Laws of Motion

BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS ENGG.
PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021
CHAPTER - 00
LAWS OF MOTION
Concept of Force
Force is pull or push. It is an interaction between two objects or between an object and its environment.
Forces in nature
1. Gravitational force : it is the force of mutual attraction between the objects by virtue of their masses
2. Electromagnetic force : force between the objects due to charges on them
3. Strong nuclear force : the strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in nucleus
4. Weak nuclear force : it appears only in certain nuclear process such as  decay of a nucleus
Based on nature of interaction between two bodies, forces may be broadly classified as under
Contact force
These forces act between bodies in contact.
Tension, normal reaction, friction etc.
Noncontact forces [Field forces]
These are the forces in which contact between two objects is not necessary
Weight, electrostatic forces etc.
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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS ENGG. PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021
Newton’s laws of motion

First Law [Law of inertia]
If the net force acting on a body is zero, it continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line
 
If Fnet  0 then a  0
When a body is at rest or moving with constant velocity we say that the body is in equilibrium
Newton’s first law was called the law of inertia by Galileo.
Inertia
The tendency of a body to remain at rest or keep moving once it is set in motion results from a property
known as inertia. Mass of a body is the measure of its inertia
Types of inertia
Inertia of rest : It is the inability of a body to change by itself its state of rest
Example 1 : A person who is standing freely in bus, thrown backward when bus starts suddenly
Inertia of motion : it is the inability of a body to change by itself its state of uniform motion. i.e. a body in
uniform motion can neither accelerate nor retard by its own
Example 1 : A person jumping out of a moving train may fall forward
Example 2 : An athlete runs a certain distance before taking a long jump.
Inertia of direction : it is inability of a body to change by itself its direction of motion
Example : the rotating wheel of any vehicle throw out mud, if any, tangentially, due to directional inertia.
Linear momentum : of a body is the amount of motion possessed by the body. Mathematically it is
equal to the product of mass and velocity of the body. Thus
Momentum = mass  velocity
 
p  mv
Momentum is a vector quantity, its direction is along the direction of velocity. Its SI unit Kg m/s
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
According to this law, the rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly proportional to
external force applied on the body and this change takes place always in the direction of force applied
 
dp  
Fext  p  mv
dt
 
d  dv  dm
Fext   mv   m  v
dt dt dt
dm
IF m = constant 0
dt
 
Fext  ma
SI unit of force is newton
2
1N = 1 kg ms–2
Gravitational unit of force
Kilogram weight or kilogram force
1 kg–wt = gN [g = 9.8 m/s2]
1 kg–f = gN
Note : If mass of a body is constant the acceleration of a body is inversely proportional to mass and
directly proportional to resultant force acting on it.
 
 F  ma
 
 Fx  ma x
 
 Fy  ma y
 
 Fz  ma z
Newtons third Law of motion
According to this law, to every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction i.e. force of action
and reaction are always equal and opposite.
Whenever a body exerts a force on another body, the second body also exert a force on the first. This
force is equal in magnitude, it is in the opposite direction, and has same line of action, acting
simultaneously
Any of the two forces making action - reaction pair can be called action, and other reaction
Force always occur in pair, if a body exerts a force F on body B, then B will exert equal and opposite
 
force on body A. i.e. FBA  FAB
Equilibrium
A force can change the state of motion of a body in two ways. It can cause translation or it can cause
translation as well as rotation
Conditions of equilibrium
1) If vector sum of forces acting on a body is zero, the body is said to be in translational equilibrium for
translational equilibrium

F  0
Note : If vector sum of moment of force acting on a body about any axis is zero, the body is said to be
in rotational equilibrium. Thus for rotational equilibrium

  0
For complete equilibrium of a body we have
 
 F  0 and   0
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Static and dynamic equilibrium


1)  F  0 and body is at rest. it is known as static equilibrium

2) If  F  0 and body moves with constant velocity it is known as dynamic equilibrium
Free Body Diagram

In Free body diagrams (FBD), the object of interest is isolated from its surroundings, and the interactions
between the object and surroundings are represented in terms of forces.
The common forces encounted in mechanics and representing these forces through free body diagrams
are
1) weight 2) normal force
3) tension 4) frictional force
5) elastic spring force
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force with which earth pulls an object
Normal force : whenever two surfaces are in contact, they press [or push] each other by a force called
contact force. The component of contact force perpendicular to the surface is called normal reaction
and along the surface of contact is called frictional force
Note : When contact between two bodies breaks the normal reaction vanishes
2) The weighing equipments measure normal reaction
Representing normal reaction in different situations
* Normal force will be perpendicular to surface of contact

* Normal reaction is a pushing force
* The number of normal force acting on a body depends on number of points of surfaces of contact
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Example 1
A cylinder of weight w is resting on a v-groove as shown in figure. Draw its free body diagram.
FBD
N1 and N2 are normal reactions between the cylinder and the two inclined walls
Example 2
* internal forces always act in pairs

* vector sum of all the internal forces on a system is zero

F
system
int ernal 0
Tension
When a rope (string, cord etc.) is connected to a body and pulled out, the rope is said to be under
tension.
It is quite practical that we can pull objects by a string, but we cannot push objects by the string. This
gives us an idea that a string can pull but cannot push.
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Tension force is an inter molecular force between the atoms of a string, which acts or reacts when the
string is stretched
The force of tension acts on a body in the direction away from the point of contact or tied ends of the
string
pulling force
Important Points
* Tension force always pulls a body
* Tension can never push a body
* Rope become slack when tension force becomes zero
Ideal string
An ideal string is considered to be massless [negligible mass] inextensible [does not stretch when
pulled]. String is assumed to be massless unless stated. However, if a string has a mass, the tension
at different points will be different.
* If a string is inextensible the magnitude of acceleration of any number of masses connected through
string is always same
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Problem solving by applying Newton’s Laws

