope (LIO), which makes it easy to position the patient’s head to move the gas
bubble away from the break(s). Treatment can also be applied with a slit lamp laser
delivery system by tilting the patient’s head as needed. It is generally best not to
attempt to laser until the retina is completely reattached in the treatment area.
Although one can treat the breaks through a moderately large gas bubble, one
must be careful not to overtreat. Gas has an insulating effect, conducting heat
away from the laser spot at a slower rate than vitreous, which may result in exces-
sive thermal burns with retinal necrosis and hole formation.
Cryopexy versus laser

A one-part procedure with cryopexy is usually preferred over a two-part proce-
dure with laser. Retinal breaks are easier to find when they are detached, and a
one-part procedure is usually more convenient.
Certain circumstances might indicate the use of laser instead of cryotherapy.
Very posterior breaks are easier to treat with laser than with cryo. The chorioreti-
nal adhesion with laser may be obtained more quickly and firmly than that with
cryo. If multiple large breaks are present, laser may be better than extensive cry-
opexy. When there has been a recent surgical incision in the eye, laser may be safer
than cryo because it may be easier to avoid applying pressure to the eye.
Transcleral photocoagulation may provide some advantages over both cryopexy

and transpupillary laser. Like transpupillary laser photocoagulation, one can see
exactly where the treatment will be applied and where it has been applied. As with
cryopexy, it allows treatment in detached retina. Treatment can even be applied
through a preexisting buckle.
STERILIZING THE EYE

A sterile lid speculum is utilized. About six drops of undiluted povidone-iodine
solution are instilled directly onto the cornea and conjunctiva, and left in contact
with the eye for a few minutes. During this time the gas can be prepared. The injec-
tion site is then dried with a sterile cotton-tipped applicator, and the eye is ready
for paracentesis and injection of gas.
Be certain to use a povidone-iodine solution which does not contain alcohol or
detergent. Preoperative topical antibiotics add nothing to the sterility of a careful
sterile prep. Meticulous sterility is mandatory. No cases of endophthalmitis have
been reported following pneumatic retinopexy when povidone-iodine solution was
used as described above.
PREPARING THE GAS

A pressure-reducing system is attached to the gas cylinder to allow drawing of
the gas from a low pressure reservoir. High pressure can blow out the millipore
filter and render it useless in sterilizing the gas. A urinary external catheter can be
attached to the cylinder, or a step-down valve system can be used. Alternatively,
the gas may be drawn into a large syringe and then transferred to a small syringe
(Figure 8–3).
The selected gas is drawn through a millipore filter into a 3 ml syringe in a ster-
ile fashion. The tube connecting the gas cylinder with the syringe, including the
filter, is flushed through with gas to ensure no dilution with room air. A few mil-
liliters of gas are drawn into the syringe, discarded, and the syringe is filled again.
A disposable 30-gauge, one-half inch (12 mm) needle is then placed tightly on the
syringe, and excess gas is expelled to leave the exact amount intended for injection.
The gas should not be stored in the syringe for more than a few minutes prior to
injection because room air will infiltrate the syringe and dilute the gas sample.
MAKING ROOM FOR THE GAS

The intraocular volume must be decreased before and/or after the gas injection to
make room for the gas. We recommend that a paracentesis be performed before
the gas injection, especially if the globe has been weakened by surgery or trauma
within the past six weeks, or if there is significant glaucomatous optic nerve dam-
age. Laser may be preferred over cryopexy in these cases, since cryopexy may also
cause dehiscence of the unhealed wound or raise pressure excessively.
Paracentesis before or after the injection is usually necessary, but prolonged
ocular massage, including compression from cryopexy, may be sufficient in some
cases.
192 II: Practice
A B
Figure 8–3. Methods for drawing low-pressure gas into syringe. (A) Balloon system. (B) Valve
system. (C) Syringe system.
Paracentesis
The intended paracentesis site should be sterilized with Betadine solution as
described above. A 30-gauge, 1/2-inch needle on a 1 ml syringe with the plunger
removed is passed obliquely into the anterior chamber through the limbus, staying
over the iris with the bevel up. Fluid will flow passively into the syringe. As the
flow of fluid slows, gentle pressure on the sclera with a cotton-tipped applicator
will facilitate fluid egress. Remove as much fluid as can be obtained, up to about
0.45 ml. Fluid flow can be quite slow at the end, and it may take a few minutes
with the needle in the eye to remove sufficient fluid.
If the posterior lens capsule is absent or open widely, paracentesis should not be
performed through the limbus to avoid incarceration of vitreous in the limbal nee-
dle tract. With plunger in place, pass the needle through the pars plana, then angle
it through the posterior capsular opening into the anterior chamber.
Ocular massage
If after paracentesis and gas injection the pressure is too high, the eye may be
massaged to reduce intraocular volume. Retropulsion of the eye into the orbit
dehydrates the orbital fat, but is less effective at reducing the intraocular volume.
Instead, a scleral depressor is placed against the temporal equator, and the eye is
pressed fi rmly against the bony nasal orbital wall. Firm pressure is applied for
45 seconds, then relaxed for 15 seconds to allow perfusion of the retinal vascu-
lature. This cycle is repeated until the intraocular pressure is low enough. This
maneuver causes egress of fluid from the eye, and also stretches the scleral fibers,
allowing more ample intraocular volume. Preoperative medications for reducing
the intraocular pressure do not help much.
INJECTING THE GAS

An injection site is selected 3–4 mm posterior to the limbus. This site should
be away from large, open retinal breaks, highly detached retina, or detached
pars plana epithelium. The head of the supine patient is turned 45 degrees to
one side to make the injection site uppermost. The needle is then passed into
the eye perpendicular to the sclera (Figure 8–4). The needle is pushed 6–8 mm
into the eye to ensure that the tip is well into the vitreous, directing the tip away
from areas of highly bullous detachment. The needle is then withdrawn until
3 mm of it remains in the eye (Figure 8–5). This will ensure that the tip remains
in the vitreous but is shallow enough to prevent multiple small bubbles (“fi sh
Figure 8–4. Injecting gas into eye with injection site uppermost.
194 II: Practice
A B
Figure 8–5. Procedure of injecting gas into eye. (A) With injection site uppermost, needle is
pushed 6–8 mm into eye to ensure tip is deep in vitreous. (B) Needle is withdrawn until 3 mm
of needle remains in eye. Gas is then injected semi-briskly, creating a single bubble.
eggs”). Before performing the injection, a caliper can be set to the correct
distance to help estimate when the needle is withdrawn to the proper point. We
do not recommend trying to visualize the needle tip in the eye with an indirect
ophthalmoscope.
With the needle in the correct position, a moderately brisk injection of the entire
volume of gas is performed. This facilitates formation of a single bubble at the nee-
dle tip (Figure 8–1C). The injection should not be so brisk as to force bubbles of gas
deep into the vitreous before their buoyancy can make them rise. Inject smoothly
and fairly quickly, but not with excessive force. Hold the plunger down until the
needle is withdrawn to prevent escape of gas back into the syringe.
Because some gas may escape instantly upon removal of the needle, a cotton-
tipped applicator can be used to occlude the perforation site. The applicator must
be pressed against the shaft of the needle and rolled immediately over the hole
as the needle is withdrawn. The head is then rotated 90 degrees to move the gas
away from the injection site, and the applicator is removed. Escape of gas into the
subconjunctival space is not harmful, but may not leave sufficient gas in the vitre-
ous cavity.
Alternatively, the patient’s head may be rotated 90 degrees to the opposite side
before withdrawing the needle. This allows the bubble to float away from the injec-
tion site and prevents gas from escaping through the needle tract. This maneuver
should be rehearsed with the patient prior to inserting the needle to ensure smooth
coordination. With only 3 mm of the needle in the eye, this maneuver is unlikely
to injure the lens. When the needle is then withdrawn, liquid vitreous will some-
times escape through the needle tract into the subconjunctival space, which may
eliminate the need for additional paracentesis or massage. Vitreous incarceration
in the pars plana injection site probably occurs, but is not known to cause clini-
cally significant complications.
AFTER GAS INJECTION

Following injection, the eye is examined with the indirect ophthalmoscope to make
the following three determinations:
Is the central retinal artery occluded?

Examine the central retinal artery to ensure its patency. Paracentesis or massage
may be performed to reestablish patency or strong pulsation of the central retinal
artery. Occlusion of the central retinal artery can be safely observed for up to ten
minutes. During this time, the intraocular pressure declines and the artery may
reopen; if it does not, paracentesis or massage should be performed immediately.
As long as the central artery is open (widely patent or with strong pulsation),
measurement of the intraocular pressure has little meaning. The pressure will soon
return to normal and not increase, even though the gas is expanding.
Is a single gas bubble present or are there multiple small bubbles

(“fish eggs”)?
Fish eggs are undesirable because a small gas bubble can pass through a retinal
break into the subretinal space (Figure 8–6). See the section on “Injecting the Gas”
above for techniques for avoiding the development of fish eggs, and see the section
on “Special Procedures” below for suggestions on management of fish eggs.
Is the bubble mobile within the vitreous or is it trapped

at the injection site?
If the bubble is beneath the pars plana epithelium, or trapped in the space bor-
dered by the pars plana, the anterior hyaloid face, and the lens (the canal of Petit),
it will not move when the head is turned and will take on a semicircular shape.
This has been termed the “donut sign,” the “sausage sign,” or the “bagel sign.”
Management of this occurrence is discussed below, under “Special Procedures.”
Figure 8–6. Multiple small intravitreal gas bubbles (“fish eggs”) with subretinal gas.
196 II: Practice
The “steamroller” technique is now used if indicated (see “Special Procedures”

below). We instill antibiotic ointment and patch the eye. The meridian of the
retinal break is marked as an arrow on the patch to indicate to the patient and
family the head position which is to be maintained. We have a mirror available
to show the patient that the head should be positioned so that the arrow is
pointing directly at the ceiling. The patient is discharged to home and seen the
next day.
SPECIAL PROCEDURES
STEAMROLLER
If bullous subretinal fluid extends almost to the macula (Figure 8–7A), placement
of a bubble against the bullous detachment may cause a macular detachment
(Figure 8–7B). This complication can be easily avoided by using the “steamroller”
technique.
Following injection of the gas bubble, the patient’s head is turned to a face-
down position in such a way as to cause the bubble to traverse the attached retina
en route to the macula (Figure 8–7C). Over one to five minutes, the patient’s head
position is very gradually changed until the retinal break is uppermost, causing the
bubble to roll toward the retinal break, pushing the subretinal fluid back into the
vitreous and flattening the retina (Figure 8–7D).
Subretinal fluid will be expressed through the retinal break into the vitreous
cavity at a rate depending in part on the size of the break. Since cryopexy causes
liberation of pigment epithelial cells, which may cause proliferative vitreoretin-
opathy if they get in the vitreous cavity, it is recommended that cryopexy not be
performed prior to steamrolling.
Whether steamrolling is necessary to prevent macular detachment depends on
several factors:
1. How close the detachment is to the macula. Only detachments well within
the arcades usually need steamrolling.
2. How bullous the detachment is.
3. How large the gas bubble is.
Possible indications for steamrolling are as follows:
1. Prevention of iatrogenic macular detachment.

2. Prevention of iatrogenic detachment of an attached retinal break.
3. Reduction of subretinal fluid to encourage more rapid resolution of retinal
detachment. This might be of use in cases where all retinal breaks cannot be
covered at one time by the gas bubble. Also, where large retinal breaks are
present, this may minimize the chance of subretinal gas.
4. Reduction of a bullous detachment overhanging the optic nerve, preventing
visualization of the central retinal artery during the procedure.
A B
C D
Figure 8–7. Steamroller maneuver for prevention of iatrogenic macular detachment: (A) Bullous
retinal detachment threatening to detach a normal macula (M). (B) Gas bubble may force fluid
posteriorly, causing detachment of macula. (C) To prevent iatrogenic macular detachment, the gas
bubble is brought to the macula through attached retina. This frequently causes subretinal fluid
to pass through the break into vitreous (blue arrow). (D) Patient’s head is slowly moved incremen-
tally along the meridian between macula and retinal break (red arrow), ending with retinal break
uppermost. Subretinal fluid is usually forced into vitreous by the steamroller effect of the bubble.
FISH EGGS
Multiple small gas bubbles (“fish eggs”—Figure 8–8) are usually due to a faulty
injection technique. In probable order of importance, the following steps will
usually prevent this occurrence:
1. Make sure that the needle is shallowly within the vitreous at the time of
injection.
2. Make sure that the injection site is uppermost.
198 II: Practice
Figure 8–8. Multiple small intraocular gas bubbles (“fish eggs”) with increased risk of sub-
retinal gas. (Published with permission from Hilton GF, Tornambe PE: RD Study Group.
Pneumatic retinopexy: An analysis of intraoperative and postoperative complications. Retina
1991;11:285–294.)
3. Inject with the needle vertical.

