The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body

14 January 2020

In this part of our review on carbohydrates, we explain the different types and basic functions of
carbohydrates including sugars. For an overview of how the consumption of carbohydrates is linked to
health, please refer to the article on ‘Are carbohydrates good or bad for you?’.

1. Introduction
Alongside fat and protein, carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients in our diet with their main
function being to provide energy to the body. They occur in many different forms, like sugars and dietary
fibre, and in many different foods, such as whole grains, fruit and vegetables. In this article, we explore the
variety of carbohydrates that occur in our diet and their functions.

2. What are carbohydrates?

At their most basic, carbohydrates are made of building blocks of sugars, and can be classified according to
how many sugar units are combined in their molecule. Glucose, fructose and galactose are examples of
single-unit sugars, also known as monosaccharides. Double-unit sugars are called disaccharides, among
which sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) are most widely known. Monosaccharides and
disaccharides are usually referred to as simple carbohydrates. Long-chain molecules, such as starches and
dietary fibres, are known as complex carbohydrates. In reality, though, there are more distinct differences.
Table 1 gives an overview of the major types of carbohydrates in our diet.

Table 1. Examples of carbohydrates based on the different classifications.

CLASS EXAMPLES
Monosaccharides Glucose, fructose, galactose
Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, maltose
Oligosaccharides Fructo-oligosaccharides, malto-oligosaccharides
Polyols Isomalt, maltitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol
Starch polysaccharides Amylose, amylopectin, maltodextrins
Non-starch polysaccharides Cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, gums, inulin
(dietary fibre)

Carbohydrates are also known under the following names, which usually refer to specific groups of
carbohydrates1:

sugars
simple and complex carbohydrates

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 resistant starch
dietary fibres
prebiotics
intrinsic and added sugars

The different names come from the fact that carbohydrates are classified depending on their chemical
structure, but also based on their role, or source in our diet. Even leading public health authorities have no
aligned common definitions for different groups of carbohydrates2.

3. Types of carbohydrates
3.1. Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polyols

Simple carbohydrates – those with one or two sugar units – are also simply known as sugars. Examples are:

Glucose and fructose: monosaccharides that can be found in fruits, vegetables, honey, but also in
food products like glucose-fructose syrups
Table sugar or sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose, and occurs naturally in sugar beet,
sugar cane and fruits
Lactose, a disaccharide consisting of glucose and galactose, is the main carbohydrate in milk and
dairy products
Maltose is a glucose disaccharide found in malt and starch derived syrups

Monosaccharide and disaccharide sugars tend to be added to foods by manufacturers, cooks and
consumers and are referred to as ‘added sugars’. They may also occur as ‘free sugars’ that are naturally in
honey and fruit juices.

Polyols, or so-called sugar alcohols, are also sweet and can be used in foods in a similar way to sugars, but
have a lower calorie content compared to normal table sugar (see below). They do occur naturally, but
most polyols that we use are made by the transformation of sugars. Sorbitol is the most commonly used
polyol in foods and drinks, while xylitol is frequently used in chewing gums and mints. Isomalt is a polyol
produced from sucrose, often used in confectionery. Polyols can have a laxative effect when eaten in too
large quantities.

If you want to find out more about sugars in general, read our ‘Sugars: addressing common questions’
article, the ‘Addressing common questions about sweeteners’ article, or investigate the opportunities and
difficulties in replacing sugar in baked goods and processed foods (‘Sugars from a food technology
perspective’).

3.2. Oligosaccharides

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines oligosaccharides as carbohydrates with 3-9 sugar units,
although other definitions allow for slightly longer chain lengths. The most well-known are oligofructans (or

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in proper scientific terms: fructo-oligosaccharides), which consist of up to 9 fructose units and naturally
occur in low sweetness vegetables such as artichokes and onions. Raffinose and stachyose are two other
examples of oligosaccharides found in some pulses, grains, vegetables, and honey. Most of the
oligosaccharides are not broken down into monosaccharides by human digestive enzymes and are utilised
by the gut microbiota instead (see our material on dietary fibres for more information).

3.3. Polysaccharides

Ten or more – and sometimes even up to several thousand – sugar units are needed to form
polysaccharides, which are usually distinguished in two types:

Starch, which is the main energy reserve in root vegetables such as onions, carrots, potatoes, and
whole grains. It has different length chains of glucose, more or less branched, and occurs in
granules which size and shape vary between the plants that contain them. The corresponding
polysaccharide in animals is called glycogen. Some starches can only be digested by the gut
microbiota rather than our own body’s mechanisms: these are known as resistant starches.
Non-starch polysaccharides, which are part of the dietary fibre group (although a few
oligosaccharides such as inulin are also considered dietary fibre). Examples are cellulose,
hemicelluloses, pectins and gums. The main sources of these polysaccharides are vegetables and
fruits, as well as whole grains. A hallmark feature of non-starch polysaccharides and actually all
dietary fibres is that humans cannot digest them; hence, their lower average energy content
compared to most other carbohydrates. Some types of fibre can, however, be metabolised by gut
bacteria, giving rise to compounds beneficial for our body, such as short-chain fatty acids. Find out
more about dietary fibres and their importance for our health in our article on ‘whole grains’ and
‘dietary fibre’.

From here onwards, we will be referring to ‘sugars’ when talking about mono- and disaccharides, and
‘fibres’ when talking about non-starch polysaccharides.

