Koskta S. XX

I
Materíals and Techníques of
TWENTIETH
CENTURY
THIRD EDITION
_. --

Stefan Kostka
..
Contents
PREFACE xv
1 THE TWILlGHT OF THE TONAL SYSTEM 1
INTRODUCTION 1
DIATONlC TONAL MUSIC 1
CHROMATIC TONAL MUSIC 2
CHROMATIC HARMONY 3
CHROMATICISM AND MUSICAL FORM 11
SUSPENDED TONALITY ANO ATONALITY 13
SUMMARY 14
NOTES 14
EXERCISES 15
2 SCALE FORMATIONS
IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC 22
INTRODUCTION 22
FIVE-NOTE SCALES 23
vii
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _lIiiiiiiillllW¡¡¡,¡·.¡¡¡"¡¡¡";.¡'.r¡¡."'_....
:;.'
_~-~ ~"'-_~ ,~,"'''''''c:rrr;'''';;¡;,,>~.i''''M~ ~- ¡¡.11 t ~
vIII Contents
SIX-NOTE SCALES 24
SEVEN-NOTE SCALES: THE DIATONIC MOOES 27
OTHER SEVEN-NOTE SCALES 30
EIGHT-NOTE SCALES 31
THE CHROMATIC SCALE 34
MICROTONAL SCALES 34
OTHER POSSIBILmES 36
SUMMARY 37
NOTES 37
EXERCISES 38
3
THE VERTICAL OIMENSION:
CHOROS ANO SIMULTANEITIES 46
INTROOUCTION 46
CONVENTIONAL TERTIAN SONORITIES 47
TERTIAN CHOROS WITH AOOEO NarES 49
TERTIAN CHOROS WITH SPLIT CHORO MEMBERS 52
OPEN-5TH CHOROS 54
QUARTAL ANO QUINTAL CHOROS 55
SECUNOAL CHOROS 59
MIXEO-INTERVAL CHOROS 62
WHOLE-TONE CHOROS 63
POLYCHOROS 64
SUMMARY 66
NOTES 67
EXERCISES 67
I!~:l! lllUl1fl
4
THE HORIZONTAL OIMENSION: II1II1[:1,11 11",",
MELOOY ANO VOICE LEAOING 74

.~IIII 4
!\IIii1\\WII~::''''ll1II
INTROOUCTION 74 .¡¡¡¡[!III'::III•....:::J
TONAL MELOOY 74 "1::::11'1/111:::'1'. '11
SOME NEW STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY lEiijj· ·w

MELOOY 76 'I,.¡.;
SOME ASPECTS OF MELODIC ORGANlZATION 81 ¡¡¡¡¡JI:
VOlCE LEADING IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC 83 :..:1
1
I ..
~
Contents Ix
SUMMARY 92
NOTES 92
EXERCISES 93
5 HARMONIC PROGRESSION AND TONALlTY