4. Inject briskly but not extremely rapidly.
If fish eggs do occur, keep the patient strictly positioned to keep the bubbles
away from retinal breaks. If all retinal breaks are small, this may not be necessary,
but keep in mind that breaks can stretch a little. The bubbles will usually coalesce
spontaneously within 24 hours, and then the patient can adopt a position with the
retinal break uppermost.
Some authors recommend inducing fish eggs to coalesce by flicking the eye with
a cotton-tipped applicator or gloved finger. Turn the eye so that sclera without
underlying retinal breaks is uppermost, and flick this site moderately fi rmly.
If there is one large bubble with just a few smaller bubbles, usually the above
measures are not necessary, but caution is called for in the presence of large
tears.
GAS ENTRAPMENT AT THE INJECTION SITE

Following gas injection, if the gas bubble remains trapped at the injection site, it is
probably trapped in the canal of Petit. If the trapped bubble is small, no treatment
is necessary.
Unless there is an immediate threat of the macula detaching, the problem can
usually be solved by face-down positioning for 24 hours. This will encourage the
trapped anterior gas bubble to break through the anterior hyaloid face by its own
buoyancy, aided by its expansion.
If necessary, a large trapped bubble can be removed by passing a 27- or 25-gauge
needle back through the injection site. This needle is mounted on a syringe with a
small amount of sterile saline, with the plunger removed. The injection site is posi-
tioned uppermost and the needle is passed vertically into the bubble. Sometimes it
takes a little manipulating to break the surface tension of the bubble and get it to
escape. Most of the gas will escape, bubbling up through the fluid in the syringe.
At another site, reinject the gas deeper into the vitreous, with 4–5 mm of the
needle in the globe.
SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE
The following constitutes a typical order of events:
1. Anesthetic: retrobulbar, subconjunctival, or topical

2. Cryopexy: if one-part procedure, in lieu of laser
3. Sterilization of ocular surface: Betadine solution
4. Paracentesis: limbal, or via pars plana if capsule is open
5. Intravitreal gas injection: 0.4–0.6 ml of SF6
6. Check for patency of central retinal artery, and perform paracentesis and/or
massage if needed
7. Special procedures: for example, steamroller if needed
8. Antibiotic and patch: draw arrow
9. Laser: when retina is reattached, in lieu of cryopexy as two-part procedure
POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
Acetaminophen (Tylenol) may be helpful for postoperative pain control. We rec-
ommend a considerable restriction in activity initially, liberalizing day by day as
the retina reattaches, the chorioretinal scar matures, and fi nally the gas bubble
reabsorbs. The patient is allowed to return to work two weeks after the procedure,
and should be advised not to fly until the bubble is quite small.
If all retinal breaks are closed, the subretinal fluid usually reabsorbs within
24–48 hours. If the fluid is not reabsorbing, a new or missed break exists, the bub-
ble is too small, or the patient has not been positioning properly.
Ensuring proper patient positioning requires considerable effort. It is help-
ful to explain to the patient why positioning is important, and to demonstrate
the position which allows the bubble to close the breaks. The neck strain of an
oblique head position can be eased by explaining that sitting with the head tilted
45 degrees to the left is the same as lying on a couch with the head tilted 45 degrees
to the right.
Patient positioning is maintained during waking hours for five days; however,
three or four days may be adequate. The patient should not sleep face-up, to
avoid gas–lens contact in the phakic eye, or ciliary-block glaucoma in the apha-
kic eye.
Depending on the response to treatment, the patient may be seen on the fi rst
postoperative day, then in three days, one week, two weeks, one month, and so
200 II: Practice
forth. Frequent postoperative exams are indicated, primarily to look for new
retinal breaks or detachments. These breaks do not jeopardize the outcome if
close follow-up results in early detection and treatment. At least half of these
can be cured with an additional office procedure without resorting to scleral
buckling.
Inferior subretinal fluid or loculated pockets of subretinal fluid sometimes
persist for weeks or months. As long as the fluid is not increasing and the macula
is attached, reoperation is not necessary.
COMPLICATIONS
SUBRETINAL GAS
Subretinal gas in the absence of fish eggs at the time of injection is rare. If fish eggs
are noted following injection, one should examine carefully for the presence of sub-
retinal gas. Once the gas bubble expands, it may be more difficult to get it back out
of the break it passed through. If a gas bubble does get beneath the retina, it gives
the detached retina a pearly, dome-shaped, reflective sheen (Figure 8–9A). Attempt
fi rst to massage the bubble back toward the retinal break by scleral depression,
assisted by positioning as needed. If this fails and the amount of subretinal gas is
large, prompt surgical removal with vitrectomy may be required.
Smaller subretinal bubbles can be managed conservatively (Figure 8–9B). In
spite of a small subretinal bubble, the larger intravitreal gas bubble can usually
seclude the break from liquid vitreous with strict positioning, and subretinal
fluid will reabsorb. The smaller subretinal bubble will reabsorb before the larger
vitreous bubble and the detachment can be repaired, injecting additional gas if
needed.
IATROGENIC MACULAR DETACHMENT

This preventable complication is avoided by using the steamroller technique as
described above.
NEW RETINAL BREAKS

New or missed retinal breaks following pneumatic retinopexy appear to occur in
approximately 13% of eyes. This is similar to the incidence of new retinal breaks
following cryopexy or laser, without the injection of intravitreal gas.
The high incidence of new retinal breaks mandates close postoperative follow-
up. Most new breaks occur within one month and within three clock-hours of the
fi rst break.
In the multicenter trial of pneumatic retinopexy, 96% of eyes with new breaks
were successfully reattached. Approximately half of such breaks were managed
in the office or outpatient department without scleral buckling. New breaks and
detachments can often be treated easily with laser or with pneumatic techniques,
without automatically resorting to scleral buckling and/or vitrectomy.
Figure 8–9. Subretinal gas. (A) Large subretinal bubbles. (B) Small subretinal bubble. (Published
with permission from Hilton GF, Tornambe PE: RD Study Group. Pneumatic Retinopexy:
An Analysis of Intraoperative and Postoperative Complications—Retina 1991;11:285–294.)
Pneumatic retinopexy does not appear to increase the incidence of proliferative
vitreoretinopathy (PVR). In the multicenter clinical trial, PVR occurred in
5% of eyes following scleral buckling, and 3% of eyes following pneumatic
retinopexy.
COMPARISON WITH SCLERAL BUCKLING

In a review of the worldwide literature on pneumatic retinopexy, statistics on 1,274
cases were compiled. The single-operation success rate was 80%, and 98% were
reattached with reoperations, which compares favorably with scleral buckling.
A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial with 198 patients compared
pneumatic retinopexy with scleral buckling. The key fi ndings of this study (two-
year follow-up) are shown in Table 8–2.
202 II: Practice
Table 8–2. Comparison of Scleral Buckling with Pneumatic Retinopexy

Scleral Buckle Pneumatic Retinopexy P value
Anatomic success
1 operation ± laser/cryo 84% 81% NS
Final reattachment 98% 99% NS
Visual results:
20/50 or better 69% 88% 0.05
Morbidity Moderate Mild 0.001
Complications:
Cataract 18% 4% 0.05
New/missed breaks 13% 23% 0.05
Choroidal detachment 17% 3% 0.001
Myopic shift 68% 3% 0.001
PVR 5% 3% NS
Comparison of the two procedures in this study is summarized as follows:
1. The main disadvantages of pneumatic retinopexy are the reduced single-

operation success rate with more frequent need for retreatments, and the
need for precise postoperative positioning and close follow-up care.
2. Failure with pneumatic retinopexy does not jeopardize success with subsequent
scleral buckling, and final anatomic results were not significantly different.
3. Morbidity was less, and cost was much less with pneumatic retinopexy.
4. Postoperative visual acuity appeared to be better with pneumatic retinopexy
than with scleral buckling for eyes in which the macula was detached for less
than 14 days (p = 0.05).
5. Complications were similar, based on a score system which counted the need
for postoperative laser or cryo as a complication.
6. Cataract surgery was required more often with scleral buckling than with
pneumatic retinopexy.
7. Scleral buckling is the more versatile procedure, with many detachments not
amenable to pneumatic retinopexy. However, pneumatic retinopexy can treat
occasional detachments, which scleral buckling cannot, such as detachments
with very posterior breaks. For some surgeons, at least 40% of detachments
are good candidates for pneumatic retinopexy.
Pneumatic retinopexy is more versatile than the temporary episcleral balloon,

since with the former, one is able to treat larger breaks, more widely spread breaks,
and more posterior breaks than the balloon can treat. However, the balloon can
treat detached inferior breaks, which the bubble cannot. At this time, the tempo-
rary episcleral balloon is no longer manufactured.
Pneumatic retinopexy is less expensive than scleral buckling because there is no
need for (1) a preoperative history and physical, (2) preoperative laboratory work,
(3) an anesthesiologist, (4) operating room expenses, and (5) hospitalization costs.
The cost of scleral buckling with its associated expenses may be ten times that
required for pneumatic retinopexy.
It should be noted that not all surgeons agree with all of the advantages of
pneumatic retinopexy listed above, and there are many surgeons, particularly
outside the United States, who perform the procedure rarely. Also, microinci-
sional vitrectomy is becoming increasingly popular for treatment of primary
retinal detachments (particularly in pseudophakic cases), including patients who
may be candidates for pneumatic retinopexy.
SUMMARY
Pneumatic retinopexy is an alternative to scleral buckling or vitrectomy for the
surgical repair of selected retinal detachments. A gas bubble is injected into the
vitreous cavity, and the patient is positioned so that the bubble closes the retinal
break(s), allowing resorption of the subretinal fluid. Laser photocoagulation or
cryotherapy is applied around the retinal break(s) to form a permanent seal. The
procedure can be done in the office, and no incisions are required.
Pneumatic retinopexy may be appropriate to consider in selected cases without
inferior or extensive retinal breaks and without significant proliferative vitreo-
retinopathy. In selected cases appropriate for PR, lower morbidity, fewer cataracts,
decreased expense, and possibly better visual results may be achieved in exchange
for a lower single-operation success rate and the need for precise postoperative
positioning and close follow-up care.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Brinton DA, Lit ES: Pneumatic retinopexy. In: Ryan SJ, Wilkinson CP (eds). Retina.
St Louis: CV Mosby Co; 2005: pp. 2071–2084.
Hilton GF, Grizzard WS: Pneumatic retinopexy—A two-step outpatient operation without
conjunctival incision. Ophthalmology 1986;93:626–640.
Hilton GF, Tornambe PE: The Retinal Detachment Study Group: Pneumatic retinopexy: An
analysis of intraoperative and postoperative complications. Retina 1991;11:285–294.
Tornambe PE: Pneumatic retinopexy. Surv Ophthalmol 1988;32:270–281.
Tornambe PE, Hilton GF: The Retinal Detachment Study Group: Pneumatic retinopexy:
A multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial comparing pneumatic retinopexy
with scleral buckling. Ophthalmology 1989;96:772–784.
Tornambe PE, Hilton GF: The Retinal Detachment Study Group: Pneumatic retinopexy:
A two-year follow-up study of the multicenter clinical trial comparing pneumatic
retinopexy with scleral buckling. Ophthalmology 1991;98:1115–1123.
Tornambe PE, Hilton GF, Kelly NF et al.: Expanded indications for pneumatic retinopexy.
Ophthalmology 1988;95:597–600.
pp. 596–611.
9
Vitrectomy for Retinal
Detachment
F
ollowing the introduction of closed vitrectomy techniques by Robert
Machemer in the early 1970s, complicated retinal detachments became
one of the important indications for vitreous surgery. Most of these were
due to proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) or to proliferative vitreoretinopa-
thy (PVR), frequently following failure of routine scleral buckling procedures. As
experience in vitreoretinal surgery expanded, the advantages of these techniques
in the management of more routine types of retinal detachment became apparent.
The popularity of vitrectomy for primary retinal detachments continues to grow,
particularly with regard to pseudophakic cases.
Indications for performing a vitrectomy rather than a scleral buckle or a pneu-
matic retinopexy are summarized in Chapter 10. Virtually all authorities note that
a vitrectomy is required (along with a broad scleral buckle) in eyes with severe
PVR, and the technique is also clearly indicated for cases due to PDR, detachments
associated with major vitreous hemorrhage or scarring from penetrating trauma,
and those with giant retinal tears. On the other hand, few would suggest a vitrec-
tomy to repair a very shallow and small retinal detachment due to a single break
that could be easily closed with a scleral buckle or pneumatic procedure. Between
these two extremes, indications remain a matter of personal choice of the surgeon,
and they are influenced by his or her training and experiences with a variety of
techniques. Most surveys demonstrate a growing popularity of vitrectomy for an
increasing percentage of cases.
The goals of vitrectomy for retinal detachment are to
1. Remove axial opacities such as vitreous hemorrhage or debris.

2. Eliminate vitreoretinal, epiretinal, or subretinal traction.
205
206 II: Practice
3. Identify and treat all retinal breaks.

4. Internally reattach the retina.
5. Facilitate placement of a large intraocular tamponade.
6. Avoid complications associated with scleral buckling surgery.
The usual sequence of events includes removal of vitreous gel and epiretinal
membranes, identification of retinal breaks, internal removal of subretinal fluid,
laser therapy to all responsible breaks and areas of significant vitreoretinal degener-
ation, and placement of an internal tamponade with gas or silicone oil. Vitrectomy
is frequently combined with placement of a scleral buckle.
VITRECTOMY TECHNIQUES FOR ROUTINE

RETINAL DETACHMENTS
Vitrectomies are routinely performed with an operating microscope, endoillumi-
nation, an automated vitreous cutter, a laser photocoagulator, and an accessory
viewing system. Thus, the necessary equipment needs are substantially greater and
more costly than those required for a pneumatic operation or scleral buckle.
EXTERNAL STEPS OF THE PROCEDURE

Prep and drape
This is performed in the same fashion as described for scleral buckling in
Chapter 7.
Opening incisions
If a 360-degree buckle is anticipated, a 360-degree conjunctival peritomy is made
(as described in Chapter 7). If only a vitrectomy is planned, a temporal conjuncti-
val incision from mid-quadrant to mid-quadrant is created at the limbus. Some add
a radial incision near the lateral rectus muscle. Smaller incisions are also made in
a similar manner nasally. If small-gauge (23- or 25-gauge) instruments are used,
no conjunctival incisions are made, and the trochars are inserted directly through
the conjunctiva.
Sclerotomies are placed 4 mm posterior to the limbus in phakic eyes, and
3.0–3.5 mm posteriorly in pseudophakic or aphakic cases. A 20-gauge myrin-
gotomy knife is employed to make the three routine 20-gauge sclerotomies. An
infusion cannula is usually sutured to the globe if a routine 20-gauge vitrectomy
system is to be employed. The infusion site is traditionally in the inferior temporal
quadrant, just below the lateral rectus muscle insertion. Two additional incisions
are made just superior to the horizontal rectus muscle insertions, one for a fiberop-
tic light pipe, and the other for the cutting/aspiration probe, intraocular scissors or
forceps, or other instruments.
Few surgeons place trochars at each incision site in 20-gauge cases, but these
are routinely employed with smaller gauge systems. The operation is performed in
a dark room. Optimal visualization of the posterior segment requires accessory
9: Vitrectomy for Retinal Detachment 207
lenses, and for peripheral vitreoretinal surgery, the introduction of wide-angle

viewing systems has greatly improved capabilities.
INTERNAL STEPS OF THE PROCEDURE

Removal of vitreous gel
A physiologic solution is infused under pressure controlled by the automated
machine or by the height of the container of fluid. With suction applied to the
cutter, vitreous enters the port, is amputated by the high-frequency cutter, and is
slowly aspirated via the tubing connected to the probe (Figure 9–1).
The vitrectomy probe and fiberoptic light pipe may be temporarily withdrawn
during the operation to introduce other instruments through the same sclerotomy,
or to permit examination of the fundus by means of binocular indirect ophthal-
moscopy. In the latter situation, the pars plana sclerotomy sites are temporarily
closed with nail-like scleral plugs.
The vitreous gel and associated vitreous hemorrhage are initially removed cen-
trally, where a fluid space is created. The remaining vitreous gel is then excised
to remove intravitreal opacities and allow for identification of the posterior vit-
reous surface. The location of the posterior vitreous surface varies from case to
case, ranging from a complete posterior vitreous detachment in many eyes with
rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, to multiple residual posterior vitreoretinal
adhesions in highly myopic cases, to widespread vitreoretinal adhesions in some
eyes with PDR or a history of penetrating trauma. The posterior vitreous surface
is initially incised where there is ample separation between the vitreous and the
underlying retina (Figure 9–2).
Figure 9–1. A standard three-port vitrectomy procedure. The infusion cannula, located at the
site of the third incision, is not shown on this illustration.
208 II: Practice
Figure 9–2. The posterior vitreous surface is initially incised where there is ample separation
between the vitreous and the underlying retina.
After the posterior vitreous gel has been removed, more peripheral vitreous is
cautiously excised, and the vitreous base is approached. Vitreous gel adherent to
the margins of the break(s) is removed. Sometimes the traction is best relieved by
excising the flaps of horseshoe tears. As the vitreous base is approached, its visual-
ization can be enhanced with external scleral depression, usually by the assistant.
Alternatively, if a scleral buckle is planned, the encircling band can be tightened to
provide an indentation similar to that achieved with scleral depression.
Installation of heavy perfluorocarbon liquids