1. Identify the object you are considering make a simple sketch of the object
2. Draw arrows on your sketch to show the direction of each force acting on the object. Arrows are drawn
to represent direction of forces acting on the body
3. Assign a coordinate system to your free body diagram
4. Resolve all the forces acting on a body into x, y and z components
5. Apply Newton’s law in component form as
F x  ma x F y  ma y F z  ma z
6. Solve the set of equations for any unknowns
Motion of Blocks connected by massless string
Example
Find acceleration and tension in string
 m1   T  m1a ............ (1)
 m2   F  T  m2a .......(2)
_________________________
(1) + (2)
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F   m1  m 2  a
F
a
m1  m 2 ...........(3)
Substitute equation (3) in equation (1)
m1F
T 
m1  m 2 ........(4)
Find acceleration and tension on each string
 m1   F  T1  m1a ............... (1)

 m2   T1  T2  m2a ..............(2)
 m3   T2  m3a .....................(3)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2) + (3)
F   m1  m 2  m3  a
F
a
m1  m 2  m3 ....................(4)
m3F
 T2  m 3a 
m1  m 2  m 3
From (2)
T1  m 2 a  T2  m 2 a  m3a
T1   m 2  m3  a
T1 
 m 2  m3  F
m1  m 2  m 3
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Example : with what minimum acceleration can a monkey slide down a rope whose breaking strength
is two third of his weight
mg – T = ma ...........(1)
2mg
Tmax 
3
2mg
mg   ma min
3
mg 1  2   ma min
 3
g  a min
3
Example : A monkey of mass 20kg is holding a vertical rope. The rope will not break when a mass of 25
kg is suspended from it but will break if mass exceeds 25kg. What will be maximum acceleration with
which the monkey can climb up along the rope [g = 10 m/s2]
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T – mg = ma ..............(1)
T = ma + mg .............(2)
ma = T – mg .............(3)
20a = 25g – 20g .......(4)
20a = 5g
5g 50
a max    2.5m / s 2
20 20
Example : A block of mass M is suspended through a light string. A horizontal force F  3mg is
applied at the middle point of string. Find the angle of string with the vertical in equilibrium and tension
in two points of string
FBD of Block FBD of point P of string
Block is under equilibrium

Consider vertical direction
T1 - Mg = 0
T1 = Mg ............(1)
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For point P along horizontal (equilibrium)
F  T2 sin   0
F  T2 sin  ...........(2)
For vertical (equilibrium)
T2 cos   T1 ............(3)
dividing eq. (2)  (3)
F F 3mg
tan    
T1 Mg mg
  tan 1  3   60 o
Acceleration of block on Horizontal smooth surface
Along Y Along X
F
N = mg F = ma a
m
When a pull is acting at an angle  to horizontal
Along Y N  Fsin   mg  N  mg  Fsin 

Along X Fcos   ma
F cos 
a
m
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When a push is acting at an angle (  ) to horizontal
Along Y Fsin   mg  N
Along X F cos   ma
Fcos 
a
m
Fsin   mg  N
Motion of Blocks in contact [Contact force between two blocks without any string]
Case 1 : Find the contact force between m1 and m2 if a horizontal pushing force is applied on block m1.
(m1 )  F  N  m1a ..........(1)
(m 2 )  N  m 2 a ...............(2)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2)
F   m1  m2  a
F
a
m1  m 2 ...............(3)
m2F
From eq. (2) N  m2a 
m1  m 2
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Case 2 : Find the contact force between m1 and m2 if a horizontal pushing force is applied on block m2.
 m1   N  m1a ............. (1)
 m 2   F  N  m 2a
–––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2)
F   m1  m2  a
F
a
m1  m 2 ...........(3)
From eq. (1)
m1F
N  m1a 
m1  m 2 ............. (4)
Example
Find acceleration and contact force between blocks
 m1   F  N1  m1a ............. (1)
 m2   N1  N2  m2a ..........(2)
 m 3   N 2  m 3a ..................(3)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2) + (3)
F   m1  m 2  m3  a
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F
a
m1  m 2  m3 ..............(4)
m3 F
From (3) N 2  m3a =
m1  m 2  m3
From (1) N1  m 2 a  N 2
N1 = m 2 a  m 3a
N1   m2  m3  a
N1 
 m 2  m3  F
m1  m 2  m3
Example
The blocks are attached by an inextensible light string and pulled vertically upward by force 100N as
shown. Find common acceleration and tension in string

(2kg)  100  20  T  2a ..........(1)

(3kg)  T  30  3a ............(2)
_____________________________
(1)  (2)
100 - 50 = 5a
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50 = 5a  a = 10 m/s2 ...........(3)
From eq. (2)
T = 3a + 30
= 30 + 30 = 60 N
Example : The block of masses 2kg, 3kg and 5 kg are connected by light, inextensible strings as
shown. The system of blocks is raised vertically upwards by applying a force F0 = 200N. Find common
acceleration and tension in the strings
(2kg) 200 – T1 – 20 = 2a .............. (1)

(3kg) T1 – T2 - 30 = 3a ...................(2)
(5 kg) T2 – 50 = 5a ........................(3)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2) + (3)
100 = 10a
a = 10 m/s2
From (1)
T2 = 5a + 50 = 100N
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From (2)
T1 = 3a + T2 + 30
= 30 + 100 + 30 = 160N
Ideal pulley
An ideal pulley is assumed to be massless, frictionless. Action of the pulley to change the direction of
force. The ideal pulley does not change the magnitude of tension in the rope. Tension is same in the
string on both sides of the pulley
Example : In the arrangement shown find acceleration of each block, tension in the string and reaction
in the pulley. The string and pulley are light (massless) m1 > m2. Neglect the friction in pulley
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(m1)  m1g – T = m1a ...........(1)

(m2)  T – m2g = m2a ...........(2)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2)
m1g  m 2 g   m1  m 2  a
m1g  m 2 g
a
m1  m 2 ..............(3)
1   2 
m1g  T m1

T  m 2g m 2
m1m 2 g  m 2 T  m1T  m1m 2 g
2m1m2 g   m1  m 2  T
2m1m 2 g
T
m1  m 2 ..............(4)
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Pulley
R – 2T = 0 [Since the pulley is massless]; R = 2T
4m1m 2 g
R
m1  m 2
Example
The pulley is light and smooth the strings are inextensible and light. The system is released from rest,
find the acceleration of each block, tensions in the strings and reaction in pulley.
 5kg   5g  T1  5a ..................... (1)

