Training Modules in ESP

Lesson 1
Electrostatic Precipitator Operation
Goal
To familiarize you with the operation of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs).
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to do the following:
1. Describe the theory of precipitation
2. Describe how an ESP operates to collect particulate matter
3. Describe the two ESP designs for particle charging and collection: high voltage single-stage
and low voltage two-stage
4. Distinguish between cold-side and hot-side ESPs
5. Briefly describe wet ESP operation
Introduction
As you may know, particulate matter (particles) is one of the industrial air pollution problems
that must be controlled. It's not a problem isolated to a few industries, but pervasive across a
wide variety of industries. That's why the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
regulated particulate emissions and why industry has responded with various control devices.
Of the major particulate collection devices used today, electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are
one of the more frequently used. They can handle large gas volumes with a wide range of inlet
temperatures, pressures, dust volumes, and acid gas conditions. They can collect a wide range
of particle sizes, and they can collect particles in dry and wet states. For many industries, the
collection efficiency can go as high as 99%. ESPs aren't always the appropriate collection
device, but they work because of electrostatic attraction (like charges repel; unlike charges
attract). Let's see how this law of physics works in an ESP.
Theory of Precipitation
Every particle either has or can be given a charge—positive or negative. Let's suppose we
impart a negative charge to all the particles in a gas stream. Then suppose we set up a
grounded plate having a positive charge. What would happen? The negatively charged particle
would migrate to the grounded collection plate and be captured. The particles would quickly
collect on the plate, creating a dust layer. The dust layer would accumulate until we removed
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Lesson 1
it, which we could do by rapping the plate or by spraying it with a liquid. Charging, collecting,
and removing—that's the basic idea of an ESP, but it gets more complicated. Let's look at a
typical scenario using a common ESP construction.
Particle Charging
Our typical ESP as shown in Figure 1-1 has thin wires called discharge electrodes, which
are evenly spaced between large plates called collection electrodes, which are grounded.
Think of an electrode as something that can conduct or transmit electricity. A negative,
high-voltage, pulsating, direct current is applied to the discharge electrode creating a neg-
ative electric field. You can mentally divide this field into three regions (Figure 1-2). The
field is strongest right next to the discharge electrode, weaker in the areas between the dis-
charge and collection electrodes called the inter-electrode region, and weakest near the
collection electrode. The region around the discharge electrode is where the particle charg-
ing process begins.
Figure 1-1. Typical dry electrostatic precipitator
Electric field strength

Weakest Strongest Weakest
Inter-
electrode
region
Figure 1-2. ESP electric field

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Corona Discharge: Free Electron Generation

Several things happen very rapidly (in a matter of a millisecond) in the small area
around the discharge electrode. The applied voltage is increased until it produces a
corona discharge, which can be seen as a luminous blue glow around the discharge
electrode. The free electrons created by the corona are rapidly fleeing the negative
electric field, which repulses them. They move faster and faster away from the dis-
charge electrode. This acceleration causes them to literally crash into gas molecules,
bumping off electrons in the molecules. As a result of losing an electron (which is
negative), the gas molecules become positively charged, that is, they become positive
ions (Figure 1-3). So, this is the first thing that happens—gas molecules are ionized,
and electrons are liberated. All this activity occurs very close to the discharge elec-
trode. This process continues, creating more and more free electrons and more posi-
tive ions. The name for all this electron generation activity is avalanche
multiplication (Figure 1-4).
Figure 1-3. Corona generation
Figure 1-4. Avalanche multiplication of gas molecules
The electrons bump into gas molecules and create additional ionized molecules. The
positive ions, on the other hand, are drawn back toward the negative discharge elec-
trode. The molecules are hundreds of times bigger than the tiny electrons and move
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Lesson 1
slowly, but they do pick up speed. In fact, many of them collide right into the metal
discharge electrode or the gas space around the wire causing additional electrons to be
knocked off. This is called secondary emission. So, this is the second thing that hap-
pens. We still have positive ions and a large amount of free electrons.
Ionization of Gas Molecules

As the electrons leave the strong electrical field area around the discharge electrode,
they start slowing down. Now they're in the inter-electrode area where they are still
repulsed by the discharge electrode but to a lesser extent. There are also gas molecules
in the inter-electrode region, but instead of violently colliding with them, the electrons
kind of bump up to them and are captured (Figure 1-5). This imparts a negative charge
to the gas molecules, creating negative gas ions. This time, because the ions are nega-
tive, they too want to move in the direction opposite the strong negative field. Now we
have ionization of gas molecules happening near the discharge electrode and in the
inter-electrode area, but with a big difference. The ions near the discharge electrode
are positive and remain in that area. The ions in the middle area are negative and move
away, along the path of invisible electric field lines, toward the collection electrode.
Gas Negative
Electron molecule gas ion
To
collection
plate
Figure 1-5. Negative gas ions formed in the inter-

electrode region
Charging of Particles
These negative gas ions play a key role in capturing dust particles. Before the dust
particles can be captured, they must first acquire a negative charge. This is when and
where it happens. The particles are traveling along in the gas stream and encounter
negative ions moving across their path. Actually, what really happens is that the parti-
cles get in the way of the negatively charged gas ions. The gas ions stick to the parti-
cles, imparting a negative charge to them. At first the charge is fairly insignificant as
most particles are huge compared to a gas molecule. But many gas ions can fit on a
particle, and they do. Small particles (less than 1 µm diameter) can absorb “tens” of
ions. Large particles (greater than 10 µm) can absorb "tens of thousands" of ions
(Turner et al. 1992). Eventually, there are so many ions stuck to the particles, the par-
ticles emit their own negative electrical field. When this happens, the negative field
around the particle repulses the negative gas ions and no additional ions are acquired.
This is called the saturation charge. Now the negatively-charged particles are feeling
the inescapable pull of electrostatic attraction. Bigger particles have a higher satura-
tion charge (more molecules fit) and consequently are pulled more strongly to the col-
lection plate. In other words, they move faster than smaller particles. Regardless of
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size, the particles encounter the plate and stick, because of adhesive and cohesive
forces.
Let's stop here and survey the picture. Gas molecules around the discharge electrode
are positively ionized. Free electrons are racing as fast as they can away from the
strong negative field area around the discharge electrode. The electrons are captured
by gas molecules in the inter-electrode area and impart a negative charge to them.
Negative gas ions meet particles and are captured (Figure 1-6). And all this happens in
the blink of an eye. The net result is negatively charged particles that are repulsed by
the negative electric field around the discharge electrode and are strongly attracted to
the collection plate. They travel toward the grounded collection plate, bump into it,
and stay there.
More and more particles accumulate, creating a dust layer. This dust layer builds until
it is somehow removed. Charging, collecting, and removing—isn't that what we said
it's all about?
Negatively
charged
particle
Negative
gas ion
Figure 1-6. Particle charging
Particle Charging Mechanisms

Particles are charged by negative gas ions moving toward the collection plate by one
of these two mechanisms: field charging or diffusion charging. In field charging (the
mechanism described above), particles capture negatively charged gas ions as the ions
move toward the grounded collection plate. Diffusion charging, as its name implies,
depends on the random motion of the gas ions to charge particles.
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Lesson 1
In field charging (Figure 1-7), as particles enter the electric field, they cause a local
dislocation of the field. Negative gas ions traveling along the electric field lines col-
lide with the suspended particles and impart a charge to them. The ions will continue
to bombard a particle until the charge on that particle is sufficient to divert the electric
lines away from it. This prevents new ions from colliding with the charged dust parti-
cle. When a particle no longer receives an ion charge, it is said to be saturated. Satu-
rated charged particles then migrate to the collection electrode and are collected.
negative
gas ion
particle
a.) Field lines distorted by particle

Collection
electrode
Saturated
charged particle
b.) Saturated particle migrates toward

collection electrode
Figure 1-7. Field charging
Diffusion charging is associated with the random Brownian motion of the negative
gas ions. The random motion is related to the velocity of the gas ions due to thermal
effects: the higher the temperature, the more movement. Negative gas ions collide
with the particles because of their random thermal motion and impart a charge on the
particles. Because the particles are very small (submicrometer), they do not cause the
electric field to be dislocated, as in field charging. Thus, diffusion charging is the only
mechanism by which these very small particles become charged. The charged parti-
cles then migrate to the collection electrode.
Each of these two charging mechanisms occurs to some extent, with one dominating
depending on particle size. Field charging dominates for particles with a diameter
>1.0 micrometer because particles must be large enough to capture gas ions. Diffusion
charging dominates for particles with a diameter less than 0.1 micrometer. A combina-
tion of these two charging mechanisms occurs for particles ranging between 0.2 and
1.0 micrometer in diameter.
A third type of charging mechanism, which is responsible for very little particle charg-
ing is electron charging. With this type of charging, fast-moving free electrons that
have not combined with gas ions hit the particle and impart a charge.
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Electric Field Strength

In the inter-electrode region, negative gas ions migrate toward the grounded collection
electrode. A space charge, which is a stable concentration of negative gas ions, forms
in the inter-electrode region because of the high electric field applied to the ESP.
Increasing the applied voltage to the discharge electrode will increase the field
strength and ion formation until sparkover occurs. Sparkover refers to internal spark-
ing between the discharge and collection electrodes. It is a sudden rush of localized
electric current through the gas layer between the two electrodes. Sparking causes an
immediate short-term collapse of the electric field (Figure 1-8.)
For optimum efficiency, the electric field strength should be as high as possible. More
specifically, ESPs should be operated at voltages high enough to cause some sparking,
but not so high that sparking and the collapse of the electric field occur too frequently.
The average sparkover rate for optimum precipitator operation is between 50 and 100
sparks per minute. At this spark rate, the gain in efficiency associated with increased
voltage compensates for decreased gas ionization due to collapse of the electric field.
Figure 1-8. Spark generation profile
Particle Collection
When a charged particle reaches the grounded collection electrode, the charge on the par-
ticle is only partially discharged. The charge is slowly leaked to the grounded collection
plate. A portion of the charge is retained and contributes to the inter-molecular adhesive
and cohesive forces that hold the particles onto the plates (Figure 1-9). Adhesive forces
cause the particles to physically hold on to each other because of their dissimilar surfaces.
Newly arrived particles are held to the collected particles by cohesive forces; particles are
attracted and held to each other molecularly. The dust layer is allowed to build up on the
plate to a desired thickness and then the particle removal cycle is initiated.
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Lesson 1
Figure 1-9. Particle collection at collection electrode
Particle Removal
Dust that has accumulated to a certain thickness on the collection electrode is removed by
one of two processes, depending on the type of collection electrode. As described in
greater detail in the next section, collection electrodes in precipitators can be either plates
or tubes, with plates being more common. Tubes are usually cleaned by water sprays,
while plates can be cleaned either by water sprays or a process called rapping.
Rapping is a process whereby deposited, dry particles are dislodged from the collection
plates by sending mechanical impulses, or vibrations, to the plates. Precipitator plates are
rapped periodically while maintaining the continuous flue-gas cleaning process. In other
words, the plates are rapped while the ESP is on-line; the gas flow continues through the
precipitator and the applied voltage remains constant. Plates are rapped when the accumu-
lated dust layer is relatively thick (0.08 to 1.27 cm or 0.03 to 0.5 in.). This allows the dust
layer to fall off the plates as large aggregate sheets and helps eliminate dust reentrainment.
Most precipitators have adjustable rappers so that rapper intensity and frequency can be
changed according to the dust concentration in the flue gas. Installations where the dust
concentration is heavy require more frequent rapping.
Dislodged dust falls from the plates into the hopper. The hopper is a single collection bin
with sides sloping approximately 50 to 70° to allow dust to flow freely from the top of the
hopper to the discharge opening. Dust should be removed as soon as possible to avoid
(dust) packing. Packed dust is very difficult to remove. Most hoppers are emptied by some
type of discharge device and then transported by a conveyor.
In a precipitator using liquid sprays to remove accumulated liquid or dust, the sludge col-
lects in a holding basin at the bottom of the vessel. The sludge is then sent to settling
ponds or lined landfills for proper ultimate disposal.
Spraying occurs while the ESP is on-line and is done intermittently to remove the col-
lected particles. Water is generally used as the spraying liquid although other liquids could
be used if absorption of gaseous pollutants is also being accomplished.
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Types of Electrostatic Precipitators

ESPs can be grouped, or classified, according to a number of distinguishing features in their
design. These features include the following:
• The structural design and operation of the discharge electrodes (rigid-frame, wires or
plate) and collection electrodes (tubular or plate)
• The method of charging (single-stage or two-stage)
• The temperature of operation (cold-side or hot-side)
• The method of particle removal from collection surfaces (wet or dry)
These categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, an ESP can be a rigid-frame, sin-
gle-stage, cold-side, plate-type ESP as described below.
Tubular and Plate ESPs

Tubular
Tubular precipitators consist of cylindrical collection electrodes (tubes) with dis-
charge electrodes (wires) located in the center of the cylinder (Figure 1-10). Dirty gas
flows into the tubes, where the particles are charged. The charged particles are then
collected on the inside walls of the tubes. Collected dust and/or liquid is removed by
washing the tubes with water sprays located directly above the tubes. The tubes may
be formed as a circular, square, or hexagonal honeycomb with gas flowing upward or
downward. A tubular ESP is tightly sealed to minimize leaks of collected material.
Tube diameters typically vary from 0.15 to 0.31 m (0.5 to 1 ft), with lengths usually
varying from 1.85 to 4.0 m (6 to 15 ft).
Discharge
electrode
Collection
electrodes
Figure 1-10. Gas flow through a tubular precipitator
Tubular precipitators are generally used for collecting mists or fogs, and are most
commonly used when collecting particles that are wet or sticky. Tubular ESPs have
been used to control particulate emissions from sulfuric acid plants, coke oven by-
product gas cleaning (tar removal), and iron and steel sinter plants.
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Lesson 1
Plate
Plate electrostatic precipitators primarily collect dry particles and are used more often
than tubular precipitators. Plate ESPs can have wire, rigid-frame, or occasionally,
plate discharge electrodes. Figure 1-11 shows a plate ESP with wire discharge elec-
trodes. Dirty gas flows into a chamber consisting of a series of discharge electrodes
that are equally spaced along the center line between adjacent collection plates.
Charged particles are collected on the plates as dust, which is periodically removed by
rapping or water sprays. Discharge wire electrodes are approximately 0.13 to 0.38 cm
(0.05 to 0.15 in.) in diameter. Collection plates are usually between 6 and 12 m (20
and 40 ft) high. For ESPs with wire discharge electrodes, the plates are usually spaced
from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in.) apart. For ESPs with rigid-frame or plate discharge elec-
trodes, plates are typically spaced 30 to 38 cm (12 to 15 in.) apart and 8 to 12 m (30 to
40 ft) in height.
Plate ESPs are typically used for collecting fly ash from industrial and utility boilers
as well as in many other industries including cement kilns, glass plants and pulp and
paper mills.
Collection
plate
Discharge
electrode
Figure 1-11. Gas flow through a plate precipitator
Single-stage and Two-stage ESPs

Another method of classifying ESPs is by the number of stages used to charge and remove
particles from a gas stream. A single-stage precipitator uses high voltage to charge the
particles, which are then collected within the same chamber on collection surfaces of
opposite charge. In a two-stage precipitator, particles are charged by low voltage in one
chamber, and then collected by oppositely charged surfaces in a second chamber.
Single Stage
Most ESPs that reduce particulate emissions from boilers and other industrial pro-
cesses are single-stage ESPs (these units will be emphasized in this course). Single-
stage ESPs use very high voltage (50 to 70 kV) to charge particles. After being
charged, particles move in a direction perpendicular to the gas flow through the ESP,
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and migrate to an oppositely charged collection surface, usually a plate or tube. Parti-
cle charging and collection occurs in the same stage, or field; thus, the precipitators
are called single-stage ESPs. The term field is used interchangeably with the term
stage and is described in more detail later in this course. Figure 1-10 shows a single-
stage tubular precipitator. A single-stage plate precipitator is shown in Figure 1-11.
Two Stage
The two-stage precipitator differs from the single-stage precipitator in both design and
amount of voltage applied. The two-stage ESP has separate particle charging and col-
lection stages (Figure 1-12). The ionizing stage consists of a series of small, positively
charged wires equally spaced 2.5 to 5.1 cm (1 to 2 in.) from parallel grounded tubes or
rods. A corona discharge between each wire and a corresponding tube charges the par-
ticles suspended in the air flow as they pass through the ionizer. The direct-current
potential applied to the wires is approximately 12 to 13 kV.
Collection plate
Clean
air
Baffle
(to distribute
air uniformly) Precipitated
(collected)
particles
Positively
charged
particles
Uncharged Ionizer
particles (to charge particles)
Figure 1-12. Representation of gas flow in a two-stage precipitator
The second stage consists of parallel metal plates less than 2.5 cm (1 in.) apart. The
particles receive a positive charge in the ionizer stage and are collected at the negative
plates in the second stage. Collected smoke or liquids drain by gravity to a pan located
below the plates, or are sprayed with water mists or solvents that remove the particles
and cause them to fall into the bottom pan.
Two-stage precipitators were originally designed for air purification in conjunction
with air conditioning systems. (They are also referred to as electronic air filters). Two-
stage ESPs are used primarily for the control of finely divided liquid particles. Con-
trolling solid or sticky materials is usually difficult, and the collector becomes ineffec-
tive for dust loadings greater than 7.35 x 10-3g/m3 (0.4 gr/dscf). Therefore, two-stage
precipitators have limited use for particulate-emission control. They are used almost
exclusively to collect liquid aerosols discharged from sources such as meat smoke-
houses, pipe-coating machines, asphalt paper saturators, high speed grinding
machines, welding machines, and metal-coating operations.
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Lesson 1
Cold-side and Hot-side ESPs

Electrostatic precipitators are also grouped according to the temperature of the flue gas
that enters the ESP: cold-side ESPs are used for flue gas having temperatures of approxi-
mately 204°C (400°F) or less; hot-side ESPs are used for flue gas having temperatures
greater than 300°C (572°F).
In describing ESPs installed on industrial and utility boilers, or municipal waste combus-
tors using heat recovery equipment, cold side and hot side also refer to the placement of
the ESP in relation to the combustion air preheater. A cold-side ESP is located behind the
air preheater, whereas a hot-side ESP is located in front of the air preheater. The air pre-
heater is a tube section that preheats the combustion air used for burning fuel in a boiler.
When hot flue gas from an industrial process passes through an air preheater, a heat
exchange process occurs whereby heat from the flue gas is transferred to the combustion
air stream. The flue gas is therefore "cooled" as it passes through the combustion air pre-
heater. The warmed combustion air is sent to burners, where it is used to burn gas, oil,
coal, or other fuel including garbage. APTI Course SI:428A Introduction to Boiler Opera-
tion describes boilers and heat recovery equipment in greater detail.
Cold Side
Cold-side ESPs (Figure 1-13) have been used for over 50 years with industrial and
utility boilers, where the flue gas temperature is relatively low (less than 204°C or
400°F). Cold-side ESPs generally use plates to collect charged particles. Because
these ESPs are operated at lower temperatures than hot-side ESPs, the volume of flue
gas that is handled is less. Therefore, the overall size of the unit is smaller, making it
less costly. Cold-side ESPs can be used to remove fly ash from boilers that burn high-
sulfur coal. As explained in later lessons, cold-side ESPs can effectively remove fly
ash from boilers burning low-sulfur coal with the addition of conditioning agents.
Combustion
air preheater
Boiler
ESP
Fan
Figure 1-13. Cold-side ESP
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Hot Side
Hot-side ESPs (Figure 1-14) are placed in locations where the flue gas temperature is
relatively high. Their collection electrodes can be either tubular or plate. Hot-side
ESPs are used in high-temperature applications, such as in the collection of cement-
kiln dust or utility and industrial boiler fly ash. A hot-side precipitator is located
before the combustion air preheater in a boiler. The flue gas temperature for hot-side
precipitators is in the range of 320 to 420°C (608 to 790°F).
The use of hot-side precipitators help reduce corrosion and hopper plugging. How-
ever, these units (mainly used on coal-fired boilers) have some disadvantages.
Because the temperature of the flue gas is higher, the gas volume treated in the ESP is
larger. Consequently, the overall size of the precipitator is larger making it more
costly. Other major disadvantages include structural and mechanical problems that
occur in the precipitator shell and support structure as a result of differences in ther-
mal expansion.
For years, cold-side ESPs were used successfully on boilers burning high-sulfur coal.
However, during the 1970s when utilities switched to burning low-sulfur coal, cold-
side ESPs were no longer effective at collecting the fly ash. Fly ash produced from
low sulfur coal-fired boilers has high resistivity (discussed in more detail later in the
course), making it difficult to collect. As you will learn later, high temperatures can
lower resistivity. Consequently, hot-side ESPs became very popular during the 1970s
for removing ash from coal-fired boilers burning low sulfur coal. However, many of
these units did not operate reliably, and therefore, since the 1980s, operators have gen-
erally decided to use cold-side ESPs along with conditioning agents when burning low
sulfur coal.
Hot-side ESPs are also used in industrial applications such as cement kilns and steel
refining furnaces. In these cases, combustion air preheaters are generally not used and
hot side just refers to the high flue gas temperature prior to entering the ESP.
Combustion
air preheater
Boiler
ESP
Fan
Figure 1-14. Hot-side ESP
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Lesson 1
Wet and Dry ESPs

Wet ESPs
Any of the previously described ESPs can be operated with a wet spray to remove col-
lected particles. Wet ESPs are used for industrial applications where the potential for
explosion is high (such as collecting dust from a closed-hood Basic Oxygen Furnace
in the steel industry), or when dust is very sticky, corrosive, or has very high resistiv-
ity. The water flow may be applied continuously or intermittently to wash the col-
lected particles from the collection electrodes into a sump (a basin used to collect
liquid). The advantage of using a wet ESP is that it does not have problems with rap-
ping reentrainment or with back corona which are discussed in more detail in Lesson
3.
Figures 1-15 and 1-16 show two different wet ESPs. The casing of wet ESPs is made
of steel or fiberglass and the discharge electrodes are made of carbon steel or special
alloys, depending on the corrosiveness of the flue gas stream.
In a circular-plate wet ESP, shown in Figure 1-15, the circular collection plates are
sprayed with liquid continuously. The liquid provides the electrical ground for attract-
ing the particles and for removing them from the plates. These units can handle gas
flow rates of 30,000 to 100,000 cfm. Preconditioning sprays located at the inlet
remove some particulate matter prior to the charging stage. The operating pressure
drop across these units is typically 1 to 3 inches of water.
Clean gas discharge
Water distributor
Insulator Concentric
collection surfaces
Emitting
electrodes
Venturi/drain
gutters
Preconditioner
sprays
Straightening
vanes
Gas inlet
Figure 1-15. Circular-plate wet EPS

Reproduced with permission of Fluid Ionics Systems, a
division of Dresser Industries, Inc.
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Rectangular flat-plate wet ESPs, shown in Figure 1-16, operate similarly to circular-
plate wet ESPs. Water sprays precondition the gas stream and provide some particle
removal. Because the water sprays are located over the top of the electrical fields, the
collection plates are continuously irrigated. The collected particulate matter flows
downward into a trough that is sloped to a drain.
Water manifolds
Gas outlet
Water Inlet
Discharge electrode
Water outlet
Collection
plate
Perforated plates
Turning vanes
Gas inlet
Access manway
Figure 1-16. Flat-plate modular wet ESP

Reproduced with permission of Fluid Ionics Systems, a
division of Dresser Industries, Inc.
Dry ESPs
Most electrostatic precipitators are operated dry and use rappers to remove the col-
lected particulate matter. The term dry is used because particles are charged and col-
lected in a dry state and are removed by rapping as opposed to water washing which is
used with wet ESPs. The major portion of this course covers dry ESPs that are used
for collecting dust from many industries including steel furnaces, cement kilns and
fossil-fuel-fired boilers.
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Lesson 1
Summary
All ESPs, no matter how they are grouped, have similar components and operate by charging
particles or liquid aerosols, collecting them, and finally removing them from the ESP before
ultimate disposal in a landfill or reuse in the industrial process.
ESPs are occasionally referred to as cold-side, tubular, or by some other descriptor. ESP
designs usually incorporate a number of ESP features into one unit. For example, a typical
ESP used for removing particulate matter from a coal-fired boiler will be a cold-side, single-
stage, plate ESP. On the other hand, a hot-side, single-stage, tubular ESP may be used to clean
exhaust gas from a blast furnace in a steel mill.
Remember that an ESP is specifically designed to collect particulate matter or liquids for an
individual industrial application. Vendors use those features, i.e., tubes, plates, etc., that most
readily enhance the removal of the pollutants from the flue gas. These features are described in
more detail in the remaining lessons.
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Review Exercise
1. In an electrostatic precipitator, the ____________________ electrode is normally a small-diameter

metal wire or a rigid frame containing wires.
2. The charged particles migrate to the ____________________ ____________________.
3. In a single-stage, high-voltage ESP, the applied voltage is increased until it produces a(an)
a. Extremely high alternating current for particle charging
b. Corona discharge, which can be seen as a blue glow around the discharge electrode
c. Corona spark that occurs at the collection electrode
4. True or False? Particles are usually charged by negative gas ions that are migrating toward the col-
lection electrode.
5. True or False? Large particles move more slowly towards the collection plate than small particles.
6. The average sparkover rate (in sparks per minute) for optimum precipitator operation is between:
a. 1 - 25
b. 50 - 100
c. 100 - 150
d. 500 - 1,000
7. As dust particles reach the grounded collection electrode, their charge is:
a. Immediately transferred to the collection plate
b. Slowly leaked to the grounded collection electrode
c. Cancelled out by the strong electric field
8. Particles are held onto the collection plates by:

a. A strong electric force field
b. A high-voltage, pulsating, direct current
c. Intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces
d. Electric sponsors
9. Dust that has accumulated on collection electrodes can be removed either by

____________________ ____________________ or a process called ____________________.
10. True or False? During the rapping process, the voltage is turned down to about 50% of the normal
operating voltage to allow the rapped particles to fall freely into the hopper.
11. ____________________ electrostatic precipitators are used for removing particulate matter from
flue gas that usually has a temperature range of 320 to 420° C (608 to 790° F).
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Lesson 1
12. In a boiler, hot-side ESPs are located ____________________ air preheaters, whereas cold-side
ESPs are located ____________________ air preheaters.
a. In front of, behind
b. Behind, in front of
13. True or False? Wet electrostatic precipitators are used when collecting dust that is sticky or has
high resistivity.
14. ____________________ ESPs are units where particle charging occurs in the first stage, followed
by collection in the second stage.
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Review Exercise Answers
1. Discharge
In an electrostatic precipitator, the discharge electrode is normally a small-diameter metal wire or a
rigid frame containing wires.
2. Collection electrode
The charged particles migrate to the collection electrode.
3. b. Corona discharge, which can be seen as a blue glow around the discharge electrode
In a single-stage, high-voltage ESP, the applied voltage is increased until it produces a corona dis-
charge, which can be seen as a blue glow around the discharge electrode.
4. True
Particles are usually charged by negative gas ions that are migrating toward the collection elec-
trode.
5. False
Large particles move faster towards the collection plate than small particles. Large particles have a
higher saturation charge than small particles; consequently, large particles are pulled more strongly
to the collection plate.
6. b. 50 - 100
The average sparkover rate for optimum precipitator operation is between 50 - 100 sparks per
minute.
7. b. Slowly leaked to the grounded collection electrode

As dust particles reach the grounded collection electrode, their charge is slowly leaked to the
grounded collection electrode.
8. c. Intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces

Particles are held onto the collection plates by intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces.
9. Water sprays
Rapping
Dust that has accumulated on collection electrodes can be removed either by water sprays or a pro-
cess called rapping.
10. False
During the rapping process, the voltage is NOT turned down. Rapping occurs while the ESP
remains on-line.
11. Hot-side
Hot-side electrostatic precipitators are used for removing particulate matter from flue gas that usu-
ally has a temperature range of 320 to 420°C (608 to 790°F).
2.0-2/98 1-19
Lesson 1
12. a. In front of, behind