Heavy perfluorocarbon liquids such as perfluorooctane (PFO) may be used at this
stage to help reattach the retina. It is injected into the vitreous cavity over the pos-
terior retina. Being heavier than water, it forces subretinal fluid peripherally and
out the retinal break(s), pressing the retina against the wall of the eye (Figure 9–3).
This aids in identifying breaks, reduces the height of the detachment, allows for
laser photocoagulation, and provides relative immobilization of the retina. It is
safer to trim vitreous close to the mobile peripheral retinal if the detachment has
been stabilized by PFO (Figure 9–4), which is usually infused to the level of the
equator. Some surgeons use heavy liquids in most operations, whereas other use it
infrequently except in complicated cases. It is almost always removed from the eye
before the end of the case.
Identification and marking of retinal breaks

The most important step in all forms of retinal reattachment surgery is to identify
and treat all retinal breaks. In vitrectomy procedures, retinal breaks are usually
Figure 9–3. Heavy perfluorooctane (PFO) is injected into the vitreous cavity over the posterior
retina. This forces subretinal fluid peripherally and out the retinal break(s) (large arrow), press-
ing the retina against the wall of the eye.
Figure 9–4. It is safer to trim vitreous close to the mobile peripheral retinal and to excise large
tear flaps if the retinal detachment has been stabilized by PFO.
marked with internal diathermy, which leaves a visible white burn in the retina at
the edge of the break(s). Since air infusion is often performed before the breaks are
treated, it is important to mark the breaks before this step, as they are much more
difficult to see in air-filled eyes.
210 II: Practice
Internal drainage of subretinal fluid

Since retinal breaks cannot be treated with laser unless the retinal pigment epithe-
lium (RPE) is in contact with the retina, drainage of subretinal fluid is performed
prior to laser therapy. Some surgeons remove subretinal fluid with the assistance
of heavy liquids, while others routinely drain during air infusion without PFO.
Still others infuse air while draining both subretinal fluid and PFO from the eye.
Drainage is usually accomplished by inserting an aspiration needle with a soft flex-
ible tip through an accessible retinal break (Figure 9–5) or simply by pressing fluid
out of the subretinal space using PFO and air as described below. Alternatively,
fluid can be drained through a small posterior retinotomy which is usually created
superior to the optic nerve.
Air infusion
Vitrectomy for routine retinal detachment usually includes infusion of air to inter-
nally tamponade the retina. Some surgeons begin the air infusion while the PFO
remains posterior to the equator and/or retinal breaks. In this situation, the air
pushes residual subretinal fluid toward the equator from the front of the eye, while
the PFO pushes it toward the equator from the back, forcing it out of the equato-
rial break(s). After the anterior retina is completely flat, the PFO is aspirated as the
air bubble expands to fill the vitreous cavity (Figure 9–5). A disadvantage of this
technique is that small, residual PFO bubbles are relatively difficult to see through
an air bubble, and some PFO may inadvertently be left in the eye. By reinstilling
some saline fluid, the remaining PFO may be visualized and removed, followed by
removal of the saline.
Figure 9–5. Drainage of subretinal fluid is usually accomplished by inserting an aspiration

needle with a soft flexible tip through an accessible retinal break. This may be done before air
is infused, or during an air–PFO exchange, as shown here.
A decision is made about the type of gas to leave in the eye. Tamponade of all
retinal breaks is desirable for several days minimum, so that a mature adhesion
will evolve around each of them. In relatively simple cases with superior breaks,
air alone may suffice, but in more complicated cases, especially those with large
breaks located inferiorly, a larger, long-acting bubble is desirable. In these situ-
ations, a dilute mixture of either sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) or perfluoropropane
(C3F8) is exchanged for the air. Mixtures with 20% sulfur hexafluoride or 15%
perfluoropropane are usually used for a total gas fill since these are nonexpansile
mixtures. In very complicated cases, silicone oil is sometimes substituted; this is
discussed later.
Laser treatment of retinal breaks

Retinal breaks are treated after the retina is internally reattached. This is per-
formed with laser photocoagulation through an endoprobe, via an indirect oph-
thalmoscopic delivery system, or both. Two to three rows of burns are placed
around each break (Figure 9–6). Some surgeons prefer to then create 360 degrees
of laser therapy in several rows that straddle the posterior margin of the vitreous
base, where any postoperative vitreoretinal traction would be likely to occur.
Placement of scleral buckle

With regard to vitreous surgery for routine and uncomplicated retinal detachment,
considerable debate persists about the value of a scleral buckle. When employed,
a 360-degree encircling band is usually preferred. This is usually secured to sup-
port the posterior margin of the vitreous base along with the retinal breaks. If a
Figure 9–6. Laser therapy is applied to flat retina to surround all retinal breaks.
212 II: Practice
buckle is planned, it is frequently placed beneath the four rectus muscles (as noted
in Chapter 7) prior to beginning the vitrectomy.
Proponents of a scleral buckle for routine cases believe that it is useful in reduc-
ing the chances of later retinal detachment. Others use buckles primarily when
inferior breaks are encountered and there is concern about the gas bubble provid-
ing a tamponade for a sufficient time for an effective adhesive scar to form around
the breaks. Those who do not routinely employ buckles cite the lack of data docu-
menting their value and express concern about adding the complications of buck-
ling to those of vitrectomy.
Closure of sclerotomies and peritomies

At the end of the operation, each pars plana 20-gauge incision is closed with a
figure-of-eight, 7-0 polyglycolic acid suture. If small-gauge instruments have
been employed, the wounds are considered to be self-sealing, and no sutures are
required. The conjunctival peritomies are closed in a routine fashion if 20-gauge
instruments were used. This is not necessary in cases in which small-gauge devices
were employed.
VITRECTOMY TECHNIQUES FOR COMPLICATED CASES

Complicated retinal detachments were managed with vitrectomy techniques for
many years before more routine cases became common indications for this sur-
gery. The most important of these were retinal detachments associated with PDR
or PVR. Detachments due to giant retinal tears are another obvious indication for
vitrectomy. This section will briefly discuss techniques that are employed in the
management of these three types of complicated retinal detachment, emphasizing
differences from the usual sequence of surgical steps mentioned above.
RETINAL DETACHMENT AND PROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY

In proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), extraretinal neovascular and fibrovas-
cular tissue grows almost exclusively along the posterior vitreous surface. This pro-
liferation often causes changes in the vitreous gel that result in a partial posterior
vitreous detachment with separation of the cortical vitreous from the retina. The vit-
reous remains attached to the anterior retina at the vitreous base, and it often exhib-
its a funnel-shaped configuration that extends between the vitreous base anteriorly
to areas of neovascular proliferation posteriorly. The taut posterior vitreous surface
causes anteroposterior traction on the areas of vitreoretinal attachment, and usually
remains attached at each area of posterior fibrovascular proliferation (Figure 9–7).
The posterior cortical vitreous remains near the plane of the retinal surface,
where it bridges from one area of retinal neovascularization to another. When
little or no posterior vitreous detachment occurs, the proliferative tissue grows
along the plane of the inner retinal surface, and widespread adhesions to the retina
may develop (Figure 9–8). This tissue can contract, causing tangential traction on
the retina and visual loss from distortion or displacement of the macula.
Figure 9–7. Proliferative diabetic retinopathy and traction retinal detachment. The taut post-
erior vitreous surface causes anteroposterior traction on the areas of vitreoretinal attachment,
and usually remains attached at each area of posterior fibrovascular proliferation.
Figure 9–8. Photograph of typical proliferative diabetic retinopathy and traction retinal detach-
ment. The white curvilinear zones represent locations of fibrovascular proliferation with
adhesions to the posterior cortical vitreous surface.
Fibrovascular tissue growth and secondary changes in the vitreous gel can cause
further complications, including hemorrhage, traction retinal detachment, retinal
breaks, and rhegmatogenous detachment.
The posterior vitreous surface is therefore of great importance in the pathogen-
esis of PDR and its secondary complications. Complete removal of the posterior
214 II: Practice
cortical vitreous and all attached fibrovascular tissue is the major goal in vitrec-
tomy for PDR. If this can be accomplished, retinal reattachment, using the tech-
niques described earlier, can usually be achieved.
The steps in vitrectomy for retinal detachment associated with PDR usually
involve an initial partial vitrectomy, removal of the posterior cortical surface and
fibrovascular tissue, and treatment of retinal breaks, if they are present.
Vitrectomy for PDR and retinal detachment

The posterior vitreous surface is frequently incised in a safe location away from
vitreoretinal attachments and/or areas of underlying retinal detachment. If non-
clotted blood is present in the preretinal space behind the posterior vitreous sur-
face, it is evacuated using an aspiration device.
Then the posterior vitreous surface is excised around the circumference of its
cone-like structure to relieve traction between the vitreous base and the posterior
retina. Often, the edges of the posterior vitreous surface separate widely after it is
cut, demonstrating that considerable traction was present preoperatively. At this
stage, some surgeons prefer to remove as much of the cortical vitreous as possi-
ble, except for the anterior portion adjacent to the vitreous base, and posterior
remnants near areas of vitreoretinal attachment (Figure 9–9). Others remove the
avascular gel at the same time that the fibrovascular tissue itself is excised.
When there is little or no posterior vitreous detachment, the posterior cor-
tical vitreous can be dissected from the retina with a vitreoretinal pick, sharp
bent-tipped needle, or myringotomy knife. A larger opening in the separated cor-
tical vitreous is then made with the vitrectomy probe.
Figure 9–9. Some surgeons prefer to remove as much of the cortical vitreous as possible, except
for the anterior portion adjacent to the vitreous base and posterior remnants near areas of
vitreoretinal attachment.
Removal of fibrovascular PDR tissue

“Delamination” and “en bloc” are terms used to describe methods of dissecting
epiretinal fibrovascular tissue from the surface of the retina. Using the delami-
nation technique, surgeons initially remove all elevated cortical vitreous that is
producing anteroposterior traction on posterior fibrovascular tissue. Vitreoretinal
picks and scissors are then used to elevate and divide avascular portions of the more
organized posterior vitreous cortex until only islands of tightly adherent fibrovas-
cular tissue remain. Bimanual techniques are used to delaminate those focal mem-
branes that appear to be excisable without major structural damage to the retina
(Figure 9–10). Other surgeons prefer the en bloc technique, leaving portions of
anterior vitreous gel intact, so that the residual anteroposterior traction will assist
in the dissection of epiretinal tissue by elevating its edges (Figure 9–11).
Removing all fibrovascular “islands” is believed to reduce the frequency of post-
operative bleeding, contraction of residual epiretinal membranes, recurrence of
epiretinal proliferation, and missed small retinal breaks. Therefore, “segmenta-
tion” techniques, in which localized islands of epiretinal fibrovascular tissue are
left following vitrectomy, have become less popular. Still, segmentation techniques
are useful when the combination of relatively mature epiretinal tissue and atro-
phic retina results in a significant increase in the risk of retinal breaks associated
with complete epiretinal membrane dissection, or when vascular membranes are
located anteriorly and are difficult to remove safely.
If no segmentation has been performed, the entire organized posterior cortical
vitreous is removed in a single piece. Many authors favor an “inside-out” dissec-
tion, in which the plane of dissection between the vitreous and retina is initiated
Figure 9–10. Following vitreous removal, the fibrovascular islands are removed with bimanual
techniques.
216 II: Practice
Figure 9–11. Some surgeons prefer an “en bloc” method of vitrectomy in which the fibrovascu-
lar zones are removed, along with the vitreous gel attached to them.
centrally, while others prefer to begin the dissection peripherally. Fibrovascular

tissue attached to the optic nerve head is gently avulsed or excised from the nerve
after all surrounding attachments to the retina have been eliminated. If retinal
mobility associated with retinal detachment interferes with dissecting epiretinal
tissue, a small amount of perfluorocarbon liquid is injected onto the posterior
retina. This stabilizes the retina and makes delamination easier.
Combinations of techniques are frequently employed, but the goal to remove the
posterior cortical surface out to the vitreous base along with all fibrovascular mem-
branes is always the same in these cases. Nonvascularized posterior hyaloid and
immature proliferative membranes can frequently be elevated and bluntly dissected
from the surface of the retina. Recently proliferating tissue is characterized by neo-
vascularization with little or only translucent fibrous tissue. Older fibrovascular
tissue becomes more white and opaque and more firmly adherent to the retina.
Vitreoretinal attachments are often especially fi rm on detached retina, and
thinning of the retina from chronic traction and vascular nonperfusion increases
the risk of causing a retinal break during removal. Removal may be impossible if
extensive mature tissue and fi rmer attachments to an underlying atrophic retina
are encountered in association with extensive retinal detachment. If surgery is per-
formed relatively early in the proliferative process, it is usually easier to remove
neovascularization associated with cortical vitreous from the retina. The most
favorable cases are those with widespread separation of the vitreous from the ret-
ina with only small posterior zones of fibrovascular tissue adherent to the retina.
Intraoperative hemorrhage during segmentation and delamination is unfortu-
nately not uncommon. Its incidence can be reduced by avoiding segmentation of
Figure 9–12. Unimanual diathermy is applied to sites of persistent bleeding (other than the
optic nerve).
highly vascularized membranes. Elevation of intraocular pressure is used to min-

imize bleeding during the dissection of vascularized tissue. Further elevation of
intraocular pressure to a level above systolic blood pressure for 1–2 minutes will
frequently stop persistent bleeding. Unimanual (Figure 9–12) or bimanual bipolar
diathermy can be applied to sites of persistent bleeding other than the optic nerve.
Severe bleeding can be reduced by adding thrombin to the infusion fluid, but this
makes removal of preretinal hemorrhage more difficult.
Treating retinal breaks in PDR

Retinal breaks are treated before the operation is completed. Subretinal fluid is
evacuated through suitable posterior breaks. This flattens the retina against the
pigment epithelium, permitting transvitreal laser photocoagulation. Internal
drainage of subretinal fluid also demonstrates whether all traction on the retina
has been relieved. If the retina tends to redetach rapidly despite release of all fibro-
vascular tissue, the surgeon should search for thin avascular membranes peripheral
to the sites of neovascularization and remove them. Drainage of subretinal fluid is
frequently combined with fluid–gas exchange, and laser photocoagulation through
the gas bubble is then applied around all retinal breaks.
RETINAL DETACHMENT AND PROLIFERATIVE VITREORETINOPATHY