 3kg   T1  3g  T2  3a ..............(2)
 2kg   T2  2g  2a ...................(3)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2) + (3)
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60
6g = 10a; a  6 m / s2
10
From eqn. (3) T2 = 2a + 2g
= 2  6  2 10
= 12 + 20 = 32N
From eqn (1) 5g – T1 = 5a
= 5g – 5a = T1
= 50 – 30 = 20
T1 = 20
FBD of Pulley
R  2T2  0 (Pulley is massless)

R  2T2  64N
Example
Two blocks are connected by an inextensible light string is passing over smooth light pulley as shown.
Find the acceleration of blocks and tension in the string reaction in pulley
 m1   2mg  T  m1a .........(1)
 m2  T  m2a ...........................(2)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2)
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m1g = (m1 + m2)a
m1g
a
m1  m 2 ....................(3)
Substitute (3) in (2)
m1m 2 g
T
m1  m 2
Pulley
R  2T  0
R  2T
Example
The strings are inextensible and light. The pulleys are smooth and light. Find the acceleration of each
block and tensions in the strings
FBD
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  5kg   5g  T1  5a .............. (1)
  2kg   T1  T2  2a .............(2)
  3kg   T2  3g  3a ..............(3)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(1) + (2) + (3)
2g = 10a
2g
a  2m / s 2
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From eq. (2)
T2  3a  3g  6  30  36N
From (2)
T1  2a  T2  4  36  40N
Tension at different points of string, when the string is not light
Apply a cut at that point where tension is required, make free body diagram and solve the equations to
determine the tension
Example : A uniform rope of length L is pulled by a force F on a smooth surface. Find tension in the rope
at a distance x from the end where force is applied
Let M be the mass of rope
acceleration of rope a  F M
Now we divide the rope into two parts by applying a cut at P
M
m1  x
L
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M
m2  L  x
L
m1  m 2  M
F
a
M
M
FT  xa
M L
T L  x a M F
L  x
M F L M
 L  x Fx
L M T  F
L
 F 1  x 
 L  F 1  x 
 L
We can find tension at point P by taking either part.

Example : A block of mass M is attached to a uniform rope of mass m. This arrangement is pulled by
applying a force F at the rope as shown. Find the tension in the rope
a) at the junction of rope and the block
b) at the midpoint of rope
F = (M + m)a
F
a ...............(1)
Mm
at junction of the block and the rope
MF
T  ma 
Mm
Midpoint of rope
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
T1  M  m
2 a

 Mm
2 Mm
F

 2M  m   F 
  
 2  M  m 
2M  m
T1  F
2 M  m
IF m  0
T  T1  F
If the rope is light, tension in the rope at each point is same.

Spring Force
Force & stretch [or compression]

i.e. F = kx
i.e. restoring force is linear. K is called the force constant of spring
Example : Two blocks are connected by a spring. The combination is suspended at rest from a string
attached to the ceiling as shown in fig. The string breaks suddenly immediately after the string breaks,
what is the initial downward acceleration of the upper block of mass 2m ?
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Step 1 : Discuss the problem before cutting the string
From the free body diagram of lower block
Kx 0  mg
From the free body diagram of upper block
T  2mg  Kx 0
“After cutting the string tension on string = zero elongation in spring do not change just after cutting the
string”
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2mg  Kx 0  2ma
3mg = 2ma
3g
a
2
Motion on an inclined plane
If a block os moving on an inclined plane we choose two directions along the plane and perpendicular
to the plane. Resolve the forces along these directions and solve.
Fixed
Apply Newtons second law perpendicular to the plane

N  mgcos   0
N  mgcos 
Apply Newtons second law along the plane

mg sin   ma
a  gsin 
acceleration of the block along the smooth inclined plane a  gsin 
Example A block is released on an smooth inclined plane of inclination  . After how much time it
reaches to the bottom of the plane.
25
h   h
sin  
 sin 
Along the plane a  g sin 
1
  ut  g sin t 2
2
h 1
 0  gsin  t 2
sin  2
1
h gsin2  t 2
2
2h  gsin2  t 2
2h 1 2h
t2  t
gsin2  sin  g
Example Consider the situation shown in the figure. The surface is smooth and string and the pulley
are light. Find the acceleration of each block and tension in the string.
 m1g  m2g sin 
26
Sol
m1   m1 g  T  m1 a    1
m2   T  m2 gsin   m2 a     2 
1   2
m1g  m2 g sin    m1  m2  a
m1 g  m2 g sin 
a    3
m1  m2
1 2
m1 g  T m
 1
T  m2 g sin  m2
m1 m 2 g  m 2 T  m1T  m1m2 g sin 
m1 m2 g  m1m2 gsin    m1  m2  T
m1 m2 g 1 sin    m1  m2  T
m1 m2 g 1 sin 
T
m1  m2
Example: In the arrangement all the surfaces are smooth, strings and pulleys are light. Find acceleration
of each block and tension in the string.
 m1g sin   m2g sin 
27
m1   m1g sin   T  m1 a    1

m2   T  m2 g sin   m2 a     2 
1   2 
m1g sin   m2 gsin    m1  m2  a
m1g sin   m2 g sin 

a    3
m1  m2
1 2
m1g sin   T m1

T  m2 gsin  m2
m1 m2 g sin   m2 T  m1 T  m1 m2 g sin 
m1 m2 g  sin   sin    m1  m2  T
m1 m2 g sin   sin 
T
m1  m2
LAWS OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM


 dP
F
dt
In case the external force applied to a particle or a (body) be zero. We have


 dP
F  0 or  = constant
dt P
In the absence of an external force linear momentum of particle remains constant. For a system of
particle F net force [vector sum of all the forces] on a system of particle os zero. The vector sum of
linear momentum of all the particles remains conserved.
   
P1  P2  P3 ......Pn = a constant
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Conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to Newton’s third law of motion.

For a system of two particles in absence of external by law of conservation of linear momentum.
 