In a boiler, hot-side ESPs are located in front of air preheaters, whereas cold-side ESPs are located
behind air preheaters. Recall that flue gas is cooled as it passes through the combustion air pre-
heater.
13. True
Wet electrostatic precipitators are used when collecting dust that is sticky or has high resistivity.
14. Two-stage
Two-stage ESPs are units where particle charging occurs in the first stage, followed by collection
in the second stage.
1-20 2.0-2/98
Bibliography
Beachler, D. S., J. A. Jahnke, G. T. Joseph and M. M. Peterson. 1983. Air Pollution Control Systems for
Selected Industries-Self-Instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course SI:431). EPA 450/2-82-006. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology-an Engineering Analysis Point of View. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Katz, J. 1979. The Art of Electrostatic Precipitators. Munhall, PA: Precipitator Technology.
Nichols, G. B. 1976, September. Electrostatic Precipitation. Seminar presented to the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, NC.
Richards, J.R. 1995. Control of Particulate Emissions-Student Manual. (APTI Course 413). U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency.
Turner, J. H., P. A. Lawless, T. Yamamoto, D. W. Coy, G. P. Greiner, J. D. McKenna, and W. M. Vata-

vuk. 1992. Electrostatic precipitators. In A. J. Buonicore and W. T. Davis (Eds.), Air Pollution
Engineering Manual (pp. 89-113). Air and Waste Management Association. New York: Van Nos-
trand Reinhold.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. 2d ed. AP-40.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. Operation and Maintenance Manual for Electrostatic
Precipitators. EPA 625/1-85/017.
White, H. J. 1977. Electrostatic precipitation of fly ash. APCA Reprint Series. Journal of Air Pollution
Control Association. Pittsburgh, PA.
2.0-2/98 1-21
1-22 2.0-2/98
Lesson 2
Electrostatic Precipitator Components
Goal
To familiarize you with the components of an ESP.
Objectives
1. Identify six major components of an ESP
2. Describe typical discharge electrode designs
3. Describe typical collection electrode designs
4. Identify how discharge electrodes and collection plates are installed in an ESP
5. List three types of rappers and briefly describe how they operate
6. Describe how the high-voltage equipment operates
7. Describe two factors that are important in hopper design
8. Identify two discharge devices used to remove dust from hoppers, and three types of conveyors
9. State the purpose for installing insulation on an ESP
Video Presentation (optional): If you have acquired the video titled, Electrostatic Precipitators:
Operating Principles and Components, please view it at the end of this lesson.
Precipitator Components
All electrostatic precipitators, regardless of their particular designs, contain the following
essential components:
• Discharge electrodes
• Collection electrodes
• High voltage electrical systems
• Rappers
• Hoppers
• Shell
Discharge electrodes are either small-diameter metal wires that hang vertically (in the electro-
static precipitator), a number of wires attached together in rigid frames, or a rigid electrode-
made from a single piece of fabricated metal. Discharge electrodes create a strong electrical
field that ionizes flue gas, and this ionization charges particles in the gas.
2.0-2/98 2-1
Lesson 2
Collection electrodes collect charged particles. Collection electrodes are either flat plates or
tubes with a charge opposite that of the discharge electrodes.
High voltage equipment provides the electric field between the discharge and collection elec-
trodes used to charge particles in the ESP.
Rappers impart a vibration, or shock, to the electrodes, removing the collected dust. Rappers
remove dust that has accumulated on both collection electrodes and discharge electrodes.
Occasionally, water sprays are used to remove dust from collection electrodes.
Hoppers are located at the bottom of the precipitator. Hoppers are used to collect and tempo-
rarily store the dust removed during the rapping process.
The shell provides the base to support the ESP components and to enclose the unit.
Figure 2-1 shows a typical ESP with wires for discharge electrodes and plates for collection
electrodes. This ESP is used to control particulate emissions in many different industries.
Rappers
Clean
gas Flue gas in
out
Discharge
electrodes
Hoppers
Figure 2-1. Typical dry electrostatic precipitator
Discharge Electrodes
The discharge electrodes in most U.S. precipitator designs (prior to the 1980s) are thin,
round wires varying from 0.13 to 0.38 cm (0.05 to 0.15 in.) in diameter. The most com-
mon size diameter for wires is approximately 0.25 cm (0.1 in.). The discharge electrodes
are hung vertically, supported at the top by a frame and held taut and plumb by a weight at
the bottom. The wires are usually made from high-carbon steel, but have also been con-
structed of stainless steel, copper, titanium alloy, and aluminum. The weights are made of
cast iron and are generally 11.4 kg (25 lb) or more.
Discharge wires are supported to help eliminate breakage from mechanical fatigue. The
wires move under the influence of aerodynamic and electrical forces and are subject to
mechanical stress. The weights at the bottom of the wire are attached to guide frames to
help maintain wire alignment and to prevent them from falling into the hopper in the event
that the wire breaks (Figure 2-2).
2-2 2.0-2/98
Weights that are 11.4 kg (25 lb) are used with wires 9.1 m (30 ft) long, and 13.6 kg (30 lb)
weights are used with wires from 10.7 to 12.2 m (35 to 40 ft) long. The bottom and top of
each wire are usually covered with a shroud of steel tubing. The shrouds help minimize
sparking and consequent metal erosion by sparks at these points on the wire.
Upper
guide frame
Top shroud
Bottom shroud
Lower
guide frame
Guide loop
Weight
Figure 2-2. Guide frames and shrouds for

discharge wires
The size and shape of the electrodes are governed by the mechanical requirements for the
system, such as the industrial process on which ESPs are installed and the amount and
properties of the flue gas being treated. Most U.S. designs have traditionally used thin,
round wires for corona generation. Some designers have also used twisted wire, square
wire, barbed wire, or other configurations, as illustrated in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. Typical wire dischare electrodes
European precipitator manufacturers and most of the newer systems (since the early
1980s) made by U.S. manufacturers use rigid support frames for discharge electrodes. The
frames may consist of coiled-spring wires, serrated strips, or needle points mounted on a
supporting strip. A typical rigid-frame discharge electrode is shown in Figure 2-4. The
2.0-2/98 2-3
Lesson 2
purpose of the rigid frame is to eliminate the possible swinging of the discharge wires.
Another type of discharge electrode is a rigid electrode that is constructed from a single
piece of fabricated metal and is shown in Figure 2-5. Both designs are occasionally
referred to as rigid-frame electrodes. They have been used as successfully as the older
U.S. wire designs. One major disadvantage of the rigid-frame design is that a broken wire
cannot be replaced without removing the whole frame.
Discharge
electrode
Figure 2-4. Rigid frame discharge electrode design
Rapper
anvil
Support
insulator
Discharge
electrode
Figure 2-5. Typical rigid discharge electrode
2-4 2.0-2/98
One U.S. manufacturer (United McGill) uses flat plates instead of wires for discharge
electrodes. The flat plates, shown in Figure 2-6, increase the average electric field that can
be used for collecting particles and provide an increased surface area for collecting parti-
cles, both on the discharge and collection plates. The corona is generated by the sharp-
pointed needles attached to the plates. These units generally use positive polarity for
charging the particles. The units are typically operated with low flue gas velocity to pre-
vent particle reentrainment during the rapping cycle (Turner, et al. 1992).
Discharge
electrode
plate
Collection
plate
Figure 2-6. Flat-plate discharge electrode

(United McGill design)
Collection Electrodes
Most U.S. precipitators use plate collection electrodes because these units treat large gas
volumes and are designed to achieve high collection efficiency. The plates are generally
made of carbon steel. However, plates are occasionally made of stainless steel or an alloy
steel for special flue-gas stream conditions where corrosion of carbon steel plates would
occur. The plates range from 0.05 to 0.2 cm (0.02 to 0.08 in.) in thickness. For ESPs with
wire discharge electrodes, plates are spaced from 15 to 30 cm apart (6 to 12 in.). Normal
spacing for high-efficiency ESPs (using wires) is 20 to 23 cm (8 to 9 in.). For ESPs using
rigid-frame or plate discharge electrodes, collection plates are typically spaced 30 to 38
cm (12 to 15 inches) apart. Plates are usually between 6 and 12 m (20 to 40 ft) high.
2.0-2/98 2-5
Lesson 2
Collection plates are constructed in various shapes, as shown in Figure 2-7. These plates
are solid sheets that are sometimes reinforced with structural stiffeners to increase plate
strength. In some cases, the stiffeners act as baffles to help reduce particle reentrainment
losses. This design minimizes the amount of excess rapping energy required to dislodge
the dust from the collection plates, because the energy is distributed evenly throughout the
plate. The baffles also provide a "quiet zone" for the dislodged dust to fall while mini-
mizing dust reentrainment.
Figure 2-7. Typical collection plates
As stated in Lesson 1, tubes are also used as collection electrodes, but not nearly as often.
Tubes are typically used to collect sticky particles and when liquid sprays are used to
remove the collected particles.
High-Voltage Equipment
High-voltage equipment determines and controls the strength of the electric field gener-
ated between the discharge and collection electrodes. This is accomplished by using
power supply sets consisting of three components: a step-up transformer, a high-voltage
rectifier, and control metering and protection circuitry (automatic circuitry). The power
system maintains voltage at the highest level without causing excess sparkover between
the discharge electrode and collection plate. These power sets are also commonly called
transformer-rectifier (T-R) sets.
In a T-R set, the transformer steps up the voltage from 400 volts to approximately 50,000
volts. This high voltage ionizes gas molecules that charge particles in the flue gas. The
rectifier converts alternating current to direct current. Direct (or unidirectional current) is
required for electrical precipitation. Most modern precipitators use solid-state silicon rec-
tifiers and oil-filled, high-voltage transformers. The control circuitry in a modern precipi-
tator is usually a Silicon-controlled Rectifier (SCR) automatic voltage controller with a
linear reactor in the primary side of the transformer. Meters, also included in the control
2-6 2.0-2/98
circuitry, monitor the variations in the electrical power input. A simplified drawing of the
circuitry from the primary control cabinet to the precipitator field is shown in Figure 2.8
Figure 2-8. Schematic diagram of circuitry associated with precipitators
The most commonly used meters are the following:

Primary voltmeter. This meter measures the input voltage, in a.c. volts, coming into
the transformer. The input voltage ranges from 220 to 480 volts; however, most mod-
ern precipitators use 400 to 480 volts. The meter is located across the primary winding
of the transformer.Primary ammeter. This meter measures the current drawn across
the transformer in amperes. The primary ammeter is located across the primary wind-
ing (wires wound in the coil) of the transformer. The primary voltage and current
readings give the power input to a particular section of the ESP.
Secondary voltmeter. This meter measures, in d.c. volts, the operating voltage deliv-
ered to the discharge electrodes. The meter is located between the output side of the
rectifier and the discharge electrodes.
Secondary ammeter. This meter measures the current supplied to the discharge elec-
trodes in milliamperes. The secondary ammeter is located between the rectifier output
and the automatic control module. The combination of the secondary voltage and cur-
rent readings gives the power input to the discharge electrodes.
Sparkmeter. This meter measures the number of sparks per minute in the precipitator
section. Sparks are surges of localized electric current between the discharge elec-
trodes and the collection plate.
2.0-2/98 2-7
Lesson 2
The terms primary and secondary refer to the side of the transformer being monitored by
the meter. Figure 2-9 shows the typical meters used on each ESP field and are located in
the control cabinet.
Power Power
Off On Alarm
200 300 50 100 150
100 400
0 200
0 500
A.C. Volts A.C. Amps
On
Off Start
Primary Voltage Primary Current
30 40 50 60 70 .5 1 1.5 25
50 75
20 80
10 90 0 2 0 100
0 100
D.C. Kilovolts D.C. Amps Sparks/Minute
Secondary Voltage Secondary Current Spark meter
Figure 2-9. Typical gauges (meters) installed on control cabinet for

each precipitator field
The transformer-rectifier set ios connected to the discharge electrodes by a bus line. A bus
line is electric cable that carries high voltage from the transformer-rectifier to the dis-
charge electrodes (Figure 2-10). The bus line is encased in a pipe, or bus duct, to protect
the high-voltage line from the environment and to prevent the line from becoming a poten-
tial hazard to humans. The high-voltage bus lines are separated, or isolated, from the ESP
frame and shells by insulators. The insulators are made of nonconducting plastic or
ceramic material.
High voltage bus duct

Support
insulator Bus line
housing
Transformer
rectifier
Figure 2-10. High-voltage system
2-8 2.0-2/98
Rappers
Dust that has accumulated on collection and discharge electrodes is removed by rapping.
Dust deposits are generally dislodged by mechanical impulses, or vibrations, imparted to
the electrodes. A rapping system is designed so that rapping intensity and frequency can
be adjusted for varying operational conditions. Once the operating conditions are set, the
system must be capable of maintaining uniform rapping for a long time.
Collection electrodes are rapped by hammer/anvil or magnetic impulse systems. Rigid
frame discharge electrodes are rapped by tumbling hammers and wires are rapped by
vibrators. As stated previously, liquid sprays are also used (instead of rapping) to remove
collected particles form both tubes and plates.
Hammer/Anvil
Collection plates are rapped by a number of methods. One rapper system uses ham-
mers mounted on a rotating shaft, as shown in Figure 2-11. As the shaft rotates, the
hammers drop (by gravity) and strike anvils that are attached to the collection plates.
Rappers can be mounted on the top or on the side of collection plates. European pre-
cipitator manufacturers use hammer and anvil rappers for removing particles from
collection plates.
Rapping intensity is controlled by the weight of the hammers and the length of the
hammer mounting arm. The frequency of rapping can be changed by adjusting the
speed of the rotating shafts. Thus, rapping intensity and frequency can be adjusted for
the varying dust concentration of the flue gas.
Hammer
Anvil
Figure 2-11. Typical hammer/anvil rappers for

collection plates
2.0-2/98 2-9
Lesson 2
Magnetic Impulse
Another rapping system used for many U.S. designs consists of magnetic-impulse rap-
pers to remove accumulated dust layers from collection plates. A magnetic-impulse
rapper has a steel plunger that is raised by a current pulse in a coil. The raised plunger
then drops back, due to gravity, striking a rod connected to a number of plates within
the precipitator as shown in Figure 2-12. Rapper frequency and intensity are easily
regulated by an electrical control system. The frequency could be one rap every five
minutes or one rap an hour with an intensity of 10 to 24 g's (Katz 1979). Magnetic-
impulse rappers usually operate more frequently, but with less intensity, than rotating
hammer and anvil rappers.
Rapper rods
Figure 2-12. Typical magnetic-impulse rappers

for collection plates
Tumbling Hammers
for Rigid Frame Discharge Electrodes
Rigid frame discharge electrodes are rapped by tumbling hammers. The tumbling
hammers operate similarly to the hammers used to remove dust from collection elec-
trodes. The hammers are arranged on a horizontal shaft. As the shaft rotates, the
hammers hit an impact beam which transfers the shock, or vibration, to the center
tubes on the discharge system, causing the dust to fall (Figure 2-13).
Electric Vibrator
Wire discharge (or corona) electrodes must also be rapped to prevent excessive dust
deposit buildup that will interfere with corona generation. This is usually accom-
plished by the use of air or electric vibrators that gently vibrate the discharge wires.
Vibrators are usually mounted externally on precipitator roofs and are connected by
rods to the high-tension frames that support the corona electrodes (Figure 2-14). An
insulator, located above the rod, electrically insulates the rapper while mechanically
transmitting the rapping force.
2-10 2.0-2/98
Discharge
wire
Tumbling
hammer Center
tube
Impact
beam
Figure 2-13. Tumbling hammers for rigid-frame

discharge electrode
Rapper
Rapper
High insulator
voltage
frame Wire
support
channel
Figure 2-14. Typical electric-vibrator rappers used

for wire discharge electrodes
2.0-2/98 2-11
Lesson 2
Hoppers
When the electrodes are rapped, the dust falls into hoppers and is stored temporarily
before it is disposed in a landfill or reused in the process. Dust should be removed as soon
as possible to avoid packing, which would make removal very difficult. Hoppers are usu-
ally designed with a 50 to 70° (60° is common) slope to allow dust to flow freely from the
top of the hopper to the bottom discharge opening.
Some manufacturers add devices to the hopper to promote easy and quick discharge.
These devices include strike plates, poke holes, vibrators, and rappers. Strike plates are
simply pieces of flat steel that are bolted or welded to the center of the hopper wall. If dust
becomes stuck in the hopper, rapping the strike plate several times with a mallet will free
this material. Hopper designs also usually include access doors, or ports. Access ports
allow easier access for cleaning, inspection, and maintenance of the hopper (Figure 2-15).
Access
port
Strike
plate
Discharge
device
Conveyor
Figure 2-15. Hopper
Hopper vibrators are occasionally used to help remove dust from the hopper walls. Hopper
vibrators are electrically operated devices that cause the side walls of the hopper to
vibrate, thereby removing the dust from the hopper walls. These devices must be care-
fully designed and chosen so that they do not cause dust to be firmly packed against the
hopper walls, and thereby plug the hopper. Before installing vibrators to reduce hopper
plugging, make sure they have been successfully used in other, similar industrial applica-
tions.
Hopper Discharge Devices

A discharge device is necessary for emptying the hopper and can be manual or auto-
matic. The simplest manual discharge device is the slide gate, a plate held in place by
a frame and sealed with gaskets (Figure 2-16). When the hopper needs to be emptied,
the plate is removed and the material is discharged. Other manual discharge devices
2-12 2.0-2/98
include hinged doors and drawers. The collector must be shut down before opening
any manual discharge device. Thus, manual discharge devices are used only on very
small units that operate on a periodic basis.
Figure 2-16. Slide-gate
Automatic continuous discharge devices are installed on ESPs that operate continuously.
Some devices include double-dump valves (also called double flap or trickle valves), and
rotary airlock valves. Double-dump valves are shown in Figure 2-17. As dust collects in
the hopper, the weight of the dust pushes down the counterweight of the top flap and dust
discharges downward. The top flap then closes, the bottom flap opens, and the material
falls out. This type of valve is available in gravity-operated and motorized versions.
Figure 2-17. Double-dump discharge device
Rotary airlock valves are used on medium or large-sized ESPs. The valve is designed
with a paddle wheel that is shaft mounted and driven by a motor (Figure 2-18). The
rotary valve is similar to a revolving door; the paddles or blades form an airtight seal
with the housing, and the motor slowly moves the blades to allow the dust to discharge
from the hopper.
2.0-2/98 2-13
Lesson 2
Figure 2-18. Rotary airlock discharge device
After the dust leaves the discharge device it is transported to the final disposal destina-
tion by screw, drag, or pneumatic conveyers. Screw conveyors can be used as dis-
charge devices when located in the bottom of the hopper as shown in Figure 2-19 or
as a separate conveyor to move dust after it is discharged. Screw conveyers employ a
revolving screw feeder to move the dust through the conveyor. Drag conveyors use
paddles, or flaps, that are connected to a drag chain to pull the dust through the con-
veyor trough (Figure 2-20). Drag conveyors are used frequently for conveying sticky
or hygroscopic dusts such as calcium chloride dust generated from municipal waste
combustors (collected fly ash/acid gas products). Pneumatic conveyers use blowers
to blow or move the dust through the conveyor (Figure 2-21). Pneumatic conveyors
can be positive pressure (dust is moved by a blower) or vacuum type systems (dust is
pulled by a vacuum).
In large ESPs, dust is usually discharged from hoppers by using a combination of
devices. Either rotary airlock or double dump valves empty dust into screw, drag, or
pneumatic conveyers that move dust for final disposal into trucks or storage bins.
2-14 2.0-2/98
Figure 2-19. Screw conveyor
Figure 2-20. Drag conveyor
Figure 2-21. Pneumatic conveyor for transporting dust from ESP
2.0-2/98 2-15
Lesson 2
Shell
The shell structure encloses the electrodes and supports the precipitator components in a
rigid frame to maintain proper electrode alignment and configuration (Figure 2-22). The
support structure is especially critical for hot-side precipitators because precipitator com-
ponents can expand and contract when the temperature differences between the ESP
(400°C or 752°F) and the ambient atmosphere (20°C or 68°F) are large. Excessive temper-
ature stresses can literally tear the shell and hopper joints and welds apart. The outer sheet
or casing wall is usually made of low-carbon or mild-grade steel that is 0.5 to 0.6 cm (3/16
to 1/4 in.) thick.
Figure 2-22. ESP shell
Collection plates and discharge electrodes are normally attached to the frame at the top so
that the elements hang vertically due to gravity. This allows the elements to expand or
contract with temperature changes without binding or distorting.
Shells, hoppers, and connecting flues should be covered with insulation to conserve heat,
and to prevent corrosion resulting from water vapor and acid condensation on internal pre-
cipitator components. If the ESP is installed on a coal-fired boiler, the flue gas temperature
should be kept above 120°C (250°F) at all times to prevent any acid mists in the flue gas
from condensing on ESP internal components. Insulation will also help minimize temper-
ature-differential stresses, especially on hot-side precipitators. Ash hoppers should be
insulated and heated because cold fly ash has a tendency to cake, making it extremely dif-
ficult to remove. Insulation material is usually 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in.) thick.
2-16 2.0-2/98
Summary
The precipitator should be designed to provide easy access to strategic points of the collector
for internal inspection of electrode alignment, for maintenance, and for cleaning electrodes,
hoppers, and connecting flues during outages. Vendors typically design the ESPs for a spe-
cific particulate emission removal efficiency. The overall design, including the specific com-
ponents, is based on engineering specifications and/or previous experience with the industrial
application. These components have an effect on the overall performance and ease of opera-
tion of the ESP. These topics are discussed in more detail in the following lessons.
Please view the video titled Electrostatic Precipitators: Operating Principles and Components
before proceeding to the next lesson.
2.0-2/98 2-17
Lesson 2
2-18 2.0-2/98
Review Exercise
1. List the six major components of an ESP.

___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
2. In many U.S. precipitators, the discharge electrodes are thin wires that are approximately
____________________ in diameter.
a. 2.0 in.
b. 0.1 in.
c. 0.01 in.
d. 15.0 in.
3. The discharge wires are hung vertically in the ESP and are held taut and plumb at the bottom by:
a. A 25-lb weight
b. Two 25-lb weights
c. A 50-lb weight
d. A 5-lb weight
4. True or False? Accumulated dust can be removed from discharge and collection electrodes by rap-
ping.
5. European precipitators and most new U.S.-designed ESPs use ____________________ for dis-
charge electrodes.
a. Wires
b. Rigid frames
c. Plates with stiffeners
6. Normal spacing for plates used on high-efficiency wire/plate ESPs is generally:

a. 0.2 to 0.8 in.
b. 2 to 4 in.
c. 8 to 9 in.
d. 24 to 36 in.
7. Normal spacing for plates used on high-efficiency rigid-frame ESPs is generally:

a. 2-4 in.
b. 5-7 in.
c. 8-9 in.
d. 12-15 in.
2.0-2/98 2-19
Lesson 2
8. In ESPs, plates are usually between ____________________ high.

a. 4 to 12 in.
b. 20 to 40 ft
c. 40 to 60 ft
9. Collection electrodes can be constructed in two general shapes: ____________________ and

____________________.
10. Collected dust is removed from tubular ESPs using:

a. Magnetic impulse rappers
b. Water sprays
c. Hammer and anvil rappers
d. Electric vibrator rappers
11. ESPs control the strength of the electric field generated between the discharge and collection elec-
trodes by using:
a. Transformer-rectifier sets
b. Meters
c. Capacitors
d. Insulators
12. In a T-R set, the transformer ____________________ while the rectifier____________________.

a. Steps down the voltage, converts direct current into alternating current
b. Converts alternating current into direct current, steps up the voltage
c. Steps up the voltage, converts alternating current into direct current
13. In the control circuitry on an ESP, the primary voltmeter measures the:
a. Number of sparks
b. Input voltage (in a.c. volts) coming into the transformer
c. Output voltage from the rectifier
d. Operating d.c. voltage delivered to the discharge electrodes
14. The combination of the ____________________ voltage and current readings gives the power
input to the discharge electrodes.
a. Primary
b. Sparking
c. Secondary
d. Tertiary
15. An electric cable that carries high voltage from the T-R set to the discharge electrode is called
a(an):
a. Bus line
b. Pipe
c. Duct
d. Electric vibrator
2-20 2.0-2/98
16. Most precipitators use ____________________ or ____________________ to remove accumu-

lated dust from collection plates.
a. Air-vibrator rappers (or) water sprays
b. Hammer and anvil (or) magnetic-impulse rappers
c. Electric-vibrator (or) magnetic-impulse rappers
17. Which rappers are commonly used for removing dust from discharge electrodes?
a. Hammer
b. Electric-vibrator and tumbling-hammer
c. Magnetic-impulse
d. Water-spray
18. The dust is temporarily stored in a ____________________.
19. A ____________________ ____________________ discharge device works similarly to a

revolving door.
20. A ____________________ ____________________ uses a screw feeder located at the bottom of

the hopper to remove dust from the bin.
21. A ____________________ ____________________ uses a blower or compressed air to remove

dust from the hopper.
22. A ____________________ ____________________ uses paddles or flaps connected to a drag

chain to move dust from the ESP to its final destination.
23. In a precipitator, shells and hoppers should be covered with ____________________ to conserve
heat and prevent corrosion.
2.0-2/98 2-21
Lesson 2
2-22 2.0-2/98
1. discharge electrodes
collection electrodes
high voltage electrical systems
rappers
hoppers
shell
The six major components of an ESP are discharge electrodes, collection electrodes, high voltage
electrical systems, rappers, hoppers, and the shell.
2. b. 0.1 in.
In many U.S. precipitators, the discharge electrodes are thin wires that are approximately 0.1 inch
in diameter.
3. a. A 25-lb weight
The discharge wires are hung vertically in the ESP and are held taut and plumb at the bottom by a
25-lb weight.
4. True
Accumulated dust can be removed from discharge and collection electrodes by rapping.
5. b. Rigid frames
European precipitators and most new U.S.-designed ESPs use rigid frames for discharge elec-
trodes.
6. c. 8 to 9 in.
Normal spacing for plates used on high-efficiency wire/plate ESPs is generally 8 to 9 inches.
7. d. 12 to 15 in.
Normal spacing for plates used on high-efficiency rigid-frame ESPs is generally 12 to 15 inches.
8. b. 20 to 40 ft
In ESPs, plates are usually between 20 to 40 ft high.
9. Plates
Tubes
Collection electrodes can be constructed in two general shapes: plates and tubes.
10. b. Water sprays

Collected dust is removed from tubular ESPs using water sprays.
11. a. Transformer-rectifier sets

ESPs control the strength of the electric field generated between the discharge and collection elec-
trodes by using transformer-rectifier sets.
2.0-2/98 2-23
Lesson 2
12. c. Steps up the voltage, converts alternating current into direct current
In a T-R set, the transformer steps up the voltage while the rectifier converts alternating current
into direct current.
13. b. Input voltage (in a.c. volts) coming into the transformer
In the control circuitry on an ESP, the primary voltmeter measures the input voltage (in a.c. volts)
coming into the transformer.
14. c. Secondary
The combination of the secondary voltage and current readings gives the power input to the dis-
charge electrodes.
15. a. Bus line

An electric cable that carries high voltage from the T-R set to the discharge electrode is called a
bus line.
16. b. Hammer and anvil (or) magnetic-impulse rappers

Most precipitators use hammer and anvil or magnetic-impulse rappers to remove accumulated dust
from collection plates.
17. b. Electric-vibrator and tumbling-hammer

For removing dust from discharge electrodes, electric-vibrator rappers (for wires) and tumbling-
hammer rappers (for rigid frames) are commonly used.
18. Hopper
The dust is temporarily stored in a hopper.
19. Rotary airlock

A rotary airlock discharge device works similarly to a revolving door.
20. Screw conveyor

A screw conveyor uses a screw feeder located at the bottom of the hopper to remove dust from the
bin.
21. Pneumatic conveyor

A pneumatic conveyor uses a blower or compressed air to remove dust from the hopper.
22. Drag conveyor

A drag conveyor uses paddles or flaps connected to a drag chain to move dust from the ESP to its
final destination.
23. Insulation
In a precipitator, shells and hoppers should be covered with insulation to conserve heat and prevent
corrosion.
2-24 2.0-2/98
Bibliography
Beachler, D. S., J. A. Jahnke, G. T. Joseph and M. M. Peterson. 1983. Air Pollution Control Systems
for Selected Industries, Self-Instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course SI:431). EPA 450/2-82-006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology-an Engineering Analysis Point of View. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Cheremisinoff, P. N., and R. A. Young. (Eds.) 1977. Air Pollution Control and Design Handbook,
Part 1. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Gallaer, C. A. 1983. Electrostatic Precipitator Reference Manual. Electric Power Research Institute.
EPRI CS-2809, Project 1402-4.
Hall, H. J. 1975. Design and application of high voltage power supplies in electrostatic precipitation.
Journal of Air Pollution Control Association. 25:132.
Hesketh, H. E. 1979. Air Pollution Control. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.
Richards, J.R. 1995. Control of Particulate Emissions, Student Manual. (APTI Course 413). U.S.
Szabo, M. F., Y. M. Shah, and S. P. Schliesser. 1981. Inspection Manual for Evaluation of Electro-
static Precipitator Performances. EPA 340/1-79-007.
Turner, J. H., P. A. Lawless, T. Yamamoto, D. W. Coy, G. P. Greiner, J. D. McKenna, and W. M. Vata-

vuk. 1992. Electrostatic precipitators. In A. J. Buonicore and W. T. Davis (Eds.), Air Pollution
Engineering Manual (pp. 89-113). Air and Waste Management Association. New York: Van Nos-
trand Reinhold.
White, H. J. 1963. Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.White, H. J.