Proliferative vitreoretinopathy has characteristic features that are distinctive and
quite different from features of retinal detachment complicating other conditions,
such as PDR or retinal detachment occurring after penetrating injuries. PVR has a
wide range of clinical severity, but the underlying anatomic features are remarkably
218 II: Practice
similar from case to case. A standardized terminology and classification have been
developed based on the description of the anatomic changes.
The basic pathologic process in eyes with PVR is growth and contraction of cel-
lular membranes on both sides of the retina, on the posterior vitreous surface, and
within the vitreous base. Most variations in clinical appearance among cases are
due to differences in the anatomic location and severity of the proliferative process.
Contraction of membranes on the inner retinal surface causes distortion and fold-
ing of the retina. Early changes due to localized epiretinal membranes are recog-
nized as star folds; if these occur in the macula,they constitute macular puckers.
Epiretinal proliferation is usually most severe in the posterior pole and the equa-
torial part of the inferior quadrants, probably because free pigment epithelial cells
in the vitreous cavity become attached to the most dependent parts of the ret-
ina. Growth and contraction of membranes may be extensive, causing total retinal
detachment and marked distortion and immobilization of the entire retinal surface.
Ultimately, the retina assumes a narrow funnel shape in the center of the vitreous
cavity (Figure 9–13; see also Figures 2–24 and 10–12).
The process is particularly severe if cellular invasion and contraction occur
within the vitreous base and over the adjacent pars plana. This usually occurs in
the two inferior quadrants, and causes elevation and anterior displacement of the
peripheral retina. In extreme cases the retina is dragged onto the pars plicata, and
sometimes the retina becomes adherent to the posterior surface of the iris. This
results in relative foreshortening of the retina elsewhere, and the retina cannot flat-
ten against the eye wall, even after release of transvitreal traction and removal of
posterior epiretinal membranes. This far anterior proliferation may also cover the
ciliary processes or cause traction on the ciliary body, contributing to the chronic
hypotony that occurs in some cases, despite successful retinal reattachment.
Figure 9–13. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR). The posterior retina exhibits fi xed folds
due to contraction of cellular membranes upon its surface.
The basic surgical goals in eyes with retinal detachment complicated by PVR
are to relieve as much vitreoretinal and epiretinal membrane traction as possible,
to close the retinal breaks, and to relieve remaining anterior vitreoretinal traction
using a broad scleral buckle.
Scleral buckle for PVR

A broad and high scleral buckle is usually made, extending from the ora serrata to
the equator. Frequently, a silicone exoplant is used that is 7 mm wide and 3 mm
thick, and has a convex surface against the sclera. This produces a rounded buck-
ling effect that is effective in supporting areas of persistent vitreoretinal traction,
and in sealing retinal breaks while causing minimal radial folding of the retina.
The broad exoplant is extended from 180 to 360 degrees, depending on the extent
of the PVR, and is combined with an encircling band 2.5 mm wide placed in the
groove of the exoplant. When a scleral buckle is already present, the silicone hard-
ware is revised or replaced if the buckling effect is not of the desired location,
shape, and height.
Removal of vitreous
The vitrectomy probe is fi rst used to excise the central part of the vitreous gel. The
typical taut transvitreal sheet representing the posterior vitreous surface is excised
up to the circumferential junction between this membrane and the retina.
Removal of epiretinal PVR membranes

The objective is to remove as much of the abnormal tissue as possible and to relieve
tangential traction between separate retinal folds without making retinal breaks
(Figure 9–14). The rigid, distorted retina thus becomes mobile and can then con-
form to the contour of the eye wall when the retinal breaks are closed.
A vitreoretinal pick is used to engage the epiretinal membrane, and gentle pos-
teroanterior traction is used to peel the membrane from the inner retinal surface.
Posteroanterior traction minimizes the risk of causing an iatrogenic retinal break
because the retina is thicker posteriorly and the junction of the retina with the
optic nerve provides strong counter traction during the dissection. Initial identifi-
cation of epiretinal membranes is also aided by using blunt instruments to separate
adjacent tight retinal folds, thereby exposing the membrane causing the folding.
This is usually done with the fiberoptic illuminator and the back surface of the vit-
rectomy probe or with a vitreoretinal pick.
Removal of epiretinal membranes is greatly aided by the use of intraocular for-
ceps, which are used to grasp the membrane after it has been partially separated
with the pick (Figure 9–15). Traction on the membrane can be applied more evenly
with forceps, and the membrane is therefore less likely to tear or shred. Sometimes
a technique with two forceps or forceps and a pick is used. This requires an ancil-
lary light source, such as a separate fiberoptic device similar to the infusion cannula
sutured to the sclera, or a light source attached to the intraocular forceps or the pick.
In some eyes, broad sheets of abnormal tissue are easily separated from the
retina. In other cases, the tissue sheets fragment and only small portions can be
220 II: Practice
Figure 9–14. Vitrectomy for proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR).
Figure 9–15. PVR membranes are usually removed with vitreous forceps. Frequently, PFO is
injected to immobilize the posterior retina during the dissection.
removed. Care is taken when applying traction on epiretinal tissue to avoid causing
a retinal break. This is especially important when removing epiretinal membranes
that are attached near the center of the macula, or membranes in the midperiphery
where the retina is thin and easily torn.
As the retina becomes relatively mobile, dissection of epiretinal membranes can

be facilitated by injecting PFO onto the posterior retina. This immobilizes the
retina, making peeling, segmentation, and delamination of the proliferative tissue
more efficient. In addition, areas of posterior residual traction can often be more
easily identified under the PFO bubble.
Posterior epiretinal membranes are removed and/or bridging traction is released
as far peripherally as possible, although this process is often limited by the circum-
ferential ring of vitreoretinal traction that marks the peripheral limit of the pos-
terior vitreous detachment. Removal of as much as possible of the basal cortical
vitreous anterior to the ring of circumferential traction is always performed if the
anterior component of PVR is severe and the eye is not phakic. This dissection
is greatly aided using wide-angle viewing systems and by scleral indentation to
improve visualization. Sometimes this is best performed with the coaxial illumi-
nation of the operating microscope and without intraocular illumination or an
accessory lens.
If the anterior retina and vitreous base have been displaced anteriorly by the
contraction of fibrocellular membranes on the vitreous base and peripheral ante-
rior hyaloid, a circumferential incision in the remaining vitreous gel and the abnor-
mal tissue is made with a myringotomy knife, scissors, or vitrectomy instrument.
Adhesions between the vitreous base, pars plicata, and posterior iris surface are
similarly excised. The relief of significant traction will allow the retina to move
more posteriorly into a position in which reattachment is possible.
Retinotomy and retinectomy in PVR

If substantial traction and shortening of the retina persist after extensive removal
of membranous tissue, a relaxation retinotomy or retinectomy can be used to allow
complete settling of the retina. The decision to perform relaxing retinal surgery is
made intraoperatively, after maximal membrane dissection has been completed.
The need for this step may not be apparent until an air–fluid exchange has been
performed, and tenting of the inferior retina or passage of air into the subretinal
space has become apparent. This is most likely to be necessary in eyes with severe
PVR and recurrent retinal detachment after a previous vitrectomy and scleral
buckle. In many of these cases an adequate dissection of epiretinal membranes is
frequently impossible or unsafe, and changes in the existing scleral buckle are usu-
ally not attempted.
A retinotomy is performed by enlarging existing retinal breaks or creating a
new break so that the edges can separate to relieve traction and allow the retina
to flatten. In making a retinotomy, diathermy is fi rst applied along the line of the
planned incision to close retinal vessels so that they will not bleed when cut. The
incision is made as far anterior as possible but posterior to the contracted retina
(Figure 9–16). It should extend well into the normal retina at either end, so that
inapparent residual traction forces upon the retina are relieved. At either end of
the incision, the cuts can be angled anteriorly to maximize retinal relaxation.
A circumferential retinal peritomy made parallel to the equator will assume an
ovoid configuration as the traction is relieved.
After a relaxing retinotomy has been made, the anterior flap of retina and
the membranes upon it are usually excised to reduce the risks of postoperative
222 II: Practice
Figure 9–16. A relaxation retinotomy or retinectomy can be used to allow complete settling of
the retina if substantial traction and shortening of the retina persist after extensive removal of
membranous tissue.
proliferation and contraction. All subretinal fluid is removed during complete flu-
id–gas exchange. It is essential that the retina flatten completely against the eye
wall after the vitreous cavity is filled with gas. If enough residual traction persists
so that air passes through an elevated retinotomy into the subretinal space, the
retinotomy must be extended until the retinotomy edges and the retina become
completely flat. When the posterior and lateral edges of the retinotomy are in fi rm
contact with the pigment epithelium, laser photocoagulation is used to create a
confluent zone of chorioretinal adhesion around the edges.
Marking retinal breaks

After the objectives of the vitrectomy are completed, all retinal breaks are marked
with transvitreal coaxial bipolar diathermy applied directly to the retina. The
anterior margin of the break is treated until the tissue turns white. This whit-
ening assists in later identification and treatment of the break(s) after fluid–gas
exchange.
Internal drainage of fluid and vitreous replacement

If PFO has not been used, internal drainage of subretinal fluid is performed via a
retinal break or iatrogenic retinotomy with a soft-tip extrusion needle, as employed
for routine cases. After most of the subretinal fluid has been drained, a fluid–gas
exchange is begun, intravitreal and residual subretinal fluids are removed from the
eye, and total air–fluid exchange is completed. In cases of PVR, the air is always
replaced with either a long-acting gas such as perfluoropropane (C3F8), or with sil-
icone oil. The latter material does not possess as high a surface tension as gas, but
it does not lose volume in the postoperative period. In some difficult cases in which
an inferior retinectomy has been performed, heavy PFO liquids have been left in
the eye for several days prior to their removal.
GIANT RETINAL TEAR

Giant retinal tears are defi ned as circumferential retinal breaks of 90 degrees
or more. Most such tears are idiopathic, but there is a high rate of bilateral
involvement, suggesting a predisposition for this type of tear in certain patients.
Idiopathic giant retinal tears occur mainly in males, and there is a high inci-
dence of myopia. The second most common cause of giant retinal tears is blunt
trauma. These tears can also result from surgical trauma, such as an anterior vit-
rectomy, and they occur frequently in patients with Stickler’s syndrome. They can
also occur along the posterior edge of large areas of chorioretinal scarring, espe-
cially in eyes with the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. The tear usually begins
along the posterior margin of the vitreous base because of anterior collapse
and traction from the vitreous gel. The tear may also extend posteriorly at one
or both ends.
When a circumferential retinal tear extends more than 1 clock-hour, there is
a tendency for the mobile posterior edge to become rolled or inverted; this phe-
nomenon is especially common in giant tears (Figure 9–17; see also Figures 2–11
and 10–9). The amount of folding usually increases as the tear enlarges, although
it also depends on the amount of liquefaction of the nearby vitreous gel. When a
giant tear is caused by blunt trauma, it is due to an immediate mechanical distor-
tion of the globe with avulsion of the vitreous base, and the nearby vitreous gel is
Figure 9–17. A giant retinal tear with folding of its edge.

224 II: Practice
not immediately liquefied. Therefore, accumulation of subretinal fluid may be very

gradual, and the posterior flap may not become inverted initially.
Giant retinal tears present special difficulties in surgical treatment. They vary
widely in severity depending on the size and location of the break, the position
and mobility of the posterior flap of the tear, the number, size, and location of
additional retinal breaks, the extent of retinal detachment, the features of the vit-
reous gel, and any epiretinal membrane formation. The general principles of man-
agement of giant retinal tears are to unfold the posterior flap of the tear, flatten
it against the eye wall, and seal the tear with a fi rm adhesion. This may be easily
accomplished or quite difficult. Most eyes with an inverted posterior flap require
vitrectomy and unfolding of the flap of the giant retinal tear with PFO.
The vitreous is initially excised centrally, and then in the periphery. Any adhe-
sions to the retinal flap are cut, and any epiretinal membranes immobilizing the
flap are removed. The anterior flap of the giant tear and adherent vitreous are
excised in aphakic and pseudophakic eyes. In phakic eyes the anterior flap is not
removed unless it is so large that it can be removed without damaging the lens.
After vitrectomy and removal of any epiretinal membranes, the PFO is injected
onto the retina in the posterior pole (Figure 9–18). The enlarging “bubble” pushes
the peripheral retina outward until it is against the retinal pigment epithelium. A
chorioretinal adhesion is then created with laser photocoagulation, although some
surgeons defer this step until a successful fluid–air exchange has been performed
(Figure 9–19). The PFO is then usually replaced with a nonexpanding, long-lasting
air–gas mixture such as 15% C3F8, although silicone oil is used in certain cases.
Figure 9–18. After vitrectomy and removal of any epiretinal membranes, PFO is injected onto
the retina in the posterior pole to push the peripheral retina outward until it lies against the
retinal pigment epithelium.
Figure 9–19. Laser therapy is applied to flat retina along the edges of the giant retinal tear.
During the fluid–air exchange, a flexible soft-tipped cannula is used to aspirate