P1  P2 = constant
 
m1 v1  m1 v 2 = constant
Differentiating above with respect to time
 
d v1 d v2
m1  m2 0
dt dt
 
m1 a1  m1 a2  0
 
F1  F2  0
 
F2   F1
i.e., for every action there is equal and opposite reaction which is Newton’s third law of motion
Recoiling of a gun
For bullet and gun system the force exerted by trigger will be internal so the momentum of system
remains conserved.
Let mG= mass of gun

mB= mass of bullet
VG= velocity of gun
VB= velocity of bullet
Initial momentum of system = 0
 
Final momentum of system = mG VG  mB VB
 
mG VG  mB VB  0
 
mG vG  m B vB

 m v
vG   B B
mG

Negative sign indicates that the velocity of recoil VG is opposite to velocity of bullet.
Example
29
An explosion blows a rock in to three parts. Two parts go off at right angles to each other. These two
are, 1 kg first part moving with a velocity of 12 ms–1 and 2 kg second part moving with a velocity of 8
ms–1. if the third part flies off with a velocity of 4 ms–1, its mass would be
Since explosion is internal total linear momentum of the system is conserved.
  
P1  P2  P3  0
  
P1  P2  P3
  
P1  P2  P3
P12  P22  P3
 m1v1    m 2 v 2 
2 2
 m 3 v3
112    2  8
2 2
 m3  4
144  256  400
20  4m3
20
m3   5kg
4
Variable mass
In our discussion of conservation of linear momentum, we have so far deal with systems whose mass
remains constant. We now consider those systems whose mass is variable. i.e., those in which
mass enters or leaves the system. Problems related to variable mass can be solved in following three
steps.
1) Make a list of all the forces acting on the main mass and apply them on it.
   dm 
2) Apply an additional thrust force Ft , on the mass, the magnitude of which is Vr    and direction
 dt 
 
is given by direction of Vr in case the mass is increasing and otherwise the direction of  Vr , it is
decreasing.
3) Find net force on the mass and apply

 dv
Fnet  m (m = mass at that particular instant)
dt
Rocket Propulsion
Let m0 be the mass of rocket at time t = 0. m it mass at any time t and v its velocity at that moment.
Initially let us suppose that the velocity of the rocket is u.
30
 dm 
Let   be the mass of the gas ejected per unit time and Vr the exhaust velocity of the gases.
 dt 
 dm 
Usually   and Vr are kept constant through the journey of the rocket.
 dt 
At time t = t
1) Thrust force on the rocket
 dm 
Ft  Vr   (upwards)
 dt 
2) Weight of rocket
W = mg (downwards)
3) Net force on the rocket
Fnet  Ft  W
 dm 
Fnet  Vr    mg (upwards)
 dt 
4) Net acceleration of rocket a  F m
dv v r  dm 
 g
dt m  dt 
 dm 
dv  v r    g dt
 m 
v m
dm
 dv  v 
u
r
m0 m
 gdt
m 
v  u  v r n  0   gt
 m
m 
v  u  gt  v r n  0 
m 
31
Note:
 dm  dm
1) Ft  v r   is upwards, as vr is downwards and is negative
 dt  dt
2) If gravity is ignored and initial velocity of rocket u = 0
m0
v  v r n
m
 dm 
Mass of rocket at any instant m  m0   t
 dt 
* Here vr is the velocity of the mass gained or mass ejected relative to main mass. In case of rocket it is
sometimes called exhaust velocity of gas.
Force exerted by jet on wall
Mass of element dm = volume  density
dm  Adx 
Change in momentum of liquid jet
= 0  mv
= Adxv
dx
v
dt
 dP  wall  Adxv
 dP wall Adxv
 F wall    Av 2
dt dt
F  Av 2
here we consider a jet of area A strikes the stationary wall with velocity v and stop.
32
Impulse
Impulse of a force F acting on a body is defined as
dv
J =  Fdt   m dt   m dv
dt
It is also defined as change in momentum
 
J  p (impulse momentum theorem)
Instantaneous impulse
There are many occasions when a force acts for such a short time that the effect is instantaneous. eg,
a bat striking a ball.
    
J   Fdt  P  Pf  Pi
It is important to note that impulse applied to an object in a given time interval can also be calculated
from the area under Force - time graph in the same time interval.
 Impulse is a vector quantity
 SI unit Ns or kgms-1
 magnitude is equal to area under F-t graph J   Fdt  Fav t
 It is not a property of any particle, but it is a measure of the degree to which an external force change
the momentum of the particle.
Impulsive force
A force of relatively higher magnitude and acting for relatively shorter time is called Impulsive force.
An impulsive force can change the momentum of a body in a finite magnitude in very short time
interval. “Colliding forces are impulsive in nature”.
Example: Two identical balls strike a rigid wall with same speed but at different angles, and get reflected
without any loss of speed as shown in figure what is 1) the direction of force on the wall due to each
ball. 2) ratio of the magnitudes of impulse imparted on two balls by the wall.
33
Ans. Let the ball strikes the wall with speed u. Its mass is m, then momentum

Pi  muiˆ

Pf   mu î

impulse in × direction Jx  mu î  muiˆ
  2mu î
No motion along Y axis, impulsive along Y direction is zero.
  
resulting impulse J1  J x  J y  2muiˆ
The direction of force along direction of impulse. So force experienced by wall on ball is along negative
x axis. By Newton’s third law the direction of force exerted by ball on wall is along positive x axis.
  

Jx  Pf  Pi  x
= mu cos 30 î  mu cos 30 î
 2mu cos 30 î
  
 
Jy  Pt  Pi y  mu sin30ˆj   mu sin 30 ˆj
=0
34
  
resulting impulse J1  Jx  Jy   3muiˆ
The force exerted by wall on ball is along negative x axis. By Newton’s third law the direction of force on
wall by ball is along positive x axis.
J1 2mu 2
 
J2 3 mu 3
 A machine gun fires a bullet of mass m with a speed v m/s. The person holding the gun exert a
maximum force F on it. What is the number of bullets that can be fired from the gun per second?
The change in momentum of each bullet
 P  m  v  u
As u = 0
P  mv
If n is the number of bullets fired per second, then rate of change of momentum of gun
P
 nmv
t
thus by Newton’s second law
P
F  nmv
t
F
n
mv
FRAME OF REFERENCE
A frame in which an observer is situated and makes his observation is known as frame of reference.
Frame of reference are two types
1) inertial frame of reference
2) non inertial frame of reference
Inertial frame of reference
A frame of reference which is at rest or which is moving with a uniform velocity along a straight line is
called an inertial frame of reference.
Non Inertial frame of reference
Accelerated frame of reference are called non inertial frame of reference.
Pseudo or Fictious force
In non inertial frame of reference a pseudo force acts on the body present in accelerated frame in the
direction opposite to the acceleration of frame.
Magnitude of Pseudo force = mass of object × acceleration of frame of reference.
Direction of pseudo force is opposite to acceleration of frame.
35
Important points regarding pseudo force