98
INTRODUCTION 98
TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO HARMONIC
PROGRESSION 98
NEW APPROACHES TO HARMONIC
PROGRESSION 99
NONHARMONIC MUSIC 101
46 ESTABLISHING A TONAL CENTER 102
TERTIAN AND NONTERTIAN PITCH-CENTRlCITY 103
POLYTONALITY 105
ATONALITY 108
PANDIATONICISM 108
SUMMARY 109
NOTES 110
EXERCISES 110
6 DEVELOPMENTS IN RHYTHM 114
INTRODUCTION 114
SYNCOPATION 115
WRITTEN RHYTHM AND PERCEIVED RHYTHM 116
CHANGING TIME SIGNATURES 117
NONTRADITIONAL TIME SIGNATURES 118
74
POLYMETER 120
AMETRlC MUSIC 124
ADDED VALUES AND NONRETROGRADABLE RHYTHMS 128
TEMPO MODULATION AND POLYTEMPO 130
SERIALIZED RHYTHM AND ISORHYTHM 133
SUMMARY 135
NOTES 136
EXERCISES 136
.,
•
x Contents
:'li¡_='iIII
7 FORM IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC 140
--lE I
::,: o
INTRODUCTION 140
BINARY FORM 141 !::5I
TERNARY FORM 141 "" :~:JI
RONDO FORMS 145 'h'" "ti.!l
arHER PART FORMS 146
SONATA FORM 147
SECTIONAL VARIATIONS 149
CONTINUOUS VARIATIONS 149
CANON AND FUGUE 150
.-. &
~"-fIII
PROPORTION: THE GOLDEN MEAN 152
NONTHEMATIC DELINEATORS OF MUSICAL FORM 152
1"1¡,,¡'~
NONORGANIC APPROACHES TO MUSICAL FORM 154
:. ,:,.,.~;JC
SUMMARY 154
-"';lE 1
NOTES 155
..
J.~
EXERCISES 155
"_ J..!:
:
::;::- SI
8 IMPORTS AND ALLUSIONS 157
: :'II41II
INTRODUCTION 157 --.:= ;Ij
INFLUENCES PROM THE PAST 157

INFLUENCES PROM FOLK MUSIC, JAZZ, AND ROCK 164
,5
MUSIC PROM arHER CULTURES 170 I
SUMMARY 172
NarES 172
EXERCISES 173
-\11
-',.~
9 NONSERIAL ATONALlTY 175 '~III:-:: '.
INTRODUCTION 175
¡¡"--"J
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATONAL MUSIC 176
~.l'I
PITCH-CLASS SETS 178

:~;. ::1
- __ JlI
OCTAVE EQUIVALENCE, TRANSPOSITIONAL
EQUIVALENCE, AND NORMAL ORDER 178 - ~
INVERSIONAL EQUIVALENCE AND BEST NORMAL ORDER 182 .'.~,
1
Contents xl
PRIME FORMS ANO SET CLASSES 185
140
THE INTERVAL-CLASS VECTOR 186
FORTE LABELS 188
SUBSETS 189
AGGREGATES 190
MOREABOUT SEGMENTATION 191
SUMMARY 192
NOTES 192
EXERCISES 193
10 CLASSICAL SERIALlSM 198
INTROOUCTION 198
BASIC TERMINOLOGY 199
THE TWELVE-TONE MATRIX 201
A FIRST EXAMPLE 202
ANALYZING A ROW 204
COMPOSITIONAL USES OF THE ROW 207
157
SET SUCCESSION 209
COMBINATORIALITY 211
THE ANALYSIS OF SERIAL MUSIC 213
SUMMARY 214
NOTES 214
EXERCISES 214
11 TIMBRE ANO TEXTURE: ACOUSTIC 222
INTROOUCTION 222
175
NEW TIMBRAL EFFECTS FROM TRAOmONAL
INSTRUMENTS 222
WINO INSTRUMENTS 223
STRINGEO INSTRUMENTS 225
PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 228
THEPIANO 231
THEVOICE 231
INSTRUMENTATION ANO ORCHESTRATION 232
•
xII Contents
TRADITIONAL TEXTURES AND COMPOUND TEXTURES 236

Ji
POINTILUSM, STRATIFICATION, ANO SOUND-MASS 238
TEXTURE AS A FORM DETERMINANT 239
SUMMARY 240
""'-IE- :::::.
:1 '""11
,_
NOTES 240
.. -.'1':
EXERCISES 241
~"""~·ilaI
3c;l,.''',=1
12 TIMBRE ANO TEXTURE: ELECTRONIC 245

:I'!H. "': I
INTRODUCTION 245
CONCRETE MUSIC 246
THE CLASSICAL ELECTRONIC MUSIC SruDIO 247
..
ji: 1ftI..;;;:
' :'
:,:I;¡
r:¡¡¡, ~ e; :"- J.C'
-.
'1lII1I
""" "1Il!I
DIGITAL SYNTHESIS 250
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MIOI 253