intravitreal and subretinal fluid and PFO. It is critical to repeatedly remove all sub-
retinal fluid at the edge of the giant tear. Maintaining a “dry” aqueous-free retina
at the edges of the giant tear helps prevent posterior slippage of the retina during
this exchange. The fluids in the vitreous cavity are initially removed anterior to the
PFO bubble, and residual subretinal fluid is aspirated at the edge of the giant tear.
Aspiration of aqueous fluids reaccumulating at the edges of the tear is performed
as the aspiration cannula removes all intravitreal fluid posteriorly and replaces
it with air. It may be difficult to see small amounts of perfluorocarbon liquid as
the air bubble approaches the posterior pole. By temporarily injecting 0.5 to 1 ml
of infusion fluid, small residual droplets of PFO become visible, facilitating their
removal.
Especially in cases with inferiorly located giant tears, a scleral buckle is usually
placed to provide mechanical support for all the peripheral retina. This appears to
minimize the risk of recurrent detachment by counteracting later traction on the
retinal flap and peripheral retina by epiretinal membranes, supporting areas where
unrecognized retinal breaks develop after surgery away from the giant tear, and pre-
venting any anterior recurrent detachment from communicating with and redetach-
ing the posterior retina. The scleral buckle also enhances postoperative identification
of the peripheral retina and the edge of the giant tear, and facilitates postoperative
photocoagulation if needed. This is particularly useful in phakic eyes.
Giant retinal tears are sometimes complicated by PVR. In these cases the tech-
niques of treating PVR and giant retinal tears are combined. Surgery is often
delayed until epiretinal membranes stop proliferating or appear inactive. A high,
broad, 360-degree scleral buckle is usually used, because there is generally vitreous
226 II: Practice
base contraction at the ends of the giant tear and on the opposite side of the eye
that cannot be fully relieved or that recur. A lensectomy is performed in phakic
eyes with giant tears and PVR, unless there is no anterior component to the epireti-
nal proliferation. After lensectomy, a complete anterior vitrectomy is performed,
with excision of as much tissue in the region of the vitreous base as possible.
Meticulous removal of all epiretinal membranes is then performed in a posterior-
to-anterior direction to make the retina as mobile as possible. This may be facili-
tated by injecting a small bubble of perfluorocarbon liquid on the posterior retina
to partially reposition it and facilitate identification of epiretinal membranes for
easier removal.
Subretinal scar tissue on the exposed outer surface of the retinal flap is also
removed to increase the mobility of the retinal flap so that it can be unfolded into
a more peripheral location. However, the flap may occasionally remain stiff and
infolded, and in some cases excision of the peripheral part of the posterior retinal
flap with the vitrectomy cutter is necessary to allow retinal flattening.
RESULTS OF VITRECTOMY
Results of vitrectomy for retinal detachment vary considerably, depending upon
case selection. Durable retinal reattachment following vitrectomy for routine
retinal detachments ranges from 65% to 100% in various reports, and averages
approximately 85%, a figure that is quite comparable to that expected in scleral
buckling surgery. One recent prospective randomized, controlled trial comparing
these techniques has been performed. However, the results were quite complex and
inconsistent with some additional non-controlled data.
Visual results are comparable to those seen following anatomically successful
surgery with scleral buckling or pneumatic retinopexy, with the vast majority of
patients with macula-off detachments experiencing a significant improvement in
vision. Of the multiple factors impacting postoperative vision, preoperative vision
is the most important, and ideal trials comparing the postoperative vision obtained
with various techniques have not been performed.
COMPLICATIONS OF VITRECTOMY
In phakic eyes, the most important and common complication is that of progres-
sive nuclear sclerosis; this can be expected to occur in the vast majority of cases.
Importantly, the complications of altered refractive error and strabismus are quite
unusual following vitreous surgery, with the exception of nuclear-sclerotic-induced
myopia. Scleral perforation with a suture needle, complications of external subreti-
nal fluid drainage and intravitreal gas injections, fish-mouthing of retinal breaks,
and of course implant extrusion (all potential problems with scleral buckling) also
do not generally occur with vitrectomy. Increased intraocular pressure, endophthal-
mitis, PVR, epimacular proliferation, recurrent retinal detachment, and choroidal
detachment all may occur with vitrectomy as well as with scleral buckling. These
complications are discussed in Chapter 7.
The most important causes of anatomical failure following retinal reattachment
surgery are iatrogenic retinal breaks, new breaks, missed breaks, and PVR. The
latter three problems can also be considered to be complications of the disease pro-
cess that caused retinal detachment. By far the most serious of these is PVR. Severe
PVR following vitreous surgery is more likely to feature a serious anterior loop
component than PVR after a scleral buckle or pneumatic procedure.
SUMMARY
Vitrectomy techniques represent an elegant means of repairing retinal detachments,
and are increasingly employed in the management of routine retinal detachments,
particularly nonphakic cases. They are invaluable in the repair of complicated
detachment cases, and with microincisional techniques they represent a low-
impact method for treatment of less complicated cases. The procedure features
endoillumination, high magnification, wide-angle viewing, and vitreous cutting
abilities to allow removal of opacities and membranes, unfolding of giant tears,
and intraoperative retinal reattachment with the help of gas or perfluorocarbon
liquids. Postoperative intraocular tamponade with a total gas fill or with silicone
oil is made possible with vitrectomy techniques. Cataracts frequently develop
following vitrectomy in phakic eyes.
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10
Selection of Surgery for “Routine”
Retinal Detachment
M
ost rhegmatogenous retinal detachments are blinding disorders unless
they are successfully repaired. They were regarded as incurable until the
seminal work of Jules Gonin in the 1920s, when an anatomical success
rate approaching 50% was fi rst described (see Chapter 1). Anatomical results for
routine retinal detachments slowly improved through several decades, reaching
the current 85%–90% single-operation success figure for scleral buckling by the
1980s. Unfortunately, a similar improvement in visual results has not occurred
because of the profound influence of preoperative macular detachment.
Scleral buckling, once the sole standard of care for uncomplicated cases, has
become much less popular worldwide with the development of alternative options
starting in the mid 1980s. The most enduring of these are pneumatic retinopexy
(PR) (described in Chapter 8) and vitrectomy (described in Chapter 9). Vitrectomy
was originally reserved for complicated detachments but became popular for more
routine cases as experience and equipment improved. Today, particularly in the
United States, scleral buckling, PR, and vitrectomy are standards of care that are
widely employed in the management of “routine” or “uncomplicated” retinal
detachment, but how frequently each is used varies among different demographic
groups. For instance, the popularity of PR varies by geographical location and
scleral buckling appears less popular in the hands of relatively young vitreoretinal
specialists.
It can be useful to discuss objective clinical criteria that may favor one tech-
nique over another. Demarcation, scleral buckling, PR, vitrectomy, and vitrectomy
plus scleral buckling have relative indications and contraindications (Table 10–1),
as well as limitations and complications. In this brief chapter, clinical factors that
may influence the choice of one technique over another, for the types of cases
229
230 II: Practice
Table 10–1. Uncomplicated Retinal Detachments: Relative Indications and

Contraindications
Procedure Relative Indications Relative Contraindications
Demarcation (laser or Small, asymptomatic RD Rapidly progressive RD
cryo)
RD extending posterior to
equator
Significant traction or PVR
Scleral buckle Cases without relative Opaque media
contraindications Posterior break(s)
Ultra-thin sclera
Pneumatic retinopexy Break(s) localized Multiple separated breaks
Break(s) superior Breaks not superior
Opaque media
Inferior or extensive lattice
Incomplete PVD
Vitrectomy Opaque media Relatively simple phakic RD
Posterior break(s) Inferior retinal dialysis
Pseudophakia
Vitrectomy + buckle Severe PVR Relatively simple phakic RD
Inferior traction Ultra-thin sclera
Incomplete removal of
traction
in which scleral buckling, PR, and/or vitrectomy are neither mandatory nor
contraindicated, are discussed. However, it appears clear that we will never uni-
versally agree on the “best” operation for a given case, just as a single ice cream
flavor will never be favored by all.
SURGERY FOR COMMON TYPES OF RETINAL

DETACHMENT
There are several relatively common types of uncomplicated retinal detachments
(Table 10–2), as well as numerous variables associated with all of them (Table 10–3).
Management of retinal detachments with each specific technique is described in
Chapters 7, 8, and 9. Complicated detachments are usually managed with vitrec-
tomy techniques, whereas localized, relatively simple cases are usually managed
with a “walling-off” (demarcating) procedure employing laser or cryotherapy,
with PR, or with a small and localized scleral buckling procedure. Between these
two extremes lies a large percentage of cases, probably 50% or more, in which any
of the three major options might be considered; combinations of the three are also
employed by many surgeons in selected situations. Regardless of technique, if all
retinal breaks are surgically closed, and proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) or
other more unusual complications do not develop, the procedure will be anatom-
ically successful.
10: Selection of Surgery 231
Table 10–2. Common Types of Uncomplicated Retinal Detachments

1. Horseshoe tear(s) with PVD
a. At margins of lattice lesions
b. Unassociated with lattice
c. Along posterior margin of vitreous base
2. Atrophic holes in lattice degeneration
3. Combinations of types 1 and 2
4. Retinal dialysis
The relative indications and contraindications in Table 10–1, the common types
of uncomplicated retinal detachments listed in Table 10–2, and the variables con-
tained in Table 10–3 frequently dictate the selection of a specific reattachment pro-
cedure. The most important considerations include the location, number, and type
of retinal breaks and vitreoretinal degenerative lesions; the relationship between
the posterior cortical vitreous and the retina; the clarity of the vitreous cavity; and
the status of the crystalline lens.
Table 10–3. Variables Associated with Uncomplicated Retinal Detachments

Retinal break(s)
Type: Associated with persistent vitreoretinal traction on edge of break (“horseshoe”)
Associated with vitreoretinal traction near location of atrophic break
Location: Quadrant
Distance from ora serrata
Posterior surface of cortical vitreous
Total PVD: Only vitreoretinal traction at vitreous base and near break(s)
Incomplete PVD: Residual vitreoretinal apposition and/or traction
Vitreoretinal traction on lattice lesions
Location: Quadrant
Distance from ora serrata
Lens status
Clear crystalline lens
Cataract
SCLERAL BUCKLING
Scleral buckling can be employed in the vast majority of cases in which the retina
can be adequately visualized (see Chapter 7). The diminished popularity of this
technique is not due to limitations in anatomical success but rather due to the
development of alternative techniques that provide acceptable reattachment rates,
fewer or different complications, and additional advantages in selected cases.
The most common complications of scleral buckling (other than anatomic fail-
ure) do not usually follow PR and vitrectomy. PR offers additional advantages
of an office procedure and reduced postoperative discomfort. Vitreous surgery
provides a remedy for the most common relative contraindications of buckling,
significant vitreous opacification, and posterior retinal breaks.
232 II: Practice
Advantages of scleral buckling

As the standard of care for decades, scleral buckling’s success and complication rates
are relatively well understood. Buckling is usually an extraocular procedure (except
for the frequently optional steps of draining subretinal fluid and/or injecting gas),
and the risk of endophthalmitis is very low, even when drainage is performed. The
cost of equipment and accessory materials is considerably less than for vitrectomy,
although much more than for PR. Progressive cataract formation following surgery
is much less likely than with vitrectomy. Unlike PR and vitrectomy in general, no
special postoperative positioning is usually required with scleral buckling, which
may be an important consideration in individuals with arthritis or back trouble.
Disadvantages of scleral buckling

Placement of an encircling buckle frequently induces postoperative myopia.
Postoperative muscle imbalance and altered refractive errors are important compli-
cations that are more commonly seen following scleral buckling than after PR or
vitrectomy. Compared to PR, important disadvantages of scleral buckling include
the necessity of performing the procedure in an operating room, with the atten-
dant costs, delays, and additional equipment. More patient morbidity occurs fol-
lowing buckling than after PR. Compared to vitrectomy, significant disadvantages
include increased difficulty in the management of very large and/or posterior reti-
nal breaks, and increased patient morbidity following repairs of relatively difficult
cases. Whereas experience with the procedure was extensive in the past, a growing
number of vitreoretinal training programs appear to be providing less extensive
experience with this procedure.
PNEUMATIC RETINOPEXY
The classic “ideal” uncomplicated retinal detachment for a pneumatic procedure
(PR) is associated with a retinal break or group of breaks located in the upper eight
clock-hours of the eye and extending no more than one clock-hour in circumfer-
ence (see Chapter 8). Although the technique can be employed successfully when
breaks are not located either superiorly or close together, fewer surgeons would
select the procedure in these instances. Additional features that add to the attrac-
tiveness of PR include an apparently total PVD, absence of lattice degeneration and
vitreous hemorrhage, and phakic lens status.
PR is associated with approximately a 10% reduction in single-operation ana-
tomical success rate when compared to scleral buckling, but ultimate success fol-
lowing reoperation is not compromised. It, therefore, is a procedure that represents
a legitimate standard of care as an option to other forms of reattachment surgery.
Interestingly, this operation is considerably more popular in the United States than
in Europe or the United Kingdom.
Advantages of pneumatic retinopexy

PR can be performed quickly in an office setting with modest local anesthesia.
Patient morbidity is usually less than with alternative operations, and costs are
considerably lower with PR. Eyes with recent macular detachment tend to have
better visual results with PR than with scleral buckling. Cataract formation does
not follow the procedure.
Disadvantages of pneumatic retinopexy

The primary disadvantage of PR is that there are many common types of cases
for which it should not be employed (Table 10–1). Most surgeons limit its use to
a relatively consistent subset of patients with single superior breaks and few signs
of extensive vitreoretinal degenerative disorders. Additionally, even in carefully
selected cases, the single-operation anatomic success rate is approximately 10%
lower than for scleral buckling. Still, there is no evidence that a failed PR proce-
dure lowers the ultimate anatomic or visual success rate. Postoperative positioning
is required, and the patient may not fly by air until most of the gas has resorbed.
VITRECTOMY FOR PRIMARY RETINAL DETACHMENT

Until the mid-1980s, vitrectomy was reserved for cases complicated by severe vit-
reous hemorrhage, PVR, giant tears, and so forth. Since then, this form of sur-
gery has become tremendously popular for more routine cases, particularly for the
management of pseudophakic eyes (see Chapter 9).
Advantages of vitrectomy
The primary advantages of vitrectomy include the elimination of media opacities
and transvitreal and periretinal membranous traction forces, improved visualization
and localization of retinal breaks, internal intraoperative reattachment of the retina,
and precise application of adhesive therapy. These steps can usually be accomplished
without the complications that are relatively common following scleral buckling.
Disadvantages of vitrectomy
In phakic eyes, the development of nuclear sclerotic cataracts represents a major
disadvantage. There is increasing evidence that open-angle glaucoma may develop
in pseudophakic vitrectomized eyes over decades following surgery. The costs of
this alternative are substantially higher than with PR or scleral buckling. Failure
of vitrectomy may be associated with the development of relatively severe forms of
PVR, although considerably more research is needed to evaluate this phenomenon.
There is a lack of information regarding precise causes of failure following vitrec-
tomy, and as additional data accumulate in regard to this relatively new technique,
more answers will hopefully be forthcoming.
TWELVE REPRESENTATIVE CASES

Most retinal detachments can be cured with one of several different techniques.
There is no one right way; the choice of procedure is influenced by each surgeon’s
background and training. Selected surgical techniques for twelve characteristic
types of detachments are discussed here, but they are not the only approaches.
Note that in each case, some surgeons prefer vitrectomy with or without scleral
buckling over scleral buckling alone if the eye is pseudophakic. In this section,
cryotherapy is described, but laser applied postoperatively could be used instead.
Scleral buckling, PR, and vitrectomy for retinal detachments are discussed in detail
in Chapters 7, 8, and 9, respectively.
234 II: Practice
1. Quadrantic detachment with one break. Figure 10–1 shows an excellent candi-
date for PR, in the absence of contraindications not related to the eye. PR avoids
placement of a scleral buckle under a vertically acting muscle. It also affords the
opportunity to promptly protect the macula from impending detachment, and the
“steamroller” technique should be used in this case.
If the tear causing a quadrantic detachment is present elsewhere in the upper eight
clock-hours of the periphery, PR is still an excellent choice, although positioning for
tears in the oblique and lateral meridia will be more difficult than for a 12-o’clock
tear. If the tear is in the inferior four clock-hours, PR is usually contraindicated.
If scleral buckling is used, a silicone sponge is sutured to the surface of the
globe, creating a segmental scleral buckle. This is usually placed radially, although
if the tear lies under a vertically acting muscle, a segmental circumferential buckle
of solid silicone may be preferable. Drainage of subretinal fluid is not usually
Figure 10–1. Quadrantic retinal detachment with one retinal break.

necessary, but if the break remains widely open after buckling, the surgeon may
release the fluid by untying the sutures to restore normal intraocular pressure and
then draining the fluid. If significant fish mouthing occurs, a gas injection may be
employed with the buckling procedure if the break is located in the superior two-
thirds of the fundus.
2. Total detachment with one break. If a single tear is found and there are no other
suspicious areas, and if the fundus can be thoroughly examined, PR is still an
excellent choice if the tear is in the upper eight clock-hours (Figure 10–2).
Scleral buckling technique differs from case number 1 in that most surgeons
prefer to drain subretinal fluid, although many cases have been managed satisfac-
torily without drainage. An encircling (instead of segmental or pneumatic proce-
dure) should be considered if any of the following conditions is present:
Figure 10–2. Total retinal detachment with one retinal break.