1) Pseudo force is an observer dependent force
2) Apply a pseudo force on an object if and only if its is observed by a nonintertial frame
3) The direction of pseudo force must be opposite to the direction of acceleration of non-inertial frame
4) The magnitude of pseudo force is the product of mass of the body and acceleration of noninertial
frame
In noninertial frame Newtons second law take the form
  
Freal  Fpseudo  ma

a is acceleration of object in noninertial frame

Fpseudo  mass of object  acceleration of frame
Example:
A pendulum is hanging from the ceiling of a car having an acceleration a0 with respect to road. Find the
angle made by string with vertical. solve this question with respect to two observers A and B
with respect to observer A [inertial frame of reference]

FBD of pendulum
36
T cos   mg .............(1)
T sin   ma 0 ................(2)
 2   1
a0
tan  
g
a 
  tan 1  0 
g 
with respect to observer B [noninertial frame of reference) FBD of pendulum
T cos   mg ................(1)
T sin   ma 0  m  0
T sin   ma 0 .................(2)
 2   1
a0
tan  
g
a 
  tan 1  0 
g 
MOTION IN A LIFT/ ELEVATOR
Consider a man of mass m standing on a weighing machine placed in the lift. The actual weight of man
is mg. The reading of weighing machine indicates the force experienced by it which is equal to reaction
on the man standing on it. When a man is in an accelerated lift, his weight appears to change. This
changed weight is known as apparent weight.
37
Case I Lift is at rest [a = 0]
N - mg = 0
N  mg
Apparent weight = actual weight

Case II When lift is moving with uniform velocity (a = 0)
N - mg = 0
N = mg
Apparent weight = Actual weight
38
Case III Lift is moving upwards with uniform acceleration a.
N  mg  ma mgapparent = mg + ma
gapparent = g + a
Apparent weight > Actual weight
N - mg = ma
N  ma  mg
39
Case IV Lift is moving downward with uniform acceleration a (a < g)
N + ma = mg
N  mg  ma
mgapparent = mg – ma
gapparent = g – a
mg - N = ma
N  mg  ma
40
Case V If the supporting cable of lift breaks, then the lift falls freely with an acceleration a = g
N + mg = mg
N = mg - mg = 0
mgapparent = 0
gapparent = 0
Apparent weight of man in freely falling lift becomes zero.
mg – N = mg
mg – mg = N
N=0
Example A block of mass m is placed on a smooth wedge of inclination  . The whole system is
accelerated horizontally so that block does not slip on wedge. Determine the force exerted by the
wedge on block.
41
Sol. FBD of block in non inertial frame
Let the wedge is accelerated towards left with an acceleration ‘a’. The FBD of block in the frame from
is shown in figure.
The block remains at rest with respect to wedge, so along the inclined plane, we have
mg sin   ma cos   0
mg sin   ma cos 
a  g tan 
Perpendicular to the inclined plane the block is also at rest.

N  mgcos   ma sin 
N  mgcos   mg tan  sin 
sin 
N  mgcos   mg sin 
cos 
mgcos2   mg sin2 
N
cos 
mg cos 2   sin2 

N
cos 
mg
N 
cos 
Thus force exerted by wedge on block
mg
N
cos 
FRICTION
Friction can be defined as a force which opposes the relative motion between surfaces in contact.
Friction is the parallel component of contact force between two bodies in contact. These forces are
basically electromagnetic in nature.
42
Static Friction
The opposing force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface of another. But
the actual motion has yet not started is called static friction.
For example, consider a bed inside a room, when we gently push the bed with a finger, the bed does
not moves. This means that the bed has a tendency to move in the direction of applied force but does
not move as there exists static friction force acting in the opposite direction of applied force.
The static friction force on an object is opposite to its impending motion relative to the surface. The
direction and magnitude both are self adjusting such that relative motion is opposed.
Note: Here once again the static friction is involved when there is no relative motion between two
surfaces.
Important points about static friction force
1) Static friction always opposes the primary cause of its motion.
2) It is variable and self adjusting force
3) Magnitude of static friction (fs) lies between 0 and sN
0  fs   sN
Minimum value of static friction = 0
Maximum value of static friction = sN

Limiting friction
The maximum value of static friction upto which body does not move is called limiting friction. The
magnitude of limiting friction between any two bodies in contact is directly proportional to the normal
reaction between them
fms  sN
Kinetic Friction Force
Kinetic friction exists between two contact surfaces only when there is relative motion between the
two contact surfaces. It stops acting when relative motion between two surfaces ceases.
Direction of Kinetic Friction on an Object
It is opposite to the velocity of the object with respect to the other object in contact considered.
Note: That its direction is not opposite to the force applied, it is opposite to the motion of the body
considered which is in contact with the other surface.
How to decide the direction of kinetic friction force.
1) It is opposite to the relative velocity of the object with respect to other in contact considered
Examples
1)
Direction of kinetic friction on the block
43
Direction of kinetic friction on the ground
2)
For the direction of kinetic friction on the block ‘A’ decide the direction of relative velocity of A w.r to B.
  
v AB  v A  vB  5  3  2iˆ
Direction of kinetic friction on block B
Magnitude of kinetic friction is proportional to the normal force acting between the two bodies.
fK   K N
 Value of S and K is independent of surface area it depends only on surface properties of contact
surface.
 S and K has no unit and no dimension. S and K are properties of given pair of surfaces.
Graph between applied force and force of friction
TYPES OF KINETIC FRICTION