:: .!J
SAMPLERS, PERSONAL COMPUTERS, AND RECENT
TRENOS IN DIGITAL SYNTHESIS 254
M:I~~ ~/~
TAPE AND INSTRUMENT, UVE PERFORMANCE, AND
INTERACTIVE COMPUTER MUSIC 256
fIIi-'" ': t_1

NarATION OF ELECTRONIC MUSIC 257
'Il"~:'!"ri' ;¡¡.lJ
SUMMARY 259
.... -.,,:='
NOTES 259
'\1
EXEROSES 259
",,,,, ,';:]
:'",.3
13 SERIALlSM AFTER 1945 264
APC'~-'
INTRODUCTION 264
ANC l"i
INTEGRAL SERIALISM 265
INTEGRAL SERIALISM IN PERSPECTIVE 275
arHER ASPECTS OF SERIALISM 276

8iIS..... ()
MUSIC AFTER SERIAUSM 279
SUMMARY 279
NarES 280
.¡()EX
Contents xIII
EXERCISES 280
14 THE ROLES OF CHANCE ANO CHOICE

IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC
284
INTRODUCTION 284
CHANCE IN COMPOSITION 285
CHOICE IN PERFORMANCE 286
245 SOME EXAMPLES OF PERFORMER INDETERMINACY 288
GRAPHIC SCORES AND TEXT SCORES 294
MUSIC ON THE FRINGE 297
SUMMARY 298
NOTES 298
EXERCISES 298
15 MINIMALlSM ANO BEYONO 301
INTRODUCTION 301
MlNlMALISM 301
BEYOND MINIMALISM 307
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 316
NOTES 316
EXERCISES 317
264
APPENOIX: PRIME FORMS, FORTE LABELS,
ANO INTERVAL-CLASS VECTORS 319
BIBLlOGRAPHY 323
INOEX 328
• !I.··
-----------ONE-----------
The Twilight
of the Tonal System
INTRODUCTION
Before beginning our study of the materials of twentieth-eentury music, we should first
look baek at what happened to the system of triadic tonality, the primary organizing force
in the music of the preeeding three eenturies. Tonal music and the principIes that govern it
did not develop overnight, of eourse, nor did they decline overnight. In faet, tonal musie
stiU thrives today in music for television and film, commercials. jazz, and sorne popular
music, and it even began a limited revival in the "serious" music of sorne postmodern com
posers toward the end of the twentieth century. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that by around
1900 the tonal system had become so strained by chromaticism and by the desire for orig
inality that further development of the system seemed impossible. The situation was not
unlike the one that prevailed around 1600, when the intervallic modal system of the Re
naissance had ron its course and was giving way to a new emphasis on harmony and what
eventually emerged as triadic major/minor tonality. At both points in music history lively
debates occurred in print and in person, and at both times there were composers who faith
fully held to the older style while others rushed to develop the new. The cause of this crisis
at the beginning of the modern era-the decline of the tonal system as an organizing
force-is the subject of this chapter.
__e TONAL MUSIC
Almost all of the music of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is essentialIy diatonic
on alllevels. I DiatoIDC tonal music does not, of course, lack accidentals or altered tones;
after all, there exists hardly any tonal music of any length that does not contain altered
________________________________________________________________ .. ..........,.;...................,
~.~_~$~".~.~I!1.:==
2 The Twilight o, the Tonal System
tones. But in diatonic tonal music the difference between diatonic and altered tones is al
ways clear, and seldom do we lose our tonal bearings, our sen se of key and scale, and our
immediate understanding of the function of the altered tones.
Diatonic relationshíps also prevail at the background levels of a diatonic tonal com
position. Think of the keys that Bach is apt to reach in the course of a fugue, or the tradi
tional key schemes for sonata forms and rondos. AH represent diatonic relationships
because in all cases the secondary tonalities are closely related to the primary tonality of
the movement. Remember that the keys closely related to some primary key are those keys
represented by the unaltered major and minor triads in the primary key. In a major key, ü,
iii, IV, V, and vi are closely related tonics; in a minor key, I1I, iv, v, VI, and VII are closely
related tonics.
Even at the highest level-key relationships between movements--diatonicism pre
vails. For example, all of the movements of a Baroque suite will be in a single key (the ul
timate in diatonicism). More interesting in terms of the present discussion are the key
relationships found in multimovement works of the Classical periodo In such works, the
first and last movements are always in the same tonality (although sometimes in a different
mode), and this is considered the key of the composition as a whole. This is a fundamental
characteristic of any multimovement tonal composition. In the music of the Classical peri
od, the tendency is for one (and only one) of the inner movements to be in some contrast
ing but closely related key. Some examples are shown in the list below.
Only two of these works, the first of the Haydn symphonies and the third of the
Beethoven quartets, exhibit a nondiatonic relationship between the key of an inner move
ment and the key of the piece. Both of the exceptions involve a chromatic mediant rela
tionship (to be discussed later).
:::::111111:'.
..
Mozart 8 Piano Sonatas ::::"1111.
1( 330-333, 457, 545 Haydn: 6 Symphonies, Beethoven: 6 String :1111 ~lIl1i111:',~
570,576 (/778-89) Nos. 99-104 (/793-95) Quartets, Op. /8 (/800)