236 II: Practice
1. The retinal break is not in the expected position.

2. There is question as to the integrity of the peripheral retina.
3. There is evidence of proliferative vitreoretinopathy.
4. The peripheral retina cannot be fully examined in all areas.
3. Detachment with multiple breaks at same distance from ora. PR is an option only if
all open breaks are within a several clock-hour arc in the upper eight clock-hours
of the eye. Vitrectomy is a reasonable choice in a pseudophakic eye (Figure 10–3).
If scleral buckling is chosen, an encircling buckle is recommended. If the breaks
are of average size, they can be adequately managed with a 4-mm silicone band
without any additional silicone implants. However, if one or more of the breaks
are larger than average, the surgeon may supplement the buckle with a wider
piece of silicone placed beneath the band. Each break should be surrounded with
Figure 10–3. Retinal detachment with multiple retinal breaks located the same distance from
ora serrata.
cryotherapy and localized on the sclera. The sutures should then be oriented so as
to place the posterior edge of the breaks on the crest of the buckle. Subretinal fluid
is usually drained if an encircling procedure is performed.
4. Detachment with multiple breaks at different distances from ora. Vitrectomy is a

good choice in this instance, especially in a pseudophakic eye and when distances
from the ora differ widely. PR is only occasionally useful, when limited breaks are
appropriately positioned (Figure 10–4).
Scleral buckling for this case involves a broad, grooved silicone implant employed
to place all the breaks on a broad buckle. Each break is marked to ensure they
all are adequately supported. The implant is usually used in association with an
encircling band. It is sutured to the surface of the globe, with at least one (and
Figure 10–4. Retinal detachment with multiple retinal breaks located different distances
from ora.
238 II: Practice
often with two) broad mattress sutures per quadrant over its extent, and the band
is routinely anchored to the sclera in the remaining quadrant(s). Subretinal fluid is
usually drained. Another approach to this problem is to use a wide silicone sponge,
7.5–12 mm, in a circumferential orientation to create a wide buckle.
5. “Aphakic detachment” with multiple small ora breaks. In an aphakic/pseudophakic

detachment, retinal breaks are sometimes tiny and visualization may be patchy, so
some of the breaks may not be found. An encircling buckle with or without vitrec-
tomy is frequently employed. It should be placed immediately posterior to the ora
breaks. Drainage of subretinal fluid is usually required (Figure 10–5).
Vitrectomy without scleral buckling is also a common choice. A 360-degree
peripheral laser photocoagulation is often applied. If the view is excellent and
Figure 10–5. “Aphakic retinal detachment” with multiple small retinal breaks located upon the
posterior insertion of the vitreous base.
breaks are appropriately limited, PR is an option, but it carries a lower single-

operation success rate than buckling and/or vitrectomy.
6. Detachment with peripheral break and macular hole. Macular holes in this instance
are usually secondary cystic changes and not causally related to the rhegmatog-
enous retinal detachment. These cases are generally managed with no treatment
to the apparent macular hole. If, however, fluid reaccumulates around the poste-
rior hole in the early postoperative course, a second procedure—usually PR—is
required to close the hole (Figure 10–6).
7. Detachment due to macular break. Detachments caused by macular breaks

are generally seen in association with high myopia, frequently accompanied by
Figure 10–6. Retinal detachment with a peripheral retinal break and a macular hole.
240 II: Practice
posterior staphyloma, or in cases of ocular trauma. These breaks are often dif-
ficult to visualize. They may be small and irregular or slit-like in configuration,
and are usually not located in the center of the fovea, but somewhat eccentrically
(Figure 10–7).
PR can be recommended. After 1 day of face-down positioning with gas in
the eye, the retina will usually be reattached and the break may be treated with
extrafoveal laser photocoagulation. Vitrectomy with fluid–gas exchange may be
performed instead of PR, or if PR fails.
If that also fails, the surgeon might use a scleral buckle at the macula, but this is
rarely required. A Y-shaped buckle is created from a 3×5-mm sponge, and the ends
are sutured near the equator in three quadrants. Alternatively, an implant may be
sutured to the sclera of the posterior pole. Drainage of subretinal fluid is usually
required.
Figure 10–7. Retinal detachment due to a macular break.

8. Detachment with retinal dialysis. A detachment with a retinal dialysis is seen

most often in the inferotemporal periphery in juveniles or young adults; however,
dialyses may occur in any quadrant at any age. Patients are typically phakic, and
scleral buckling is generally the procedure of choice. The posterior margin of the
dialysis should be treated with contiguous cryotherapy and by securing a segmental
episcleral sponge buckle to the surface of the globe with several mattress sutures.
The buckle should be placed just behind the posterior edge of the break. Drainage
of subretinal fluid is optional (Figure 10–8).
9. Detachment with giant break. A giant break is generally defined as a break span-
ning 90 degrees or more. Especially where a rolled-over flap exceeding 180 degrees
is present, vitrectomy with or without a low, encircling scleral buckle is the pro-
cedure of choice (See Chapter 9). The use of heavier-than-water perfluorocarbon
Figure 10–8. Retinal detachment with retinal dialysis.

242 II: Practice
liquid greatly facilitates this procedure. After removal of all adherent vitreous and
peeling of all membranes, the infolded retina is flattened against the wall of the eye
with perfluorocarbon liquid. Photocoagulation is applied entirely surrounding the
break. Then a gas–fluid exchange is performed on top of the perfluorocarbon, tak-
ing care to remove all water at the edge of the break. Perfluorocarbon is carefully
replaced with air while continuing to desiccate the edge of the break and prevent-
ing it from slipping posteriorly. Critical postoperative positioning is required is
required for 5–10 days (Figure 10–9).
10. Detachment with no apparent break. If no retinal break can be found, a secondary
retinal detachment (due to uveitis, tumor, or other entities) should be carefully ruled
out prior to surgery. Contiguous cryotherapy is applied in one or two rows starting
just posterior to the ora in all detached quadrants. This is because most “unseen”
Figure 10–9. Retinal detachment with giant retinal tear.

breaks are probably located anteriorly along the posterior margin of the vitreous
base, where they tend to be smaller and can be harder to see. Depending on the
extent of detachment, subretinal fluid is usually drained, and an encircling 4-mm
scleral buckle is typically placed between the ora and the equator (Figure 10–10).
Some surgeons prefer vitrectomy in this situation, in both phakic and pseudopha-
kic cases, because installation of heavy vitreous substitutes causes the subretinal fluid
to exit the subretinal space via the break(s), which can thus be identified. As a rule, PR
is not considered in cases in which the causative break cannot be found, but an excep-
tion to this might be made if the gas can cover the entire span of the detachment.
11. Detachment with outer-layer break in retinoschisis. Minimal subretinal fluid requires
no treatment. Moderate subretinal fluid (two to four disc diameters) may frequently
be managed with cryotherapy or photocoagulation alone. If there is a clinical retinal
Figure 10–10. Retinal detachment with no apparent retinal break.

244 II: Practice
detachment, each of the outer-layer breaks should be carefully treated with cryother-
apy and closed with scleral buckling. Subretinal fluid can be drained as indicated.
These maneuvers generally cure the retinal detachment. If the surgeon also wants
to collapse the retinoschisis cavity, additional cryotherapy can be applied to cover
the entire retinoschisis area. With such cryotherapy, the retinoschisis cavity usually
partially collapses after several weeks, and occasionally totally collapses. Inner-layer
breaks require no treatment and can safely be ignored (Figure 10–11).
Most surgeons reserve vitrectomy for those cases in which outer-layer breaks
are far posterior and their buckling would be difficult. PR generally has a lower
rate of success in schisis detachments.
12. Detachment with PVR . This most difficult problem has a limited prognosis
and is the most common cause of ultimate failure to reattach the retina, even
Figure 10–11. Retinal detachment with outer-layer break in retinoschisis.

Figure 10–12. Retinal detachment with proliferative vitreoretinopathy, (Grade D-2 PVR).
after multiple surgeries. Grade C1 or C2 PVR (see Table 5–1) can frequently
be cured with a high encircling buckle. For grade C3 or greater, vitrectomy is
recommended and is the mainstay of treatment for PVR. PR is contraindicated
unless just mild PVR is present and it is well away from the causative break(s)
(Figure 10–12).
ALGORITHM FOR CHOOSING SURGERY

FOR RETINAL DETACHMENT
Figure 10–13 attempts to organize the process of deciding the type of surgery to
perform for retinal detachment. It is not meant to be exhaustive, and the particular
246 II: Practice
Start ALGORITHM FOR

SELECTING SURGERY
FOR UNCOMPLICATED
RETINAL DETACHMENT
Limited subretinal
fluid around tears Yes Consider
or limited shallow DELIMITING
chronic RD anterior LASER/CRYO
to equator?
No
Detached tears in Yes

inferior 4 clock
hours?
No
Yes
Detached tears Yes Quite posterior
spanning >2–3 tears?
clock hours?
No No
Yes
Extensive lattice Yes Ultra–thin sclera?
degeneration?
No
No
Able to adequately No Able to adequately No

visualize the visualize the
periphery? periphery?
Yes Yes
More
Traction or PVR Yes Degre of PVR?
around tears?
None to
Minimal mild
No No
Able to maintain Phakic?
position?
Yes
Yes
Consider Consider Consider

PNEUMATIC SCLERAL VITRECTOMY
RETINOPEXY BUCKLE +/– BUCKLE
Figure 10–13. Algorithm demonstrating an approach to selection of an appropriate retinal

reattachment procedure.
circumstances of each individual case must be taken into account in deciding on

the right surgery for a given patient. Much depends on the experience and com-
fort level of the surgeon with each procedure or on what equipment is available.
There are many relevant details of a case that are not taken into account in this
algorithm, and it provides only rough guidelines. Again, the concepts presented in
this book must be thoroughly understood in order to make an appropriate selec-
tion of a surgical procedure. This algorithm reflects only the opinion of the authors
and does not establish the standard of care for a given case.
Some limited detachments may need only delimiting laser or cryopexy treatment.
This is usually done with a laser indirect ophthalmoscope, but cryopexy can be
used as well. There is no consensus regarding which small detachments only need
delimiting treatment rather than surgery for the detachment to resolve. Generally,
new retinal tears are delimited even if a small area of subretinal fluid surrounds
them. Also, a shallow, asymptomatic, or chronic retinal detachment that doesn’t
extend posterior to the equator and has a limited circumferential extent would be
demarcated rather than repaired. Sometimes such detachments prove to be not
progressive.
Assuming that defi nitive repair is required, the algorithm then goes through a
list of contraindications to PR. Typically, if there are no contraindications to PR,
this may be the procedure of choice since it is the least morbid procedure and may
yield the best visual outcome. However, the surgeon or the patient may choose
another approach.
If PR is contraindicated or is not selected, the algorithm goes through fi ndings
that may suggest vitrectomy as the procedure of choice. Lacking those, scleral
buckling is often the selection. However, preferences vary greatly, and the choice
depends on the surgeon and the patient.
CONCLUSION
The fundamental goal of all forms of surgery for retinal detachment is the identi-
fication and closure of all responsible retinal breaks; if this can be accomplished
without complications, the development of new retinal breaks, and/or the develop-
ment of PVR, the procedure will be successful. Currently, reattachment surgery is
performed using one of the three techniques, or combinations thereof, described
in this chapter.
There is relative agreement among surgeons in regard to the use of vitrectomy
with or without scleral buckling for complicated retinal detachments. Vitrectomy
is also increasing in popularity for noncomplicated pseudophakic retinal detach-
ments, particularly using microincisional techniques. PR may have advantages in
the relatively simple cases for which it is an option, although there is wide variation
in how broadly that category is defi ned. Scleral buckling can be useful in a wide
spectrum of cases, but the degree to which it is used depends very much on the
surgeon’s preference.
There are many factors discussed in this book that may influence the selec-
tion of one procedure over another, but we still differ widely in our preferences.
Hopefully these issues will be clarified by the development of more meaningful
evidence bases in the future.
248 II: Practice
SELECTED REFERENCES
Aylward GW: Optimal procedures for retinal detachments. In: Ryan, SJ, Wilkinson CP,
eds: Retina (Volume 3, 4th Edition). Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby; 2006:2094–2105.
Barrie T, Kreissig I, Holz ER, Mieler WF: Debate: Repair of a primary rhegmatogenous
retinal detachment. Br J Ophthalmol 2003;78:782–790.
Heimann H, Ulrich Bartz-Scmidt K, Bornfeld N et al.: Scleral buckling versus primary
vitrectomy in rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. A prospective randomized multi-
center clinical study. Ophthalmology 2007;114:2142–2154.
McLeod D: Is it time to call time on the scleral buckle? Br J Ophthalmol
2004;88:1357–59.
2nd Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000. pp. 347–353.
Sharma S: Meta-analysis of clinical trials comparing scleral buckling surgery to pneumatic
retinopexy. Evidence-Based Eye Care 2002;3:125–128.
pp. 595–640.
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by ‘f’ and ‘t’ denote figures and tables, respectively. Drugs are
listed under their generic names; when a drug trade name is listed, the reader is
referred to the generic name.
Acetaminophen (Tylenol), 92, 199 retinal detachment with multiple small