Sliding Friction : The opposing force that come in to play when one body is actually sliding over the
surface of the other body is called Sliding Friction.
Rolling Friction : When objects such as a wheel (disc or ring) sphere or a cylinder rolls over a
surface, the force of friction that comes into play.
Rolling friction is quite small as compared to sliding friction.
44
Example Suppose a block of mass 1Kg is places over a rough surface and a horizontal force F is
applied on the block as shown in fig. Now let us see what are the values of force of friction f and
acceleration of the block a if the force F is gradually increased. Given that S  0.5 , K  0.4 and
g = 10 m/s2
Net force along y F y 0
N - mg = 0
N = mg = 1×10 = 10 N
fL  s N  0.5  10  5N
fK  s N  0.4  10  4N
45
Angle of Friction
Angle of friction may be defined as the angle which the resultant of limitting friction and normal reaction
make with normal reaction.
46
fms
tan       1
N
tan   S      2 
  tan1  S       3 
Coefficient of static friction is equal to tangent of angle of friction

Resultant force exerted by surface on block
R  N2   fms 
2
mg   Smg
2 2
R
R  mg  S 2  1
When there is no friction S  0 and R will be minimum R = mg

Hence the range of R can be given by
mg  R  mg S2  1
Angle of response (  )
Suppose a block of mass m is placed on an inclined plane whose inclination  can be increased or
decreased. Let  be coefficient of friction between the block and the plane. At a general angle  .
Normal reaction N  mgcos 
Limitting friction fL  N   mgcos 
and driving force or pulling force F  mg sin 

From these three equations we see that when  is increased from 0 to 900, normal reaction N and
hence the limitting friction fL is decreased while the driving force mg sin  is increased. There is a
critical angle called angle of response    at which these two forces are equal. Now, if  is further
increased, then driving force mg sin  becomes more than limitting friction fL and the block starts
sliding.
47
Thus fL = F [at   ]
Smgcos   mgsin 
tan   S
  tan1  S 
Angle of friction is numerically equal to angle of repose

From above discussion we can conclude that
If    F  fL the block is stationary..
If    F  fL the block is on verge of sliding
and if    F  fL the block slide down with acceleration.

Acceleration of block sliding down over a rough inclined plane
When angle of inclined plane is more than angle of repose the body placed on the inclined plane slides
down with an acceleration a.
mg sin   K N  ma
mg sin   K mgcos   ma
a  g sin   k gcos 
Retardation of a block sliding up over a rough inclined plane
48
Net retarding force Fnet = m  –a
mg sin   f k  m  a
mg sin    k mg cos   m  a
Retardation –a = g sin    k g cos 

Pull is easier than push
Consider a block of mass m placed on a rough horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction
between the block and surface is  . Let a push force F is applied at an angle  with the horizontal.
Along y
F sin   mg  N
Along x
Fcos   N   F sin   mg
F cos   F sin   mg
F  cos    sin   mg
mg
F    (1)
cos    sin 
Along Y
F sin   N  mg
N  mg  F sin 
49
To just move the block along x axis
Fcos   N   mg  Fsin 
F cos   mg  Fsin 
F cos   F sin   mg
F  cos    sin   mg
mg
F
cos    sin 
It is clear that from above discussion that pull force is smaller than push force.
Example
1) What is the maximum possible value of F so that the system move together
2) If there is relative sliding between M and m then calculate the acceleration of M and m
Solution
F
Let the system move together then a 
Mm
Normal reaction between block m and M

N = mg
50
MF
For (M) f  Ma 
Mm
As there is no sliding between M and m friction is static
f   sN
f   smg
MF
  smg
Mm
MF  M  m  smg
m
F M  m  sg
M
m
If F   s M  m  g, the relative sliding between the blocks starts. The friction force between the blocks
M
will be kinetic nature and both blocks will move with different acceleration.
m  F  Kmg  ma1
F  K mg
a1 
m
fK  Ma2
51
K mg  Ma2
Km g
a2 
M
Example : Two blocks of masses M and m are arranged as shown in fig. There is no friction between
ground and block M. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction between M and m are
 s and k respectively..
a) Calculate the maximum possible value of F so that both the bodies move together
b) Find the accelerations of the blocks if F is greater than that found in part (a).
Solution
If both blocks move together ie no sliding between M and m, the friction between m and M will be static
nature. Static friction force is a self adjusting force O  f  sN
F
Acceleration of system in this case a   (1)
Mm
Equation of motion of m
mF
f  ma 
Mm
52
 If there is no sliding between M and m then friction is static

f  fms
f  s N  s mg
mF
  smg
Mm
mF   m  M  s mg
F
 m  M  s mg
m
b) If F  s M  m  g then there will be relative sliding between M and m. When relative sliding between
M and m starts then friction is kinetic
For m   fK  ma1
KN  ma1
K mg  ma1
a1  K g
For (M) F  KN  Ma2
F  K mg  Ma2
F  Kmg
a2 
M
53
Minimum mass hung from the string to just start the motion
When mass m1 is placed on a rough horizontal plane another mass m2 hung from the string connected
by frictionless pulley. The tension (T) produced will try to start the motion of mass m1
Motion T  f ms
Limiting condition T = fms

N = m1g
fms =  s N = s m1g
m2   T  m2g  (1)

m1   T  sm1g  (2)
m2 g   2m1g
m2   sm1
m2
s 
m1
54
Maximum Length of Hung Chain
A uniform chain of length  is placed on the table in such a manner that ' part is hanging over the
edge of table without sliding. Since the chain have uniform linear density therefore the ratio of mass
and ratio of length for any part of chain will be equal.
m mass hanging from the table

We know   m 
2
1 mass lying on the table
m '
m2  

m
m1 

   ' 
' length hanging from the table

  [As chain have uniform linear density]
 '
length lying on the table

By solving     1
'
 
Sticking of a block with accelerated cart
55
FBD of block m [Cart as a frame]
N  ma  m  0
N = ma
Now the block will remain static with respet to cart if friction
f  mg
N  mg
ma  mg
g
a

g
 amin   

Example
In amusement parks there is a device called rotor where people stand on platform inside a large
cylinder that rotates about a vertical axis when the rotor reaches a certain angular velocity, the platform
drops away. Find the minimum coefficient of friction for the people not to slide down.
In this case normal reaction of surface provides centripetal force and friction force prevents the man
56
from sliding vertically
mv 2
N  mr2 ................. (1)
r
To prevent downward slipping
f  mg
s N  mg
 s mr2  mg
g
2 
s r
g
min 
s r
Motion in a vertical circle