Imllllflli
I-IV-I I-I1I-I-I I-vi-I-I
1-1-1 I-IV-I-I I-IV-I-I
I-IV-I I-IV-I-I I-~VI-I-I :::: ~"'"
I-IV-I I-V-I-I i-I-i-i
i-III-i
I-V-I
I-vi-I-I
I-IV-I-I
I-I-IV-I
I-IV-I-I ~",
...
I-IV-I
I-V-I
~,,,
....o:,IJ' _
CHROMATIC TONAL MUSIC '. I
The point at which tonal music becomes chromatic instead of diatonic is not an absolute
one. Much of the harmony of chromatic tonal music can be analyzed by using the same vo 1
cabulary for altered chords, modulations, chromatic nonchord tones, and so forth, that we ,:lll:;:i¡¡mlll::~:",
use in the analysis of diatonic music. It is partly a matter of emphasis. Instead of a texture GlII1
The Twmght of the Tonal System 3
IIIL ':":T~ tones is al with diatonie tones predominating over nondiatonie tones, both in number and in signifi
~. .wd scale, and our cance, we are dealing here with music that is so saturated with chromaticism that the dia
tonie basis of the music is no longer apparent to the listener. One writer refers to tbis style
~ '::::'.llooic tonal com as "ultrachromaticism," which "results from the prevalent use-both harmonieally and
fi "'_guf. or the tradi melodically--of the twelve tones of the chromatic scale."2 Another puts it this way: ''The
1I.li;::1!1I<: relationships critical distinction between the two styles lies in the transfonnation of the diatonic scalar
~ ="Cl"1'WY tonality of material of the classical tonal system into the equally-tempered twe1ve note chromatic
Ir.' !t..e~ are those keys complex ofthe chromatic tonal system."3 Using these broad definitions as a starting point,
~, in a major key, ii, we will examine sorne of the details of nineteenth-century chromatie harmony. In one
1: . . ". Jd \'11 are c10sely chapter our discussion cannot be as detailed as those found in several admirable books on
this subject,4 but it should be sufficient to suggest sorne analytical approaches to the style.
__...--J:tatonicism pre
m .. >mgJe key (the uJ
CHROMATIC HARMONY
b..-":'~10n are the key
le. 1:1 s.uch works, the Two fundamental root movements in diatonic tonal harmony involve (1) the circle-of-5ths
in a different
1IlI:"t:!"'::.mes progression, as in vi-ii-V-I; and (2) the diatonic mediant progression, as in I-vi-IV-ii.
~-~, :s a fundamental Though these progressions by no means disappear in chromatic harmony, another relation
t: ~.~ jJIe Oassical peri ship, the chromatic mediant relationship, finds a popularity that it did not have in earlier
e ~ 1ll sorne contrast styles. Two triads or keys are in a chromatic mediant relationship if they are of the. same
('IlIo quality (major or minor) and their roots are a major 3rd or minor 3rd aparto These relation
:s i.od tbe third of the ships are illustrated in Example 1-1 (lowercase indicates minor). For sorne reason, the
Íi:".' ,:q' an inner move major-mode chromatic mediants (top staff of Example 1-1) seem to have been used more
mediant rela
lI":'I':"..aI:Íc often than the minor-mode versions. Notice that in each case the two triads share exactly
one pitch c1ass. 5 Third-related triads of opposite quality (major and minor) sharing no pitch
classes at all are said to be in a doubly chromatie mediant relationship (e.g., C major and
E~ minor). Chromatic and doubly chromatic mediants are more difficult to recognize if one
~6String of the chords is enharmonically spelled. For instance, the first pair of chords in Example
~Op.18(1800) 1-1 would still be in a chromatic mediant relationsbip if the second chord were spelled as
C~ major instead of B major.
.1Ii;.-I-1
·[\"-1-1
-,\ 1-1-1 EXAMPLE 1-1 Chromatic mediant relationships
-h-i
I~O
·J-IY-I
.f\'-l-I l* G B
lo
G
~~O
E~
mm
lO
G
~O
B~
lo lO
G E
g e
is not an absolute
1IXtl..:
d ~ using the same vo Two examples from Liszt's Les Préludes illustrate the effective use of chromatic me
$. and so forth, that we diants. In the first (Example 1-2), the relationship is not between chords, but between the
!ol:S Instead of a texture keys of C major and E major. Notice that this is a direet modulation (one that does not
4 The Twilight of the Tonal System
make use of a common chord between the two keys), but the modulation is smoothed over "'11
by the common tone (A~/Gj) between the F minor and E major triads at the double bar. ~:;;::¡
It L,;C' ni
EXAMPLE 1-2 Uszt: Les Pré/udes (1854), mm. 51-54
a2
tl..t:"l'".:;¡C, ';1
Fg,
I ~ t::"'t::'
~;L¡¡,¡t¡
"',!!: iiI
"
Vl.I) t)~~~ ~;¡t y~~
bii1Jt::-:
"
~. ~. =--
VI. II
t) :d.
t' - I W...:,. y-=-=-
Vla.
VIc.
I.,~
1!::.
--
.:::---
-====
;¡::: 1 -:---
'=
-'-,
pizz.
. :::::1'
..
:.===-~.
Cb.
C: I V7 I IV ~
•
"JI
Fg.
:::::::=
VII) -,¡
serñjiré dolce
VI. 11
----------------~
Vla.
<1
VIc.
arco ::.s
Cb. tr:.C.2' :!II
'""~- ;r' '-'.:-'="";¡¡
p :::::::=
IV iv 1: TIc~. ,,-nI!
....
The Twilight of the Tonal System 5
I:,:r: IS smoothed over Chromatic mediant relationships between triads in a nonmodulating passage con
.iII.:" .ll the double bar. tribute to the color and excítement of Example 1-3. The excerpt is clearly in C major, and
it uses the foIlowing progression:
C-a-F-d-B~-G-C-A~-F-C
Certainly both the círcle-of-5ths and diatonic mediant progressions are important here, but
the three chromatic mediant relationships (indicated by the "<m>" symbols in the exam
pIe) add a certain freshness and unpredictability to the harmony of the passage. Incídental
ly, this simplified piano reduction gives only a hint of what this music is really Iike; try to
..~ .-=ajJ ... ,
listen to a recording with the full score .
~
_.~:
EXAMPLE 1-3 Liszt: Les Préludes (1854), mm. 35-42 (simplified texture)
~ ...
-
~..~::
------~_.-
--_...
...
_.~--==-=--
f\
t.i 4' ;!11-, .. ' ~