1977. Electrostatic precipitation of fly ash. APCA Reprint Series. Journal of Air Pollution Con-
trol Association. Pittsburgh, PA.
2.0-2/98 2-25
Lesson 2
2-26 2.0-2/98
Lesson 3
ESP Design Parameters and
Their Effects on Collection Efficiency
Goal
To familiarize you with the variables used by vendors to optimally design ESP systems.
Objectives
1. Define the term migration velocity
2. Explain the difference between the Deutsch-Anderson equation and the Matts-Ohnfeldt equa-
tion for estimating collection efficiency
3. Define the term resistivity
4. List three ways to reduce high resistivity and two ways to combat low resistivity
5. Explain how sectionalization and increasing corona power improves collection efficiency
6. Define aspect ratio and specific collection area and describe their importance for achieving
collection efficiency
7. Calculate the aspect ratio and specific collection area of an ESP given a set of design informa-
tion
Introduction
Because of legislation such as the Clean Air Act and the 1977 and 1990 Clean Air Act Amend-
ments, ESPs have been carefully designed to collect more than 99.5% of particles in the flue
gas from many industries. ESPs efficiently collect particles of various sizes: large particles of
3 to 10 µm in diameter, and smaller particles of less than 1 µm in diameter.
An ESP is designed for a particular industrial application. Building an ESP is a costly
endeavor, so a great deal of time and effort is expended during the design stage. Manufacturers
use various methods to design ESPs. They also consider a variety of operating parameters that
affect collection efficiency including resistivity, electrical sectionalization, specific collection
area, aspect ratio, gas flow distribution, and corona power. This lesson focuses on these meth-
ods and operating parameters.
2.0-2/98 3-1
Lesson 3
Design Methods
Manufacturers use mathematical equations to estimate collection efficiency or collection area.
In addition, they may build a pilot-plant to determine the parameters necessary to build the
full-scale ESP. They may also use a mathematical model or computer program to test the
design features and operating parameters in a simulation of the final design. Once the basis of
the ESP design is completed, the vendor can design the unit using various individual parame-
ters that are appropriate for each specific situation.
Using Estimates of Collection Efficiency

Collection efficiency is the primary consideration of ESP design. The collection effi-
ciency and/or the collection area of an ESP can be estimated using several equations.
These equations give a theoretical estimate of the overall collection efficiency of the unit
operating under ideal conditions. Unfortunately, a number of operating parameters can
adversely affect the collection efficiency of the precipitator. A discussion of collection-
efficiency equations and operating parameters affecting collection-efficiency equations
follows.
Particle-Migration Velocity
Before determining the collection area and the collection efficiency, the designer must
estimate or measure (if possible) the particle-migration velocity. This is the speed at
which a particle, once charged, migrates toward the grounded collection electrode.
Variables affecting particle velocity are particle size, the strength of the electric field,
and the viscosity of the gas. How readily the charged particles move to the collection
electrode is denoted by the symbol, w, called the particle-migration velocity, or drift
velocity. The migration-velocity parameter represents the collectability of the particle
within the confines of a specific ESP. The migration velocity is expressed in Equation
3-1.
d pEoE p
w= (3-1)
4πµ
Where: dp = diameter of the particle, µm

Eo = strength of field in which particles are charged
(represented by peak voltage), V/m (V/ft)
Ep = strength of field in which particles are collected
(normally the field close to the collecting plates), V/m (V/ft)
µ = gas viscosity, Pa • s (cp)
π = 3.14
As shown in Equation 3-1, migration velocity depends on the voltage strength of both
the charging and collection fields. Therefore, the precipitator must be designed using
the maximum electric field voltage for maximum collection efficiency. The migration
velocity also depends on particle size; larger particles are collected more easily than
smaller ones.
3-2 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Parameters and Their Effects on Collection Efficiency
Particle-migration velocity can also be determined by Equation 3-2.
qE p
w= (3-2)
6πµr
Where: q = particle charge(s)

Ep = strength of field in which particles are collected, V/m (V/ft)
µ = gas viscosity, Pa • s (cp)
r = radius of the particle, µm
π = 3.14
The particle-migration velocity can be calculated using either Equations 3-1 or 3-2,
depending on the information available on the particle size and electric field strength.
However, most ESPs are designed using a particle-migration velocity based on field
experience rather than theory. Typical particle migration velocity rates, such as those
listed in Table 3-1, have been published by various ESP vendors.
Table 3-1. Typical effective particle-migration

velocity rates for various applications
Migration velocity
Application
(ft/sec) (cm/s)
Utility fly ash 0.13-0.67 4.0-20.4
Pulverized coal fly ash 0.33-0.44 10.1-13.4
Pulp and paper mills 0.21-0.31 6.4-9.5
Sulfuric acid mist 0.19-0.25 5.8-7.62
Cement (wet process) 0.33-0.37 10.1-11.3
Cement (dry process) 0.19-0.23 6.4-7.0
Gypsum 0.52-0.64 15.8-19.5
Smelter 0.06 1.8
Open-hearth furnace 0.16-0.19 4.9-5.8
Blast furnace 0.20-0.46 6.1-14.0
Hot phosphorous 0.09 2.7
Flash roaster 0.25 7.6
Multiple-hearth roaster 0.26 7.9
Catalyst dust 0.25 7.6
Cupola 0.10-0.12 3.0-3.7
Sources: Theodore and Buonicore 1976; U.S. EPA 1979.
2.0-2/98 3-3
Lesson 3
Deutsch-Anderson Equation
Probably the best way to gain insight into the process of electrostatic precipitation is
to study the relationship known as the Deutsch-Anderson equation. This equation is
used to determine the collection efficiency of the precipitator under ideal conditions.
The simplest form of the equation is given below.
–w ( A ⁄ Q )
η = 1–e (3-3)
Where: η = collection efficiency of the precipitator

e = base of natural logarithm = 2.718
w = migration velocity, cm/s (ft/sec)
A = the effective collecting plate area of the precipitator, m2 (ft2)
Q = gas flow through the precipitator, m3/s (ft3/sec)
_____________________
Source: Deutsch 1922; Anderson 1924.
This equation has been used extensively for many years to calculate theoretical collec-
tion efficiencies. Unfortunately, while the equation is scientifically valid, a number of
operating parameters can cause the results to be in error by a factor of 2 or more. The
Deutsch-Anderson equation neglects three significant process variables. First, it com-
pletely ignores the fact that dust reentrainment may occur during the rapping process.
Second, it assumes that the particle size and, consequently, the migration velocity are
uniform for all particles in the gas stream. As stated previously, this is not true; larger
particles generally have higher migration velocity rates than smaller particles do.
Third, it assumes that the gas flow rate is uniform everywhere across the precipitator
and that particle sneakage (particles escape capture) through the hopper section does
not occur. Particle sneakage can occur when the flue gas flows down through the hop-
per section instead of through the ESP chambers, thus preventing particles from being
subjected to the electric field. Therefore, this equation should be used only for making
preliminary estimates of precipitator collection efficiency.
More accurate estimates of collection efficiency can be obtained by modifying the
Deutsch-Anderson equation. This is accomplished either by substituting the effective
precipitation rate, we, in place of the migration velocity, w, or by decreasing the cal-
culation of collection efficiency by a factor of k, which is constant (Matts-Ohnfeldt
equation). These calculations are used in establishing preliminary design parameters
of ESPs.
Modified Deutsch-Anderson Equation

Using the Effective-Precipitation Rate
To make the Deutsch-Anderson equation more accurate in cases where all particles
are not uniform in size, a parameter called the effective precipitation rate (we) can be
substituted for the migration velocity in the equation. Therefore, Dr. Harry White pro-
posed modifying the Deutsch-Anderson equation by using the term we instead of w in
the Deutsch-Anderson equation (White 1982).
3-4 2.0-2/98
–w e ( A ⁄ Q )
η = 1–e (3-4)

we = effective migration velocity, calculated from field experience
A = collecting area, m2 (ft2)
Q = gas flow rate, m3/s (ft3/sec)
In contrast to the migration velocity (w), which refers to the speed at which an indi-
vidual charged particle migrates to the collection electrode, the effective precipitation
rate (we) refers to the average speed at which all particles in the entire dust mass move
toward the collection electrode. The variable, we, is calculated from field experience
rather than from theory; values for we are usually determined using data banks accu-
mulated from ESP installations in similar industries or from pilot-plant studies. In
summary, the effective precipitation rate represents a semi-empirical parameter that
can be used to determine the total collection area necessary for an ESP to achieve a
specified collection efficiency required to meet an emission limit.
Using the Deutsch-Anderson equation in this manner could be particularly useful
when trying to determine the amount of additional collection area needed to upgrade
an existing ESP to meet more stringent regulations or to improve the performance of
the unit. However, other operating parameters besides collection area play a major
role in determining the efficiency of an ESP.
Matts-Ohnfeldt Equation
Another modification to the Deutsch-Anderson equation that accounts for non-ideal
effects was devised by Sigvard Matts and Per-Olaf Ohnfeldt of Sweden (Svenska
Flaktfabriken) in 1964. The Matts-Ohnfeldt equation is
k
–wk ( A ⁄ Q )
η = 1–e (3-5)

wk = average migration velocity, cm/s (ft/sec)
k = a constant, usually 0.4 to 0.6
A = collection area, m2 (ft2)
Q = gas flow rate, m3/s (ft3/sec)
The term, wk, the average migration velocity in equation 3-5, is determined from
information obtained from similar installations. The terms wk and we (in equations 3-5
and 3-4 respectively) are similar in that both are average migration velocities. The
constant, k, in the equation is usually between 0.4 and 0.6, depending on the standard
deviation of the particle size distribution and other dust properties affecting collection
efficiency. However, most people who have used this equation report that a value of k
equal to 0.5 gives satisfactory results (Gallaer 1983 and U.S. EPA 1985). In an Elec-
tric Power Research Institute (EPRI) study, a table was constructed to show the rela-
tionship of predicting collection efficiency using the Deutsch-Anderson and Matts-
Ohnfeldt equations. This information is given in Table 3-2.
2.0-2/98 3-5
Lesson 3
Table 3-2. Collection-efficiency estimations

using the Deutsch-Anderson and
Matts-Ohnfeldt equations
Relative size Deutsch Matts-Ohnfeldt

of ESP (A/Q) k = 1.0 k = 0.4 k = 0.5 k = 0.6
1 90 90 90 90
2 99 95.1 96.2 97.2
3 99.9 97.2 98.1 98.8
4 99.99 98.1 99 99.5
5 99.999 98.7 99.6 99.76
Source: Gallaer 1983.
When k = 1.0, the Matts-Ohnfeldt equation is the same as the Deutsch-Anderson

equation. To predict the collection efficiency of an existing ESP when the collection
area or gas flow rate is varied, using lower values for k gives more conservative
results. From Table 3-2, you can see that the efficiency estimates calculated using the
Matts-Ohnfeldt equation are more conservative than those estimated using the
Deutsch-Anderson equation, and may more likely predict how efficiently the ESP will
actually operate.
Using Pilot Plants

Probably the most reliable method for designing ESPs is to construct and operate a pilot
plant. However, time limitations and the expense of construction may make this impossi-
ble; a pilot plant can easily cost one million dollars or more. A pilot ESP project can be
constructed on an existing industrial process. In this case, a side stream of flue gas is sent
to the small pilot ESP. Flue gas sampling gives valuable information such as gas tempera-
ture, moisture content, and dust resistivity. Relating these parameters to the measured col-
lection efficiency of the pilot project will help the design engineers plan for scale-up to a
full-sized ESP.
Using Computer Programs and Models

Engineers can also use mathematical models or computer programs to design precipita-
tors. A mathematical model that relates collection efficiency to precipitator size and vari-
ous operating parameters has been developed by Southern Research Institute (SoRI) for
EPA. The (SoRI/EPA) model is used to do the following:
• Design a full-scale ESP from fundamental principles or in conjunction with a pilot-
plant study·
• Evaluate ESP bids submitted by various manufacturers
• Troubleshoot and diagnose operating problems for existing ESPs
• Evaluate the effectiveness of new ESP developments and technology, such as flue gas
conditioning and pulse energizing.
3-6 2.0-2/98
Details of this model are given in EPA publications A Mathematical Model of Electrostatic
Precipitation (Revision 1), Volumes I and II.
Table 3-3 lists the input data used in the SoRI/EPA Model. Assuming that accurate input
data are available for use, the model usually can estimate emissions within ± 20 percent of
measured values (U.S. EPA 1985). The computer model goes through an iterative compu-
tational process to refine its predictions of emission levels for a particular ESP. First, the
model uses secondary voltage and current levels (corona power) to predict emission levels
leaving the ESP. Then, actual emission levels are measured and compared to the predicted
emission levels. Empirical factors are then adjusted and the process repeats itself until the
predicted emission levels of the model agree with the actual, measured levels. This model
can be used to obtain reasonable estimates of emission levels for other ESP operating con-
ditions (U.S. EPA 1985). For example, once you create a good, working computer model
for a particular ESP design under one set of operating conditions, you can run the model
for different scenarios by altering one or more of the parameters (precipitator length, num-
ber of fields, etc.) to obtain reasonably accurate emission level predictions.
Table 3-3. Input data for EPA/SORI ESP computer

model
Gas/particulate
ESP Specifications
specifications
Estimated efficiency Gas flow rate
Precipitator length Gas pressure
Superficial gas velocity Gas temperature
Fraction of sneakage/reentrainment Gas viscosity
Normalized standard deviation of gas velocity Particulate concentration
distribution Particulate resistivity
Number of stages for sneakage/reentrainment Particulate density
Number of electrical sections in direction of gas Particle size distribution
flow Dielectric constant
For each electrical section Ion speed
Length
Area
Applied voltage
Current
Corona wire radius
Corona wire length
Wire-to-wire spacing (1/2)
Wire-to-plate spacing
Number of wires per linear section
Source: U.S. EPA 1985.
2.0-2/98 3-7
Lesson 3
Another model, the EPA/RTI model, has been developed by the Research Triangle Insti-
tute (RTI) for EPA (Lawless 1992). The EPA/RTI model is based on the localized electric
field strengths and current densities prevailing throughout the precipitator. These data can
be input based on actual readings from operating units, or can be calculated based on elec-
trode spacing and resistivity. The data are used to estimate the combined electrical charg-
ing on each particle size range due to field-dependent charging and diffusional charging.
Particle size-dependent migration velocities are then used in a Deutsch-Anderson type
equation to estimate particle collection in each field of the precipitator. This model takes
into account a number of the site specific factors including gas flow maldistribution, parti-
cle size distribution, and rapping reentrainment.
These performance models require detailed information concerning the anticipated config-
uration of the precipitator and the gas stream characteristics. Information needed to oper-
ate the EPA/RTI model is provided below. It is readily apparent that all of these parameters
are not needed in each case, since some can be calculated from the others. The following
data is data utilized in the EPA/RTI computerized performance model for electrostatic pre-
cipitators.
ESP Design
• Specific collection area
• Collection plate area
• Collection height and length
• Gas velocity
• Number of fields in series
• Number of discharge electrodes
• Type of discharge electrodes
• Discharge electrode-to-collection plate spacing
Particulate Matter and Gas Stream Data
• Resistivity
• Particle size mass median diameter
• Particle size distribution standard deviation
• Gas flow rate distribution standard deviation
• Actual gas flow rate
• Gas stream temperature
• Gas stream pressure
• Gas stream composition
3-8 2.0-2/98
Design Parameters
Once the basis of the ESP design has been set, the vendor will complete the design by incorpo-
rating a number of parameters that can be adjusted for each specific industrial application.
However, before starting this design phase, the vendor must take into account the effect that
particle resistivity can have on the actual collection efficiency.
Resistivity
Resistivity, which is a characteristic of particles in an electric field, is a measure of a parti-
cle's resistance to transferring charge (both accepting and giving up charges). Resistivity is
a function of a particle's chemical composition as well as flue gas operating conditions
such as temperature and moisture. Particles can have high, moderate (normal), or low
resistivity.
In an ESP, where particle charging and discharging are key functions, resistivity is an
important factor that significantly affects collection efficiency. While resistivity is an
important phenomenon in the inter-electrode region where most particle charging takes
place, it has a particularly important effect on the dust layer at the collection electrode
where discharging occurs. Particles that exhibit high resistivity are difficult to charge. But
once charged, they do not readily give up their acquired charge on arrival at the collection
electrode. On the other hand, particles with low resistivity easily become charged and
readily release their charge to the grounded collection plate. Both extremes in resistivity
impede the efficient functioning of ESPs. ESPs work best under normal resistivity condi-
tions.
Resistivity is the electrical resistance of a dust sample 1.0 cm2 in cross-sectional area, 1.0
cm thick, and is recorded in units of ohm-cm. A method for measuring resistivity will be
described later in this lesson. Table 3-4 gives value ranges for low, normal, and high resis-
tivity.
Table 3-4. Low, normal, and high resistivity
Resistivity Range of measurement

Low between 104 and 107 ohm • cm
Normal between 107 and 1010 ohm • cm
High above 1010 ohm • cm
(usually between 1010 and 1014 ohm • cm)
Dust Layer Resistivity

Let’s take a closer look at the way resistivity affects electrical conditions in the dust
layer. A potential electric field (voltage drop) is formed across the dust layer as nega-
tively charged particles arrive at the dust layer surface and leak their electrical charges
to the collection plate. At the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection
plate, the voltage is zero. Whereas at the outer surface of the dust layer, where new
particles and ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can be
quite high. The strength of this electric field depends on the resistivity and thickness
of the dust layer.
2.0-2/98 3-9
Lesson 3
In high resistivity dust layers, the dust is not sufficiently conductive, so electrical
charges have difficulty moving through the dust layer. Consequently, electrical
charges accumulate on and beneath the dust layer surface, creating a strong electric
field. Voltages can be greater than 10,000 volts. Dust particles with high resistivities
are held too strongly to the plate, making them difficult to remove and causing rapping
problems.
In low resistivity dust layers, the corona current is readily passed to the grounded col-
lection electrode. Therefore, a relatively weak electric field, of several thousand volts,
is maintained across the dust layer. Collected dust particles with low resistivity do not
adhere strongly enough to the collection plate. They are easily dislodged and become
reentrained in the gas stream.
The following discussion of normal, high, and low resistivity applies to ESPs operated
in a dry state; resistivity is not a problem in the operation of wet ESPs because of the
moisture concentration in the ESP. The relationship between moisture content and
resistivity is explained later in this lesson.
Normal Resistivity
As stated above, ESPs work best under normal resistivity conditions. Particles with
normal resistivity do not rapidly lose their charge on arrival at the collection electrode.
These particles slowly leak their charge to grounded plates and are retained on the col-
lection plates by intermolecular adhesive and cohesive forces. This allows a particu-
late layer to be built up and then dislodged from the plates by rapping. Within the
range of normal dust resistivity (between 107 and 1010 ohm-cm), fly ash is collected
more easily than dust having either low or high resistivity.
High Resistivity
If the voltage drop across the dust layer becomes too high, several adverse effects can
occur. First, the high voltage drop reduces the voltage difference between the dis-
charge electrode and collection electrode, and thereby reduces the electrostatic field
strength used to drive the gas ion - charged particles over to the collected dust layer.
As the dust layer builds up, and the electrical charges accumulate on the surface of the
dust layer, the voltage difference between the discharge and collection electrodes
decreases. The migration velocities of small particles are especially affected by the
reduced electric field strength.
Another problem that occurs with high resistivity dust layers is called back corona.
This occurs when the potential drop across the dust layer is so great that corona dis-
charges begin to appear in the gas that is trapped within the dust layer. The dust layer
breaks down electrically, producing small holes or craters from which back corona
discharges occur. Positive gas ions are generated within the dust layer and are acceler-
ated toward the "negatively charged" discharge electrode. The positive ions reduce
some of the negative charges on the dust layer and neutralize some of the negative
ions on the "charged particles" heading toward the collection electrode. Disruptions of
the normal corona process greatly reduce the ESP's collection efficiency, which in
severe cases, may fall below 50% (White 1974).
3-10 2.0-2/98
The third, and generally most common problem with high resistivity dust is increased
electrical sparking. When the sparking rate exceeds the "set spark rate limit," the auto-
matic controllers limit the operating voltage of the field. This causes reduced particle
charging and reduced migration velocities toward the collection electrode.
High resistivity can generally be reduced by doing the following:
• Adjusting the temperature
• Increasing moisture content
• Adding conditioning agents to the gas stream
• Increasing the collection surface area
• Using hot-side precipitators (occasionally)
Figure 3-1 shows the variation in resistivity with changing gas temperature for six dif-
ferent industrial dusts (U.S. EPA 1985). For most dusts, resistivity will decrease as the
flue gas temperature increases. However, as can be seen from Figure 3-1, the resistiv-
ity also decreases for some dusts (cement and ZnO) at low flue gas temperatures.
Figure 3-1. Resistivity of six different dusts at various

temperatures
2.0-2/98 3-11
Lesson 3
The moisture content of the flue gas stream also affects particle resistivity. Increasing
the moisture content of the gas stream by spraying water or injecting steam into the
duct work preceding the ESP lowers the resistivity. In both temperature adjustment
and moisture conditioning, one must maintain gas conditions above the dew point to
prevent corrosion problems in the ESP or downstream equipment. Figure 3-2 shows
the effect of temperature and moisture on the resistivity of cement dust. As the per-
centage of moisture in the dust increases from 1 to 20%, the resistivity of the dust dra-
matically decreases. Also, raising or lowering the temperature can decrease cement
dust resistivity for all the moisture percentages represented.
Figure 3-2. Effect of temperature and moisture on the

resistivity of cement dust
Sources: Schmidt 1949, White 1977.
The presence of SO3 in the gas stream has been shown to favor the electrostatic pre-
cipitation process when problems with high resistivity occur. Most of the sulfur con-
tent in the coal burned for combustion sources converts to SO2. However,
approximately 1% of the sulfur converts to SO3. The amount of SO3 in the flue gas
normally increases with increasing sulfur content of the coal. The resistivity of the
particles decreases as the sulfur content of the coal increases (Figure 3-3).
3-12 2.0-2/98
Figure 3-3. Fly ash resistivity versus coal sulfur content

for several flue gas temperature bands
Source: White 1977.
The use of low-sulfur western coal for boiler operations has caused fly ash resistivity
problems for ESP operators. For coal fly ash dusts, the resistivity can be lowered
below the critical level by the injection of as little as 10 to 30 ppm SO3 into the gas
stream. The SO3 is injected into the duct work preceding the precipitator. Figure 3-4
shows the flow diagram of a sulfur-burning flue gas conditioning system used to
lower resistivity at a coal-fired boiler.
Liquid sulfur
Controlled to
250° - 300°F
800° - 825°F
Sulfur Converter
Air burner
heater
Ambient
air Boiler Air/SO3
in flue 800° - 1100°F
Liquid
sulfur
storage
Injection
Metering
probes
pump
Conditioned
flue gas to
precipitator
Figure 3-4. Flow diagram of sulfur-burning flue gas conditioning system

Courtesy of Wahlco, Inc.
2.0-2/98 3-13
Lesson 3
Other conditioning agents, such as sulfuric acid, ammonia, sodium chloride, and soda
ash, have also been used to reduce particle resistivity (White 1974). Therefore, the
chemical composition of the flue gas stream is important with regard to the resistivity
of the particles to be collected in the ESP. Table 3-5 lists various conditioning agents
and their mechanisms of operation (U.S. EPA 1985).
.
Table 3-5. Reaction mechanisms of major

conditioning agents
Conditioning agent Mechanism(s) of action

Sulfur trioxide and Condensation and adsorption on fly ash surfaces;
sulfuric acid may also increase cohesiveness of fly ash.
Reduces resistivity.
Ammonia Mechanism is not clear; various ones proposed:

Modifies resistivity
Increases ash cohesiveness
Enhances space charge effect
Ammonium sulfate1 Little is known about the actual mechanism; claims

are made for the following:
Modifies resistivity (depends upon injection
temperature)
Increases ash cohesiveness
Enhances space charge effect
Experimental data lacking to substantiate which of
these is predominant
Triethylamine Particle agglomeration claimed; no supporting data
Sodium compounds Natural conditioner if added with coal.

Resistivity modifier if injected into gas stream
Compounds of transition Postulated that they catalyze oxidation of SO2 to

metals SO3; no definitive tests with fly ash to verify this
postulation
Potassium sulfate and In cement and lime kiln ESPs:

sodium chloride Resistivity modifiers in the gas stream
NaCl - natural conditioner when mixed with coal
1If injection occurs at a temperature greater than about 600°F, dissociation into ammonia and sulfur
trioxide results. Depending upon the ash, SO2 may preferentially interact with fly ash as SO3
conditioning. The remainder recombines with ammonia to add to the space charge as well as
increase the cohesiveness of the ash.
Two other methods that reduce particle resistivity include increasing the collection
surface area and handling the flue gas at higher temperatures. Increasing the collection
area of the precipitator will increase the overall cost of the ESP, which may not be
desirable. Hot-side precipitators, which are usually located in front of the combustion
air preheater section of the boiler, are also used to combat resistivity problems. How-
ever, the use of conditioning agents has been more successful and very few hot-side
ESPs have been installed since the 1980s.
3-14 2.0-2/98
Low Resistivity
Particles that have low resistivity are difficult to collect because they are easily
charged (very conductive) and rapidly lose their charge on arrival at the collection
electrode. The particles take on the charge of the collection electrode, bounce off the
plates, and become reentrained in the gas stream. Thus, attractive and repulsive elec-
trical forces that are normally at work at higher resistivities are lacking, and the bind-
ing forces to the plate are considerably lessened. Examples of low-resistivity dusts are
unburned carbon in fly ash and carbon black.
If these conductive particles are coarse, they can be removed upstream of the precipi-
tator by using a device such as a cyclone. Baffles are often installed on the collection
plates to help eliminate this precipitation-repulsion phenomenon.
The addition of liquid ammonia (NH3) into the gas stream as a conditioning agent has
found wide use in recent years. It is theorized that ammonia reacts with H2SO4 con-
tained in the flue gas to form an ammonium sulfate compound that increases the resis-
tivity of the dust. Ammonia vapor is injected into the duct leading to the precipitator at
concentrations of 15 to 40 ppm by volume. The injection of NH3 has improved the
resistivity of fly ash from coal-fired boilers with low flue gas temperatures (Katz
1979).
Table 3-6 summarized the characteristics associated with low, normal and high resis-
tivity dusts.
Measuring Resistivity
Particle resistivity is determined by measuring the leakage current through a dust layer
to which a high voltage is applied using conductivity cells. A number of conductivity
cells have been used in particle-resistivity measurements. For a good review of the
different kinds of cells employed, see White (1974). Resistivity can be measured by a
number of methods in either the laboratory or the field. In the lab method, dust sam-
ples are first extracted from the flue gas leaving the industrial process and collected on
a filter as described in EPA Reference Method 5. The samples are then taken back to
the laboratory and analyzed.
Resistivity measurements are made in the field using an in-situ resistivity probe. The
probe is inserted into the duct leaving the industrial process and a dust sample is
extracted into the probe. High voltage is applied across a point and plate electrode sys-
tem inside the probe. Particles are charged and then collected on the plate. After a suf-
ficiently thick layer of dust has collected on the plate, the power to the point is turned
off and a disc is lowered onto the collected dust sample. The thickness of the dust
layer is first measured. Increasing voltages are then applied to the disc, and the corre-
sponding current is recorded until the dust layer breaks down and sparkover occurs.
The resistivity is calculated from the last set of voltage and current readings obtained
before sparkover occurs. Since these resistivity measurements are made at the indus-
trial process conditions, these data are generally more useful than data obtained from
the laboratory methods. A good review of in-situ resistivity measuring techniques is
given by White (1974) and Gallaer (1983).
2.0-2/98 3-15
Lesson 3
Table 3-6. ESP characterististics associated with

different levels of resistivity
Resistivity Level,
ohm-cm ESP Characteristics
Less than 107 1. Normal operating voltage and current levels

(Low Resistivity) unless dust layer is thick enough to reduce plate
clearances and cause higher current levels
2. Reduced electrical force component retaining
collected dust, vulnerable to high reentrainment
losses
3. Negligible voltage drop across dust layer
4. Reduced collection performance due to (2)
107 to 1010 1. Normal operating voltage and current levels
(Normal Resistivity) 2. Negligible voltage drop across dust layer
3. Sufficient electrical force component retaining
collected dust
4. High collection performance due to (1), (2), and
(3)
1011 1. Reduced operating voltage and current levels

with high spark rates
2. Significant voltage loss across dust layer
3. Moderate electrical force component retaining
collected dust
4. Reduced collection performance due to (1) and
(2)
Greater than 1012 1. Reduced operating voltage levels; high operating
(High Resistivity) current levels if power supply controller is not
operating properly
2. Very significant voltage loss across dust layer
3. High electrical force component retaining
collected dust
4. Seriously reduced collection performance due to
(1), (2), and probable back corona
Typical values
Operating voltage: 30 to 70 kV, dependent on design factors
Operating current density: 5 to 50 nA/cm2
Dust layer thickness: 1/4 to 1 inch
Source: Adapted from U.S. EPA 1985.
Electrical Sectionalization
Field Sectionalization
An electrostatic precipitator is divided into a series of independently energized bus
sections or fields (also called stages) in the direction of the gas flow. Precipitator per-
formance depends on the number of individual bus sections, or fields, installed. Figure
3-5 shows an ESP consisting of four fields, each of which acts as an independent pre-
cipitator.
3-16 2.0-2/98
Figure 3-5. Field sectionalization
Each field has individual transformer-rectifier sets, voltage-stabilization controls, and

high-voltage conductors that energize the discharge electrodes within the field. This
design feature, called field electrical sectionalization, allows greater flexibility for
energizing individual fields to accommodate different conditions within the precipita-
tor. This is an important factor in promoting higher precipitator collection efficiency.
Most ESP vendors recommend that there be at least three or more fields in the precip-
itator. However, to attain a collection efficiency of more than 99%, some ESPs have
been designed with as many as seven or more fields. Previous experience with a par-
ticular industry is the best factor for determining how many fields are necessary to
meet the required emission limits.
The need for separate fields arises mainly because power input requirements differ at
various locations within a precipitator. The maximum voltage at which a given field
can be maintained depends on the properties of the gas and dust being collected. The
particulate matter concentration is generally high at the inlet fields of the precipitator.
High dust concentrations tend to suppress corona current, requiring a great deal of
power to generate corona discharge for optimum particle charging. In the downstream
fields of a precipitator, the dust loading is usually lighter, because most of the dust is
collected in the inlet fields. Consequently, corona current flows more freely in down-
stream fields. Particle charging will more likely be limited by excessive sparking in
the downstream than in the inlet fields. If the precipitator had only one power set, the
excessive sparking would limit the power input to the entire precipitator, thus reduc-
ing the overall collection efficiency. The rating of each power set in the ESP will vary
depending on the specific design of the ESP.
Modern precipitators have voltage control devices that automatically limit precipitator
power input. A well-designed automatic control system keeps the voltage level at
approximately the value needed for optimum particle charging by the discharge elec-
trodes. The voltage control device increases the primary voltage applied to the T-R set
to the maximum level. As the primary voltage applied to the transformer increases, the
secondary voltage applied to the discharge electrodes increases. As the secondary
voltage is increased, the intensity and number of corona discharges increase. The volt-
age is increased until any of the set limits (primary voltage, primary current, second-
ary voltage, secondary current, or spark rate limits) is reached. Occurrence of a spark
counteracts high ESP performance because it causes an immediate, short-term col-
lapse of the precipitator electric field. Consequently, power that is applied to capture
2.0-2/98 3-17
Lesson 3
particles is used less efficiently. There is, however, an optimum sparking rate where
the gains in particle charging are just offset by corona-current losses from sparkover.
Measurements on commercial precipitators have determined that the optimum spark-
ing rate is between 50 and 150 sparks per minute per electrical section. The objective
in power control is to maintain corona power input at this optimum sparking rate by
momentarily reducing precipitator power whenever excessive sparking occurs.
Besides allowing for independent voltage control, another major reason for having a
number of fields in an ESP is that electrical failure may occur in one or more fields.
Electrical failure may occur as a result of a number of events, such as over-filling hop-
pers, discharge-wire breakage, or power supply failure. These failures are discussed in
more detail later in this course. ESPs having a greater number of fields are less depen-
dent on the operation of all fields to achieve a high collection efficiency.
Parallel Sectionalization
In field sectionalization, the precipitator is designed with a single series of indepen-
dent fields following one another consecutively. In parallel sectionalization, the
series of fields is electrically divided into two or more sections so that each field has
parallel components. Such divisions are referred to as chambers and each individual
unit is called a cell. A precipitator such as the one shown in Figure 3-6 has two paral-
lel sections (chambers), four fields, and eight cells. Each cell can be independently
energized by a bus line from its own separate transformer-rectifier set.
Cell
Chamber 2
Chamber 1
Figure 3-6. Parallel sectionalization (with two parallel

sections, eight cells, and four fields)
One important reason for providing sectionalization across the width of the ESP is to
provide a means of handling varying levels of flue gas temperature, dust concentra-
tion, and problems with gas flow distribution. When treating flue gas from a boiler, an
ESP may experience gas temperatures that vary from one side of the ESP to the other,
especially if a rotary air preheater is used in the system. Since fly ash resistivity is a
function of the flue gas temperature, this temperature gradient may cause variations in
the electrical characteristics of the dust from one side of the ESP to the other. The gas
flow into the ESP may also be stratified, causing varying gas velocities and dust con-
centrations that can also affect the electrical characteristics of the dust. Building
numerous fields and cells into an ESP design can provide a means of coping with vari-
3-18 2.0-2/98
ations in the flue gas. In addition, the more cells provided in an ESP, the greater the
chance that the unit will operate at its designed collection efficiency.
2.0-2/98 3-19
Lesson 3
Specific Collection Area

The specific collection area (SCA) is defined as the ratio of collection surface area to the
gas flow rate into the collector. This ratio represents the A/Q relationship in the Deutsch-
Anderson equation and consequently is an important determinant of collection efficiency.
The SCA is given in Equation 3-6.
total collection surface (3-6)

SCA = ------------------------------------------------------
gas flow rate
Expressed in metric units,

2
total collection surface in m
SCA = --------------------------------------------------------------------
-
1000 m ⁄ h
3
Expressed in English units,