Acetazolamide (Diamox), 175 ora breaks, 238–239, 238f
Acuity, decreased, 78 ARN. See Acute retinal necrosis syndrome
Acute retinal necrosis (ARN) syndrome, Aspirin, 90
21, 223 Astigmatism, 179
Afferent pupillary defect, 79 Asymptomatic aphakic fellow eyes. See also
Air infusion, 209, 210–211, 210f Aphakic eye
Air injection, intravitreal, 6 with history of giant retinal tear, 142
Altered refractive error, 179 with lattice generation, 141
Amblyopia, 78, 87 with retinal breaks, 141–142
American Academy of Ophthalmology, 129 Asymptomatic degenerative retinoschisis,
Anesthesia: 136. See also Degenerative
general, 91, 92 retinoschisis; Retinoschisis
contraindications to, 189 Asymptomatic myopic non-fellow eyes,
for pneumatic retinopexy, 190 133. See also Myopia
retrobulbar, 91, 94, 142 Asymptomatic nonphakic fellow eyes:
subconjunctival, 88, 91, 142, 190 with history of giant retinal tear, 142
topical, 68f, 91 with lattice generation, 141
Anisometropia, 179, 189 with retinal breaks, 141–142
Anterior segment biomicroscopy, 80 Asymptomatic nonphakic non-fellow eyes,
Aphakic eye, 42, 86. See also 133–134
Asymptomatic aphakic fellow Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes:
eyes; Pseudophakic eyes with cystic retinal tufts, 139
pneumatic retinopexy in, 188 with degenerative retinoschisis, 139–140
249
250 Index
Asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes (Cont.) Biomicroscopy, posterior segment,

with history of giant retinal tear, 140 81–82, 81f, 82f, 83f
with lattice degeneration, 137–139, Blunt trauma, 11, 223
138f, 139f Bullous retinal detachment, 86, 86f
with retinal breaks, 140
Asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes: Capsulotomy, 11, 30, 78, 133, 140
at high risk: Cataract, 88–89
family history, of retinal detachment, Central acuity, decreased, 78
134 Central retinal artery:
myopic non-fellow eyes, 133 occlusion of, 195
nonphakic non-fellow eyes, 133–134 perfusion of, 165
stickler syndrome, 134 Charles technique, of draining subretinal
retinal breaks, 136–137 fluid, 168, 169f
precursors without high-risk, Chemosis, 79
134–137 Chorioretinal atrophy, peripheral. See
cystic retinal tufts, 136 Cobblestone degeneration
degenerative retinoschisis, 136 Chorioretinal degeneration, 100, 102f
lattice generation, 135–136, 135f honeycomb, 100
Atrophic retinal holes, 18–19, 19f. See also Choroidal detachment, 90, 123, 124f,
Retinal holes 175–176
Atropine, 49 hemorrhagic, 176
“hour glass” configuration of, 123, 124f
Bagel sign, 195 “kissing”, 176
Balanced salt solution, intravitreal Choroidal hemorrhage, 173
injection of, 170 Choroidal tumors, 125
Bell’s reflex, 50 with serous retinal detachment, 119, 119f
Binocular ophthalmoscope: Choroidal vasculature, 97–98, 98f
direct, 46 Clopidogrel (Plavix), 90
field of view, 43–44 Cloudy media, 187
illumination, 44–45 CME. See Cystoid macular edema
magnification and resolution, 41–43 Cobblestone degeneration, 100, 102f,
optical principles, 42f 103, 104f
stereopsis and depth of focus, 45 Cocaine, 50
indirect: Condensing lenses, 48–49, 49f
adjusting, 47–48, 48f Congenital retinal rosettes, 100
in children and uncooperative adults, Conjunctival incision, 154–155
45–46 Conjunctival scarring, 189
choice of, 47 Corneal epithelial edema, 172
condensing lenses, choice of, 48–49, Corneal opacities, 88
49f Corticosteroids, 90, 92, 175, 177
dilation, in infants, 50 Cryopexy, 5, 88, 90–91, 90f, 119, 142–143,
eye movement, 50–51 190, 196
illumination, 44–45 with scleral buckling, 156–158,
image, 45f, 46 157f, 158f
magnification and resolution, 41–43 for surgical failures, 92–94
medications, avoiding, 50 Cyclopentolate, 49, 50
ocular media, opacities in, 45 Cycloplegics, 49, 88, 89, 92, 175
optical principles, 42f Cystic retinal tufts, 23, 100
patient, preparation, 49 asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes
patient’s position, 50, 51f with, 139
pupillary dilation, 49–50 asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes
scleral depression, 46 with, 136
stereopsis and depth of focus, 35 Cystoid degeneration, 25, 26f
working distance, 46 Cystoid macular edema (CME), 177
Index 251
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis, 20, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, 108t,

21f, 119 109–116, 109f, 110f, 111f, 112f,
113t, 114f, 115f, 116f
Degenerative retinoschisis, 25–27, 26f. See changes unrelated to retinal detachment,
also Retinoschisis 97–106
asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with, chorioretinal degeneration, 100, 102f
139–140 choroidal vasculature, 97–98, 98f
asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes cobblestone degeneration, 100, 102f,
with, 136 103, 104f
Delamination technique, of vitrectomy, equatorial drusen, 100, 102f
215, 215f hemiretinal differences, 106
Demarcation, 36, 36f, 106, 107f, 108 ora serrata, 98–100, 117f, 101f, 102f
indications and contraindications, 230t pars plana cysts, 102f, 104, 105f, 106
Dexamethasone (Maxitrol), 92 pigment clumps, 105
Diathermy, 5, 72, 142, 155, 158, 166–167, reticular pigmentary degeneration,
217, 217f, 221 100, 102f, 103f
with scleral buckling, 158 retinal erosion, 102f, 104
Dilation: retinal whitening, 102f, 103–104, 105f
in infants, 50 examination of, 51f
pupillary, 49–50, 88 chart, 58–59, 60f, 61t
Donut sign, 195 condensing lenses, holding, 51–52, 53f
Drainage, of subretinal fluid, 164, 166–168, initial view, 52–53
167f, 169f, 210, 210f inverted image drawing, 57, 57f, 58f
intraoperative complications of, 173–174 observer’s position and lesion, 58,
Draping, 153, 206 59f, 60f
Droperidol, 92 orientation, 55
Drusen, equatorial, 100, 102f shifting from one part to another,
54–55, 55f, 56f
Emmetropia, 189 troublesome reflexes, 53–54, 54f, 55f
Emmetropic eye, 42, 44f
En bloc technique, of vitrectomy, Gas, intraocular:
215, 216f characteristics of, 184–185
Encircling episcleral buckles, 160–163, choice of, 181, 183
161f, 162f, 163f duration and expansion, 183t
Endophthalmitis, 175, entrapment at injecting eye, 198–199
Epimacular proliferation, 26f, 177–178, gas bubble, size of, 183
178f longevity of bubble, 183–184
Exudative retinal detachment, 10 making room for, 191
diagnostic features of, 117t determinations after injection, 195
injecting, 193–194, 193f
Failure of surgery, 92–94, 93f preparing, 191, 192f
Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, 121 Gas entrapment, at injecting site, 198–199
Filtering blebs, 188 Gas–fluid exchange, 171
Fish eggs, 195, 195f, 197–198, 198f Gas injection, intravitreal, 151, 170–171
Flap tears. See Horseshoe tears intraoperative complications of, 174
Flashes of light, 14, 75–76 Giant retinal tear, 16, 17f, 20, 21f
Floaters, 76–77 with edges folding, 223–226, 223f,
Foveal detachment, 78, 188 224f, 225f
Fundus: PVR and, 225–226
changes related to retinal detachment, Glaucoma, 89
106–116, 107f pneumatic retinopexy for, 187
retinal breaks, detection of, Glial spheres, 100
106–108, 107f Goniosol, 50
retinal hemorrhage, 108 Granular tissue, 100
252 Index
Hemiretinal differences, 106 Leopard skin, 158

Hemorrhagic choroidal detachment, 176. Lid edema, 79
See also Choroidal detachment Liquid currents, 15
Hirschberg test, 79 Loculated hemorrhage, 176
Homatropine, 49, 92
Honeycomb chorioretinal degeneration, 100 Macrocysts, intraretinal 35–36, 35f,
Horseshoe tears, 16–17, 17f, 18f 118–119
Hruby noncontact technique, 81 Macular detachment, 86–91, 86f, 87f
iatrogenic, 200
Iatrogenic macular detachment, 200. See optic pits with, 189
also Macular detachment Macular holes, 22, 23f, 188. See also
Iatrogenic retinal break, 173. See also Retinal holes
Retinal breaks Macular pucker, 26f, 33, 34f, 177–178,
Indirect lenses, 48–49, 49f 178f
comparison of, 43t Malignant melanoma, 115f, 121f
Indirect visualization systems, 61 Marcus Gunn test, 79
Inflammation, intraocular, 12 Meperidine, 92
Intraocular gases. See Gas, intraocular Miosis:
Intraocular pressure, increased, 174–175 intraoperative, 172
Intraoperative laser photocoagulation: managing, 85
with scleral buckling, 158–159 Mydriatics, 49
Intraretinal macrocysts, 35–36, 35f, Myopia, 11
118–119
Intrascleral buckles, 164, 164f Nd:YAG laser. See YAG Laser
Intravitreal air injection, 6 Neomycin, 92
Intravitreal gas injection, 151, 170–171 Non-drainage, of subretinal fluid, 165
intraoperative complications of, 174 Nonrhegmatogenous retinal detachment,
116–122
Keratoplasty, 88 diagnostic features of, 117t
Keratoprosthesis, 88 differential diagnosis of, 118t
Kissing choroidal detachments, 176 Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
Krimsky test, 79 drugs, 177
Laser photocoagulation, 91, 143–144, 144f, Ocular coherence tomography (OCT), 87

190–191, 211, 224, 225f. See also Ocular diseases, history of, 78
YAG laser Ocular examination, 79–80
intraoperative, 158–159 anterior segment biomicroscopy, 80
postoperative, 92–94, 93f, 171 external examination, 79
for surgical failures, 92–94 ocular motility, 79
transcleral, 191 pupillary reactions, 79
transpupillary, 191 tonometry, 80
Laser test, 5–6, 62, 84 visual acuity, 79
Lattice degeneration, 17f, 23, 27–30, 27f, Ocular history, 75–79
62f, 145 central acuity, decreased, 78
asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with, family history, 78
137–139, 138f, 139f flashes of light, 75–76
asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes floaters, 76–77
with, 135–136, 135f ocular diseases, 78
asymptotic nonphakic fellow eyes with, systemic diseases, 78
141 trauma, 78
horseshoe tears and, 28, 29f visual field defects, 77
pneumatic retinopexy for, 188 Ocular massage, 192–193
sclerotic retinal vessels and, 27–28, 29f Ocular motility, 79
with snail-track appearance, 27, 28f Opacities in ocular media, 45, 79, 87
Index 253
Operculated retinal breaks, 17f, 18, 19f Paracentesis, 165, 192

Ophthalmoscopy, 41–73 Pars plana cysts, 102f, 104, 105, 106
direct, 46 Paving-stone degeneration. See Cobblestone
field of view, 43–44 degeneration
illumination, 44–45 PDR. See Proliferative diabetic retinopathy
magnification and resolution, 41–43 Perfluorocarbon liquids, 6
optical principles, 42f installation of, 208, 209f
stereopsis and depth of focus, 45 Perfluorooctane (PFO), 208, 209f, 210,
fundus, examination of, 51f 224, 225
chart, 58–59, 60f, 61t Perfluoropropane (C3F8), 170, 181, 183,
condensing lenses, holding, 51–52, 53f 184, 211, 222, 224
initial view, 52–53 Perimetry, 83
inverted image drawing, 57, 57f, 58f Peritomy, 154
observer’s position and lesion, 58, 59f, closure of, 212
60f PFO. See Perfluorooctane
orientation, 55 Phagosomes, 33
shifting from one part to another, Phakic eye. See Asymptomatic phakic fel-
54–55, 55f, 56f low eyes; Asymptomatic phakic
troublesome reflexes, 53–54, 54f, 55f non-fellow eyes
indirect: Phenylephrine, 49, 50, 88
adjusting, 47–48, 48f Photocoagulation. See Laser
in children and uncooperative adults, photocoagulation
45–46 Photomydriasis, 88
choice of, 47 Photopsia. See Flashes of light
condensing lenses, choice of, Pigment clumps, 105
48–49, 49f Pneumatic retinopexy (PR), 6, 87, 91,
dilation, in infants, 50 181–203
eye movement, 50–51 advantages of, 232
illumination, 44–45 complications:
image, 45f, 46 iatrogenic macular detachment, 200
magnification and resolution, 41–43 new or missed retinal breaks, 200
medications, avoiding, 50 proliferative vitreoretinopathy, 201
ocular media, opacities in, 45 subretinal gas bubbles, 200, 201f
optical principles, 42f disadvantages of, 232
patient, preparation, 49 indications and constraints, 186–189,
patient’s position, 50, 51f 230t
pupillary dilation, 49–50 intraocular gases:
scleral depression, 46 characteristics of, 184–185
stereopsis and depth of focus, 35 choice of, 181, 183
working distance, 46 duration and expansion, 183t
small-pupil, examination of: gas bubble, size of, 183
narrow optical aperture, 59–61 longevity of bubble, 183–184
using indirect laser, 61 operative technique:
using indirect ophthalmoscope, 61 anesthesia, 190
using indirect visualization cryopexy versus laser
systems, 61 photocoagulation, 190–191
Optic nerve disease, 79, 87, 118t eye, sterilizing, 191
Ora pearl, 100 gas:
Ora serrata, 98–100, 101f, 102f determinations after injection, 195
morphologic variations, on normal fundi, injecting, 193–194, 193f
101f making room for, 191
nasal, 99f, 101f preparing, 191, 192f
temporal, 99f, 101f ocular massage, 192–193
Orbital cellulitis, 119 paracentesis, 192
254 Index
Pneumatic retinopexy (PR) (Cont.) tears with persistent vitreoretinal

postoperative management, 199–200 traction:
preoperative evaluation, 185–186 symptomatic horseshoe-shaped
procedure, 182f tears, 131
for scleral buckle failures, 94, 188 symptomatic round tears, 131–132
and scleral buckling, comparison treatment, 142–144, 146t
between, 201–203, 202t complications of, 145–146
Polymyxin B, 92 results of, 144–145
Posterior subcapsular (PSC) cataract, 80, Prochlorperazine, 92
88. See also Cataract Proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR),
Posterior vitreous detachment (PVD), 10, 21–22, 22f, 205
12–14, 13f and traction retinal detachment,
symptomatic, 130, 131 212–217, 213f
Postnecrotic retinal holes, 20–21, 21f. fibrovascular tissue, removal of,
See also Retinal holes 215–217, 215f, 216f, 217f
Postoperative management: retinal breaks, treating, 217
activity restrictions and positioning, vitrectomy for, 214, 214f
91–92 Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR),
medications, 92 33–34, 34f, 108t, 109–116, 109f,
PR. See Pneumatic retinopexy 110f, 111f, 112f, 113t, 114f, 115t,
Prepping, 153, 206 116f, 178–179, 187, 201, 205
Prevention of retinal detachment, and retinal detachment, 217–223, 218f,
129–147 244–245, 254f
asymptomatic nonphakic fellow eyes: epiretinal membranes, removal of,
with history of giant retinal tear, 142 219–221, 220f
with lattice generation, 141 internal drainage of subretinal fluid
with retinal breaks, 141–142 and vitreouos replacement,
asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes: 222–223
with cystic retinal tufts, 139 retinal breaks, marking, 222
with degenerative retinoschisis, retinectomy in, 221–222, 222f
139–140 retinotomy in, 221–222, 222f
with history of giant retinal scleral buckle for, 219
tear, 140 vitreous, removal of, 219
with lattice degeneration, 137–139, Promethazine, 92
138f, 139f Prophylactic therapy, 144
with retinal breaks, 140 for asymptotic retinal breaks in phakic
asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes, non-fellow eyes, 134, 137
133–137 of lattice generation, in asymptotic
at high risk: phakic fellow eyes, 137–138, 139f
family history, of retinal Propoxyphene, 92
detachment–, 134 Pseudoora, 103
myopic non-fellow eyes, 133 Pseudophakic eye, 61, 89. See also Aphakic
nonphakic non-fellow eyes, eye, Asymptomatic nonphakic
133–134 fellow eyes; Asymptomatic
Stickler syndrome, 134 nonphakic non-fellow eyes
precursors of retinal breaks without pneumatic retinopexy in, 188
high-risk, 134–137 Pseudoptosis, 79
symptomatic eyes: Ptosis, 79
breaks unassociated with persistent Pupillary dilation, 49–50, 88
vitreoretinal traction: PVD. See Posterior vitreous detachment
precursors, 132 PVR. See Proliferative vitreoretinopathy
symptomatic atrophic retinal holes,
132 Quadrantic retinal detachment with one
symptomatic operculated retinal retinal break, 234–235, 234f. See
tears, 132 also Retinal detachment
Index 255
Radial staphylomas, 154, 155f natural history of, 36–37