:
;!11-~**
, el--
~
"'
jJ'
. ~-~.f:~ •
,
~
C a F
- - d
f\
t.i
.
I
- ""
I
.,----=~ ~
Fi ~
, ,....
I
'"
.. V
•
.,.
.
-
..- ...f: ..
,
B~
~ ~ ..
G -- C
"""""""-J
1\ 1 ..
ti I
L ---"1. _
..
C
Example 1-4 provides a further ilIustration of chromatic mediants, and several other
things besides. Chord roots, inversions, and qualities are indicated below the example. The
progression contains two circle-of-5ths progressions (0-0 and C-f) and three chromatic
mediants. It also contains two tritone reJationships (indicated by the "<t>" symbols in
6 The Twilight o, the Tonal System
the example), a root movement commonly found in earlier music in only a few progres
sions (IV-viiO in major, VI-iio in minor, and N~V). A listener could interpret Example
1-4 as a IV~N~V-16 progression in G, followed by an identical progression in F, ending
on a minor tonic. Except for the last chord, the excerpt illustrates a real sequence, a se
quence in which the pattern is transposed exactly, as opposed to a diatonic sequence, where
only the notes of a single diatonic scale are used. thus reproducing the pattero only ap
proximately. A real sequence has the effect of quicldy throwing the music out of one key
and into another, even if only for the duration of a few chords. Real sequences contribute a
good deal to the brief toniclzatioDS that are typical of much chromatic harmony.
EXAMPLE 1--4 Wagner: 5iegfried (1871), Act 11. Seene 1