2
total collection surface in ft
SCA = -------------------------------------------------------------------
-
1000 ft ⁄ min
3
For example, if the total collection area of an ESP is 600,000 ft2 and the gas flow rate
through the ESP is 1,000,000 ft3/min (acfm), the SCA is 600 ft2 per 1000 acfm as calcu-
lated below.
2
600,000 ft
SCA = -------------------------------------------
1000 (1000 acfm)
2
600 ft
= ---------------------------
1000 acfm
Increases in the SCA of a precipitator design will, in most cases, increase the collection
efficiency of the precipitator. Most conservative designs call for an SCA of 20 to 25 m2
per 1000 m3/h (350 to 400 ft2 per 1000 acfm) to achieve collection efficiency of more than
99.5%. The general range of SCA is between 11 and 45 m2 per 1000 m3/hr (200 and 800
ft2 per 1000 acfm), depending on precipitator design conditions and desired collection
efficiency.
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio, which relates the length of an ESP to its height, is an important factor in
reducing rapping loss (dust reentrainment). When particles are rapped from the electrodes,
the gas flow carries the collected dust forward through the ESP until the dust reaches the
hopper. Although the amount of time it takes for rapped particles to settle in the hoppers is
short (a matter of seconds), a large amount of "collected dust" can be reentrained in the gas
flow and carried out of the ESP if the total effective length of the plates in the ESP is small
compared to their effective height. For example, the time required for dust to fall from the
top of a 9.1-m plate (30-ft plate) is several seconds. Effective plate lengths must be at least
10.7 to 12.2 m (35 to 40 ft) to prevent a large amount of "collected dust" from being car-
ried out of the ESP before reaching the hopper.
3-20 2.0-2/98
The aspect ratio is the ratio of the effective length to the effective height of the collector
surface. The aspect ratio can be calculated using Equation 3-7.
effective length, m (ft) (3-7)

AR = ------------------------------------------------------
effective height, m (ft)
The effective length of the collection surface is the sum of the plate lengths in each con-
secutive field and the effective height is the height of the plates. For example, if an ESP
has four fields, each containing plates that are 10 feet long, the effective length is 40 feet.
If the height of each plate is 30 feet, the aspect ratio is 1.33 as shown below:
10 ft + 10 ft + 10 ft + 10 ft
AR = ---------------------------------------------------------------
30 ft
40 ft
= -----------
30 ft
= 1.33
Aspect ratios for ESPs range from 0.5 to 2.0. However, for high-efficiency ESPs (those
having collection efficiencies of > 99%), the aspect ratio should be greater than 1.0 (usu-
ally 1.0 to 1.5) and in some installations may approach 2.0.
Gas Flow Distribution

Gas flow through the ESP chamber should be slow and evenly distributed through the
unit. Gas velocity is reduced by the expansion, or diverging, section of the inlet plenum
(Figure 3-7). The gas velocities in the duct leading into the ESP are generally between 12
and 24 m/s (40 and 80 ft/sec). The gas velocity into the ESP must be reduced to
0.6-2.4 m/s (2-8 ft/sec) for adequate particle collection. With aspect ratios of 1.5, the opti-
mum gas velocity is generally between 1.5 and 1.8 m/s (5 and 6 ft/sec).
Perforated
diffuser
plates
Figure 3-7. Gas inlet with perforated diffuser plates
2.0-2/98 3-21
Lesson 3
In order to use all of the discharge and collection electrodes across the entire width of the
ESP, the flue gas must be evenly distributed. The inlet plenum contains perforated open-
ings, called diffuser plate openings to evenly distribute the gas flow into the chambers
formed by the plates in the precipitator.
Corona Power
As stated previously, a strong electric field is needed for achieving high collection effi-
ciency of dust particles. The strength of the field is based on the rating of the T-R set. The
corona power is the power that energizes the discharge electrodes and thus creates the
strong electric field. The corona power used for precipitation is calculated by multiplying
the secondary current by the secondary voltage and is expressed in units of watts. In ESP
design specifications, the corona power is usually given in units of watts per 1000 m3/h
(watts per 1000 acfm). Corona power expressed in units of watts/1000 acfm is also called
the specific corona power. Corona power for any bus section of an ESP can be calculated
by the following approximate relation:
P c = 1 ⁄ 2 ( V p + V m )I c (3-8)
Where: Pc = corona power, watts

Vp = peak voltage, volts
Vm = minimum voltage, volts
Ic = average corona current, amperes
As you can see, corona power increases as the voltage and/or current increases. The total
corona power of the ESP is the sum of the corona power for all of the individual T-R sets.
In an ESP, the collection efficiency is proportional to the amount of corona power supplied
to the unit, assuming the corona power is applied effectively (maintains a good sparking
rate).
– kP c ⁄ Q
η∝1–e (3-9)
Where: η = collection efficiency

k = a constant, usually between 0.5 and 0.7
Pc/Q = corona power density in units of watts per 1000 m3/hr
(watts per 1000 acfm)
From equation 3-9, you can see that for a given exhaust flow rate, the collection efficiency
will increase as the corona power is increased. This efficiency will depend on the operat-
ing conditions of the ESP and on whether the amount of power has been applied effec-
tively. For high collection efficiency, corona power is usually between 59 and 295 watts
per 1000 m3/h (100 and 500 watts per 1000 acfm). Recent ESP installations have been
designed to use as much as 470 to 530 watts per 1000 m3/h (800 to 900 watts per 1000
acfm).
3-22 2.0-2/98
The terms current density and power density are also used to characterize the design of the
ESP. Current density is the secondary current supplied by the T-R set for the given plate
area and expressed in units of mA/ft2 of plate area. Power density is the corona power
supplied to the plate area and is expressed in units of watts per ft2 of plate area.
The size of the individual power sets (T-R sets) in the ESP will vary depending on their
specific location and the conditions of the flue gas such as particle size, dust concentra-
tion, dust resistivity, and flue gas temperature. In an ESP, the T-R sets are selected to pro-
vide lower current density at the inlet sections, where the dust concentration will tend to
suppress the corona current, and to provide higher current density at the outlet sections,
where there is a greater percentage of fine particles.
Summary
ESPs can be designed using a number of techniques including mathematical equations, pilot
plant studies, and computer modeling programs. The use of pilot plant studies is very effective
but is not often used because of time limitations and the expense of construction. Use of com-
puter models is therefore becoming more common for both the initial design and for trouble-
shooting of existing ESPs.
During this lesson we covered a number of equations. The equation for particle migration
velocity depends on the voltage strength of both the charging and collection fields and on the
particle size. The Deutsch-Anderson and Matts-Ohnfeldt equations can be used to estimate
collection efficiency in an ESP. The Deutsch-Anderson equation assumes that all particles in
the flue gas have the same migration velocity, and that particles do not become reentrained or
do not sneak through the hopper sections. The Deutsch-Anderson equation can be modified by
using field data to determine the effective migration velocity.
The Matts-Ohnfeldt equation also uses information obtained from similar ESP field installa-
tions. Use of both the modified Deutsch-Anderson and the Matts-Ohnfeldt equations will typi-
cally yield more accurate estimates for collection efficiency.
We also covered operating parameters that affect the collection efficiency of the ESP including
the following:
• Resistivity
• Sectionalization
• Corona power
• Aspect ratio
• Specific collection area (SCA)
These parameters will be discussed in more detail in Lessons 4 and 6.
Careful design of the ESP involves consideration of the important operating parameters to
keep the unit operating efficiently and effectively. Not only will this help an industry comply
with air pollution regulations, but a good design up-front will also reduce plant downtime and
keep maintenance problems to a minimum.
2.0-2/98 3-23
Lesson 3
Review Exercise
1. A charged particle will migrate toward an oppositely charged collection electrode. The velocity at
which the charged particle moves toward the collection electrode is called the
____________________ ____________________ and is denoted by the symbol w.
2. What is the name of the equation given below?
η = 1 − e -w ( A /Q )
a. Johnstone equation
b. Matts-Ohnfeldt equation
c. Deutsch-Anderson equation
d. Beachler-Joseph equation
3. The symbol η in the Deutsch-Anderson equation is the:

a. Collection area
b. Migration velocity
c. Gas flow rate
d. Collection efficiency
4. The Deutsch-Anderson equation does not account for:

a. Dust reentrainment that may occur as a result of rapping
b. Varying migration velocities due to various-sized particles in the flue gas
c. Uneven gas flow through the precipitator
d. All of the above
5. True or False? Using the Matts-Ohnfeldt equation to estimate the collection efficiency of an ESP
will give less conservative results than using the Deutsch-Anderson equation.
6. Resistivity is a measure of a particle’s resistance to ____________________ and

____________________ charge.
7. Dust resistivity is a characteristic of the particle in the flue gas that can alter the
____________________ of an ESP.
a. Gas flow rate
b. Collection efficiency
c. Gas velocity
8. Dust particles with ____________________ resistivity are difficult to remove from collection
plates, causing rapping problems.
a. Low
b. Normal
c. High
3-24 2.0-2/98
9. High dust resistivity can be reduced by:

a. Adjusting the flue gas temperature
b. Increasing the moisture content of the flue gas
c. Injecting SO3 into the flue gas
d. All of the above
10. True or False? Fly ash that results from burning high-sulfur coal generally has high resistivity.
11. A precipitator is divided into a series of independently energized bus sections called:
a. Hoppers
b. Fields
c. Stages
d. b and c, above
12. In the following figure there are ____________________ fields and ____________________
cells.
a. Two, four
b. Four, eight
c. Eight, two
d. Eight, four
13. A precipitator should be designed with at least ____________________ field(s) to attain a high
collection efficiency.
a. One
b. Two
c. Three or four
d. Ten
14. Electrical sectionalization improves collection efficiency by:

a. Improving resistivity conditions
b. Allowing for independent voltage control of different fields
c. Allowing continued ESP operation in the event of electrical failure in one of the fields
d. b and c, above
2.0-2/98 3-25
Lesson 3
15. If the design of the precipitator states that 500,000 ft2 of plate area is used to remove particles from
flue gas flowing at 750,000 ft3/min, what is the SCA of the unit?
a. 0.667 ft2/1000 acfm
b. 667 ft2/1000 acfm
c. 667 acfm/1000 ft2
d. 1.5 acfm/ft2
16. To achieve a collection efficiency greater than 99.5%, most ESPs have a SCA:
a. Less than 250 ft2/1000 acfm
b. Between 350 and 400 ft2/1000 acfm
c. Always greater than 800 ft2/1000 acfm
17. To improve the aspect ratio of an ESP design, the ____________________ of the collection sur-
face should be increased relative to the ____________________ of the plate.
a. Height; length
b. Length; height
18. Given an ESP having a configuration as shown below, what is the aspect ratio of this unit?
30 ft 30 ft
10 ft 15 ft 15 ft
a. 0.33
b. 1.5
c. 0.75
d. 1.33
19. What should the aspect ratio be for high-efficiency ESPs?

a. Less than 0.8
b. Greater than 1.0
c. Always greater than 1.5
20. In a properly designed ESP, the gas velocity through the ESP chamber will be:
a. Between 2 and 8 ft/sec
b. Greater than 20 ft/sec
c. Approximately between 20 and 80 ft/sec
d. At least 400 ft2/1000 acfm
3-26 2.0-2/98
21. In an ESP, the collection efficiency is proportional to the amount of ____________________

____________________ supplied to the unit.
2.0-2/98 3-27
Lesson 3
3-28 2.0-2/98

1. Migration velocity (or drift velocity)
The velocity at which the charged particle moves toward the collection electrode is called the
migration velocity (or drift velocity) and is denoted by the symbol w.
2. c. Deutsch-Anderson equation
The following equation, η = 1 − e -w ( A /Q ) , is the Deutsch-Anderson equation.
3. d. Collection efficiency
The symbol η in the Deutsch-Anderson equation is the collection efficiency.
4. d. All of the above

The Deutsch-Anderson equation does not account for the following:
• Dust reentrainment that may occur as a result of rapping
• Varying migration velocities due to various-sized particles in the flue gas
• Uneven gas flow through the precipitator
5. False
Using the Matts-Ohnfeldt equation to estimate the collection efficiency of an ESP will give more
conservative results than using the Deutsch-Anderson equation because the Matts-Ohnfeldt equa-
tion accounts for non-ideal effects.
6. Accepting
Releasing
Resistivity is a measure of a particle’s resistance to accepting and releasing charge.
7. b. Collection efficiency
Dust resistivity is a characteristic of the particle in the flue gas that can alter the collection effi-
ciency of an ESP.
8. c. High
Dust particles with high resistivity are difficult to remove from collection plates, causing rapping
problems.

High dust resistivity can be reduced by the following:
• Adjusting the flue gas temperature
• Increasing the moisture content of the flue gas
• Injecting SO3 into the flue gas
10. False
Fly ash that results from burning high-sulfur coal generally has low resistivity. SO3, which lowers
the resistivity of fly-ash, normally increases as the sulfur content of the coal increases.
2.0-2/98 3-29
11. d. b and c, above
A precipitator is divided into a series of independently energized bus sections called fields or
stages.
12. b. Four, eight
In the above figure there are four fields and eight cells.
13. c. Three or four

A precipitator should be designed with at least three or four fields to attain a high collection effi-
ciency.
14. d. b and c, above

Electrical sectionalization improves collection efficiency by allowing the following:
• Independent voltage control of different fields
• Continued ESP operation in the event of electrical failure in one of the fields
15. b. 667 ft2/1000 acfm

If the design of the precipitator states that 500,000 ft2 of plate area is used to remove particles from
flue gas flowing at 750,000 ft3/min, the SCA of the unit is as follows:
500,000 ( ft )
2
SCA = -----------------------------------------
750 ( 1000 acfm )
= 667 ft ⁄ 1000 acfm
2
16. b. Between 350 and 400 ft2/1000 acfm

To achieve a collection efficiency greater than 99.5%, most ESPs have a SCA between 350 and
400 ft2/1000 acfm.
17. b. Length; height

To improve the aspect ratio of an ESP design, the length of the collection surface should be
increased relative to the height of the plate.
2.0-2/98 3-30
Bibliography
18. d. 1.33
30 ft 30 ft
10 ft 15 ft 15 ft
An ESP with the above configuration has the following aspect ratio:
10 + 15 + 15
AR = ------------------------------
30
40
= ------
30
= 1.33
19. b. Greater than 1.0

The aspect ratio for high-efficiency ESPs should be greater than 1.0.
20. a. Between 2 and 8 ft/sec

In a properly designed ESP, the gas velocity through the ESP chamber will be between
2 and 8 ft/sec, and most often between 4 and 6 ft/sec.
21. Corona power

In an ESP, the collection efficiency is proportional to the amount of corona power supplied to the
unit.
3-31 2.0-2/98
Lesson 3
3-32 2.0-2/98
Bibliography
Anderson, E. 1924. Report, Western Precipitator Co., Los Angeles, CA. 1919. Transactions of the
American Institute of Chemical Engineers. 16:69.
Selected Industries, Self-Instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course SI:431). EPA 450/2-82-006. U.S.
Deutsch, W. 1922. Annals of Physics. (Leipzig) 68:335.
Hall, H. J. 1975. Design and application of high voltage power supplies in electrostatic precipitation.
Journal of Air Pollution Control Association. 25:132.
Hesketh, H. E. 1979. Air Pollution Control. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.
Lawless, P. 1992. ESPVI 4.0, Electrostatic Precipitator V-I and Performance Model: Users’ Manual.
EPA 600/R-29-104a.
Matts, S., and P. O. Ohnfeldt. 1964. Efficient Gas Cleaning with SF Electrostatic Precipitators. Flak-
ten.
Richards, J. R. 1995. Control of Particulate Emissions, Student Manual. (APTI Course 413). U.S.
Rose, H. E., and A. J. Wood. An Introduction to Electrostatic Precipitation in Theory and Practice.
London: Constable and Company.
Schmidt, W. A. 1949. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 41:2428.
Theodore, L., and A. J. Buonicore. 1976. Industrial Air Pollution Control Equipment for
Particulates. Cleveland: CRC Press.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978, June. A Mathematical Model of Electrostatic Precipita-
tion (Revision 1). Vol. 1, Modeling and Programming. EPA 600/7-78-llla.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978, June. A Mathematical Model of Electrostatic Precipita-
tion (Revision 1). Vol. II, User Manual. EPA 600/7-78-lllb.
2.0-2/98 3-33
Lesson 3
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. Particulate Control by Fabric Filtration on Coal-Fired
Industrial Boilers. EPA 625/2-79-021.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980, May. TI-59 Programmable Calculator Programs for In-
stack Opacity, Venturi Scrubbers, and Electrostatic Precipitators. EPA 600/8-80-024.
White, H. J. 1963. Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

White, H. J. 1974. Resistivity problems in electrostatic precipitation. Journal of Air Pollution Control
Association 24:315-338.
White, H. J. 1982. Review of the state of the technology. Proceedings of the International Conference
on Electrostatic Precipitation. Monterey, CA, October 1981. Air Pollution Control Corporation,
Pittsburgh, PA.
3-34 2.0-2/98
Lesson 4
ESP Design Review
Goal
To familiarize you with the factors to be considered when reviewing ESP design plans for the per-
mit process.
Objectives
1. Explain how each of the following dust properties affects ESP performance:
• Dust type (chemical composition)
• Size
• Concentration in gas stream
• Resistivity
2. Explain how each of the following flue gas properties affects ESP performance:
• Gas flow rate
• Temperature
• Moisture content
• Chemical properties (dew point, corrosiveness, and combustibility)
3. Identify important design considerations for discharge electrodes, collection electrodes, and
hopper and discharge devices
4. Explain how each of the following factors contributes to good ESP design:
• Electrical sectionalization
• Aspect ratio
• Distribution of gas flow
5. Estimate the collection area and the collection efficiency for a given process flow rate and
migration velocity
6. Estimate the capital and operating cost of an ESP using tables and figures
2.0-2/98 4-1
Lesson 4
Introduction
As discussed in Lessons 2 and 3, finalizing the design of an electrostatic precipitator and its
components involves consideration of many factors. Air pollution control agency officers who
review ESP design plans should consider these factors during the review process. Some of
these factors relate to the properties of the dust and flue gas being filtered, while others apply
to the specific ESP design:
• Type of discharge electrode
• Type of collection electrode
• Electrical sectionalization (number of fields and individual power supplied used
• Aspect ratio
Construction details, such as shell insulation, inlet location, hopper design, and dust discharge
devices are also important.
This lesson reviews the ESP design parameters, along with typical ranges for these variables.
It also familiarizes you with cost information for various ESP designs so that you can be aware
of cost when reviewing design plans and making recommendations.
Review of Design Variables

The principal design variables are the dust concentration, measured in g/m3 (lb/ft3 or gr/ft3)
and the gas flow rate to the ESP, measured in m3/min (ft3/min or acfm). The gas volume and
dust concentration (loading) are set by the process exhaust gas flow rate. Once these variables
are known, the vendor can begin to design the precipitator for the specific application. A thor-
ough review of ESP design plans should consider the factors presented below.
Physical and chemical properties of the dust such as dust type, size of the dust particles, and
average and maximum concentrations in the gas stream are important ESP design consider-
ations. The type of dust to be collected in the ESP refers to the chemical characteristics of the
dust such as explosiveness. For example, a dry ESP should not be used to collect explosive
dust. In this case, it might be a better idea to use a baghouse or scrubber. Particle size is impor-
tant; small particles are more difficult to collect and become reentrained more easily than
larger particles. Additional fields may be required to meet regulatory limits. The dust loading
can affect the operating performance. If the dust concentration is too high, the automatic volt-
age controller may respond by totally suppressing the current in the inlet fields. Suppressed
current flow drives the voltage up, which can cause sparking. For this reason, it might be a
good idea to install a cyclone or multicyclone to remove larger particles and reduce the dust
concentration from the flue gas before it enters the ESP. The facility could install a larger ESP
(with more plate area), however, this technique would be more costly.
Resistivity is a function of the chemical composition of the dust, the flue gas temperature and
moisture concentration. For fly ash generated from coal-fired boilers, the resistivity depends
on the temperature and moisture content of the flue gas and on the sulfur content of the coal
burned; the lower the sulfur content, the higher the resistivity, and vice versa. If a boiler burns
low-sulfur coal, the ESP must be designed to deal with potential resistivity problems. As pre-
viously stated in Lesson 3, high resistivity can be reduced by spraying water, SO3 or some
other conditioning agent into the flue gas before it enters the ESP.
4-2 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
Predicting the gas flow rate and gas stream properties is essential for proper ESP design.
The average and maximum gas flow rates through the ESP, the temperature, moisture content,
chemical properties such as dew point, corrosiveness, and combustibility of the gas should be
identified prior to final design. If the ESP is going to be installed on an existing source, a stack
test should be performed to determine the process gas stream properties. If the ESP is being
installed on a new source, data from a similar plant or operation may be used, but the ESP
should be designed conservatively (with a large SCA, a high aspect ratio, and high corona
power). Once the actual gas stream properties are known, the designers can determine if the
precipitator will require extras such as shell insulation for hot-side ESPs, corrosion-proof coat-
ings, and installation of heaters in hoppers or ductwork leading into and out of the unit.
The type of discharge electrodes and electrode support are important. Small-diameter wires
should be firmly supported at the top and connected to a weight heavy enough (11.4-kg
weights for 9.1-m wires) to keep the wires from swaying. The bottom and top of each wire
should be covered with shrouds to help minimize sparking and metal erosion at these points.
Newer ESPs are generally using rigid-frame or rigid-electrode discharge electrodes.
Collection electrodes—type (either tube or plate), shape of plates, size, and mechanical
strength—are then chosen. Plates are usually less than 9 m (30 ft) high for high-efficiency
ESPs. For ESPs using wires, the spacing between collection plate electrodes usually ranges
from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in.). For ESPs using rigid-frame or rigid electrodes, the spacing is
typically 30 to 38 cm (12 to 15 inches). Equal spacing must be maintained between plates
throughout the entire precipitator. Stiffeners may be used to help prevent the plates from warp-
ing, particularly when hot-side precipitators are used.
Proper electrical sectionalization is important to achieve high collection efficiency in the
ESP. Electrical sectionalization refers to the division of a precipitator into a number of differ-
ent fields and cells, each powered by its own T-R set. ESPs should have at least three to four
fields to attain a high collection efficiency. In addition, the greater the number of fields the bet-
ter the chance that the ESP will achieve the designed collection efficiency. There should be
approximately one T-R set for every 930 to 2970 m2 (10,000 to 30,000 ft2) of collection-plate
area.
The specific collection area (SCA) is the collection area, in m2 per 1000 m3/h (ft2 per 1000
ft3/min), of flue gas through the precipitator. The typical range for SCA is between 11 and 45
m2 per 1000 m3/h (200 and 800 ft2 per 1000 acfm). The SCA must be large enough to effi-
ciently collect particles (99.5% collection efficiency), but not so large that the cost of the ESP
is too high. If the dust has a high resistivity, vendors will generally design the ESP with a
higher SCA [usually greater than 22 m2 per 1000 m3/h (400 ft2 per 1000 acfm)] to help reduce
resistivity problems.
Aspect ratio is the ratio of effective length to height of the collector surface. The aspect ratio
should be high enough to allow the rapped particles to settle in the hopper before they are car-
ried out of the ESP by the gas flow. The aspect ratio is usually greater than 1.0 for high-effi-
ciency ESPs. Aspect ratios of 1.3 to 1.5 are common, and they are occasionally as high 2.0.
Even distribution of gas flow across the entire precipitator unit is critical to ensure collection
of the particles. To assure even distribution, gas should enter the ESP through an expansion
inlet plenum containing perforated diffuser plates (see Figure 3-7). In addition, the ducts lead-
ing into the ESP unit should be straight as shown in Figure 4-1. For ESPs with straight-line
2.0-2/98 4-3
Lesson 4
inlets, the distance of A should be at least as long as the distance of B in the inlet (Katz 1979).
In situations where a straight-line inlet is not possible and a curved inlet must be used (see Fig-
ure 4-2), straightening vanes should be installed to keep the flue gas from becoming stratified.
The gas velocity through the body of the ESP should be approximately 0.6 to 2.4 m/s (2 to 8 ft/
sec). For ESPs having aspect ratios of 1.5, the optimum gas velocity is usually between 1.5
and 1.8 m/s (5 and 6 ft/sec). The outlet of the ESP should also be carefully designed to provide
even flow of the gas from the ESP to the stack without excessive pressure buildup. This can be
done by using an expansion outlet, as shown in Figure 4-3. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 also have
expansion outlets.
Expansion
inlet
Figure 4-1. Straight-line inlet
Straightening
vanes
Figure 4-2. Straightening vanes in a curved inlet
Expansion
outlet
Figure 4-3. ESP with expansion outlet
4-4 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
The hopper and discharge device design including geometry, size, dust storage capacity,
number, and location are important so that dust is removed on a routine basis. A well-designed
dust hopper is sloped (usually 60°) to allow dust to flow freely to discharge devices. It
includes access ports and strike plates to help move dust that becomes stuck. Dust should be
only temporarily stored in the hopper and removed periodically by the discharge devices to
prevent it from backing up into the ESP where it can touch the plates, possibly causing a cell
to short out. In addition to the amount of fly ash present, there are a couple of special consider-
ations to keep in mind when ESPs are used on coal-fired boilers. First, the amount of fly ash in
the flue gas can vary depending on what type of coal is burned and the ash content of the coal.
Coal having a higher ash content will produce more fly ash than coal having lower ash values.
Consequently, the discharge device must be designed so that the operator can adjust the fre-
quency of fly ash removal. Second, hoppers need to be insulated to prevent ash from "freez-
ing," or sticking, in the hopper.
Finally, emission regulations in terms of opacity and dust concentration (grain-loading)
requirements will ultimately play an important role in the final design decisions. Electrostatic
precipitators are very efficient; collection efficiency can usually be greater than 99% if the
ESP is properly designed and operated.
Typical Ranges of Design Parameters

While reviewing a permit for ESP installation, check whether the design specifications are
within the range that is typically used by that industry. The ranges of basic design parameters
for fly ash precipitators are given in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1. Typical ranges of design parameters for fly ash

precipitators
Parameter Range (metric units) Range (English units)

Distance between plates 20-30 cm (20-23 cm optimum) 8-12 in. (8-9 in. optimum)
(duct width)
Gas velocity in ESP 1.2-2.4 m/s (1.5-1.8 m/s optimum) 4-8 ft/sec (5-6 ft/sec optimum)
SCA 11-45 m2/1000 m3/h 200-800 ft2/1000 cfm

(16.5-22.0 m2/1000 m3/h optimum) (300-400 ft2/1000 cfm optimum)
Aspect ratio (L/H) 1-1.5 (keep plate height less than 1-1.5 (keep plate height less than
9 m for high efficiency) 30 ft for high efficiency)
Particle migration velocity 3.05-15.2 cm/s 0.1-0.5 ft/sec
Number of fields 4-8 4-8
Corona power/flue gas 59-295 watts/1000 m3/h 100-500 watts/1000 cfm

volume
Corona current/ft2 plate 107-860 microamps/m2 10-80 microamps/ft2

area
2
Plate area per electrical (T- 465-7430 m /T-R set 5000-80,000 ft2/T-R set (10,000-
R) set (930-2790 m2/T-R set optimum) 30,000 ft2/T-R set optimum)
Source: White 1977.
2.0-2/98 4-5
Lesson 4
Estimating Collection Efficiency and Collection Area

The manufacturer designs and sizes the electrostatic precipitator. However, the operator (or
reviewer) needs to check or estimate the collection efficiency and the amount of collection
area required for a given process flow rate. You can compute these estimates by using the
Deutsch-Anderson or Matts-Ohnfeldt equations (see Lesson 3). These equations are repeated
in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2. Equations used to estimate collection efficiency

and collection area
Calculation Deutsch-Anderson Matts-Ohnfeldt

k
–w ( A ⁄ Q ) –wk ( A ⁄ Q )
Collection efficiency η = 1–e η = 1–e
1⁄k
Q k
Collection area (to meet a –Q
A = ------- [ ln ( 1 – η ) ] A = –  ------ [ ln ( 1 – η ) ]
w  w k
required efficiency)
Where: η = collection efficiency η = collection efficiency
A = collection area A = collection area
w = migration velocity wk = average migration
Q = gas flow rate velocity
ln = natural logarithm k = constant (usually 0.5)
ln = natural logarithm
4-6 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
Example Estimation
The exhaust rate of the gas being processed is given as 1,000,000 ft3/min. The inlet dust
concentration in the gas as it enters the ESP is 8 gr/ft3. If the emission regulations state
that the outlet dust concentration must be less than 0.04 gr/ft3, how much collection area is
required to meet the regulations? Use the Deutsch-Anderson equation for this calculation
and assume the migration velocity is 0.3 ft/sec.
1. From Table 4-2, use this version of the Deutsch-Anderson equation to solve the
problem:
–Q
A = ------- [ ln ( 1 – η ) ]
w
Where: A = collection area, ft2
Q = gas flow rate, ft3/sec
w = migration velocity, ft/sec
η = collection efficiency
ln = natural logarithm
In this example,
Q = 1,000,000 ft3/min × 1 min/60 sec

= 16,667 ft3/sec
w = 0.3 ft/sec
2. Calculate the collection efficiency, η.
dust in – dust out

η = ----------------------------------
-
dust in
8 gr ⁄ ft – 0.04 gr ⁄ ft
3 3
= ------------------------------------------------------
8 gr ⁄ ft
3
= 0.995 or 99.5%
3. Calculate the collection area, A, in ft2.
– 16,667 ft ⁄ sec
3
A = --------------------------------------- [ ln ( 1 – 0.995 ) ]
0.3 ft ⁄ sec
= ( – 55,557 ft ) × [ – 5.2983 ]
2
2
= 294,358 ft
2.0-2/98 4-7
Lesson 4
Estimating Capital and Operating Costs

This section contains generalized cost data for ESP systems described throughout this guide-
book. These data should be used only as an estimate to determine system cost. The total capital
investment (TCI) includes costs for the ESP structure, the internals, rappers, power supply,
and auxiliary equipment, and the usual direct and indirect costs associated with installing or
erecting new structures. These costs, given in second-quarter 1987 dollars, are described in the
following subsections.
ESP Equipment Cost

Most of the following cost discussion is taken from the EPA OAQPS Cost Control Manual
(1990). Costs for rigid-electrode, wire and plate, and flat-plate ESPs can be estimated
using Figure 4-4. Costs for two-stage precipitators are given later.
Figure 4-4 represents two cost curves (the two in the middle) along with their respective
equations (outer lines with arrows). Each curve requires two equations for calculating
cost: one for total plate areas between 10,000 and 50,000 ft2 and another for total plate
areas between 50,000 and 1,000,000 ft2. The lower curve shows the cost for the basic unit
without the standard options. It represents the flange-to-flange, field-erected price for a
rigid-electrode design. The upper curve includes all of the standard options (listed in Table
4-3) that are normally used in a modern system. All units (both curves) include the ESP
casing, pyramidal hoppers, rigid electrodes and internal collection plates, transformer-rec-
tifier (T-R) sets and microprocessor controls, rappers, and stub supports (legs) for 4-foot
clearance below the hopper discharges. The costs are based on a number of actual quotes
that have been fitted to lines using the “least squares” method. Don’t be surprised if you
obtain quotes that differ from these curves by as much as ±25%. (Significant savings can
be obtained by solicitating multiple quotes.) The equations should not be used to extrapo-
late costs for total plates areas below 10,000 or above 1,000,000 ft2. The standard options
included in the upper curve add approximately 45% to the basic cost of the flange-to-
flange hardware. Insulation costs are for 3 inches of field-installed glass fiber encased in a
metal skin and applied on the outside of all areas in contact with the exhaust gas stream.
Calculate insulation for ductwork, fan casings, and stacks separately. To obtain more accu-
rate results, solve the equations for the lines instead of reading the values from the graph.
4-8 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
Figure 4-4. Dry-type rigid electrode ESP flange-to-flange purchase price

versus plate area
Table 4-3. Standard options for basic equipment
Item Cost Adder, %