Consider a body of mass m tied to one end of the string and made to rotate in a vertical circle of radius
r as shown in figure. Let vA be the velocity of the body at its lowest position. Its velocity for any angular
position  is vp.
57
OE
cos  
L
OE  L cos 
AE  h  OA  OE  L  L cos 
Using conservation of mechanical energy
KE A  PE A  KE P  PEP
1 1
mv 2A  O  mvP2  mgh
2 2
v 2A  v p2  2gh
v p2  v 2A  2gL 1  cos 
v P  u2  2gL 1  cos 
Tension in the string

By Newton’s second law along radial direction at point p
mv p2
Tp  mg cos  
L
mvP 2
Tp  mgcos  
L
Case I
At lowest position   0
cos 0  1
mv 2A
TA   mg  max imum 
L
Case 2
At B   90 cos 90  0
mv B2
TB 
L
v B2  v 2A  2gL
At highest position   180 cos180  1
mv C2
TC   mg minimum 
L
58
 
v C2  v 2A  2gL 1   1  v 2A  4gL
v c2  v 2A  4gL
Minimum velocity required at lowest position to complete the circle

TH  O
mv 2C
 mg  O
L
v 2A  4gL  gL
v 2A  5gL
 vA min  5gL
If v A  5gL , particle moves in vertical circle
0  vA  2gL , particle oscillates like simple pendulum in arc of semicircle
2gL  vA  5gL particle will give circular path after completing quarter circle and before completing
semicircle.
Centrifugal force
FBD of the block in inertial frame
FBD of the block in noninertial frame
59
Consider a block of mass m placed on a table at a distance r from its centre. Suppose the table
rotates with constant angular velocity  . Let us first analyse the motion of block relative to an observer
on ground (inertial frame). In this frame the block is moving in a circle of radius r. It therefore has an
v2
acceleration towards the centre. In this frame forces on block
r
weight
Normal reaction
frictional force by the table
We have N = mg .................(1)
mv 2
Newton’s second law of motion f     (2)
r
Now observer the same block in a frame attached with the rotating table. The observer here finds that
the block is at rest. Net force on the block in this frame must be zero. The weight and normal balance
each other but frictional force acts on block towards the centre of block. To make the resultant zero, a
mv 2
pseudo force must be assumed to act on the block radially outward and has a magnitude or mr2 .
r
This pseudo force is called centrifugal force.
F vertical=0
N–mg=0
N=mg
Fradius=0
mv 2 mv 2
f 0; f
r r
Analysis of conical pendulum
Consider a conical pendulum of length l. It is made to rotate about a vertical axis. Suppose string of the
pendulum makes an angle  with the axis
In inertial frame of reference
r
from fig. sin 
l
60
T sin   mr2  (1)
T cos   mg  (2)
Eqn. 1  2
r2 2 l sin 
tan   
g g
g tan  g sin  g
2   
 sin  cos  sin   cos 
g

l cos 
Circular turning on roads

When vehicles go through turnings, they travel along a nearly circular arc. There must be some force
which will produce the required centripetal acceleration. If the vechicles travel in a horizontal circular
path, this resultant force is also horizontal. The necessary centripetal force is being provided to the
vehicles by following three ways
1) By friction only
2) By banking of roads only
3) By friction and banking of roads both
By friction only
Suppose a car of mass m is moving at a speed v in a horizontal circular arc of radius r. In this case,
the necessary centripetal force to the car will be provided by force of friction f acting towards centre
mv 2
Thus, f 
r
Further, limiting value of f is N
or f   N  mg (N = mg)
mv2
Therefore, for a safe turn without skidding  f
r
mv2
or  mg
r
v  rg
61
By banking of roads only

Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speed and sharp turns are involved to avoid
dependence of friction, the roads are banked at the turn so that the outer part of the road is some what
lifted compared to the inner part.
Applying Newton’s second law
mv 2
N sin   ..............(1)
r
N cos   mg ..............(2)
Eqn. (1) / (2)
v2
tan  
rg
v  rg tan 
By both friction and banking of roads
62
Now let tendency of car is to slip UP (this corresponds to maximum speed) then friction will act down
the elevation
Along vertical direction

Ncos   mg   sNsin 
Ncos    sNsin   mg  (1)
Along horizontal direction
mv 2
Nsin    sNcos      (2)
r
Dividing equation (1) by (2) we have
sin    s cos  v 2

cos    s sin  rg
Again dividing numerator and denominator each by cos  we get
 s  tan   v max 
2

1   s tan  rg
rg  tan   s 
2
v max 
1   s tan 
rg  tan    s 
v max 
1  s tan 
63
Motion of cyclist on circular road

When a cyclist goes round a circular road a centripetal force is required. The frictional force between
the tyre and ground provides the necessary centripetal force. To get rotational equilibrium he leans
from vertical. Let  be the angle, the contact force on tyres makes with vertical. Then to prevent
skidding
mac  fLim
mv 2
 sN
r
mv 2
  smg
r
v   srg
Again we have
mv 2
fLim   (1)
r
N=mg---(2)
64
Dividing equation (1) by (2) we get
flim v 2

N rg
fLim
 tan 
N
v2
tan  
rg
Constraint relations
The equations showing the relation of the motions of a system of bodies. In which one motion is
constrained by the other motions, are called constrained relations
First we start our analysis with simple case of pulleys. Consider the situation shown in fig.
From figure 2 string is inextensible we can directly state that the displacement of A in the downward
direction is equal to displacement of B in horizontal direction on table and if displacement of A and B
are equal in time, their speeds and acceleration magnitude must be equal.
65
Look at figure 3 the number of unknowns will be