WANDERER
, I
Durch Ver - tra - ges Treu- e Ru- nen band er dich Si)- sen mir niebt:
11
411
I
•
- '~
-
.
.lIq"~ I~ ~ .. ~
f3
) ~.~,..)
V
P P
~~.
C6<m>A~6<t> D G6<m>B~6<m> m 6 <t> e f
A real sequence begins Example 1-5 (mm. 1-4). using only dominant 7th chords
(the last one enharmonically spelled) from the keys of D~. B~, E, and D~ again. The root
movements involve two chromatic med~ant relationships and one tritone. Notice that in
each case the dominant 7th chords share exactly two pitch classes. This is true only of
dominant 7ths whose roots are separated by a minor 3rd or a tritone. Example 1-5 illus
trates two more characteristics of chromatic harmony---4;uspended tonality and
enharmonicism. The first term is used to refer to passages that are tonaUy ambiguous. The l11IlIllIllllIlUIIIIIII
dominant 7th chords in Example 1-5 do little to establish any key, because they are both ,·\\\\'1IIIIIIII1
unexpected and unresolved. and the A~7-C-A~ progression that ends the excerpt is of lit IfiIIIIIIIU_
tle help. Presumably Uszt had the tonality of A~ in mind, since the piece ends similarly to 1I1III111II1lIn:'"1II
mm. 5-6. Play through the example, and see what you think. The enharmonicism involves
;:,IIIIl:":I~
the chord in m. 4. We hear all of the chords in mm. 1-4 as dominant 7th chords, but the
,::;¡¡lIIlll~
chord in m. 4 is spelled as a German augmented-6th chord in e, resolving to a 16 instead oí
to the conventional tonic ~. Another kind of enharmonicism makes use of the ambiguous
T'" .¡;;;¡
nature of the diminished-7th chord; an example would be to lead the listener to think a
chord will resolve as a b0 7 chord but to resolve it as a gl07 chord instead.
lo.
The Twilíght of the Tonal System 7
a few progres EXAMPLE 1-5 Liszt"Blume and Duft" ("Flower and Fragrance") (1862),mm.l-6
b:TItelpret Example Zeimlich langsam, innigst bewegt p
~SlOll in P, ending
"
na! sequence, a se
1:1"""':< o;equence, where
IJ
In
! ;::~ panero only ap ,..-.....
,-., ,-.,
1IJIll.¡.i-:¡";; out of one key
~ contribute a "
I ¡,. ..'-".. la-. .... ,~ ~~ I~ ~ t t
lJ1i: :-J.."1DOoy. tJ
PI'
..,
una corda
"--"'
<m> p 7
<t> <m>
-
.f
'iI¡¡U-:~_-::;m( 7th chords e <m>