1. Inlet and outlet nozzles and diffuser plates 8 to 10
2. Hopper auxiliaries/heaters, level detectors 8 to 10
3. Weather enclosure and stair access 8 to 10
4. Structural supports 5
5. Insulation 8 to 10
Total options 1 to 5 1.37 to 1.45 × base
Impact of Alternative Electrode Designs

All three designs—rigid electrode, weighted wire, and rigid frame—can be employed in
most applications. Any cost differential between designs will depend on the combination
of vendor experience and site-specific factors that dictate equipment size factors. The
rigid-frame design will cost up to 25% more than the wire and plate design if the plate
height is restricted to that used in wire/plate designs. Several vendors can now provide
rigid-frame ESPs with taller plates, and thus the cost differential can approach zero.
The weighted wire design uses narrower plate spacings and more internal discharge elec-
trodes. This design is being used less; therefore, its cost is increasing and currently is
2.0-2/98 4-9
Lesson 4
approximately the same as that for the rigid electrode ESP. Below about 15,000 ft2 of plate
area, ESPs are not normally field-erected (erected at the installation site), and the costs
will probably be higher than values extrapolated from Figure 4-4.
Impact of Materials of Construction:

Metal Thickness and Stainless Steel
Corrosive or other adverse operating conditions may require specifications of thicker
metal sections in the precipitator. Metal thickness can be moderately increased with mini-
mal cost increases. For example, collection plates are typically constructed of 18-gauge
mild steel. Most ESP manufacturers can increase the section thickness by 25% without
significant design changes or increases in manufacturing costs of more than a few percent.
Changes in the type of material can increase the purchase cost of the ESP significantly.
Using type 304 stainless steel instead of 18-gauge mild steel for collection plates and pre-
cipitator walls can increase costs 30-50%. Using even more expensive materials for all
elements of the ESP can increase costs up to several hundred percent. Based on the carbon
steel 18-gauge cost, the approximate factors given below can be used for other materials.
Table 4-4. ESP costs using various materials
Factor Material
1.0 Carbon Steel, 18-gauge
1.3 Stainless Steel, 304
1.7 Stainless Steel, 316
1.9 Carpenter 20 CB-3
2.3 Monel-400
3.2 Nickel-200
4.5 Titanium
Recent Trends
Most of today's market (1987) is in the 50,000 to 200,000 ft2 plate area size range. ESP
selling prices have increased very little over the past 10 years because of more effective
designs, increased competition from European suppliers, and a shrinking utility market.
Design improvements have allowed wider plate spacings that reduce the number of inter-
nal components and higher plates and masts that provide additional plate area at a low
cost. Microprocessor controls and energy management systems have lowered operating
costs.
Few, if any, hot-side ESPs (those used upstream from an air preheater on a combustion
source) are being specified for purchase. Recognition that low-sodium coals tend to build
resistive ash layers on the collection plates, thus reducing ESP efficiency, has almost elim-
inated sales of hot-side units. Of the 150 existing units, about 75 are candidates for con-
version to cold-side units (using resistivity conditioning agents) over the next 10 years
(U.S. EPA 1990).
4-10 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
Specific industry application has little impact on either ESP design or cost, with the fol-
lowing three exceptions: paper mills, sulfuric acid manufacturing plants, and coke by-
product plants. Because paper mills have dust that can be sticky and difficult to remove,
paper mill ESPs use drag conveyer hoppers. These hoppers increase the cost by approxi-
mately 10 percent of the base flange-to-flange equipment cost. For emissions control in
sulfuric acid plants and coke by-product ovens, wet ESPs are used. In sulfuric acid manu-
facture, wet ESPs are used to collect acid mist. These precipitators usually are small and
use lead for all interior surfaces; hence, they normally cost $65 to $95/ft2 of collecting
area installed (mid-1987 dollars) and up to $120/ft2 in special situations. Using Figure 4-4,
the standard cost for a rigid-frame ESP ranges from $7 to $14/ft2 of collecting area. In
addition, a wet circular ESP is typically used to control emissions from a coke oven off-
gas detarring operation. These precipitators are made from high-alloy stainless steels and
typically cost $90 to $120/ft2 installed. Because of the small number of sales, small size of
units sold, and dependency of site-specific factors, more definitive costs are not available.
Retrofit Cost Factor

Retrofit installations increase the cost of an ESP because of the frequent need to remove
something to make way for the new ESP. Also, the ducting usually is much more expen-
sive as a retrofit application because the ducting path is often constrained by existing
structures, additional supports are required, and the confined areas make erection more
labor intensive and lengthy. Costs are site-specific; however, for estimating purposes, a
retrofit multiplier of 1.3 to 1.5 applied to the total capital investment can be used. The
multiplier should be selected within this range based on the relative difficulty of the instal-
lation.
A special case is the conversion of a hot-side to a cold-side ESP for coal-fired boiler appli-
cations. The magnitude of the conversion is very site-specific, but most projects will con-
tain the following elements:
• Relocating the air preheater and the ducting to it
• Resizing the ESP inlet and outlet duct to the new air volume and rerouting it
• Upgrading the ID (induced draft) fan size or motor to accommodate the higher static
pressure and horsepower requirements
• Adding or modifying foundations for fan and duct supports
• Assessing the required SCA and either increasing the collecting area or installing an
SO3 gas-conditioning system
• Adding hopper heaters
• Upgrading the analog electrical controls to microprocessor-type controls
• Increasing the number of collecting plate rappers and perhaps the location of rappers
In some installations, it may be cost-effective to gut the existing collector totally, utilize
only the existing casing and hoppers, and upgrade the ESP using modern internal compo-
nents. The cost of conversion is a multimillion dollar project typically running at least 25
to 35 percent of the total capital investment of a new unit.
2.0-2/98 4-11
Lesson 4
Costs for Two-Stage Precipitators

Purchase costs for modular, two-stage precipitators should be considered separately from
large-scale, single-stage ESPs (see Figure 4-5). To be consistent with industry practice,
costs are given as a function of flow rate through the system. The lower cost curve is for a
two-cell unit without a precooler, installed cell washer, and a fan. The upper curve is for
an engineered package system with the following components: inlet diffuser plenum, pre-
filter, cooling coils with coating, coil plenums with access, water-flow controls, triple-pass
configuration, system exhaust fan with accessories, outlet plenum, and in-place foam
cleaning system with semiautomatic control and programmable controller. All equipment
is fully assembled mechanically and electrically, and it is mounted on a steel structural
skid.
Figure 4-5. Purchase costs for two-stage, two-cell precipitators
Total Purchase Cost

The total purchase cost of an ESP system is the sum of the costs of the ESP, options, aux-
iliary equipment, instruments and controls, taxes, and freight. The last three items gener-
ally are taken as percentages of the estimated total cost of the first three items. Typical
values are 10% for instruments and controls, 3% for taxes, and 5% for freight.
Costs of standard and other options can vary from 0% to more than 150% of ESP base
cost, depending on site and application requirements. Other factors that can increase ESP
costs are given in Table 4-5.
4-12 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
Table 4-5. Items that increase ESP costs
Item Factor or Applied to

Total Cost
Rigid-frame electrode with restricted plate height 1.0-1.25 ESP base cost
Type 304 stainless-steel collector plates and 1.3-1.5 ESP base cost
precipitator walls
All-stainless construction 2-3 ESP base cost
ESP with drag conveyor hoppers (paper mill) 1.1 ESP base cost
Retrofit installations 1.3-1.5 ESP base cost
Wet ESP
Sulfuric acid mist $65-$95/ft2 -
Sulfuric acid mist (special installation) Up to $120/ft2 -
Coke oven off-gas $90-$120/ft2 -

Total Capital Investment

Total capital investment (TCI) is estimated from a series of factors applied to the pur-
chased equipment cost (PEC) to obtain direct and indirect costs for installation. The TCI is
the sum of the direct costs (equipment and installation) and indirect costs. The required
factors are given in Table 4-6. Because ESPs can vary from small units attached to exist-
ing buildings to large, separate structures, specific factors for site preparation or for build-
ings are not given. However, costs for buildings and materials may be obtained from
references such as Means Square Foot Costs 1987. Land, working capital, and off-site
facilities are excluded from the table because they are required only for very large installa-
tions. However, they can be estimated on an as-needed basis.
Note that the factors given in Table 4-6 are for average installation conditions, and for
example, include no unusual problems with site earthwork, access, shipping, or interfering
structures. Considerable variation may be seen with other-than-average installation cir-
cumstances. For two-stage precipitators purchased as packaged systems, several of the
costs in Table 4-6 would be greatly reduced or eliminated. These include instruments and
controls, foundations and supports, erection and handling, painting, and model studies. An
installation factor of 0.25 of the PEC (instead of 0.67 PEC) would be more nearly appro-
priate for the two-stage ESPs.
2.0-2/98 4-13
Lesson 4
Table 4-6. Capital cost factors for ESPs
Cost Item Factor

Direct Costs
Purchased equipment costs
ESP + auxiliary equipment As estimated, EC
Instruments 0.10 EC
Sales taxes 0.03 EC
Freight 0.05 EC
Purchased equipment cost, PEC PEC = 1.18 EC
Direct installation costs

Foundation and supports 0.04 PEC
Handling and erection 0.50 PEC
Electrical 0.08 PEC
Piping 0.01 PEC
Insulation for ductwork1 0.02 PEC
Painting 0.02 PEC
Direct installation costs 0.67 PEC
Site preparation As required, SP
Buildings As required, Bldg.
Total Direct Costs DC 1.67 PEC + SP + Bldg.
Indirect Costs (installation)

Engineering 0.20 PEC
Construction and field expense 0.20 PEC
Contractor fees 0.10 PEC
Start-up fee 0.01 PEC
Performance test 0.01 PEC
Model study 0.02 PEC
Contingencies 0.03 PEC
Total Indirect Costs IC 0.57 PEC
Total Capital Cost = DC + IC 2.24 PEC + SP + Bldg.
1
If ductwork dimensions have been established, cost may be estimated based on $10 to $12/ft2 of
surface for field application.
Example
A basic, flat-plate, rigid-electrode ESP, requiring a plate area of 40,800 ft2, is pro-
posed. The manufacturer recommends using 304 stainless steel for the discharge
electrodes and collection plates due to the corrosive nature of the flue gas.
Assume that the auxiliary equipment costs $10,000.
Using Figure 4-4 and Tables 4-4 and 4-6, estimate the following:
1. Equipment cost (EC)
2. Purchased equipment cost (PEC)
3. Total capital cost of purchasing and installing the ESP
4-14 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
1. Estimate the equipment cost. Because the ESP is a basic, rigid-frame ESP
without the standard options, the lower line from Figure 4-4 is used to obtain
the capital cost. Using a collection area of 40,800 ft2, a cost of $470,000 can
be read from Figure 4-4. But this cost figure assumes that the ESP discharge
electrodes and collection plates are made out of carbon steel material. As
stated in Table 4-4, the cost factor for 304 stainless steel is 1.3. The equipment
cost is:
$470,000 × 1.3 = $611,000
Auxiliary equipment cost = $10,000
Equipment cost (EC) = $621,000
2. Estimate the purchased equipment cost (PEC) using the cost factors in
Table 4-6 (some calculations are rounded).
Equipment cost (EC) = $621,000
Instrumentation (0.10 × 621,000) = $62,100
Sales Tax (0.03 × 621,000) = $18,600
Freight (0.05 × 621,000) = $31,100
Purchased equipment cost (PEC) = $732,800
3. Estimate the total capital cost. Knowing the PEC and using the cost factors
in Table 4-6, you can estimate the remaining direct and indirect costs, which
make up the total capital cost. A summary of these costs are provided in Table
4-7.
2.0-2/98 4-15
Lesson 4
Table 4-7. Example case capital costs
Cost Item Factor Cost(s)

Direct Costs
Purchased equipment costs
ESP + auxiliary equipment As estimated, EC $621,000
Instruments 0.10 EC 62,100
Sales taxes 0.03 EC 18,600
Freight 0.05 EC 31,100
Purchased equipment cost, PEC PEC = 1.18 EC $732,800
Direct installation costs

Foundation and supports 0.04 PEC $29,300
Handling and erection 0.50 PEC 367,000
Electrical 0.08 PEC 58,600
Piping 0.01 PEC 7,330
Insulation for ductwork1 0.02 PEC 14,700
Painting 0.02 PEC 14,700
Direct installation costs 0.67 PEC $491,630
Site preparation As required, SP
Buildings As required, Bldg.
Total Direct Cost, DC 1.67 PEC + SP + Bldg. $1,224,430
Indirect Costs (installation)

Engineering 0.20 PEC $147,000
Construction and field expense 0.20 PEC 147,000
Contractor fees 0.10 PEC 73,300
Start-up fee 0.01 PEC 7,330
Performance test 0.01 PEC 7,330
Model study 0.02 PEC 14,700
Contingencies 0.03 PEC 22,000
Total Indirect Cost, IC 0.57 PEC $418,660
Total Capital Cost = DC + IC 2.24 PEC + SP + Bldg. $1,643,090
1
If ductwork dimensions have been established, cost may be estimated based on $10 to $12/ft2 of surface for
field application.
Summary
Some key factors that affect the design of an ESP include the following:
• Type of discharge electrode
• Type of collection electrode
• Electrical sectionalization
• Aspect ratio
We also covered how to estimate the cost of ESPs. These estimates can be used as budgetary
estimates by facilities planning to install an ESP or by agency engineers for reviewing permit
applications.
4-16 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
Review Exercise
1. Two important process variables to consider when designing an ESP are the gas
____________________ ____________________ and the dust ____________________.
2. In an ESP, the amount of dust coming into the ESP is important. If the dust loading is very high it
will:
a. Suppress the current in the inlet field and cause the controller to drive up the voltage
b. Increase the current in the inlet field and cause the controller to decrease the voltage
c. Cause an increase in the dust resistivity
d. Have no effect on the ESP performance
3. If coal burned in a boiler has a low sulfur content, the resulting dust will usually have
____________________ resistivity.
a. High
b. Low
4. Which of the drawings below shows a good design of an inlet into the ESP?
a.
b.
c.
2.0-2/98 4-17
Lesson 4
5. True or False? Dust can be stored in hoppers for any length of time without causing problems.
6. An ESP has a collection area of 750,000 ft2 and filters fly ash from flue gas flowing at 1,500,000
ft3/min. The migration velocity of the dust is 0.25 ft/sec. Estimate the collection efficiency of the
ESP using the Deutsch-Anderson equation.
–w ( A ⁄ Q )
η = 1–e
7. The design plan states that an ESP will filter fly ash from flue gas that has a dust loading of 2 gr/ft3
and a flow rate of 2,000,000 acfm (ft3/min). The dust migration velocity is 0.3 ft/sec. If the regula-
tions state that the emissions must be less than 0.02 gr/ft3, what is the total collection area needed
for the ESP design? Use the Deutsch-Anderson equation.
4-18 2.0-2/98
ESP Design Review
1. Flow rate
Concentration
Two important process variables to consider when designing an ESP are gas flow rate and dust
concentration.
2. a. Suppress the current in the field and cause the controller to drive up the voltage
In an ESP, the amount of dust coming into the ESP is important. If the dust loading is very high it
will suppress the current in the inlet field and cause the controller to drive up the voltage.
3. a. High
If coal burned in a boiler has a low sulfur content, the resulting dust will usually have high resistiv-
ity.
4. c. A
The figure in option “c” shows the best inlet design because it has a straight-on inlet and an inlet
plenum with a distance of A as long as (or longer than) B. Option "b" is fine if there are straighten-
ing vanes in the duct.
5. False
Dust can NOT be stored in hoppers for any length of time without causing problems. Dust should
be stored temporarily in the hopper and removed periodically by the discharge device to prevent
the dust from backing up into the ESP.
6. 99.94%
Solution:
Calculate the collection efficiency using the Deutsch-Anderson equation:
–w ( A ⁄ Q )
η = 1–e
Where: w = 0.25 ft/sec × 60 sec/min = 15 ft/min

A = 750,000 ft2
Q = 1,500,000 ft3/min
2 3
– 15ft ⁄ min ( 750,000 ft /1,500,000 ft /min )
η = 1–e
= 1 – 0.00055
= 0.9994 or 99.94%
2.0-2/98 4-19
Lesson 4
7. 512,000 ft2
Solution:
1. Using equation 4-1, calculate the collection efficiency required to meet emissions regulations.
2gr ⁄ ft – 0.02gr ⁄ ft
3 3
η = --------------------------------------------------
-
2gr ⁄ ft
3
= 0.99 or 99%
2. Calculate the total collection area needed, using the following form of the Deutsch-Anderson
equation:
–Q
A = ------- [ ln ( 1 – η ) ]
w
Where: w = 0.3 ft/sec × 60 sec/min = 18 ft/min

Q = 2,000,000 ft3/min
η = 0.99
2,000,000 ft ⁄ min-
3
–-----------------------------------------------
A = [ ln ( 1 – 0.99 ) ]
18 ft ⁄ min
= 512,000 ft2
4-20 2.0-2/98
Bibliography
Selected Industries, Self-instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course SI:431). EPA 450/2-82-006. U.S.
Neveril, R. B., J. U. Price, and K. L. Engdahl. 1978. Capital and operating costs of selected air pollu-
tion control systems - I. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association. 28:829-836.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990, January. OAQPS Cost Control Manual. 4th ed. EPA
450/3-90-006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Control Technology for Hazardous Air Pollutants
Handbook. EPA 625/6-91/014.
2.0-2/98 4-21
Lesson 4
4-22 2.0-2/98
Lesson 5
Industrial Applications of ESPs
Goal
To familiarize you with the many ways ESPs are used by various industries to reduce emissions.
Objectives
1. List five major industries that use ESPs to reduce particulate emissions
2. Describe how ESPs are used with dry flue gas desulfurization systems to reduce SO2 emis-
sions from boilers
3. Identify two operating problems that can occur when using ESPs on cement kilns
4. List two operating problems associated with ESPs in the steel industry
5. Briefly describe how ESPs are used along with acid gas control systems to control particulate
and acid gas emissions from municipal solid waste and hazardous waste incinerators
6. Identify two processes in the lead, zinc and copper smelting industries that use ESPs to control
particulate emissions
Introduction
Because ESPs can collect dry particles, sticky or tarry particles, and wet mists, they are used
by many different industries, as diverse as chemical production and food processing. This les-
son reviews the following industries that use ESPs to reduce air pollutant emissions: fossil-
fuel-fired boilers, cement plants, steel mills, petroleum refineries, municipal waste incinera-
tors, hazardous waste incinerators, kraft pulp and paper mills, and lead, zinc, and copper
smelters.
Boilers
Particulate Matter Control System

ESPs are most widely used for the control of fly ash from industrial and utility boilers and
have been used on coal-fired boilers for over 50 years. Particulate matter is generated from
boilers when fossil fuels (coal and oil) are burned to generate steam for industrial pro-
cesses or to produce electric power. Both hot-side and cold-side precipitators are used to
control particulate emissions. Other than some construction modifications to account for
the temperature difference of the flue gas handled, hot-side and cold-side ESPs are essen-
tially the same. Cold-side ESPs are used most often for collecting fly ash from coal-fired
2.0-2/98 5-1
Lesson 5
boilers. If the dust has high resistivity, cold-side units are used along with a conditioning
agent such as sulfur trioxide (see Lesson 3).
Dry Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Control System

One technology for reducing sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from boilers is dry flue gas
desulfurization (FGD). In dry FGD, the flue gas containing SO2 is contacted with an
alkaline material to produce a dry waste product for disposal. This technology consists of
three different FGD methods:
• Injection of wet alkaline material (slurry) into a spray dryer with collection of dry par-
ticles in an electrostatic precipitator or baghouse,
• Injection of dry alkaline material into the flue gas stream with collection of dry parti-
cles in an ESP or baghouse, or
• Addition of alkaline material to the fuel prior to combustion
Spray dryers used in dry FGD are similar to those that have been used for over 40 years
in the chemical, food-processing, and mineral preparation industries. Spray dryers are ves-
sels where hot flue gas is contacted with a finely atomized, wet alkaline spray (see Figure
5-1). Flue gas enters the top of the spray dryer and is swirled by a fixed vane ring to cause
intimate contact with the slurry spray. Sodium carbonate solutions and lime slurries are the
most common alkaline material used. The slurry is atomized into extremely fine droplets
by rotary atomizers or two-fluid nozzles. In a rotary atomizer, slurry is broken into drop-
lets by centrifugal force as the atomizer wheel spins at a very high speed. In two-fluid noz-
zles, slurry is mixed with compressed air, which forms the very small droplets. The high
temperature of the flue gas, 120 to 204°C (250 to 400°F), evaporates the moisture from the
wet alkaline sprays, leaving a dry, powdered product. The dry product is then collected in
an ESP or baghouse (Joseph and Beachler 1981).
ESP
Spray dryer
absorber
Gas inlet
Fly ash
handling
system
Figure 5-1. Spray dryer with ESP
5-2 2.0-2/98
A number of spray dryer FGD systems have been installed on industrial and utility boilers.
They are particularly useful in meeting New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) that
require only 70% SO2 removal efficiency for utility boilers burning low-sulfur coal and as
retrofit applications for units having to meet the standards required by the 1990 Clean Air
Act Amendments (see Table 5-1).
Table 5-1. Commercial spray dryer FGD systems using an ESP or a baghouse
SO2
Coal emission
sulfur removal
Station or plant Size Installation System description Sorbent content efficiency
(MW) date (%) (%)
Otter Tail Power 410 6/81 Rockwell/Wheelabrator- Soda ash 0.78 70
Company: Coyote Frye system: four spray (sodium
Station No. 1, towers in parallel with 3 carbonate)
Beulah, ND atomizers in each:
reverse air-shaker
baghouse with Dacron
bags
Basin Electric: 500 Spring Babcock and Wilcox: Lime 0.54- 85-90
Laramie River Station 1982 four spray reactors with 0.81
No. 3, Wheatland, 12 "Y-jet" nozzles in
WY each: electrostatic
precipitator
Strathmore Paper Co.: 14 12/79 Mikropul: spray dryer Lime 2-2.5 75
Woronco, MA and pulse jet baghouse
Celanese Corp.: 31 2/80 Rockwell/Wheelabrator- Lime 1-2 85
Cumberland, MD Frye system: one spray
tower followed by a
baghouse
Source: U.S. EPA February 1980.
Spray dryer absorbers systems can reduce SO2 emissions by 60 to 90%. They have been
used on boilers burning low-sulfur coal (usually less than 2% sulfur content) and are
attractive alternatives to wet scrubbing technology, particularly in the arid western U.S.
In dry injection systems, a dry alkaline material (sorbent) is injected pneumatically into
the gas stream by nozzles located in the ductwork prior to the flue gas entering the ESP.
Sodium-based sorbents are used more frequently than lime for industrial coal-fired boilers
but hydrated lime is prevalent for waste burning incinerators. Sodium bicarbonate is fre-
quently used because it is highly reactive with SO2. Sodium carbonate (soda ash),
although not as reactive as sodium bicarbonate, is also used (U.S. EPA 1980). SO2
removal efficiency for these systems is typically between 70 and 80%.
A third way to apply dry FGD is by adding alkaline material to the fuel (coal) prior to
combustion. In fluidized bed boilers, limestone or sometimes lime is added to the coal in
the fluidized burning bed. These systems are capable of removing more than 90% of SO2
from the boiler flue gas. Alkaline material can also be injected into the furnace through
ports or directly into the fuel burners. The SO2 removal is typically greater than 70% in
these systems.
2.0-2/98 5-3
Lesson 5
Cement Plants
ESPs are used in cement plants to control particulate emissions from cement kilns and clinker
coolers. In a cement plant, raw materials are crushed, ground, blended, and fed into a kiln,
where they are heated. The kiln is fired with coal, oil, or gas. The material is heated to a tem-
perature above 1595°C (2900°F), which causes it to fuse. The fused material is called cement
clinker. The temperature of the hot, marble-sized, glass-hard clinker is cooled by the clinker
cooler. The cooled clinker is then sent to the final grinding mills.
ESPs are frequently used to control kiln emissions because of their ability to handle high-tem-
perature gases. These ESPs are usually hot-side ESPs with collection plates that are rapped or
sprayed with water to remove collected dust. The dust generated in the cement kiln frequently
has high resistivity. High resistivity can be reduced by conditioning the flue gas with moisture.
Many of the newer cement plants send the high temperature kiln flue gas that contains particu-
late matter through a cyclone and conditioning tower (uses water to cool the gas temperature)
prior to ducting the flue gas to the ESP. The ESP is then operated at a temperature of approxi-
mately 150°C (302°F).
A special problem arises during kiln startup due to the fact that the temperature of the kiln
must be raised slowly to prevent damage to the heat-resistant (refractory) lining in the kiln.
While kilns (especially coal-fired ones) are warming up and temperatures are below those for
steady-state operating conditions, complete combustion of the fuels cannot occur, giving rise
to combustible gases in the exhaust stream leading into the ESP. Electrostatic precipitators
cannot be activated in the presence of combustibles, because the internal arcing of the precipi-
tator could cause a fire or explosion. Use of a cyclone preceding the precipitator helps to min-
imize the excessive emissions during startup. Periods of excessive emissions during startup,
malfunction, or shutdown are specifically exempted from the federal New Source Perfor-
mance Standards for cement kilns.
ESPs can also be used on clinker coolers. However, the ESP must be carefully designed to pre-
vent moisture in the flue gas from condensing. Condensed moisture can combine with clinker
dust to coat the ESP internals with cement. (A case history of an ESP used on a cement kiln is
given in Szabo et al. 1981.)
Steel Mills
ESPs are used in steel mills for reducing particulate emissions from blast furnaces, basic oxy-
gen furnaces, and sinter plants.
In a blast furnace, iron ore is reduced to molten iron, commonly called pig iron. Blast furnaces
are large, refractory-lined steel shells. Limestone, iron ore, and coke are charged into the top of
the furnace. The gases produced during the melting process contain carbon monoxide and par-
ticulate matter. Particulate matter is removed from the blast furnace gas by wet ESPs or scrub-
bers, so that the gas (CO) can be burned "cleanly" in blast furnace stoves or other processes.
Both plate and tube-type ESPs having water sprays to remove dust from collection electrodes
are commonly used for cleaning blast furnace gas.
Basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs) refine iron from the blast furnace into steel. A BOF is a pear-
shaped steel vessel that is lined with refractory brick. The vessel is charged with molten iron
and steel scrap. A water-cooled oxygen lance is lowered into the vessel, where oxygen is
blown to agitate the liquid, add intense heat to the process, and oxidize any impurities still
5-4 2.0-2/98
contained in the liquid metal. The hot gases generated during the oxygen blow are approxi-
mately 1090 to 1650°C (2000 to 3000°F). These are usually cooled by water sprays located in
the hood and ducting above the BOF. The cooled gases are then sent to an ESP or scrubber to
remove the particulate matter (iron oxide dust). The iron oxide dust can have high resistivity,
making the dust difficult to collect in an ESP. This problem can usually be reduced by condi-
tioning the flue gas with additional moisture. Plate ESPs that are rapped or sprayed with water
to remove dust from collection plates are commonly installed on BOFs.
In a sinter plant, materials such as flue dusts, iron ore fines (small particles), coke fines, mill
scale (waste that occurs from various processing steps), and small scrap are converted into a
high-quality blast furnace feed. These materials are first fed onto a traveling grate. The bed of
materials is ignited by burning gas in burners located at the inlet of the traveling grate. As the
bed moves along the traveling grate, air is pulled down through the bed to burn it, forming a
fused, porous, red-hot sinter. The resulting gases are usually sent to an electrostatic precipita-
tor to remove any particulate matter. If oily scrap is used as a feed material, care must be taken
to prevent ESP collection plates from being coated with tarry particulate matter. Controlling
the amount of oily mill scale and small scrap processed in the sinter plant can help alleviate
this problem. Plate ESPs are commonly used in sinter plants.
Petroleum Refineries
ESPs are used in petroleum refineries to control particulate emissions from fluid-catalytic
cracking units and boilers. In a refinery, heavy crude is broken down into lighter components
by various distilling, cracking, and reforming processes. One common process is to "crack"
the high-molecular-weight, high-boiling-point compounds (heavy fuel oils) into smaller, low-
molecular-weight, low-boiling-point compounds (gasoline). This is usually done in a fluid-
catalytic cracking (FCC) unit.
In an FCC unit, the feed stream (heavy gas oils) is heated and then mixed with a hot catalyst
that causes the gas oils to vaporize and crack into smaller hydrocarbon-chain compounds.
During this process, the catalyst becomes coated with coke. The coke deposits are eventually
removed from the catalyst by a catalyst-regeneration step.
In the regenerator, a controlled amount of air is added to burn the coke deposits off the catalyst
without destroying it. The gases in the regenerator pass through cyclones to separate large cat-
alyst particles. The gases can sometimes go to a waste heat boiler to burn any carbon monox-
ide and organic emissions present in the gas stream. The boiler's exhaust gas still has a high
concentration of fine catalyst particles. This flue gas is usually sent to an electrostatic precipi-
tator to remove the very fine catalyst particles.
ESPs can also reduce particulate emissions from boiler exhausts. Oil-fired and, occasionally,
coal-fired boilers generate steam that is used in many processes in the refinery. The flue gas
from boilers is frequently sent to ESPs to remove particulate matter before the gas is exhausted
into the atmosphere. ESPs designed similarly to those used on industrial and utility boilers are
used on FCC units and petroleum refinery boilers.
Municipal Waste Incinerators