4. Functions of carbohydrates in our body

Carbohydrates are an essential part of our diet. Most importantly, they provide the energy for the most
obvious functions of our body, such as moving or thinking, but also for the ‘background’ functions that
most of the time we do not even notice1. During digestion, carbohydrates that consist of more than one
sugar get broken down into their monosaccharides by digestive enzymes, and then get directly absorbed
causing a glycaemic response (see below). The body uses glucose directly as energy source in muscle, brain
and other cells. Some of the carbohydrates cannot be broken down and they get either fermented by our
gut bacteria or they transit through the gut without being changed. Interestingly, carbohydrates also play
an important role in the structure and function of our cells, tissues and organs.

4.1. Carbohydrates as energy source and their storage

Carbohydrates broken down to mainly glucose are the preferred source of energy for our body, as cells in

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our brain, muscle and all other tissues directly use monosaccharides for their energy needs. Depending on
the type, a gram of carbohydrates provides different amounts of energy:

Starches and sugars are the main energy-providing carbohydrates, and supply 4 kilocalories (17
kilojoules) per gram
Polyols provide 2.4 kilocalories (10 kilojoules) (erythritol is not digested at all, and thus gives 0
calories)
Dietary fibre 2 kilocalories (8 kilojoules)

Monosaccharides are directly absorbed by the small intestine into the bloodstream, where they are
transported to the cells in need. Several hormones, including insulin and glucagon, are also part of the
digestive system. They maintain our blood sugar levels by removing or adding glucose to the blood stream
as needed.

If not used directly, the body converts glucose to glycogen, a polysaccharide like starch, which is stored in
the liver and the muscles as a readily available source of energy. When needed, for instance, between
meals, at night, during spurs of physical activity, or during short fasting periods, our body converts glycogen
back to glucose to maintain a constant blood sugar level.

The brain and the red blood cells are especially dependent on glucose as energy source, and can use other
forms of energy from fats in extreme circumstances, like in very extended periods of starvation. It is for this
reason that our blood glucose must be constantly maintained at an optimum level. Approximately 130 g of
glucose are needed per day to cover the energy needs of the adult brain alone.

4.2. The glycaemic response and glycaemic index

When we eat a carbohydrate-containing food, blood glucose level rises and then decreases, a process
known known as the glycaemic response. It reflects the rate of digestion and absorption of glucose, as well
as the effects of insulin in normalising the blood glucose level. A number of factors influence the rate and
duration of the glycaemic response:

The food itself:

The type of the sugar(s) that form(s) the carbohydrate; e.g. fructose has a lower glycaemic
response than glucose, and sucrose has a lower glycaemic response than maltose
The structure of the molecule; e.g. a starch with more branches is more easily broken down
by enzymes and therefore more readily digestible than others
The cooking and processing methods used
The amount of other nutrients in the food, such as fat, protein, and fibre
The (metabolic) circumstances in every individual:
The extent of chewing (mechanical breakdown)
The rate of gastric emptying
Transit time through the small intestine (which is partly influenced by the food)
Metabolism itself

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 The time of day the food is ingested

The impact of different foods (as well as the processing technique of foods) on the glycaemic response is
classified relative to a standard, usually white bread or glucose, within two hours after eating. This
measurement is called the glycaemic index (GI). A GI of 70 means that the food or drink causes 70% of the
blood glucose response which would be observed with the same amount of carbohydrate from pure
glucose or white bread; however, most of the time carbohydrates are eaten as a mixture and alongside
proteins and fats which all influence the GI.

High GI foods cause a greater blood glucose response than low GI foods. At the same time, foods with a
low GI are digested and absorbed more slowly than foods which have a high GI. There is a lot of discussion
in the scientific community, but currently insufficient evidence to suggest that a diet based on low GI foods
is associated with a reduced risk of developing metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.

THE GLYCAEMIC INDEX OF SOME COMMON FOODS (using glucose as standard)

Foods with a very low GI (≤ 40) Raw apple
Lentils
Soybeans
Kidney beans
Cow’s milk
Carrots (boiled)
Barley
Foods with a low GI (41-55) Noodles and pasta
Apple juice
Raw oranges/orange juice
Dates
Raw banana
Yoghurt (fruit)
Whole grain bread
Strawberry jam
Sweet corn
Chocolate
Foods with an intermediate GI (56-70) Brown rice
Rolled oats
Soft drinks
Pineapple
Honey
Sourdough bread
Foods with a high GI (> 70) White and wholemeal bread
Boiled potato
Cornflakes
French Fries
Mashed potatoes

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 White rice
Rice crackers

4.3. Gut function and dietary fibre

Although our small intestine is unable to digest dietary fibre, fibre helps to ensure good gut function by
increasing the physical bulk in the bowel, and thereby stimulating the intestinal transit. Once the
indigestible carbohydrates pass into the large intestine, some types of fibre such as gums, pectins and
oligosaccharides are broken down by the gut microflora. This increases the overall mass in the bowel and
has a beneficial effect on the make-up of our gut microflora. It also leads to formation of bacterial waste
products, like the short-chain fatty acids, which are released in the colon with beneficial effects on our
health (see our dietary fibre articles for more information).

5. Summary
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients in our diet, and as such essential for the proper
functioning of the body. They come in different forms, ranging from sugars over starch to dietary fibre, and
are present in many foods we eat. If you want to find out more about how they affect our health, read our
article on ‘Are carbohydrates good or bad for you?’.

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