. . :11> "pin. The root
.¡e ré ~ that in
Parallel voiee leading, keeping the chord type constant, is seldom found in diatonic
L -- :eS true only of
Ir. : ..,-.:::o;.ie 1-5 illus tonal music, but it is a favored device of chromaticism. Probably the first sonority to be
~ ...uty and used in this fashion was the diminished·7th chord, as in Example 1-6. Here, in a passage
... ' ~2uous. The modulating from e minor to E~ major, four diminished-7th chords move in parallel motion
~~:;"-,<: ~' are both down by half-steps in mm. 40-45. Notice that the spelling of the diminished-7th chords
::lill~ ~~ is of lit suggests that Beethoven was thinking of a circle-of-5ths progression, even though the lis
:-:~ s:imilarly to tener might not perceive it that way:
"'-,,, ,rR!I.-:..qn involves
, '- ~:::'LTds. but the Cirele af 5ths, Using

Cirele af5ths, Substituting
¡ !{. instead oí Daminant 7th Chards
Diminished-7th Chards
!!le .unbiguous
D7-G7-C7-F7
",,~ 10 think a
"'"
EXAMPLE 1-6 Beethoven: CorioJan Overture. Op. 62 (1807), mm. 36-46

(simplified texwre) ........
~D:OI
''",¡.. :.
.:::IIIIl;..;:••"Jij
--,.t
_ 1'ILiI'h'c
~
tJ I . r I r I I i 1
)·
mtlrJ<.'4,"I1""1
.ff i
'll:II::- 4": II
~I!t:. 11'"
.~
~IC~":":~~
C: V3
4
v~ f: vi ¡6 vj ~".;¡
lDI!ii:'.. 11
~~ "~'" 'II~
~
r ~. r7~. ~-c:.iiIII
~i."': '1'::1
tJ ! Di_", :~.: 111
)·
rzoo:..
~.
1IIl'1ru\. -3.'11
:ar;"",,:
iiI! :m~ Tri
3f/Ii
E~:
6 =--i
Parallel °7 Chords viioj I-+ V
~l:ll"'~
'b:z •
But no such functional analysís is possible in the next example. Here Wagner por Dr';''':_ .::11
trays ravens in flight by means of parallel half-diminished-7th chords, sorne of them en ~u: ~. L.,.
harmonically spelled. The effect is not one of a progression of chords toward a harmonic Íl.mu..":,."
goal, but more like a line painted with a broad brush instead of drawn with a peno Obvi
ously, none of these chords function in the ways that half-diminished-7th chords do in dia EI.J.,:""'P";J
tonic harmony. The chords in Example 1-7 forro a nonfunctional chord succession,
which does not imply that it is useless, but rather that the chords do not "progress" in any
of the ways found in diatonic tonal harmony.
- J
¡, ~
EXAMPLE 1-7 Wagner: Gotterdammerung (1874). Act 111, Scene 2 \..