Electrostatic precipitators have been successfully used for many years to reduce particulate
emissions from municipal waste incinerators. Municipal incinerators, also commonly called
municipal waste combustors (MWCs) are used to reduce the volume of many different solid
2.0-2/98 5-5
Lesson 5
and liquid wastes. Generally, municipal wastes are composed of combustible materials (e.g.
paper, wood, rags, food, yard clippings, and plastic and rubber materials) and noncombustible
materials (e.g. rocks, metal, and glass). MWCs burn waste and produce ash residue that is dis-
posed of in landfills.
Both dry and wet plate ESPs are commonly used on municipal incinerators. Collected dust can
be removed from collection plates by rapping or by using water sprays. Plate ESPs having
rigid frame discharge electrodes are currently being used on MWCs (installed after 1982). The
designed collection efficiency is usually in the range of 96 to 99.6%. Dust resistivity can be a
problem, particularly if the refuse contains a large quantity of paper products. The dust in the
flue gas in this case usually has low resistivity. Resistivity can be adjusted by carefully con-
trolling the temperature and the amount of moisture in the flue gas.
Since the mid-1980s a number of large MWCs (plants having a capacity of 250 to 3000 tons
per day) with heat recovery devices have been built. More recent installations have been built
with acid gas control systems along with an ESP or baghouse. The ESP (or baghouse) collects
acid gas reaction products (mainly calcium chloride and calcium sulfate), unused sorbent
material, and fly ash. ESPs are typically designed with 3 to 5 fields and are capable of meeting
particulate emission limits of 0.015 gr/dscf and occasionally can achieve limits as low as 0.01
gr/dscf. These units have successfully reduced SO2 by 80% (24 hr avg) and HCl by 90 to 95%.
The acid gas is removed by using dry sorbent injection or spray dryer absorbers. In dry injec-
tion systems sorbent is injected (usually hydrated lime) into the furnace or into the ducting
prior to the flue gas entering the ESP. Acid gas removal efficiencies of 50% for SO2 and 75%
for HCl are routinely achieved (Beachler 1992).
A more commonly used acid gas control system is a spray dryer absorber placed ahead of the
ESP. These systems have been able to achieve 80% removal (24 hr avg) for SO2 and 90%
removal for HCl. A wet calcium hydroxide slurry is injected into a spray dryer by a rotary
atomizer or two-fluid nozzle. The slurry is made by slaking pebble lime (CaO) with water in a
paste or detention slaker. The heat of the flue gas evaporates the liquid slurry in the spray dryer
and the dry acid gas reaction products along with the particulate matter are collected in the
ESP. Background information and data prepared as part of the promulgated NSPS and Emis-
sion Guidelines (U.S. EPA 1991) shows very good acid gas removal and particulate emission
control for these systems.
Hazardous Waste Incinerators

ESPs are used in combination with a number of other air pollution control (APC) devices
including wet scrubbers and dry scrubbers (also called spray dryer absorbers) to clean the flue
gas generated by burning hazardous wastes. Some facilities have been designed to use spray
dryers to remove the acid gases including HCl, HF, and SO2 followed by the ESP to remove
the acid gas reaction salts, any unused sorbent, and particulate matter. Other facilities have
been designed with an APC system consisting of a spray dryer, baghouse, wet scrubber, and a
wet ESP (Figure 5-2). The spray dryer cools the flue gas and reduces some of the acid gas
components. The baghouse collects the particulate matter (including metals) and the wet
scrubber removes HCl (> 99%) and other acid gases. The wet ESP collects any particulate
matter not removed by the baghouse. The wet scrubbing system is a closed loop. The effluent
produced in the scrubbers is ultimately sent to the spray dryer to evaporate the liquid, therefore
5-6 2.0-2/98
eliminating the need for a waste water treatment system. A number of facilities using this APC
system configuration are permitted to burn PCBs and other Toxic Substance Control Act
(TSCA) and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) wastes.
Incineration Process
Gas Flow
Liquid Flow
Figure 5-2. APC system for a hazardous waste incinerator consisting of a

spray dryer, baghouse, wet scrubbers, and wet ESPs
Kraft Pulp and Paper Mills

Plate or tube-type ESPs are used in the kraft pulp and paper industry to reduce particulate
emissions from the recovery furnace. In the kraft process of making pulp and paper, chemicals
are recovered by using evaporators, recovery furnaces, and reaction tanks. As part of the pulp-
ing process, a waste product, black-liquor, is produced. After it is concentrated, the black-
liquor concentrate is burned in the recovery furnace to provide heat and steam to various pro-
cesses in the plant. The recovery furnace is essentially a boiler designed to effectively burn the
black-liquor concentrate. The resulting flue gas contains particulate matter that is usually
removed by an ESP before it is exhausted into the atmosphere. Dust can be removed from col-
lection electrodes by rapping or by using water sprays.
Lead, Zinc, and Copper Smelters

Plate ESPs are used to reduce particulate emissions from a number of processes in the smelt-
ing of lead, zinc, and copper metals. Since lead, zinc, and copper are found in sulfide ore
deposits, the release of sulfur compounds is a problem during the smelting process. Before
being smelted, ore concentrates are often treated, or prepared, by two processes called sinter-
ing and roasting. Sintering changes the physical form of a material, usually by taking an ore
mixture of large and fine pieces and fusing them into strong, porous products that can be used
in the smelting processes. ESPs are commonly used to reduce emissions from lead and zinc
sinter plants. ESPs are also effective in reducing emissions from zinc and copper roasters.
Roasters prepare zinc and copper ores by removing unwanted materials such as sulfur. The
roasted ore is then sent to other refining processes to produce zinc and copper metals.
2.0-2/98 5-7
Lesson 5
Other Industries
ESPs are used in many other large and small industrial processes including glass melting, sul-
furic acid production, food processing, and chemical manufacturing. Glass melting furnaces
usually use hot-side ESPs because the flue gas temperature in this process is approximately
230 to 260°C (450 to 500°F). Sulfuric acid plants usually use plate or tube-type ESPs to col-
lect sulfuric acid mists. Collected mists are removed from collection electrodes by water
sprays. Some smaller industries that produce coatings, resins, asphalt, rubber, textiles, plastics,
vinyl, and carpet frequently use a small two-stage precipitator to control particles and smoke.
The two-stage ESPs use liquid sprays to remove collected particles, smokes, and oils from the
collection plates.
Summary
Table 5-2 summarizes the information presented in this lesson for various industries that use
ESPs to reduce emissions.
Table 5-2. Summary of typical ESP applications (by industry)

Material
Collected by ESP Collection Potential
Industry Process ESP Efficiency ESP Features Problems
1. Industrial & Burning fossil Fly ash > 99% Hot-side and Fly ash from
utility boilers fuels cold-side low sulfur
ESPs coals has
high
resistivity
Dry SO2 Dry, alkaline > 99% Cold-side ESP

control product (particles); (usually rigid
systems 70-80% (SO2) electrode or
rigid frame)
2. Cement plants Cement kilns Particulate > 99% Usually hot- Dust often has
emissions side ESPs high
with resistivity.
collection Combustible
plates. gases are
Rapped or present when
sprayed with kiln is
water. warming up.
Clinker coolers Particulate > 99% Hot-side or Must prevent

emissions cold-side moisture in
depending on flue gas from
gas condensing
temperature.
3. Steel mills Blast furnaces Carbon > 99% Wet ESPs.
monoxide Particulate Both plate
and matter and tube with
particulate water sprays.
matter
Basic oxygen Iron oxide dust > 99% Wet or dry Iron oxide dust
furnaces plate ESPs can have high
resistivity
Cont. on next page
5-8 2.0-2/98
Table 5-2. (continued)

Summary of typical ESP applications (by industry)
Material
Collected by ESP Collection Potential
Industry Process ESP Efficiency ESP Features Problems
3. Steel mills Sinter plant Particulate > 99% Wet or dry Oily scrap
(cont’d) matter plate ESPs used as feed
material can
coat plates
with tarry
substance
4. Petroleum Fluid-catalytic Catalyst > 99% Usually dry
refineries cracking particles ESPs
Boiler Particulate > 99% Usually dry

operations matter ESPs
5. Municipal waste Incineration Particulate 96-99.6% Wet and dry Low resistivity
incinerators and heat matter plate ESPs of dust from
recovery paper
products
Acid control Acid gas > 99.5 (0.015 Usually rigid-
systems reaction gr/dscf) for electrode
(spray dryer products, particulate systems
along with unused matter. SO2 (newer
ESP) sorbents and HCl facilities)
reduced 80
and 90%
respectively
6. Hazardous Acid control Acid gas > 99% (0.015 Wet ESPs or
waste systems reaction gr/dscf) dry ESPs
incinerators (1) Spray dryer products, HCl removal when used
and unused efficiency with spray
baghouse sorbents > 95% dryer
followed by
wet ESPs
(2) Spray dryer

followed by
an ESP
7. Kraft pulp and Recovery Particulate > 99% Wet or dry
paper mills furnace matter ESPs
boilers
8. Lead, zinc, Sinter plants Particulate > 99% Usually plate
copper smelters matter ESPs
Roasting Particulate > 99% Usually plate

matter ESPs
2.0-2/98 5-9
Lesson 5
Suggested Reading
For more information about the specific industries discussed in this lesson see:
Beachler, D. S., J. A. Jahnke, G. T. Joseph and M. M. Peterson. 1983. Air Pollution Control Sys-
tems for Selected Industries, Self-Instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course SI:431). EPA 450/2-
82-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. Operation and Maintenance Manual for Electro-
static Precipitators. EPA 625/1-85/017.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981. Inspection Manual for Evaluation of Electrostatic
Precipitator Performance. EPA 340/1-79-007.
5-10 2.0-2/98
Review Exercise
1. ESPs reduce particulate emissions from which of the following industries?

a. Utility boilers
b. Cement kilns
c. Steel furnaces (basic oxygen furnace) and sinter plants
d. Municipal waste incinerators
e. All of the above
2. One technology for reducing both SO2 gas and particulate emissions involves the injection of a(an)
____________________slurry in a spray ____________________ with dry particle collection in
an electrostatic precipitator.
3. In a spray dryer, moisture is ____________________ from the wet alkaline sprays, leaving a
____________________ powdered product.
4. Acid gas and particulate emissions can be controlled by using ____________________.

a. Spray dryer absorber and ESP
b. Dry injection and ESP
c. a and b, above
5. ESPs should not be activated during the startup of a(an) ____________________

____________________ because of the possibility of a fire or explosion.
6. In a steel mill, which of the following processes would not likely use an ESP to control particulate
emissions?
a. Blast furnace melting
b. Sinter process
c. Ingot pouring
d. Basic oxygen furnace melting and tapping
7. In a municipal incinerator where the burned refuse contains a large quantity of paper products, the
resulting dust usually has a ____________________ resistivity.
a. High
b. Low
8. True or False? ESPs are used in petroleum refineries to control particulate emissions from the
fluid-catalytic-cracking unit and boiler exhausts.
2.0-2/98 5-11
Lesson 5
9. When a spray dryer absorber is used with an ESP to control acid gas and particulate emissions
from municipal waste combustors, which of the following is (are) true?
a. The control system can reduce particulate emissions to a level of less than 0.015 gr/dscf.
b. The control system can reduce SO2 by 80%.
c. The dust collected in the ESP hoppers contains calcium chloride which is very hygroscopic
(sticky).
d. All of the above.
10. True or False? Both wet and dry ESPs are used in the pulp and paper industries to remove greater
than 99% of the particulate matter from recovery furnace.
5-12 2.0-2/98

1. e. All of the above
ESPs reduce particulate emissions from the following industries:
• Utility boilers
• Cement kilns
• Steel furnaces (basic oxygen furnace) and sinter plants
• Municipal waste incinerators
2. Alkaline
Dryer
One technology for reducing both SO2 gas and particulate emissions involves the injection of an
alkaline slurry in a spray dryer with dry particle collection in an electrostatic precipitator.
3. Evaporated
Dry
In a spray dryer, moisture is evaporated from the wet alkaline sprays, leaving a dry powdered
product.
4. c. a and b, above
Acid gas and particulate emissions can be controlled by using either a spray dryer absorber and
ESP or dry injection and ESP.
5. Cement kiln
ESPs should not be activated during the startup of a cement kiln because of the possibility of a fire
or explosion.
6. c. Ingot pouring
In a steel mill, ingot pouring would not likely use an ESP to control particulate emissions.
7. b. Low
In a municipal incinerator where the burned refuse contains a large quantity of paper products, the
resulting dust usually has a low resistivity.
8. True
ESPs are used in petroleum refineries to control particulate emissions from the fluid-catalytic-
cracking unit and boiler exhausts.

When a spray dryer absorber is used with an ESP to control acid gas and particulate emissions
from municipal waste combustors, the following are true:
• The control system can reduce particulate emissions to a level of less than 0.015 gr/dscf.
• The control system can reduce SO2 by 80%.
• The dust collected in the ESP hoppers contains calcium chloride which is very hygroscopic
(sticky).
2.0-2/98 5-13
Lesson 5
10. True
Both wet and dry ESPs are used in the pulp and paper industries to remove greater than 99% of the
particulate matter from recovery furnaces.
5-14 2.0-2/98
Bibliography
Beachler, D. S. 1992. Coming clean on waste-to-energy emissions. Chemical Processing Technology

International. London.
Beachler, D. S., G. T. Joseph, and M. Pompelia. 1995. Fabric Filter Operation Review. (APTI Course
SI:412A). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Selected Industries, Self-Instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course SI:431). EPA 450/2-82-006. U.S.
Kaplan, S. M., and K. Felsvang. 1979, April. Spray Dryer Absorption of SO2 from Industrial Boiler
Flue Gas. Paper presented at 86th National AICHE Meeting. Houston, TX.
Pezze, J. 1983. Personal Communication. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources,

Pittsburgh, PA.
Richards, J. R. 1995. Control of Gaseous Emissions, Student Manual. (APTI Course 415). U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency.
Szabo, M. F., Y. M. Shah, and S. P. Schliesser. 1981. Inspection Manual for Evaluation of Electrostatic
Precipitator Performances. EPA 340/1-79-007.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air Pollution
Control Systems. EPA 450/3-76-014.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980, February. Survey of Dry SO2 Control Systems. EPA 600/
7-80-030.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Requirements for preparation, adoption, and submittal
of implementation plans. In Code of Federal Regulations—Protection of the Environment. 40 CFR
51. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Approval and promulgation of implementation plans. In
Code of Federal Regulations—Protection of the Environment. 40 CFR 52. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Standards of performance for new stationary sources—
general provisions. In Code of Federal Regulations—Protection of the Environment. 40 CFR 60.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
2.0-2/98 5-15
5-16 2.0-2/98
Lesson 6
ESP Operation and Maintenance
Goal
To familiarize you with typical operation and maintenance problems associated with ESPs.
Objectives
1. Identify typical ESP components which require inspection prior to startup
2. Identify the major steps in ESP startup and shutdown procedures
3. Explain the importance of monitoring each of the following parameters:
• Voltage/current
• Opacity
• Gas temperature
• Gas flow rate and distribution
• Gas composition and moisture
4. Describe the function of air-load and gas-load voltage-current curves
5. Identify typical maintenance steps that ensure proper ESP functioning
6. Identify and describe seven common problems that affect ESP performance
7. Describe how evaluating the current, voltage, and spark rate trends from inlet to outlet fields
provides information about general resistivity conditions
8. Identify important safety precautions to take when operating ESPs
Introduction
As with any air pollution control system, an ESP must be operated and maintained according
to the manufacturer's recommendations. Plant personnel must be properly trained to perform
these activities with confidence and efficiency. This lesson reviews some of the key functions
that must be completed to keep the ESP operating as it was intended including installation,
startup and shutdown procedures, performance monitoring, routine maintenance and record-
keeping and problem evaluation.
2.0-2/98 6-1
Lesson 6
ESP Installation
Depending on the electrostatic precipitator chosen, production, installation and operation star-
tup may take from a few months to one or two years. In any case, proper installation proce-
dures will save time and money, and will also help in future operation and maintenance
(O&M) of the ESP.
Good coordination between the ESP designer (vendor) and the installation and maintenance
crews will help keep the ESP running smoothly for years. Occasionally this coordination is
overlooked. Because they are so large, ESPs are usually installed by skilled craftsmen who do
not work for the ESP vendor, and, therefore, may not be informed of specific installation
instructions. Since all design tolerances are critical (especially those affecting discharge and
collection electrode alignment), it is imperative that information about the proper installation
procedures be transferred from designers to installers.
Some key considerations during installation are:
• Easy access to all potential maintenance areas—fans, motors, hoppers, discharge devices,
dampers, flue gas flow rate and temperature monitors, insulators, rappers, T-R sets, and
discharge and collection electrodes
• Easy access to all inspection and test areas—stack testing ports and continuous emission
monitors (opacity monitors)
• Weather conditions—the ESP must be able to withstand inclement weather such as rain or
snow
During installation, the customer purchasing the ESP should be responsible for checking the
criteria presented below. The regulatory agency review engineer also should review the pro-
cess on which the ESP will be installed and verify that these items are being addressed.
1. Uniform flue gas distribution across the entire unit. Ductwork, turning vanes, baffle
plates, and inlets with perforated diffuser plates all affect flue gas distribution. These items
are usually installed in the field and should be checked visually. If improperly installed,
they induce high airflow regions that decrease collection efficiency and cause reentrain-
ment of collected dust, especially during rapping cycles.
2. Complete seal of ESP system from dust pickup to stack outlet. Air inleakage or outleakage
at flanges or collector access points either adds additional airflow to be processed or forces
the process gases to bypass the collector. Inleakage to a high-temperature system (hot-side
ESP) is extremely damaging, as it creates cold spots which can lead to moisture or acid
condensation and possible corrosion. If severe, it can cause the entire process gas temper-
ature to fall below the gas dew point, causing moisture or acid to condense on the hopper
walls, the discharge electrode, or collection plates. In addition, air inleakage and moisture
condensation can cause caking of fly ash in the hopper, making normal dust removal by
the discharge device very difficult. The best way to check for leaks is an inspection of the
walls from inside the system during daylight. Light penetration from outside helps to iso-
late the problem areas.
3. Proper installation of discharge electrodes and collection plates. Collection electrodes are
usually installed first, and the discharge wires or rigid frames are positioned relative to
them. Check each section of electrodes to ensure that the electrodes are plumb, level, and
properly aligned.
6-2 2.0-2/98
4. Proper installation of rappers. Collection-plate rappers and discharge-electrode rappers

should be installed and aligned according to vendor specifications. Check magnetic-
impulse rappers to see if they strike the support frame on the collection plates. Check ham-
mer and anvil rappers to see if the hammers strike the anvils squarely. Check vibrator rap-
pers installed on discharge wires to make sure they operate when activated. Rapper
frequency and intensity can be adjusted later when the unit is brought on-line.
5. Proper insulation. Most ESPs use some type of insulation to keep the flue gas temperature
high. This prevents any moisture or acids present in the flue gas from condensing on the
hoppers, electrodes, or duct surfaces. Because most ESPs are installed in the field, check
that all surfaces and areas of potential heat loss are adequately covered.
6. Proper installation and operation of discharge devices. It is important to check the opera-
tion of the discharge devices before bringing the ESP on-line to see if they are properly
installed. Make sure that the discharge devices are moving in the right direction so they
can remove the dust freely from the hopper. A backward-moving screw conveyor can pack
dust so tightly that it can bend the screw.
Overfilled hoppers are common operating problems that can be avoided by proper installa-
tion and maintenance of discharge devices. Installed as maintenance tools, dust-level
detectors in the hoppers can help alert ESP operators that hoppers are nearly full.
7. Smoothly running fans. Check fans for proper rotation, drive component alignments, and
vibration. Fans should be securely mounted to a component of sufficient mass to eliminate
excessive vibration.
In addition to the above items, each ESP installation should have its own checklist reflect-
ing the unique construction features of that unit. The installation crew should prepare a
checklist before beginning final inspection and initial startup. A prestartup checklist for
the initial startup suggested by Peter Bibbo (1982) is shown in Table 6-1.
2.0-2/98 6-3
Lesson 6
Table 6-1. Prestartup checklist for electrostatic

precipitators
Collecting plates
1. Free of longitudinal and horizontal bows
2. Free of burrs and sharp edges
3. Support system square and level
4. Spacer bars and corner guides free
5. Free of excessive dust buildup
6. Gas leakage baffles in place and not binding
Discharge electrodes
1. No breaks or slack wires
2. Wires free in guides and suspension weight free on pin
3. Rigid frames square and level
4. Rigid electrodes plumb and straight
5. Free of excessive dust buildup and grounds
6. Alignment within design specifications
Hoppers
1. Scaffolding removed
2. Discharge throat and poke holes clear
3. Level detector unobstructed
4. Baffle door and access door closed
5. Heaters, vibrators, and alarms operational
Top housing or insulator compartments
1. Insulators and bushing clear and dry with no carbon tracks
2. All grounding chains in storage brackets
3. Heaters intact, seal-air system controls, alarms, dampers, and filters
in place and operational
4. Seal-air fan motor rotation correct, or vent pipes free
5. All access doors closed
Rappers
1. All swing hammers or drop rods in place and free
2. Guide sleeves and bearings intact
3. Control and field wiring properly terminated
4. Indicating lights and instrumentation operational
5. All debris removed from precipitator
6. All personnel out of unit and off clearances
7. All interlocks operational and locked out
a. No broken or missing keys
b. Covers on all locks
Transformer-rectifier sets
1. Surge arrestor not cracked or chipped and gap set
2. Liquid level satisfactory
3. High-voltage connections properly made
4. Grounds on: precipitator, output bushings, bus ducts, conduits
Rectifier control units
1. Controls grounded
2. Power supply and alarm wiring properly completed
3. Interlock key in transfer block
Source: Bibbo 1982.
ESP Startup and Shutdown

A specific startup and shutdown procedure should be supplied by the ESP vendor. Improper
startup and shutdown can damage the collector. It is imperative for the operator (source) to
have a copy of these procedures. Review agency engineers may want to assure that these pro-
6-4 2.0-2/98
cedures exist at the sites and that the operators follow the procedures or document reasons for
deviations.
Startup
Startup of an electrostatic precipitator is generally a routine operation. It involves heating
a number of components such as support insulators and hoppers. If possible, the ESP
should not be turned on until the process reaches steady-state conditions. As described in
Lesson 5, this is particularly important for ESPs used on cement kilns burning coal as fuel.
The internal arcing of the ESP could cause a fire or an explosion. When ESPs are used on
oil-burning boilers, the boiler should be started with gas or #2 fuel oil. Heavy oil (#6 fuel
oil) is not a good fuel for startup because tarry particulate emissions can coat collection
plates and be difficult to remove. If an ESP is used on a coal-fired boiler, the ESP should
not be started until coal firing can be verified. This will help prevent combustible gases
from accumulating in the unit and causing explosive conditions. A typical startup proce-
dure for an ESP used on a boiler is given in Table 6-2 (Bibbo 1982).
Table 6-2. Typical startup procedures for

electrostatic precipitators
Normal Operation
Startup (preoperational checks - at least 2 hours prior to gas load):

1. Complete all maintenance/inspection items.
2. Remove all debris from ESP.
3. Safety interlocks should be operational and all keys accounted for.
4. No personnel should be in ESP.
5. Lock out ESP and insert keys in transfer blocks.
Prestart (at least one hour prior to gas load):
6. Check hoppers.
a. Level-indicating system should be operational.
b. Ash-handling system operating and sequence check - leave in
operational mode.
c. Hopper heaters should be on.
7. Check top housing seal-air system.
a. Check operation of seal-air fan—leave running.
b. Bushing heaters should be on.
8. Check rappers.
a. Energize control, run rapid sequence, ensure that all rappers are
operational.
b. Set cycle time and intensity adjustments, using installed
instrumentation—leave rappers operating.
9. Check T-R sets.
a. Check half-wave/full-wave operation (half-wave operation is
recommended for filtering fly ash when lignite is burned and a
cold-side ESP is used.)
b. Keys should be in all breakers.
c. Test-energize all T-R sets and check local control alarm functions.
d. Set power levels and de-energize all T-R controls.
e. Lamp and function-test all local and remote alarms.
Continued on next page
2.0-2/98 6-5
Lesson 6

Typical startup procedures for
electrostatic precipitators
Normal Operation
Gas load:
10. After gas at temperature of 200°F has entered ESP for 2 hours -
a. Energize T-R sets.
b. Check for normal operation of T-R control.
c. Check all alarm functions in local and remote.
d. Within 2 hours, check proper operation of ash removal system.
e. De-energize bushing heaters after 2 hours (hopper heaters
optional).
Cold start (when it is not possible to admit flue gas at 200°F for 2 hours prior
to energizing controls), proceed as follows:
1. Perform steps 1-9 above. Increase rapping intensity 50%.
2. Energize T-R sets, starting with inlet field, setting Powertrac voltage
to a point just below sparking.
3. Successively energize successive field as load picks up to maintain
opacity, keeping voltage below normal sparking (less than 10
flashes/min on spark indicator).
4. Perform step 10d above.
5. After flue gas at 200°F has entered ESP for 2 hours, perform steps
10b, c, d, and e above.
Set normal rapping.
Source: Bibbo 1982.
Shutdown
When an industrial process is shut down temporarily, the ESP system should be de-ener-
gized to save energy. The shutdown of the ESP is usually done by reversing the order of
the startup steps. Begin with de-energizing the ESP fields starting with the inlet field to
maintain appropriate opacity levels from the stack. The rappers should be run for a short
time after the ESP is de-energized so that accumulated dust from the collection plates and
discharge wires can be removed. All hoppers should be emptied completely before bring-
ing the unit back on line. A typical shutdown and emergency shutdown procedure for
ESPs used on industrial sources is given in Table 6-3 (Bibbo 1982).
6-6 2.0-2/98
Table 6-3. Typical shutdown and emergency shutdown

procedures for electrostatic precipitators
Typical shutdown
1. When boiler load drops and total ash quantity diminishes:
a. De-energize ESP by field, starting with inlet field to maintain opacity
limit.
b. De-energize outlet field when all fuel flow ceases and combustion air
flow falls below 30% of rated flow.
c. Leave rappers, ash removal system, seal-air system, and hopper
heaters operational.
d. Four hours after boiler shutdown, de-energize seal-air system and
hopper heaters. Secure ash removal system.
e. Eight hours after boiler shutdown, de-energize rappers.
Note: Normal shutdown is a convenient time to check operation of
alarms.
Emergency shutdown
1. De-energize all T-R sets.
2. Follow steps 1c, d, and e above (shutdown).
Source: Bibbo 1982.
Performance Monitoring
As with the operation of any piece of equipment, performance monitoring and recordkeeping
are essential to establishing a good operation and maintenance program. The key to any moni-
toring program is establishing an adequate baseline of acceptable ranges that is used as a refer-
ence point. Then, by monitoring and recording key operating parameters, the operator can
identify performance problems, need for maintenance, and operating trends.
Typical parameters that can be monitored include:
• Voltage/current
• Opacity
• Gas temperature
• Gas flow rate and distribution
• Gas composition and moisture
In addition, site-specific data on process operating rates and conditioning system (if used)
should also be documented. Operators should not rely on just one parameter as an indicator of
performance—trends for a number of parameters gives a clearer picture. Let's briefly look at
the ways these parameters affect performance and the techniques used to measure them. Much
of this information was extracted from Operation and Maintenance Manual for Electrostatic
Precipitators (U.S. EPA 1985).
Voltage and Current

Voltage and current values for each T-R set should be recorded; they indicate ESP perfor-
mance more than any other parameter. Most modern ESPs are equipped with primary volt-
age and current meters on the low-voltage (a.c.) side of the transformer and secondary
voltage and current meters on the high-voltage rectified (d.c.) side of the transformer.
When both voltage and current meters are available on the T-R control cabinet, these val-
ues can be multiplied to estimate the power input to the ESP. (Note that the primary cur-
2.0-2/98 6-7
Lesson 6
rent reading is multiplied by the primary voltage reading and the secondary current
reading is multiplied by the secondary voltage reading). These values (current times volt-
age) represent the number of watts being drawn by the ESP and is referred to as the corona
power input. In addition, whenever a short term spark occurs in a field it can be detected
and counted by a spark rate meter. ESPs generally have spark rate meters to aid in the per-
formance evaluation.
The power input on the primary versus the secondary side of the T-R set will differ
because of the circuitry and metering of these values. The secondary power outlet (in
watts) is always less than the primary power input to the T-R. The ratio of the secondary
power to the primary power will range from 0.5 to 0.9 and average from 0.70 to 0.75 (U.S.
EPA 1985).
Voltage and current values for each individual T-R set are useful because they inform the
operators how effectively each field is operating. However, the trends noted within the
entire ESP are more important. T-R set readings for current, voltage, and sparking rates
should follow certain patterns from the inlet to the outlet fields. For example, corona
power density should increase from inlet to outlet fields as the particulate matter is
removed from the gas stream.
The electrical meters on the T-R cabinets are always fluctuating. Normal sparking within
the ESP causes these fluctuations in the meter readings. These short term movements of
the gauges indicate that the automatic voltage controller is restoring the maximum voltage
after shutting down for several milliseconds to quench the spark. When recording values
of the electrical data from the T-R meters it is important to note the maximum value that is
sustained for at least a fraction of a second.
Opacity
In many situations, ESP operation is evaluated in terms of the opacity monitored by a
transmissometer (opacity monitor) on a real-time basis. Under optimum conditions the
ESP should be able to operate at some base-level opacity with a minimum of opacity spik-
ing from rapper reentrainment. A facility can have one or more monitors that indicate
opacity from various ESP outlet ducts and from the stack.
An opacity monitor compares the amount of light generated and transmitted by the instru-
ment on one side of the gas stream with the quantity measured by the receiver on the other
side of the gas stream. The difference, which is caused by absorption, reflection, refrac-
tion, and light scattering by the particles in the gas stream, is the opacity of the gas stream.
Opacity is expressed as a percent from 0 to 100% and is a function of particle size, con-
centration, and path length.
Most of the opacity monitors being installed today are double-pass monitors; that is, the
light beam is passed through the gas stream and reflected back across to a transceiver. This
arrangement is advantageous for several reasons:
1. Automatic checking of the zero and span of the monitor is possible when the process
is operational.
2. The monitor is more sensitive to slight variations in opacity because the path length is
longer.
3. The entire electronics package is located on one side of the stack as a transceiver.
6-8 2.0-2/98
Although single-pass transmissometers are available at a lower cost (and sensitivity), the
single-pass monitors cannot meet the requirements in EPA Performance Specification 1,
Appendix B, 40 CFR 60.
For many sources, dust concentration and opacity correlations can be developed to pro-
vide a relative indication of ESP performance. These correlations are very site-specific,
but can provide plant and agency personnel with an indication of relative performance for
given opacity levels. In addition, site-specific opacity charts can be used to predict deteri-
oration of ESP performance that requires attention by plant personnel. Readings from
opacity monitors can also be used to optimize spark rate, voltage/current levels, and rap-
ping cycles, even though the conditions within the ESP are not static. In high-efficiency
ESPs, reentrainment may account for 50 to 70% of the total outlet emissions. Therefore,
optimization of the rapping pattern may prove more beneficial than trying to optimize the
voltage, current and sparking levels. Dust reentrainment from rapping must be observed
by using the opacity monitor operating in a real-time or nonintegrating mode because rap-
ping spikes tend to get smoothed out in integrated averages such as the 6-minute average
commonly in use. However, the integrated average does provide a good indication of aver-
age opacity and emissions.
When parallel ESPs or chambers are used, an opacity monitor is often placed in each out-
let duct, as well as on the stack, to measure the opacity of the combined emissions.
Although the stack monitor is commonly used to indicate stack opacity (averaging opaci-
ties from different ducts can be difficult), the individual duct monitors can be useful in
indicating the performance of each ESP or chamber and in troubleshooting. Although this
option is often not required and represents an additional expense, it can be very useful,
particularly on relatively large ESPs.
New systems, such as the digital microprocessor design, are available in which the opacity
monitor data can be used as input for the T-R controller. In this case, the data are used to
control power input throughout the ESP to maintain an opacity level preselected by the
source. If the opacity increases, the controller increases power input accordingly until the
opacity limit, spark limit, current limit, or voltage limit is reached. This system (often sold
as an energy saver because it uses only the power required) can save a substantial quantity
of energy:
1. On large, high-efficiency ESPs
2. For processes operating at reduced gas loads.
In many cases, however, reduction of ESP power does not significantly alter ESP perfor-
mance because dust reentrainment and gas sneakage constitute the largest sources of emis-
sions; additional power often does not reduce these emissions significantly. In some
observed cases, reducing power by one-half did not change the performance. For units
typically operated at 1000 to 1500 watts/1000 acfm, operating the ESPs at power levels of
500 to 750 watts/1000 afcm still provide acceptable collection efficiencies.
Gas Temperature
Monitoring the temperature of the gas stream can provide useful information concerning
ESP performance. Temperature is measured using a thermocouple in conjunction with a
digital, analog, or strip chart recorder. Temperature is usually measured using a single-
point probe or thermocouple. This method has a major limitation in that the probe may be
2.0-2/98 6-9
Lesson 6
placed at an unrepresentative (stratified) point—one that is not representative of the bulk

gas flow. Most ESPs are designed with a minimum of three fields. The gas temperature for
each field should be measured at both the inlet and outlet, if possible. Significant tempera-
ture changes between the inlet and outlet values may indicate air inleakage problems that
should be confirmed by measurement of gas composition.
Changes in gas temperature can have profound effects on ESP performance. The tempera-
ture variation can be very small (in some cases as little as 15oF) and yet cause a significant
change in ESP power levels and opacity. Although gas temperature variations may have
some effect on corona discharge characteristics and physical characteristics of the ESP
(corrosion, expansion/contraction), their most important effect is on particle resistivity.
For sources with the potential for high resistivity, temperature changes can cause dramatic
changes in performance, even when all other parameters seem to be the same. The gas
temperature should be checked once per shift for smaller sources and measured continu-
ously on larger sources and on those sources with temperature-sensitive performance.
Temperature measurement can also be a useful tool in finding excessive inleakage or
unequal gas flow through the ESP. Both of these conditions can affect localized gas veloc-
ity patterns without noticeably affecting the average velocity within the ESP. Yet, local-
ized changes in gas velocities can reduce ESP performance even though the average gas
velocity seems adequate.
Gas Flow Rate and Distribution