1) Tension T
2) Acceleration a of mass
3) Acceleration of other body
In such cases we need additional equations. constraint provide additional equations.
General constraint equations
Consider a rod of length l resting on a wall and the floor. If the velocity of the upper end of a rod A is v0
in downward direction, find the velocity of the lower end B at this instant, when the rod makes an angle
 with horizontal
x2  y2  2
Differentiating w.r.t time t we get
dx dy d
2x  2y  2
dt dt dt
d
 0 [since the length  of the rod is a constant]
dt
dx dy
x y 0
dt dt
dx dy
 vB   v 0 [As time increases x increases, y decreases]
dt dt
dx dy
  ve   ve
dt dt
xvB  yv 0  0
66
y
vB  v0
x
v B  v 0 tan 
or
“As the rod is rigid, the velocity of points A and B along the length of the rod will be same”
v B cos   v 0 sin 
v 0 sin 
vB 
cos 
v B  v 0 tan 
In the arrangement shown the ends A and B of an inextensible string move downwards with uniform
speed v. Pulley P and Q are fixed. Find the speed by which a mass m moves upwards
Solution
CE=  , DE=x CD=y
67
x2  y2  2
Differentiating w.r.t time t, we get
dx dy d
2x  2y  2
dt dt dt
dx
 0 since x is constant
dt
dy d
y  2
dt dt
dy d
 v1   v [As t increases both y and l decreases]
dt dt
yv1  v
v v v
v1   
y y cos  or

Since a string is inextensible, the velocity of any two points along the length of string is same
v1 cos   v
v
v1 
cos 
String Constraint
When two objects are connected through a string and if the string have the following properties:
a) The length of the string remains constant i.e. inextensible string
b) Always remains tight, does not slacks
Pulley constraint
Pulley constraints are applicable when the bodies concerned are connected through pulleys and the
rope connecting them is inextensible.
Method of virtual work
The method of virtual work for finding constant relation is very useful in complicated situation where
visual inspection is difficult and number of strings is more
68
1) Constraint forces are those forces whose work on the entire system is zero. To apply this method
we should write the tension acting on each block
2) Find the work done by tension on each of the bodies. The sum total of all these works should be
zero

 0
T.x

 T.v  0

 T.a  0
Example
Two blocks A and B of mass M and 3M are connected through a light string. One end of the string is
connected to the block B and its other end is connected to a fixed point S as shown in fig. Now a force
F is applied to block B. Find the acceleration of block A and B.
Total length of string L  4x A  5xB   0 [Where  0 is some part of string which is over pulley and
somewhere else which remains constant]
Differentiating L w.r.t time, we get
dL d
  4x A  5xB   0 
dt dt
dx A dx
04 5 B
dt dt
dx A 5 dxB

dt 4 dt
69
dx A
  v A [because xA is decreasing with time]
dt
dxB
 v B [because xB is increasing with time]
dt
5 5
vA  v B ; a A  aB
4 4
For A

 T.a  0
4Ta A  5TaB  0
4Ta A  5TaB
4aA=5aB
5
aA  aB (Constraint relation)
4
For A
4T  Ma A    (1)
For B
F  5T  3MaB  (2)
Using vonstraint relation eqn. 1 can be written as
5
4T  MaB .........(3)
4
F  5T  3MaB .........(4)
5
From (3) T  Ma B ..........(5)
16
Substitute (5) in (4)
70
25
F Ma B  3Ma B
16
25
F  3Ma B  Ma B
16
73Ma B
F
16
16F
aB 
73M
20F
aA 
73M
Movable pulley
Total length L  y1  2y2   0    (1) [  0 is part of string which is over the pulleys remains constant]
Differentiating eq (1) w.r.t time
dL dy1 dy d
 2 2  0 ;
dt dt dt dt
v1  2v 2  0 ; v1  2v 2  0
–ve sign indicates that y1 is increasing while y2 is decreasing

v1=2v2
a1  2a2
71

 T.a  0
Ta1  2Ta2  0
2Ta2  Ta1
a1  2a2
Wedge constraint: Normal constraint

Consider two blocks moving on a surface and always remaining in contact in order to maintain the
contact component of velocity vector perpendicular to the contact surface must be same
 
v1  v 2
 
a1  a 2
72
Example
If wedge (1) and (2) are to remain in contact, the component of acceleration perpendicular to contact
surface must be same.
a1 sin   a 2 cos 
73
74

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS ENGG.

PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Newton’s laws of motion

Static and dynamic equilibrium

Free Body Diagram

* Normal force will be perpendicular to surface of contact

* internal forces always act in pairs

Problem solving by applying Newton’s Laws

 m1   T  m1a ............ (1)

 m1   F  T1  m1a ............... (1)

FBD of Block FBD of point P of string

Block is under equilibrium

For point P along horizontal (equilibrium)

dividing eq. (2)  (3)

Acceleration of block on Horizontal smooth surface

Along Y N  Fsin   mg  N  mg  Fsin 

When a push is acting at an angle (  ) to horizontal

(m1 )  F  N  m1a ..........(1)

 m1   N  m1a ............. (1)

 m1   F  N1  m1a ............. (1)

(2kg) 200 – T1 – 20 = 2a .............. (1)

(m1)  m1g – T = m1a ...........(1)

m1m 2 g  m 2 T  m1T  m1m 2 g

R – 2T = 0 [Since the pulley is massless]; R = 2T

 5kg   5g  T1  5a ..................... (1)

R  2T2  0 (Pulley is massless)

 m1   2mg  T  m1a .........(1)

m1g = (m1 + m2)a

  5kg   5g  T1  5a .............. (1)

Let M be the mass of rope

Now we divide the rope into two parts by applying a cut at P

We can find tension at point P by taking either part.

If the rope is light, tension in the rope at each point is same.

Force & stretch [or compression]

Step 1 : Discuss the problem before cutting the string

From the free body diagram of lower block

From the free body diagram of upper block

Apply Newtons second law perpendicular to the plane

Apply Newtons second law along the plane

acceleration of the block along the smooth inclined plane a  gsin 

Along the plane a  g sin 

 m1g  m2g sin 

m1 m 2 g  m 2 T  m1T  m1m2 g sin 

 m1g sin   m2g sin 

m1   m1g sin   T  m1 a    1

m1g sin   m2 gsin    m1  m2  a

m1g sin   m2 g sin 

LAWS OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

In case the external force applied to a particle or a (body) be zero. We have

Conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to Newton’s third law of motion.

Let mG= mass of gun

Since explosion is internal total linear momentum of the system is conserved.

4) Net acceleration of rocket a  F m

Mass of element dm = volume  density

 magnitude is equal to area under F-t graph J   Fdt  Fav t

Important points regarding pseudo force

with respect to observer A [inertial frame of reference]

Case I Lift is at rest [a = 0]

Apparent weight = actual weight

Case III Lift is moving upwards with uniform acceleration a.