Rectus muscles, isolation of, 154, 155, with no apparent retinal break, 242–243,
154f, 155f 243f
Recurrent retinal detachment, 92–94, nonrhegmatogenous. See
93f, 179 Nonrhegmatogenous retinal
Reoperation, 94, 179, 188 detachment
Reticular pigmentary degeneration, 100, with outer-layer break in retinoschisis,
102f, 103f 243–244, 244f
Retinal breaks, 15–30, 16t, 17f pathogenesis of, 9–39
asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with, 140 pathology of, 33–36
asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes with peripheral break and macular hole,
with, 136–137 239, 239f
asymptotic nonphakic fellow eyes with, prevention of. See Prevention of retinal
141–142 detachment
atrophic holes, 18–19, 19f with proliferative vitreoretinopathy,
detection of, 106–108, 107f 244–245, 245f
distribution of, 23–30, 24f, 24t, 25t recurrent, 92–94, 93f, 179, 188
due to proliferative diabetic retinopathy, repair, 4–5
21–22, 22f with retinal dialysis, 241, 241f
extent of, 186–187 rhegmatogenous. See Rhegmatogenous
“fish mouthing” of, 168, 174 retinal detachment
horseshoe tears, 16–17, 17f, 18f selection of surgery for, 229–248
iatrogenic, 173 serous. See Serous retinal detachment
identification and marking of, 208–209 surgery. See also Pneumatic retinopexy;
inferior, 187 Scleral buckling; Vitrectomy
laser treatment of, 211, 211f external disease and, 89
localization of, 155–156, 156f preparation for:
macular holes, 22, 23f office procedures, 91
new or missed retinal breaks following operating room procedures, 90–91
pneumatic retinopexy, 200 patient counseling, 85–86
operculated, 17f, 18, 19f techniques for, 233–245
postnecrotic holes, 20–21, 21f algorithm, 245–247, 246f
primary, 16 tractional. See Tractional retinal
and retinal hemorrhage, difference detachment
between, 108 types, 9–10
rolled posterior edge of, 110f, 114f uncomplicated. See Uncomplicated reti-
secondary, 16 nal detachment
Retinal detachment: Retinal dialysis, 19–20
bullous, 86, 86f inferior, 20f
classification of, 32–33, 32t with vitreous adherent to anterior edge,
diagnosis of, 97–126 16, 17f, 20, 20f
discovery of, 3 with vitreous adherent to posterior edge,
epidemiology of, 30–32, 30f, 31f 17f
etiology of, 3–4 Retinal erosion, 102f, 104
evaluation and management of patient Retinal hemorrhage and retinal breaks,
with, 75–95 difference between, 108
with giant retinal tear, 241–242, 242f Retinal holes, 145
history of, 3–7 atrophic, 17–19, 19f
lesions simulating, 122–125 macular, 21, 22f
with macular break, 239–240, 240f postnecrotic, 20, 21f
with multiple retinal breaks: symptomatic atrophic, 132
at different distances from ora serrata, Retinal incarceration, 173
237–238, 237f Retinal whitening, 102f, 103–104, 105f
at same distance from ora serrata, white-without-pressure, 102f, 104, 125
236–237, 236f white-with-pressure, 102f, 104, 105f, 125
256 Index
Retina Society Terminology Committee, complications, intraoperative:

108, 109 corneal complications, 172
Retinectomy, in proliferative of draining subretinal fluid, 173–174
vitreoretinopathy, 221–222, 222f “fish mouthing” of retinal breaks, 174
Retinitis, 20, 21f, 120 of intravitreal gas injections, 174
Retinochoroidal adhesion, 98 pupillary complications, 172
Retinoschisis, 17f, 18, 122–123 scleral perforation with suture needles,
degenerative, 25–27, 26f 172–173
asymptomatic phakic fellow eyes with, complications, postoperative:
139–140 altered refractive error, 179
asymptomatic phakic non-fellow eyes choroidal detachment, 175–176
with, 136 cystoid macular edema, 177
retinal detachment with outer-layer break endophthalmitis, 175
in, 243–244, 244f epimacular proliferation, 177–178,
senile, 42 178f
Retinotomy, in proliferative vitreoretinopa- implant extrusion, 176–177, 177f
thy, 221–222, 222f intraocular pressure, increased,
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, 9, 73. 174–175
See also Retinal detachment later periocular infection, 176–177
diagnostic features of, 113t proliferative vitreoretinopathy,
pathogenesis of, 10–15, 150 178–179
liquid currents, 15 recurrent retinal detachment, 179
posterior vitreous detachment, 10, strabismus, 179–180
12–14, 13f configuration, 151–153, 153f
vitreoretinal traction, 14–15, 14f disadvantages of, 232
vitreous liquefaction, 11–12, 11f incisions, closure of, 171–172
risk factors for, 130–131, 130t indications and contraindications, 230t
with scleral buckling. See also Scleral intrascleral buckles, 164, 164f
buckling materials for, 152f, 159–163
and serous retinal detachment, difference encircling episcleral buckles, 160–163,
between, 112 161f, 162f, 163f
and tractional retinal detachment, differ- segmental episcleral buckles, 159–160,
ence between, 116–117 160f
operation, 153
Sausage sign, 195 conjunctival incision, 154–155
Schisis detachment, 122–123. See also draping, 153
Retinoschisis prepping, 153
type 1, 122 rectus muscles, isolation of, 154–155,
type 2, 122, 123f 154f, 155f
Schwartz syndrome, 80, 89 placement of, 211–212
Scleral abscess, 175 and pneumatic retinopexy, comparison
Scleral buckling, 5, 89, 90, 91, 149–180, between, 201–203, 202t
188, 231–232 for proliferative vitreoretinopathy, 219
accessory techniques, 169–171 recurrent or persistent detachment fol-
balanced salt solution, intravitreal lowing, 92–94, 93f, 179, 188
injection of, 170 retinal breaks, localization of, 155–156,
gas–fluid exchange, 171 156f
intravitreal gas injection, 170–171 subretinal fluid, management of, 164–168
postoperative laser photocoagulation, central retinal artery, perfusion of, 165
171 drainage technique, 164, 166–168,
adjustment of, 168–169 167f, 169f
advantages of, 232 non-drainage technique, 165
anatomical and physiological effects of, thermal treatment with, 156–159
150–151 thin sclera, 163
Index 257
vitrectomy with: Striae ciliares, 99

indications and contraindications, 230t Subclinical retinal detachments, 135, 135f.
Scleral cracks, 154 See also Retinal detachment
Scleral dehiscences, 154 Subretinal fibrosis, 109, 109, 115f
Scleral depression, 46, 62, 121 with tight peripapillary colarette, 116f
axis of depression, moving, 66 Subretinal fluid:
discomfort, causes of, 66–67 chronic persistent, 94
depressor: internal drainage of, 210, 210f
choice of, 63–64, 65f management of, 164–168
rolling, 68–70, 69f, 70f, 71f central retinal artery, perfusion of, 165
far periphery, examining, 68 drainage technique, 164, 166–168,
in horizontal meridia, 67–68, 67f, 68f 167f
initiating, 64–66, 65f non-drainage technique, 165
nasally, 68 Subretinal gas, 200, 201f
in operating room, 72–73, 73f Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), 170, 181, 183,
purposes of, 63, 63f, 64f 184, 211
sequence of examination, 70–72 Symptomatic atrophic retinal holes, 132.
Scleral perforation with suture needles, See also Retinal holes
172–173 Symptomatic eyes, 131–132
Sclerotomies, closure of, 212 breaks unassociated with persistent vit-
Scopolamine, 47, 92 reoretinal traction:
Segmental episcleral buckles, 159–160, precursors, 132
160f symptomatic atrophic retinal holes,
Segmentation technique, of vitrectomy, 132
215–216 symptomatic operculated retinal tears,
Senile retinoschisis, 44. See also 132
Retinoschisis tears with persistent vitreoretinal
Serous retinal detachment. See also Retinal traction:
detachment symptomatic horseshoe-shaped tears,
choroidal tumors with, 119, 119f 131
congenital causes of, 121 symptomatic round tears, 131–132
inflammatory, 119–120, 120f Symptomatic horseshoe-shaped tears, 131,
macular lesions with, 121 145
optic pit with, 121f Symptomatic operculated retinal tears, 132
and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, Symptomatic round tears, 131–132
difference between, 116, 118–119 Synchisis senilis, 10
vascular lesions with, 121 Systemic diseases, 78
Slit lamp biomicroscope, 43, 46, 61, 83f, 91
Small-pupil, examination or treatment Tetracaine, 50
through: Thin sclera, 163, 189
using indirect laser, 62 Three-mirror lens, 81f, 82f
using indirect ophthalmoscope, 62 Tonometry, 80
using indirect visualization systems, 61 Total retinal detachment. See also Retinal
Small-pupil indirect ophthalmoscope, 47, detachment
48f, 88 with no apparent retinal break, 242–243,
Snellen test, 79 243f
Snowflakes, 17 with one retinal break, 235–236, 235f
Staphylomas, radial, 154, 155f Toxoplasmosis, 119
Star fold, 33, 34f, 109, 114f, 218 Tractional retinal detachment, 10. See also
Steamroller technique, 186, 196, 197f Retinal detachment
Stereopsis, 45, 106 causes of, 122
Steroids, 177 diagnostic features of, 118t
Stickler syndrome, 134, 223 and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment,
Strabismus, 179–180 difference between, 121–122
258 Index
“Trap door” buckling procedure, 163, 164f indications and contraindications, 230t
Trauma, 11, 20, 78, 223 segmentation technique of, 215–216
Tropicamide, 49 sclerotomies and peritomies, closure of,
212
Ultrasonography, 77, 83–84, 84f, 85f, subretinal fluid, internal drainage of,
89, 119 210, 210f
Uncomplicated retinal detachment. See also vitreous gel, removal of, 207–208, 207f,
Retinal detachment 208f
indications and contraindications, 230t Vitreoretinal degeneration, 152, 153
types of, 231f Vitreoretinal traction, 14–15, 14f, 16, 18,
variables associated with, 231f 28, 122, 131, 150, 152
Untreated detachment, natural history of, precursors of retinal breaks and, 132
36–37 symptomatic atrophic retinal holes
U-shaped tears. See Horseshoe tears and, 132
Uveitis, 37, 80, 89–90 symptomatic horseshoe-shaped tears
peripheral, 44 with, 131
symptomatic operculated retinal tears
Visual acuity, 79, 80, 86, 87, 177 with, 132
Visual field defects, 77 symptomatic round tears with, 131–132
Vitrectomy, 5, 6, 88, 89, 90, 91, 122, Vitreous cortex, 10, 27, 82
205–228 Vitreous gel, removal of, 207–208, 207f,
air infusion, 210–211, 210f 208f
complications of, 226–227 Vitreous hemorrhage, 14, 15, 76, 77, 89,
delamination technique of, 215, 215f 127, 171, 181, 199
draping, 206 Vitreous infusion suction cutter (VISC), 6
en bloc technique of, 215, 216f Vitreous liquefaction, 10–11, 12, 12f,
giant retinal tear with edges folding, 130, 134
223–226, 223f, 224f, 225f Vitreous opacities, 89, 125
goals of, 205–206 Vitreovascular attachments, 15
indications and contraindications, 230t Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome, 115,
opening incisions, 206–207 116f
for PDR and retinal detachment, 214, 214f von Hippel’s disease, 120f, 121
perfluorocarbon liquids, installation of,
208, 209f Warfarin, 90, 91
prepping, 206 Weiss’ ring, 12, 13f, 77
for primary retinal detachment: White-without-pressure, 102f, 104, 125.
advantages of, 232 See also Retinal whitening
disadvantages of, 232 White-with-pressure, 102f, 104, 105f,
for PVR and retinal detachment, 125, 140, 142. See also Retinal
219–221, 220f whitening
results of, 226
retinal breaks: YAG laser, 11, 30, 78, 88, 133, 140. See
identification and marking of, 208–209 also Laser
laser treatment of, 211, 211f
with scleral buckling, 211–212 Zonular traction tufts, 24, 100

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Retinal Detachment

1. Retinal Detachment: Principles and Practice, Third Edition

Daniel A. Brinton, MD, and C. P. Wilkinson, MD

Published by Oxford University Press

Oxford New York

Copyright © 2009 by Daniel A. Brinton and C. P. Wilkinson

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Because diagnostic, therapeutic, and practice recommendations (hereinafter

Originally written on assignment from the American Academy of Ophthalmology,

1 History of Surgery for Retinal Detachment 3

2 Pathogenesis, Epidemiology, and Natural Course of Retinal

Practical Advantages of the Indirect Ophthalmoscope 45

4 Evaluation and Management 75

Chronic persistent subretinal fl uid 94

5 Establishing the Diagnosis 97

6 Prevention of Retinal Detachment 129

Symptomatic round tears 131

7 Scleral Buckling 149

Prep and Drape 153

8 Pneumatic Retinopexy 181

How long should the bubble remain in the eye? 183

9 Vitrectomy for Retinal Detachment 205

10 Selection of Surgery for “Routine” Retinal

Advantages of pneumatic retinopexy 232

FOUNDATIONS OF RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY

DISCOVERY OF RETINAL DETACHMENT

ESTABLISHING THE ETIOLOGY OF DETACHMENT

GONIN’S DETACHMENT REPAIR

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SURGICAL PROCEDURES

CRYOPEXY AND L ASER

has resulted in the laser being commonly employed in contemporary reattachment

VITRECTOMY FOR RETINAL DETACHMENT

RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY TODAY

TYPES OF RETINAL DETACHMENT

RHEGMATOGENOUS RETINAL DETACHMENTS

EXUDATIVE RETINAL DETACHMENTS

TRACTIONAL RETINAL DETACHMENTS

ROLE OF THE VITREOUS IN PATHOGENESIS

Figure 2–1. Classic pathogenesis of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. An acute posterior

In addition to gravitational and inertial forces, vitreoretinal traction can be

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BREAKS

Table 2–1. Retinal Breaks

Atrophic holes sometimes occur in diffuse chorioretinal atrophy, such as in

Figure 2–10. Inferior retinal dialysis. (Courtesy of H. Richard McDonald, MD.)

Figure 2–11. Giant retinal tear. (Courtesy of H. Richard McDonald, MD)

Retinal breaks due to proliferative diabetic retinopathy

retina may be focally elevated as a traction retinal detachment. Occasionally, the

LESIONS ASSOCIATED WITH RETINAL BREAKS

Table 2–2. Retinal Break Location vs. Age

Age Age Age Age Age Age

Age Age Age Age Age Age

Figure 2–15. Quadratic distribution of retinal breaks by age group.

Table 2–3. Distribution of Retinal Breaks

Peripheral cystoid degeneration

Figure 2–19. Lattice degeneration with a “snail-track” appearance. (Courtesy of Norman

to involve the pigment epithelium; there is derangement of pigment, with pigment