Gas flow rate determines most of the key design and operating parameters such as spe-
cific collection area (ft2/1000 acfm), gas velocity (ft/sec) and treatment time within the
ESP, and specific corona power (watts/1000 acfm). The operator should calculate the flue
gas flow rate if the ESP is not operating efficiently. For example, significant variations in
oxygen may indicate large swings in the gas flow rate that may decrease ESP performance
and indicate the need to routinely determine ESP gas volume. Low SCA values, high
velocities, short gas treatment times (5 seconds or less), and much higher oxygen levels at
nearly full load conditions are indicators that excess flue gas flow rate may be causing
decreased ESP performance.
Presently, most sources do not continuously measure gas velocities or flow rates. Gas
velocities are generally only measured during emission compliance testing or when there
is a perceived problem. Manual pitot tube traverses are normally used to measure gas
velocity (EPA Reference Methods 1 and 2). Because of new technologies and regulations,
some of the larger sources are beginning to install continuous flow measurement systems.
Multi-point pitot devices, ultrasonic devices, and temperature-based flow devices can be
used to continuously measure gas velocity. These devices must be calibrated to the indi-
vidual stack where they are installed. Most existing facilities currently use indirect indica-
tors to estimate gas flow rate; these include fan operating parameters, production rates or
oxygen/carbon dioxide gas concentration levels. However, EPA is now requiring large
coal-fired utility boilers to install and certify flow monitors (EPA Acid Rain Program, Part
75 Regulations).
Another important parameter is gas flow distribution through the ESP. Ideally, the gas
flow should be uniformly distributed throughout the ESP (top to bottom, side to side).
Actually, however, gas flow through the ESP is not evenly distributed, and ESP manufac-
turers settle for what they consider an acceptable variation. Standards recommended by
6-10 2.0-2/98
the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute have been set for gas flow distribution. Based on a
velocity sampling routine, 85% of the points should be within 15% of the average velocity
and 99% should be within 1.4 times the average velocity. Generally, uneven gas flow
through the ESP results in reduced performance because the reduction in collection effi-
ciency in areas of high gas flow is not compensated for by the improved performance in
areas of lower flow. Also, improper gas distribution can also affect gas sneakage through
the ESP. As stated earlier, good gas distribution can be accomplished by using perforated
plates in the inlet plenum and turning vanes in the ductwork.
Measurement of gas flow distribution through the ESP is even less common than measur-
ing flue gas flow rate. Because the flow measurements are obtained in the ESP rather than
the ductwork (where total gas volumetric flow rates are usually measured), more sensitive
instrumentation is needed for measuring the low gas velocities. The instrument typically
specified is a calibrated hot-wire anemometer. The anemometer test is usually performed
at some mid-point between the inlet and outlet (usually between two fields). Care must be
taken to assure that internal ESP structural members do not interfere with the sampling
points.
Gas flow distribution tests are conducted when the process is inoperative, and the ESP and
ductwork are relatively cool. This often limits the amount of gas volume that can be drawn
through the ESP to less than 50% of the normal operating flow; however, the relative
velocities at each point are assumed to remain the same throughout the normal operating
range of the ESP. A large number of points are sampled by this technique. The actual num-
ber depends upon the ESP design, but 200 to 500 individual readings per ESP are not
unusual. By using a good sampling protocol, any severe variations should become readily
apparent.
Gas Composition and Moisture

The chemical composition of both the particulate matter and flue gas can affect ESP per-
formance. In many applications, key indicators of gas composition are often obtained by
using continuous emission monitors. However, particle concentration and composition are
determined by using intermittent grab sampling.
The operation of an ESP depends on the concentration of electronegative gases O2, H2O,
CO and SO2/SO3 to generate an effective corona discharge. Often, sources use continuous
monitors to measure these gas concentrations to meet regulatory requirements, or in the
case of combustion sources to determine excess air levels (CO2 or O2).
Evaluating Air-Load/Gas-Load Voltage-Current (V-I) Curves

In addition to the routine panel meter readings, other electrical tests of interest to personnel
responsible for evaluating and maintaining ESPs include the air-load and gas-load V-I (volt-
age-current) tests, which may be conducted on virtually all ESPs. Air-load and gas-load curves
are graphs of the voltage (kV) versus the current (mA) values obtained at a set condition (test
point). These curves are developed to evaluate ESP performance by comparing the graphs
from inlet field to outlet field and over periods in time. Deviation from the normal or previous
results can indicate that a problem exists.
2.0-2/98 6-11
Lesson 6
Air-Load Curves
Air-load tests are generally conducted on cool, inoperative ESPs through which no gas is
flowing. This test should be conducted when the ESP is new, after the first shutdown, and
every time off-line maintenance is performed on the ESP. These air-load V-I curves serve
as the basis for comparison in the evaluation of ESP maintenance and performance. A typ-
ical air-load curve is shown in Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1. Typical air-load voltage and current readings
An air-load V-I curve can be generated with readings from either primary or secondary
meters. The following procedures can be used by the ESP operator to develop an air-load
curve.
1. Energize a de-energized T-R set on manual control (but with zero voltage and current),
and increase the power to the T-R set manually.
2. At corona initiation the meters should suddenly jump and the voltage and near zero
current levels should be recorded. It is sometimes difficult to identify this point pre-
cisely, so the lowest practical value should be recorded.
3. After corona initiation is achieved, increase the power at predetermined increments
[for example, every 50 or 100 milliamps of secondary current or every 10 volts of AC
primary voltage (the increment is discretionary)], and record the values for voltage
and current.
4. Continue this procedure until one of the following occurs:
• Sparking
• Current limit is achieved
• Voltage limit is achieved
5. Repeat this procedure for each T-R set.
When the air-load tests have been completed for each field, plot each field's voltage/cur-
rent curves. When ESPs are equipped with identical fields throughout, the curves for each
field should be nearly identical. In most cases, the curves also should be similar to those
6-12 2.0-2/98
generated when the unit was new, but shifted slightly to the right due to residual dust on
the wires (or rigid frames) and plates of older units. These curves should become part of
the permanent record of the ESP.
The use of air-load curves enables plant personnel to identify which field(s) may not be
performing as designed. Also, comparison of air-load curves from test runs taken just
before and after a unit is serviced will confirm whether the maintenance work corrected
the problem(s).
One major advantage of air-load tests is that they are performed under nearly identical
conditions each time, which means the curves can be compared. One disadvantage is that
the internal ESP conditions are not always the same as during normal operation. For
example, misalignment of electrodes may appear or disappear when the ESP is cooled
(expansion/contraction), and dust buildup may be removed by rapping during ESP shut-
down.
Gas-Load Curves
The gas-load V-I curve, on the other hand, is generated during the normal operation of the
process while the ESP is energized. The procedure for generating the gas-load V-I curve is
the same as for the air load except that gas-load V-I curves are always generated from the
outlet fields first and move toward the inlet. This prevents the upstream flow that is being
checked from disturbing the V-I curve of the downstream field readings. Although such
disturbances would be short-lived (usually 2 minutes, but sometimes lasting up to 20 min-
utes), working from outlet to inlet speeds up the process.
The curves generated under gas-load conditions will be similar to air-load curves. Gas-
load curves will generally be shifted to the left however, because sparking occurs at lower
voltage and current when particles are present. The shape of the curve will be different for
each field depending on the presence of particulate matter in the gas stream (see
Figure 6-2).
Air-load
Gas-load
Figure 6-2. Comparison of typical air-load and gas-load

V-I curves Source:
EPA 1985
2.0-2/98 6-13
Lesson 6
Also, gas-load curves vary from day to day, even minute to minute. Curve positions may
change as a result of fluctuations in the following:
• Amount of dust on plates
• Gas flow
• Particulate chemistry loading
• Temperature
• Resistivity
Nonetheless, they still should maintain a characteristic pattern. Gas-load curves are nor-
mally used to isolate the cause of a suspected problem rather than being used on a day-to-
day basis; however, they can be used daily if necessary.
Routine Maintenance and Recordkeeping

While the overall performance of the ESP is continuously monitored by devices such as volt-
age meters and transmissometers, the components of the ESP and their operation are periodi-
cally inspected by plant personnel as part of a preventive maintenance program. In this way,
problems are detected and corrected before they cause a major shutdown of the ESP. Of
course, good recordkeeping should be an integral part of any maintenance program.
The frequency of inspection of all ESP components should be established by a formal in-house
maintenance procedure. Vendors' recommendations for an inspection schedule should be fol-
lowed. A listing of typical periodic maintenance procedures for an ESP used to collect fly ash
is given in Table 6-4 (Bibbo 1982).
In addition to the daily monitoring of meters and the periodic inspection of ESP components,
some operational checks should be performed every shift and the findings should be recorded
on a shift data sheet. At the end of every shift, these shift data sheets should be evaluated for
maintenance needs. These once-per-shift checkpoints include an inspection of rappers, dust
discharge systems, and T-R sets for proper functioning and an indication of which T-R sets are
in the "off" position. Rappers that are not functioning should be scheduled for maintenance,
particularly if large sections of rappers are out of service. Dust discharge systems should have
highest priority for repair; dust should not accumulate in the bottom of the ESP for long peri-
ods of time because of the potential for causing severe plate misalignment problems. Hopper
heaters can usually be repaired with little difficulty after removing weather protection and
insulation. Insulator heaters may be difficult to repair except during short outages. Hopper
heaters keep condensation on the insulators to a minimum and help keep the dust warm and
free-flowing.
In addition to performing maintenance, keeping records of the actions taken is also important.
For example, wire replacement diagrams should be kept. Although an ESP can operate effec-
tively with up to 10% of its wires removed, care must be taken that no more than 5 to 10 wires
in any one gas lane are removed. The loss of wires down any one lane can result in a substan-
tial increase in emissions. The only way to adequately track where wires have failed or slipped
out of the ESP is with a wire replacement chart. Also, any adjustments to the rapper frequency
and intensity should be recorded along with any repairs. These same recordkeeping practices
should be followed for any repairs or replacements made on T-R sets, insulator/heaters, align-
ment, and the dust discharge systems.
6-14 2.0-2/98
Table 6-4. Preventive maintenance checklist for a typical

fly ash precipitator
Daily
1. Take and record electrical readings and transmissometer data.
2. Check operation of hoppers and ash removal system.
3. Examine control room ventilation system.
4. Investigate cause of abnormal arcing in T-R enclosures and bus duct.
Weekly
1. Check rapper operation.
2. Check and clean air filter.
3. Inspect control set interiors.
Monthly
1. Check operation of standby top-housing pressurizing fan and thermostat.
2. Check operation of hopper heaters.
3. Check hopper level alarm operation.
Quarterly
1. Check and clean rapper and vibrator switch contacts.
2. Check transmissometer calibration.
Semiannual
1. Clean and lubricate access-door dog bolt and hinges.
2. Clean and lubricate interlock covers.
3. Clean and lubricate test connections.
4. Check exterior for visual signs of deterioration, and abnormal vibration, noise, leaks.
5. Check T-R liquid and surge-arrestor spark gap.
Annual
1. Conduct internal inspection.
2. Clean top housing or insulator compartment and all electrical insulating surfaces.
3. Check and correct defective alignment.
4. Examine and clean all contactors and inspect tightness of all electrical connections.
5. Clean and inspect all gasketed connections.
6. Check and adjust operation of switchgear.
7. Check and tighten rapper insulator connections.
8. Observe and record areas of corrosion.
Situational
1. Record air-load and gas-load readings during and after each outage.
2. Clean and check interior of control sets during each outage of more than 72 hours.
3. Clean all internal bushings during outages of more than 5 days.
4. Inspect condition of all grounding devices during each outage over 72 hours.
5. Clean all shorts and hopper buildups during each outage.
6. Inspect and record amount and location of residual dust deposits on electrodes
during each outage of 72 hours or longer.
7. Check all alarms, interlocks, and all other safety devices during each outage.
Source: Bibbo 1982.
Problem Evaluation
Good site specific records of both the design and operating history will enable operating per-
sonnel to better evaluate ESP performance. Design parameters built into the ESP include the
following: the specific collection area (SCA), number of fields, number of T-R sets, sectional-
ization, T-R set capacity, design velocity and treatment time, aspect ratio and particle charac-
teristics (resistivity). Design records indicate the specific conditions under which the ESP was
designed to operate. A comparison between design records and operating records indicate
whether operating parameters have changed significantly from the design conditions. Sec-
2.0-2/98 6-15
Lesson 6
ondly, maintaining proper operating records establishes good baseline information to bracket
normal ranges of operation.
Evaluating ESP operating problems can be difficult and no single parameter can identify all
potential problems; a combination of factors should be considered to accurately pinpoint prob-
lems. For example, although most ESP problems are reflected in the electrical readings, many
different problems produce the same characteristics on the meters. In addition, an initial failure
or problem can cause a "domino effect" bringing about even more problems and making it dif-
ficult to identify the original cause. Table 6-5 contains a typical troubleshooting cycle (Szabo
and Gerstle 1977) that is useful as a general guide.
The EPA (1985) categorized the major performance problems associated with electrostatic
precipitators into the following seven areas: resistivity, dust buildup, wire breakage, hopper
pluggage, misalignment of ESP components, changes in particle size distribution, and air
inleakage. These problems are related to design limitations, operational changes, and/or main-
tenance procedures. The following discussion about the identification of these problems and
their effect on ESP performance is excerpted from the EPA document titled Operation and
Maintenance Manual for Electrostatic Precipitators (1985).
Problems Related to Resistivity

The resistivity of the collected dust on the collection plate affects the acceptable current
density through the dust layer, dust removal from the plates, and indirectly, the corona
charging process. High resistivity conditions in utility fly ash applications have received
much attention. The optimum resistivity range for ESP operation is relatively narrow; both
high and low resistivity cause problems. Excursions outside the optimum resistivity range
are particularly a problem when a unit is designed with a modest amount of plate area, sec-
tionalization, and power-input capabilities. At industrial sources where resistivity changes
are intermittent, modification of operating procedures may improve performance tempo-
rarily. Expensive retrofitting or modifications may be required if the dust resistivity is
vastly different than the design range.
High Resistivity
High dust resistivity is a more common problem than low dust resistivity. Particles
having high resistivity are unable to release or transfer electrical charge. At the collec-
tion plate, the particles neither give up very much of their acquired charge nor easily
pass the corona current to the grounded collection plates. High dust resistivity condi-
tions are indicated by low primary and secondary voltages, suppressed secondary cur-
rents and high spark rates in all fields. This condition makes it difficult for the T-R
controller to function adequately.
Severe sparking can cause excessive charging off-time, spark "blasting" of particulate
on the plate, broken wires due to electrical erosion, and reduced average current lev-
els. The reduced current levels generally lead to deteriorated performance. Because
the current level is indicative of the charging process, the low current and voltage lev-
els that occur inside an ESP operating with high resistivity dust generally reflect
slower charging rates and lower particle migration velocities to the plate. Particle col-
lection is reduced; consequently, the ESP operates as though it were "undersized." If
high resistivity is expected to continue, the operating conditions can be modified or
6-16 2.0-2/98
conditioning agents can be used to accommodate this problem and thereby improve
performance.
High resistivity also tends to promote rapping problems, as the electrical properties of
the dust tend to make it very tenacious. High voltage drop through the dust layer and
the retention of electrical charge by the particles make the dust difficult to remove
because of its strong attraction to the plate. The greater rapping forces usually required
to dislodge the dust may also aggravate or cause a rapping reentrainment problem.
Important items to remember are (1) difficulty in removing the high-resistivity dust is
related to the electrical characteristics, not to the sticky or cohesive nature of the dust;
and (2) the ESP must be able to withstand the necessary increased rapping forces
without sustaining damage to insulators or plate support systems.
Low Resistivity
Low dust resistivity, although not as common, can be just as detrimental to the perfor-
mance of an ESP as high resistivity. When particles with low resistivity reach the col-
lection plate, they release much of their acquired charge and pass the corona current
quite easily to the grounded collection plate. Without the attractive and repulsive elec-
trical forces that are normally present at normal dust resistivities, the binding forces
between the dust and the plate are considerably weakened. Therefore, particle reen-
trainment is a substantial problem at low resistivity, and ESP performance appears to
be very sensitive to contributors of reentrainment, such as poor rapping or poor gas
distribution.
Since there is lower resistance to current flow for particles with low resistivity (com-
pared to normal or high), lower operating voltages are required to obtain substantial
current flow. Operating voltages and currents are typically close to clean plate condi-
tions, even when there is some dust accumulation on the plate. Low-resistivity condi-
tions, are typically characterized by low operating voltages, high current flow, and low
spark rates.
Despite the large flow of current under low-resistivity conditions, the corresponding
low voltages yield lower particle migration velocities to the plate. Thus, particles of a
given size take longer to reach the plate than would be expected. When combined with
substantial dust reentrainment, the result is poor ESP performance. In this case, the
large flow of power to the ESP represents a waste of power.
Low-resistivity problems typically result from the chemical characteristics of the par-
ticulate and not from flue gas temperature. The particulate may be enriched with com-
pounds that are inherently low in resistivity, either due to poor operation of the process
or to the inherent nature of the process. Examples of such enrichment include exces-
sive carbon levels in fly ash (due to poor combustion), the presence of naturally occur-
ring alkalis in wood ash, iron oxide in steel-making operations, or the presence of
other low-resistivity materials in the dust. Over-conditioning may also occur in some
process operations, such as the burning of high-sulfur coals or the presence of high
SO3 levels in the gas stream, which lower the inherent resistivity of the dust. In some
instances, large ESPs with SCAs greater than 750 ft2/1000 acfm have performed
poorly because of the failure to fully account for the difficulty involved in collecting a
low-resistivity dust. Although some corrective actions for low resistivity are available,
they are sometimes more difficult to implement than those for high resistivity.
2.0-2/98 6-17
Lesson 6
Typical High, Normal and Low Resistivity Curves

Evaluating the current and spark rate trends from the inlet to the outlet fields provides
a means of evaluating the general resistivity conditions. Moderate dust resistivity con-
ditions, under which ESPs work very well, are indicated by low secondary currents in
the inlet field and progressively higher values going toward the outlet. Spark rates
under moderate resistivity are moderate in the inlet fields and decrease to essentially
zero in the outlet field. High resistivity conditions are indicated by low secondary cur-
rents in all of the fields coupled with very high spark rates. Conversely, low resistivity
has very high currents and low spark rates in all the fields.
Figure 6-3 shows the typical trend lines for moderate (normal) and high resistivity
dusts. As the resistivity goes from moderate to high, the currents decrease dramati-
cally in all of the fields. This is due to the suppressing effect caused by the strong elec-
trostatic field created on the dust layer, and to increased electrical sparking. The
decrease in currents is most noticeable in the outlet fields which previously had rela-
tively high currents. Spark rates increase dramatically during high resistivity. Often
most of the fields will hit the spark rate limits programmed in by the plant operators.
Once the spark rate limit is sensed by the automatic voltage controllers, it no longer
attempts to drive up the voltage. This causes a reduction in the operating voltages of
these fields. The overall impact on the opacity is substantially increased emissions. In
some cases, puffing again occurs during rapping. This is due to reduced capability of
the precipitator fields to collect the slight quantities of particles released during rap-
ping of high resistivity dust.
Figure 6-4 shows the typical trend lines for moderate (normal) and low resistivity
dusts in a four-field ESP. The moderate resistivity dust shows a steady increase of cur-
rent from the first field to the fourth field, while the secondary current increases rap-
idly for all fields when the dust exhibits low resistivity. This effect is especially
noticeable in the inlet fields which previously had the lowest currents. This increase in
current is due simply to the fact that the dust layer’s electrostatic field is too weak to
significantly impede the charging field created by the discharged electrodes. At low
resistivity, the spark rates are generally very low or zero. The voltages in all of the
fields are a little lower than normal since the automatic voltage controllers sense that
the power supply is at its current limit; therefore, the controller does not attempt to
drive the voltage up any further. While the low resistivity conditions persist, there can
be frequent and severe puffs (opacity increase) which occur after each collection plate
rapper activates.
6-18 2.0-2/98
Figure 6-3. Typical T-R set plots - high resistivity versus moderate (normal)
resistivity
2.0-2/98 6-19
Lesson 6
Figure 6-4. Typical T-R set plots - low resistivity versus moderate (normal)
resistivity
6-20 2.0-2/98
Using the current, voltage, and spark rate plots is a very good way to use readily avail-
able information to evaluate the impossible-to-directly monitor but nevertheless
important resistivity conditions. It is possible to differentiate between problems
caused by mechanical faults in a single field (such as insulator leakage) and resistivity
conditions which inherently affect all of the fields in varying degrees. However, these
trend lines are not a perfect analysis tool for evaluating resistivity. A few precipitators
never display typical electrical trend lines since they have undersized T-R sets, under-
sized fields, improperly set automatic voltage controllers, or severe mechanical prob-
lems affecting most of the fields.
Dust Accumulation
There are three primary causes of dust accumulation on electrodes:
• Inadequate rapping system
• Sticky dust
• Operation at temperatures below the dew point level
The usual cause for buildup of dust on the collection plates or discharge wires is failure of
the rapping system or an inadequate rapping system. The rapping system must provide
sufficient force to dislodge the dust without damaging the ESP or causing excessive reen-
trainment. The failure of one or two isolated rappers does not usually degrade ESP perfor-
mance significantly. The failure of an entire rapper control system or all the rappers in one
field, however, can cause a noticeable decrease in ESP performance, particularly with
high-resistivity dust. Therefore, rapper operation should be checked at least once per day,
or perhaps even once per shift. A convenient time to make this check is during routine T-R
set readings.
Rapper operation may be difficult to check on some ESPs because the time periods
between rapper activation can range from 1 to 8 hours on the outlet field. One method of
checking rapper operation involves installing a maintenance-check cycle that allows a
check of all rappers in 2 to 5 minutes by following a simple rapping pattern. The cycle is
activated by plant personnel, who interrupt the normal rapping cycle and note any rappers
that fail to operate. After the check cycle, the rappers resume their normal operation.
Maintenance of rapper operation is important to optimum ESP performance.
Excessive dust buildup also may result from sticky dusts or operation at gas dew point
conditions. In some cases, the dusts may be removed by increasing the temperature, but in
many cases the ESP must be entered and washed out. If sticky particulates are expected
(such as tars and asphalts), a wet-wall ESP is usually used because problems can occur
when large quantities of sticky particles enter a dry ESP.
Sticky particulates can also become a problem when the flue gas temperature falls below
the dew point level. Although acid dew point is usually of greater concern in most applica-
tions, moisture dew point is important, too. When moisture dew point conditions are
reached, liquid droplets tend to form that can bind the particulate to the plate and wire.
These conditions also accelerate corrosion. Carryover of water droplets or excessive mois-
ture can also cause this problem (e.g., improper atomization of water in spray cooling of
the gas or failure of a waterwall or economizer tube in a boiler). In some instances the dust
layer that has built up can be removed by increasing the intensity and frequency of the rap-
ping while raising the temperature to "dry out" the dust layer. In most cases, however, it is
2.0-2/98 6-21
Lesson 6
necessary to shutdown the unit and wash out or "chisel out" the buildup to clean the plates.
Localized problems can occur where inleakage causes localized decreases in gas tempera-
ture.
In an operating ESP, differences in the V-I curves can be used to evaluate if a dust buildup
problem exists. Buildup of material on the discharge electrodes often means an increase in
voltage to maintain a given operating current. The effect of dust buildup on discharge elec-
trodes is usually equivalent to increasing the effective wire diameter. Since the corona
starting voltage is strongly a function of wire diameter, the corona starting voltage tends to
increase and the whole V-I curve tends to shift to the right (see Figure 6-5). Sparking tends
to occur at about the same voltage as it does without dust buildup, unless resistivity is
high. This effect on corona starting voltage is usually more pronounced when straight
wires are uniformly coated with a heavy dust, and less pronounced on barbed wires and
rigid electrodes or when the dust layer is not uniform. Barbed wires and rigid electrodes
tend to keep the "points" relatively clean and to maintain a small effective wire diameter
and, therefore, a low corona starting voltage. Nevertheless, a higher voltage would still be
required to spread the corona discharge over the wire when dust buildup occurs. Thus,
buildup on the discharge electrodes would still be characterized by a higher voltage to
maintain a given current level.
Figure 6-5. V-I curve for a field with excessive wire

buildup
Wire Breakage
Some ESPs operate for 10 to 15 years without experiencing a single wire breakage.
Whereas others experience severe wire breakage problems causing one or more sections to
be out of service nearly every day of operation. Much time and effort have been expended
6-22 2.0-2/98
to determine the causes of wire breakage. One of the advantages of rigid-frame and rigid-
electrode ESPs is their use of shorter wires or no wires at all. Although most new ESPs
have either rigid frames or rigid electrodes, and some weighted-wire systems have been
retrofitted to rigid electrodes, the most common ESP in service today is still the weighted-
wire.
Wires usually fail in one of three areas: at the top of the wire, at the bottom of the wire,
and wherever misalignment or slack wires reduce the clearance between the wire and
plate. Wire failure may be due to electrical erosion, mechanical erosion, corrosion, or
some combination of these. When wire failures occur, they usually short-out the field
where they are located. In some cases, they may short-out an adjacent field as well. Thus,
the failure of one wire can cause the loss of particle collection in an entire field or bus sec-
tion. In some smaller ESP applications, this can represent one-third to one-half of the
charging/collecting area and thus substantially limit ESP performance. One of the advan-
tages of higher sectionalization is that wire failure is confined to smaller areas so overall
ESP performance does not suffer as much. Some ESPs are designed to meet emission
standards with some percentage of the ESP de-energized, whereas others may not have
any margin to cover downtime. Because they receive and remove the greatest percentage
of particulate matter, inlet fields are usually more important to ESP operation than outlet
fields.
Electrical erosion is caused by excessive sparking. Sparking usually occurs at points
where there is close clearance within a field due to a warped plate, misaligned guidance
frames, or bowed wires. The maximum operating voltage is usually limited by these close
tolerance areas because the spark-over voltage depends on the distance between the wire
and the plate. The smaller the distance between the wire and plate, the lower the spark-
over voltage. Under normal circumstances random sparking does little damage to the ESP.
During sparking, most of the power supplied to energize the field is directed to the loca-
tion of the spark, and the voltage field around the remaining wires collapses. The consid-
erable quantity of energy available during the spark is usually sufficient to vaporize a
small quantity of metal. When sparking continues to occur at the same location, the wire
usually "necks down" because of electrical erosion until it is unable to withstand the ten-
sion and breaks. Misalignment of the discharge electrodes relative to the plates increases
the potential for broken wires, decreases the operating voltage and current because of
sparking, and decreases the performance potential of that field in the ESP.
Although the breakage of wires at the top and bottom where the wire passes through the
field can be aggravated by misalignment, the distortion of the electrical field at the edges
of the plate tends to be the cause of breakage. This distortion of the field, which occurs
where the wire passes the end of the plate, tends to promote sparking and gradual electri-
cal erosion of the wires.
Design faults and the failure to maintain alignment generally contribute to mechanical
erosion (or wear) of the wire. In some designs, the lower guide frame guides the wires or
their weight hooks (not the weights themselves) into alignment with the plates. When
alignment is good, the guide frame or grid allows the wires or weight hooks to float freely
within their respective openings. When the position of the wire guide frame shifts, how-
ever, the wire or weight hook rubs the wire frame within the particulate-laden gas stream.
Failures of this type usually result from a combination of mechanical and electrical ero-
sion. Corrosion may also contribute to this failure. Microsparking action between the
2.0-2/98 6-23
Lesson 6
guide frame and the wire or weight hook apparently causes the electrical erosion. The
same type of failure also can occur in some rigid frame designs where the wires ride in the
frame.
Another mechanical failure that sometimes occurs involves crossed wires. When replac-
ing a wire, maintenance personnel must make sure that the replacement wire does not
cross another wire. Eventually, the resulting wearing action breaks one or both wires. If
one of the wires does survive, it is usually worn down enough to promote greater sparking
at the point of contact until it finally does break. Any wires that are found to be exception-
ally long and slack should be replaced; they should not be crossed with another wire to
achieve the desired length.
Corrosion of the wires can also lead to wire failures. Corrosion, an electrochemical reac-
tion, can occur for several reasons, the most common being acid dew point. When the rate
of corrosion is slow and generally spread throughout the ESP, it may not lead to a single
wire failure for 5 to 10 years. When the rate of corrosion is high because of long periods of
operating the ESP below the acid dew point, failures are frequent. In these cases the corro-
sion problem is more likely to be a localized one (e.g., in places where cooling of the gas
stream occurs, such as inleakage points and the walls of the ESP). Corrosion-related wire
failures can also be aggravated by startup-shutdown procedures that allow the gas streams
to pass through the dew point many times. Facilities have mainly experienced wire break-
age problems during the initial process shakedown period when the process operation may
not be continuous. Once steady operation has been achieved, wire breakage problems tend
to diminish at most plants.
Wire crimping is another cause of wire failure. Crimps usually occur at the top and bot-
tom of the wires where they attach to the upper wire frame or bottle weight; however, a
crimp may occur at any point along the wire. Because a crimp creates a residual stress
point, all three mechanisms (electrical erosion, mechanical erosion, and corrosion) may be
at work in this situation. A crimp can:
1. Distort the electric field along the wire and promote sparking;
2. Mechanically weaken the wire and make it thinner;
3. Subject the wire to a stress corrosion failure (materials under stress tend to corrode
more rapidly than those not under stress).
Wire failure should not be a severe maintenance problem or operating limitation in a well-
designed ESP. Excessive wire failures are usually a symptom of a more fundamental prob-
lem. Plant personnel should maintain records of wire failure locations. Although ESP per-
formance will generally not suffer with up to approximately 10% of the wires removed,
these records should be maintained to help avoid a condition in which entire gas lanes may
be de-energized. Improved sectionalization helps to minimize the effect of a broken wire
on ESP performance, but performance usually begins to suffer when a large percentage of
the ESP fields are de-energized.
Hopper Pluggage
Perhaps no other problem (except fire or explosion) has the potential for degrading ESP
performance as much as hopper pluggage. Hopper pluggage can permanently damage an
ESP and severely affect both short-term and long-term performance. Hopper pluggage is
6-24 2.0-2/98
difficult to diagnose because its effect is not immediately apparent on the T-R set panel
meters. Depending on its location, a hopper can usually be filled in 4 to 24 hours. In many
cases, the effect of pluggage does not show up on the electrical readings until the hopper is
nearly full.
The electrical reaction to most plugged hoppers is the same as that for internal misalign-
ment, a loose wire in the ESP, or excessive dust buildup on the plates. Typical symptoms
include heavy or "bursty" sparking in the field(s) over the plugged hopper and reduced
voltage and current in response to the reduced clearance and higher spark rate. In
weighted-wire designs, high dust levels in the hopper may raise the weight and cause slack
wires and increased arcing within the ESP. In many cases, this will trip the T-R set off-line
because of overcurrent or undervoltage protection circuits. In some situations, the spark-
ing continues even as the dust level exceeds hopper capacity and builds up between the
plate and the wire; whereas in others, the voltage continues to decrease as the current
increases and little or no sparking occurs. This drain of power away from corona genera-
tion renders the field performance virtually useless. The flow of current also can cause the
formation of a dust clinker (solidified dust) resulting from the heating of the dust between
the wire and plate.
The buildup of dust under and into the collection area can cause the plate or discharge
electrode guide frames to shift. The buildup can also place these frames under enough
pressure to distort them or to cause permanent warping of the collection plate(s). If this
happens, performance of the affected field remains diminished by misalignment, even
after the hopper is cleared.
Hopper pluggage can be caused by the following:
• Obstructions due to fallen wires and/or bottle weights
• Inadequately sized solids-removal equipment
• Use of hoppers for dust storage
• Inadequate insulation and hopper heating
• Air inleakage through access doors
Most dusts flow best when they are hot, therefore, cooling the dusts can promote a hopper
pluggage problem.
Hopper pluggage can begin and perpetuate a cycle of failure in the ESP. For example,
there was a case where a severely plugged hopper misaligned both the plates and the wire
guide grid in one of the ESP fields. Because the performance of this field had decreased,
the ESP was taken off-line and the hopper was cleared. But no one noticed the deteriorated
condition of the wire-guide grid. The misalignment had caused the wires and weight
hooks to rub the lower guide and erode the metal. When the ESP was brought back on-
line, the guide-grid metal eventually wore through. Hopper pluggage increased as weights
(and sometimes wires) fell into the hopper, plugging the discharge opening and causing
the hopper to fill again and cause more misalignment. The rate of failure continued to
increase until it was almost an everyday occurrence. This problem, which has occurred
more than once in different applications, demonstrates how one relatively simple problem
can lead to more complicated and costly ones.
In most pyramid-shaped hoppers, the rate of buildup lessens as the hopper is filled due to
the geometry of the inverted pyramid. Hopper level indicators or alarms should provide
2.0-2/98 6-25
Lesson 6
some margin of safety so that plant personnel can respond before the hopper is filled.
When the dust layer rises to a level where it interferes with the electrical characteristics of
the field, less dust is collected and the collection efficiency is reduced. Also, reentrainment
of the dust from the hopper can limit how high into the field the dust can go. Although
buildups as deep as 4 feet have been observed, they usually are limited to 12 - 18 inches
above the bottom of the plates.
Misalignment
As mentioned several times in the previous sections, electrode misalignment is both a con-
tributor to and a result of component failures. In general, most ESPs are not affected by a
misalignment of less than about 3/16 inches. Indeed, some tolerance must be provided for
expansion and contraction of the components. Beyond this limit, however, misalignment
can become a limiting factor in ESP performance and is visually evident during an internal
inspection of the ESP electrodes. Whether caused by warped plates, misaligned or skewed
discharge electrode guide frames, insulator failure, or failure to maintain ESP "box-
squareness," misalignment reduces the operating voltage and current required for spark-
ing. The V-I curve would indicate a somewhat lower voltage to achieve a low current level
with the sparking voltage and current greatly reduced. Since the maximum operating volt-
age/current levels depend on the path of least resistance in a field, any point of close toler-
ance will control these operating levels.
Changes in Particle Size

Unusually fine particles present a problem under the following circumstances:
1. When the ESP is not designed to handle them
2. When a process change or modification shifts the particle size distribution into the
range where ESP performance is poorest.
A shift in particle size distribution tends to alter electrical characteristics and increase the
number of particles emitted in the light-scattering size ranges (opacity).
As stated in Lesson 1, there are two principal charging mechanisms: field charging and
diffusion charging. Although field charging tends to dominate in the ESP and acts on par-
ticles greater than 1 micrometer in diameter, it cannot charge and capture smaller particles.
Diffusion charging, on the other hand, works well for particles smaller than 0.1 microme-
ter in diameter. ESP performance diminishes for particulates in the range of 0.2 - 0.9
micrometer because neither charging mechanism is very effective for particles in this
range. These particles are more difficult to charge and once charged, they are easily
bumped around by the gas stream, making them difficult to collect. Depending upon the
type of source being controlled, the collection efficiency of an ESP can drop from as high
as 99.9% on particles sized above 1.0 micrometer or below 0.1 micrometer, to only 85 to
90% on particles in the 0.2 - 0.9 micrometer diameter range. If a significant quantity of
particles fall into this size range, the ESP design must be altered to accommodate the fine
particles.
When heavy loadings of fine particles enter the ESP, two significant electrical effects can
occur: space charge and corona quenching. At moderate resistivities, the space-charge
effects normally occur in the inlet or perhaps the second field of ESPs. Because it takes a
6-26 2.0-2/98
longer time to charge fine particles and to force them to migrate to the plate, a cloud of
negatively charged particles forms in the gas stream. This cloud of charged particles is
called a space charge. It interferes with the corona generation process and impedes the
flow of negatively charged gas ions from the wire to the collection plate. The interference
of the space charge with corona generation is called corona quenching. When this occurs,
the T-R controller responds by increasing the operating voltage to maintain current flow
and corona generation. The increase in voltage usually causes increased spark rates, which
may in turn signal the controller to reduce the voltage and current in an attempt to main-
tain a reasonable spark rate. Under moderate resistivity conditions, the fine dust particles
are usually collected by the time they reach the third field of the ESP which explains the
disappearance of the space charge in these later fields. The T-R controller responds to the
cleaner gas in these later fields by decreasing the voltage level, but the current levels will
increase markedly. When quantities of fine particles being processed by the ESP increase,
the space charging effect may progress further into the ESP.
Air Inleakage
Inleakage is often overlooked as an operating problem. In some instances, it can be benefi-
cial to ESP performance, but in most cases its effect is detrimental. Inleakage may occur
within the process itself or in the ESP and is caused by leaking access doors, leaking duct-
work, and even open sample ports.
Inleakage usually cools the gas stream, and can also introduce additional moisture. Air
inleakage often causes localized corrosion of the ESP shell, plates, and wires. The temper-
ature differential also can cause electrical disturbances (sparking) in the field. Finally, the
introduction of ambient air can affect the gas distribution near the point of entry. The pri-
mary entrance paths are through the ESP access and hopper doors. Inleakage through hop-
per doors may reentrain and excessively cool the dust in the hopper, which can cause both
reentrainment in the gas stream and hopper pluggage. Inleakage through the access doors
is normally accompanied by an audible in-rush of air.
Inleakage is also accompanied by an increase in gas volume. In some processes, a certain
amount of inleakage is expected. For example, application of Lungstrom regenerative air
heaters on power boilers or recovery boilers is normally accompanied by an increase in
flue gas oxygen. For utility boilers the increase may be from 4.5% oxygen at the inlet to
6.5% at the boiler outlet. For other boilers the percentage increase may be smaller when
measured by the O2 content, but 20 to 40% increases in gas volumes are typical and the
ESP must be sized accordingly. Excessive gas volume due to air inleakage, however, can
cause an increase in emissions due to higher velocities through the ESP and greater reen-
trainment of particulate matter. For example, at a kraft recovery boiler, an ESP that was
designed for a superficial velocity of just under 6 ft/s was operating at over 12 ft/s to han-
dle an increased firing rate, increased excess air, and inleakage downstream of the boiler.
Because the velocities were so high through the ESP, the captured material was blown off
the plate and the source was unable to meet emission standards.
Table 6-5 summarizes the problems associated with electrostatic precipitators, along with
corrective actions and preventive measures.
2.0-2/98 6-27
Lesson 6
Table 6-5. Summary of problems associated with electrostatic precipitators

Effect on
electrostatic
precipitator Preventive
Malfunction Cause efficiency1 Corrective action measures
1. Poor electrode 1. Poor design Can drastically affect Realign electrodes Check hoppers
alignment 2. Ash buildup on performance and Correct gas flow frequently for proper
frame hoppers lower efficiency operation
3. Poor gas flow
2. Broken electrodes 1. Wire not rapped Reduction in efficiency Replace electrode Boiler problems;
clean, causes an due to reduced check space
arc which power input, bus between recording
embroglios and section unavailability steam and air flow
burns through the pens, pressure
wire gauges, fouled
2. Clinkered wire. screen tubes
Causes:
a. Poor flow area, Inspect hoppers;
distribution check electrodes
through unit is frequently for wear;
uneven inspect rappers
b. Excess free frequently
carbon due to
excess air above
combustion
requirements or
fan capacity
insufficient for
demand required
c. Wires not
properly centered
d. Ash buildup,
resulting in bent
frame, same as
(c)
e. Clinker bridges
the plates and
wire shorts out
f. Ash buildup,
pushes bottle
weight up
causing sag in
the wire
g. "J" hooks have
improper
clearances to the
hanging wire
h. Bottle weight
hangs up during
cooling causing a
buckled wire
i. Ash buildup on
bottle weight to
the frame forms a
clinker and burns
off the wire
3. Distorted or skewed 1. Ash buildup in Reduced efficiency Repair or replace Check hoppers
electrode plates hoppers plates frequently for proper
2. Gas flow Correct gas flow operation; check
irregularities electrode plates
3. High temperatures during outages
4. Vibrating or swinging 1. Uneven gas flow Decrease in efficiency Repair electrode Check electrodes
electrodes 2. Broken electrodes due to reduced frequently for wear
power input
6-28 2.0-2/98

Summary of problems associated with electrostatic precipitators
Effect on
electrostatic
5. Inadequate level of 1. High dust resistivity Reduction in efficiency Clean electrodes; Check range of
power input (voltage 2. Excessive ash on gas conditioning voltages frequently
too low) electrodes or alterations in to make sure they
3. Unusually fine temperature to are correct; check in-
particle size reduce resistivity; situ resistivity
4. Inadequate power increase measurements
supply sectionalization
5. Inadequate
sectionalization
6. Improper rectifier
and control
operation
7. Misalignment of
electrodes
6. Back corona 1. Ash accumulated Reduction in efficiency Same as above Same as above
on electrodes
causes excessive
sparking requiring
reduction in voltage
charge
7. Broken or cracked 1. Ash buildup during Reduction in efficiency Clean or replace Check frequently;
insulator or flower pot operation causes insulators and clean and dry as
bushing leakage leakage to ground bushings needed; check for
2. Moisture gathered adequate
during shutdown or pressurization of top
low-load operation housing
8. Air inleakage through 1. From dust conveyor Lower efficiency; dust Seal leaks Identify early by
hoppers reentrained through increase in ash
electrostatic concentration at
precipitator bottom of exit to
electrostatic
precipitator
9. Air inleakage through 1. Flange expansion Same as above; also Seal leaks Check for large flue
electrostatic causes intense gas temperature
precipitator shell sparking drop across the ESP
10.Gas bypass around 1. Poor design; Only few percent drop Baffling to direct Identify early by
electrostatic improper isolation in efficiency unless gas into active measurement of gas
precipitator of active portion of severe electrostatic flow in suspected
• dead passage electrostatic precipitator areas
above plates precipitator section
• around high
tension frame
11.Corrosion 1. Temperature goes Negligible until Maintain flue gas Energize precipitator
below dew point precipitation interior temperature after boiler system
plugs or plates are above dew point has been on line for
eaten away; air leaks ample period to raise
may develop causing flue gas temperature
significant drops in above acid dew point
performance
2.0-2/98 6-29
Lesson 6

Summary of problems associated with electrostatic precipitators
Effect on
electrostatic
12.Hopper pluggage 1. Wires, plates, Reduction in efficiency Provide proper flow Frequent checks for
insulators fouled of ash adequate operation
because of low of hoppers. Provide
temperature heater thermal
2. Inadequate hopper insulation to avoid
insulation moisture
3. Improper condensation
maintenance
4. Boiler leaks causing
excess moisture
5. Ash conveying
system malfunction
(gasket leakage,
blower malfunction,
solenoid valves)
6. Misjudgments of
hopper vibrators
7. Material dropped
into hopper from
bottle weights
8. Solenoid, timer
malfunction
9. Suction blower filter
not changed
13. Inadequate rapping, 1. Ash buildup Resulting buildup on Adjust rappers with Frequent checks for
vibrators fail 2. Poor design electrodes may optical dust adequate operation
3. Rappers reduce efficiency measuring of rappers
misadjusted instrument in
electrostatic
precipitator exit
stream
14.Too intense rapping 1. Poor design Reentrains ash, Same as above Same as above;
2. Rappers reduces efficiency reduce vibrating or
misadjusted impact force
3. Improper rapping
force
15.Control failures 1. Power failure in Reduced efficiency Find source of Pay close attention to
primary system failure and repair daily readings of
a. Insulation or replace control room
breakdown in instrumentation to
transformer spot deviations from
b. Arcing in normal readings
transformer
between high-
voltage switch
contacts
c. Leaks or shorts in
high-voltage
structure
d. Insulating field
contamination
16.Sparking 1. Inspection door ajar Reduced efficiency Close inspection Regular preventive
2. Boiler leaks doors; repair leaks maintenance will
3. Plugging of hoppers in boiler; unplug alleviate these
4. Dirty insulators hoppers; clean problems
insulators
1
The effects of precipitation problems can be discussed only on a qualitative basis. There are no known emission tests of precipitators to determine
performance degradation as a function of operational problems.
Sources: Szabo and Gerstle 1977, and Englebrecht 1980.
6-30 2.0-2/98
Safety
Persons who will be operating and maintaining an ESP must be well trained on all safety
aspects to avoid injury. One person at the plant should be assigned the responsibility of con-
stantly checking safety standards and equipment and to train or procure safety training for all
those who will work with the ESP. A suggested list of important safety precautions is listed in
Table 6-6 (Bibbo 1982).
Table 6-6. Important safety precautions
Wiring and controls

1. Prior to startup, double-check that field wiring between controls and devices
(T-R sets, rapper prime motors, etc.) is correct, complete, and properly labeled.
2. Never touch exposed internal parts of control system. Operation of the
transformer-rectifier controls involves the use of dangerous high voltage.
Although all practical safety control measures have been incorporated into this
equipment, always take responsible precautions when operating it.
3. Never use fingers or metal screwdrivers to adjust uninsulated control devices.
Access
1. Use a positive method to ensure that personnel are out of the precipitator, flues,
or controls prior to energization. Never violate established plant clearance
practices.
2. Never bypass the safety key interlock system. Destroy any extra keys. Always
keep lock caps in place. Use powdered graphite only to lubricate lock system
parts; never use oil or grease. Never tamper with a key interlock.
3. Use grounding chains whenever entering the precipitator, T-R switch enclosure,
or bus ducts. The precipitator can hold a high static charge, up to 15 kV, after it is
de-energized. The only safe ground is one that can be seen.
4. Never open a hopper door unless the dust level is positively below the door. Do
not trust the level alarm. Check from the upper access in the precipitator. Hot dust
can flow like water and severely burn or kill a person standing below the door.
Wear protective clothing.
5. Be on firm footing prior to entering the precipitator. Clear all trip hazards. Use the
back of the hand to test for high metal temperatures.
6. Avoid ozone inhalation. Ozone is created any time the discharge electrodes are
energized. Wear an air-line mask when entering the precipitator, flues, or stack
when ozone may be present. Do not use filters, cartridge, or canister respirators.
7. Never poke hoppers with an uninsulated metal bar. Keep safety and danger signs
in place. Clean, bright signs are obeyed more than deteriorated signs.
Fire/explosion
1. In case of boiler malfunction that could permit volatile gases and/or heavy carbon
carryover to enter the precipitator, immediately shut down all transformer-rectifier
sets. Volatile gases and carbon carryover could be ignited by sparks in the
precipitator, causing fire or explosion, damaging precipitator internals.
2. If high levels of carbon are known to exist on the collecting surface or in the
hoppers, do not open precipitator access doors until the precipitator has cooled
below 52°C (125°F). Spontaneous combustion of the hot dust may be caused by
the inrush of air.
3. If a fire is suspected in the hoppers, empty the affected hopper. If unable to empty
the hopper immediately, shut down the transformer-rectifier sets above the
hopper until it is empty. Use no other method to empty the hopper. Never use
water or steam to control this type of fire. These agents can release hydrogen,
increasing the possibility of explosion.
Source: Bibbo 1982.
2.0-2/98 6-31
Lesson 6
Summary
Successful longtime operation of an ESP ultimately depends on effective inspection, startup
and shutdown and operation and maintenance procedures. Regardless of how well the ESP is
designed, if these procedures are not developed and routinely followed the ESP will deterio-
rate resulting in a decrease of its particulate emission removal efficiency.
The lesson discusses the importance of monitoring key operating parameters including voltage
and current readings of each T-R set, opacity, flue gas flow rate and flue gas composition and
moisture levels. We also covered how evaluating current, voltage and spark rate trends can
help provide information on dust resistivity conditions. A change in dust resistivity can drasti-
cally alter the performance of the ESP and will likely lead to emission compliance problems if
not rectified.
Suggested Reading
Bibbo, P. P. 1982. Electrostatic precipitators. In L. Theodore and A. Buonicore (Eds.), Air Pollution
Control Equipment-Selection, Design, Operation and Maintenance (pp.3-44). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Englebrecht, H. L. 1980. Mechanical and electrical aspects of electrostatic precipitator O&M. In R. A.

Young and F. L. Cross (Eds.), Operation and Maintenance for Air Particulate Control Equipment
(pp. 283-354). Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
6-32 2.0-2/98
Review Exercise
1. Air inleakage at flanges or collector access points in high-temperature systems (hot-side ESPs)
may:
a. Allow dust to settle out quickly into hoppers
b. Cause acids and moisture to condense on internal components of the ESP
c. Increase the overall collection efficiency of the unit
2. Gas streams of high temperature should be maintained above the:

a. Ignition temperature
b. Gas dew point
c. Concentration limit
3. Since most ESPs are installed in the field, it is important to check that all surfaces and areas of
potential heat loss are adequately covered with:
a. Paint
b. Plastic coating
c. Insulation
d. Aluminum siding
4. Before the ESP is started, the installation crew should prepare and use a____________________.
5. Which of the following ESP components should be checked before starting the collector?
a. Hoppers and discharge devices
b. Rappers
c. Discharge and collection electrodes
d. All of the above
6. Two very important parameters monitored by meters on T-R sets and used to evaluate ESP perfor-
mance are ____________________ and____________________.
7. True or False? Individual T-R set values for voltage and current are important; however, the trends
for voltage and current noted within an entire ESP are more valuable in assessing performance.
8. As particulate matter is removed from the gas stream, the ____________________ should
increase from the inlet to the outlet fields.
a. Opacity
b. Current density
c. Rapper intensity
d. Amperage
2.0-2/98 6-33
Lesson 6
9. An opacity monitor (transmissometer) measures:

a. Particle weight
b. Particle size
c. Light differential
d. Primary current
10. True or False? Opacity monitors are useful tools to aid in optimization of spark rate, power levels
and rapping cycles in ESPs.
11. True or False? Changes in flue gas temperature generally have little or no effect on particle resis-
tivity.
12. Operating parameters such as specific collection area, superficial velocity, and treatment time are
dependent on the ____________________ ____________________ ____________________.
13. True or False? Because of their open design, gas flow distribution through ESPs are generally very
evenly distributed.
14. ____________________ tests are generally conducted on cool, inoperative ESPs through which
no gas is flowing.
a. Air Load V-I Curve
b. Gas Load V-I Curve
c. Compliance
d. All of the above
15. True or False? When ESPs are equipped with identical fields, the air-load curves for each field
should be very similar.
16. Air Load V-I curves for a given ESP field will generally shift to the ____________________ if
plates are dirty compared to previous tests.
a. Left
b. Right
c. a and b, above
17. Gas-load curves are similar to air-load curves except the gas-load curves are shifted to the
____________________ compared to the air-load curves.
a. Left
b. Right
18. True or False? Gas-load curves generally are identical for a given ESP field on a day-to-day basis.
19. True or False? High dust resistivity is characterized by the tendency toward high spark rates at low
current levels.
6-34 2.0-2/98
20. Excessive dust buildup on the collecting plates or discharge wires can be caused by failure of the:
a. Primary and secondary voltage
b. Rapping system
c. Back corona
d. All the above
21. Wire failure can be caused by:

a. Electrical erosion
b. Mechanical erosion
c. Corrosion
d. All of the above
22. True or False? Unlike baghouses, ESPs are not affected by operating temperatures falling below
the acid or moisture dew point.
23. True or False? In general, a well-designed ESP can operate effectively with a small percentage
(less than 10) of its wires out-of-service.
24. True or False? Dust discharge hopper pluggage is not a major concern for ESPs.
2.0-2/98 6-35
Lesson 6
6-36 2.0-2/98
1. b. Cause acids and moisture to condense on internal components of the ESP

Air inleakage at flanges or collector access points in high-temperature systems (hot-side ESPs)
may cause acids and moisture to condense on internal components of the ESP.
2. b. Gas dew point

Gas streams of high temperature should be maintained above the gas dew point. When the temper-
ature falls below the gas dew point, moisture or acid can condense on ESP components and possi-
bly cause corrosion.
3. c. Insulation
Since most ESPs are installed in the field, it is important to check that all surfaces and areas of
potential heat loss are adequately covered with insulation.
4. Checklist
Before the ESP is started, the installation crew should prepare and use a checklist.

The following are some ESP components that should be checked before starting the collector:
• Hoppers and discharge devices
• Rappers
• Discharge and collection electrodes
6. Voltage
Current
Two very important parameters monitored by meters on T-R sets and used to evaluate ESP perfor-
mance are voltage and current.
7. True
Individual T-R set values for voltage and current are important; however, the trends for voltage
and current noted within an entire ESP are more valuable in assessing performance. T-R set read-
ings for current, voltage, and sparking should follow certain patterns from the inlet to the outlet
fields.
8. b. Current density
As particulate matter is removed from the gas stream, the current density should increase from the
inlet to the outlet fields. The dust concentration in the inlet sections will suppress the current.
Increased current density is needed in the outlet sections where there is a greater percentage of
very small particles.
9. c. Light differential
An opacity monitor (transmissometer) measures light differential. An opacity monitor compares
the amount of light generated and transmitted by the instrument on one side of the gas stream with
the quantity measured on the other side of the gas stream.
2.0-2/98 6-37
Lesson 6
10. True
Opacity monitors are useful tools to aid in optimization of spark rate, power levels and rapping
cycles in ESPs.
11. False
Changes in flue gas temperature have an important effect on particle resistivity. In fact, while gas
temperature variations may have some effect on corona discharge characteristics and physical
characteristics of the ESP (corrosion, expansion/contraction), their most important effect is on par-
ticle resistivity. See Figure 3-1.
12. Gas flow rate

Operating parameters such as specific collection area, superficial velocity, and treatment time are
dependent on the gas flow rate.
13. False
Actually, gas flow through the ESP is not evenly distributed. ESP manufacturers settle for what
they consider to be an acceptable variation.
14. a. Air Load V-I Curve

Air-Load V-I Curve tests are generally conducted on cool, inoperative ESPs through which no gas
is flowing.
15. True
When ESPs are equipped with identical fields, the air-load curves for each field should be very
similar.
16. b. Right
Air Load V-I curves for a given ESP field will generally shift to the right if plates are dirty com-
pared to previous tests. Dirty plates suppress the current. It takes a higher voltage to generate the
same amount of current as with a “clean plate” condition.
17. a. Left
Gas-load curves are similar to air-load curves except the gas-load curves are shifted to the left
compared to the air-load curves. Gas-load curves are generated while the unit is on-line. The
curves are generally shifted to the left because sparking occurs at lower voltage and current when
particles are present.
18. False
Gas-load curves for a given ESP field generally vary on a day-to-day basis. Curve positions can
change due to fluctuations in the amount of dust on the plates, gas flow, particulate loadings, tem-
perature, and resistivity.
19. True
High dust resistivity is characterized by the tendency toward high spark rates at low current levels.
20. b. Rapping system

Excessive dust buildup on the collecting plates or discharge wires can be caused by failure of the
rapping system.
6-38 2.0-2/98

Wire failure can be caused by the following:
• Electrical erosion
• Mechanical erosion
• Corrosion.
22. False
Like baghouses, ESPs are affected by operating temperatures falling below the acid or moisture
dew point. At temperatures below the acid or moisture dew point, acid or moisture can condense
on ESP components and cause corrosion.
23. True
In general, a well-designed ESP can operate effectively with a small percentage (less than 10) of
its wires out-of-service.
24. False
Dust discharge hopper pluggage is a major concern for ESPs. Hopper pluggage can permanently
damage an ESP.
2.0-2/98 6-39
Lesson 6
6-40 2.0-2/98
Bibliography
Bibbo, P. P. 1982. Electrostatic precipitators. In L. Theodore and A. Buonicore (Eds.), Air Pollution
Control Equipment-Selection, Design, Operation and Maintenance (pp.3-44). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Cross, F. L., and H. E. Hesketh. (Eds.) 1975. Handbook for the Operation and Maintenance of Air Pol-
lution Control Equipment. Westport, CT: Technomic Publishing.
Englebrecht, H. L. 1980. Mechanical and electrical aspects of electrostatic precipitator O&M. In R. A.

Young and F. L. Cross (Eds.), Operation and Maintenance for Air Particulate Control Equipment
(pp. 283-354). Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
Szabo, M. F., and R. W. Gerstle. 1977. Electrostatic Precipitator Malfunctions in the Electric Utility
Industry. EPA 600/2-77-006.
Szabo, M. F., Y. M. Shah, and S. P. Schliesser. 1981. Inspection Manual for Evaluation of Electrostatic
Precipitator Performances. EPA 340/1-79-007.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1987, August. Recommended Recordkeeping Systems for Air
Pollution Control Equipment. Part I, Particulate Matter Controls. EPA 340/1-86-021.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Monitoring, Recordkeeping, and Reporting Require-
ments for the Acid Rain Program. In Code of Federal Regulations - Protection of the Environment.
40 CFR 75. Washington, D.C.; U.S. Government Printing Office.
2.0-2/98 6-41
Lesson 6
6-42 2.0-2/98

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How does an electrostatic precipitator work?

How does an electrostatic precipitator work?

What are the two main ESP designs?

What are the two main ESP designs?

Lesson 1

Electrostatic Precipitator Operation

Figure 1-1. Typical dry electrostatic precipitator

Electric field strength

Figure 1-2. ESP electric field

Corona Discharge: Free Electron Generation

Figure 1-3. Corona generation

Figure 1-4. Avalanche multiplication of gas molecules

Ionization of Gas Molecules

Figure 1-5. Negative gas ions formed in the inter-

Figure 1-6. Particle charging

Particle Charging Mechanisms

a.) Field lines distorted by particle

b.) Saturated particle migrates toward

Figure 1-7. Field charging

Electric Field Strength

Figure 1-8. Spark generation profile

Figure 1-9. Particle collection at collection electrode

Types of Electrostatic Precipitators

Tubular and Plate ESPs

Figure 1-10. Gas flow through a tubular precipitator

Figure 1-11. Gas flow through a plate precipitator

Single-stage and Two-stage ESPs

Figure 1-12. Representation of gas flow in a two-stage precipitator

Cold-side and Hot-side ESPs

Figure 1-13. Cold-side ESP

Figure 1-14. Hot-side ESP

Wet and Dry ESPs

Figure 1-15. Circular-plate wet EPS

Figure 1-16. Flat-plate modular wet ESP

1. In an electrostatic precipitator, the ____________________ electrode is normally a small-diameter

2. The charged particles migrate to the ____________________ ____________________.

8. Particles are held onto the collection plates by:

9. Dust that has accumulated on collection electrodes can be removed either by

Review Exercise Answers

7. b. Slowly leaked to the grounded collection electrode

8. c. Intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces

12. a. In front of, behind

Turner, J. H., P. A. Lawless, T. Yamamoto, D. W. Coy, G. P. Greiner, J. D. McKenna, and W. M. Vata-

Figure 2-1. Typical dry electrostatic precipitator

Figure 2-2. Guide frames and shrouds for

Figure 2-3. Typical wire dischare electrodes

Figure 2-4. Rigid frame discharge electrode design

Figure 2-5. Typical rigid discharge electrode

Figure 2-6. Flat-plate discharge electrode

Figure 2-7. Typical collection plates

Figure 2-8. Schematic diagram of circuitry associated with precipitators

The most commonly used meters are the following:

Primary Voltage Primary Current

Secondary Voltage Secondary Current Spark meter

Figure 2-9. Typical gauges (meters) installed on control cabinet for

High voltage bus duct

Figure 2-10. High-voltage system

Figure 2-11. Typical hammer/anvil rappers for

Figure 2-12. Typical magnetic-impulse rappers

2. The charged particles migrate to the .

12. In a T-R set, the transformer while the rectifier.

16. Most precipitators use or to remove accumu-

19. A discharge device works similarly to a

20. A uses a screw feeder located at the bottom of

21. A uses a blower or compressed air to remove

22. A uses paddles or flaps connected to a drag