'- -
,1
3
Lebhaft /.,'j
...
3
ID
-.
i~- ~-- -tt
'IIl"'.,,~
l'!= .~~
11
L3'H_::""'ll~
",n:":'¡:~lII
.. -=
The Twílight o, the Tonal System 9
Nonfunctional chord successions are ofien the result of what we shall call voice
leading chords. Such chords are the result of goal-directed motion in the various voices,
rather than an attempt to express some traditional harmonic progression. (Voice-Ieading
chords such as the augmented-6th chord and the so-called omnibus progression6 also may
be found on occasion in tonal harmony.) This goal-directed motion is usually stepwise,
often chromatic, sometimes in similar motion and sometimes not. The resulting verticali
ties are usually tertian (triads and 7th chords), but the chords form nonfunctional succes
sions or brief tonicizations. For instance, play through Example 1-8. The essential
elements are a chromatic descent from B4 to E4 in the top voice and B2 to E2 in the bass to
make a convíncing cadence. 7 The soprano and alto move in parallel major tbirds until the
last two beats, the alto stopping its deseent upon reaching the leading tone, which eventual
Iy resol ves. The tenor enters on a C4 and moves in paralleI motíon with the upper voices for
three beats, stops momentarily on B~I A#3, and then moves to the 7th ofthedominantchord
before resolving to G3. The bass enters last, doubling the soprano momentarily before
moving into its cadential figure. On a higher level, the progression in this excerpt is simply
tonic--dominant-tonic, beginning with the incomplete tonic triad at the opening of the
phrase. But on the surface, the chords created by the various voices, beginning with beat 2
of the first measure, are as follows (the c<VJ and the F7 are enharmonically spelled):
F-E-E~-c"'7-F7-B7 (~5)-e
Although there is a IV6-ii"'7-V~ progression in B~ here, it is doubtful that anyone would

hear it that way. The only traditional harmonic progression in the excerpt is the final au
lile ,:re Wagner por thentic cadence (with a lowered 5th in the dominant 7th creating a French 6th sonority).
The music preceding the cadence makes use of voice-Ieading chords and creates a non
Iltl- <,~ of them en
e, .'¡¡'.!Cd a harmonic functional chord succession.
.. - ".'.:!1 a peno Obvi
¡.. - ':- ~ ,::.:-rrds do in dia EXAMPLE 1-8 Grieg:"Gone:' Op. 71, No. 6 (1901), mm. 1-2 (From Edition Peters.)
IÍ ~ succession,
Andante doloroso
l1li"" ':r:::>gress" in any
e: (i)
The voice-Ieading chords in Example 1-8 were created primarily by parallel or

similar motíon. Three índependent gestures combine to produce the voice-leading chords
in Example 1-9. The first gesture is a chromatic ascent in the melody from F#4 to G5
(doubled at the octave aboye). The second element is an augmented triad in the inner voic
es (beginning in the third measure of the excerpt), which moves, more slowly than the
•
soprano, chromatically downward through a minor 3rd. The final element is the ostinato in AU:gl
the bass, swaying back and forth from B~2 to A2, final1y settling on A. The nonfunctional tJw oct.n'e
voice-Ieading chords created by the combination of these three gestures are sometimes ttans.p..?!>JJlIII¡!
tertian and sometimes not; sorne of them are highly dissonant (mm. 38-39, for example). had bcel: 3
Suspended tonality is the result, even at the end, where the final sonority does liule to tionshlp .am
confirm the presumed tonality of G. ~I
tbe \'0;":';: ÍII
EXAMPLE 1-9 lisn:"Gray Clouds" ("Nuages gris") (1881), mm. 33-48 (© Copyright /952 Schott & texture :n I
Co., Ltd., London. Copyright renewed. AII rights reserved. Used by perrnission of European American Music cci\oo P''
Distributors Corporation, sole U. S. and Conadian agent for Schott & Co., Ltd~ London) lOOaJ ~&111
me ex.:~
cbord l.:...i-d
DOI:ice t.'"'c ji
D:::JiII!
T:1C:Jl.:
Tc'CI:I.::
sempre legato T0OJ.':l
~k~
qe ~:9
.... uu.I:- ~"
al]of tl:ie !IJi]
dcnt HJ:..<':: ~
a.ottAnclSM
rallent Tbe dl.a!~
8"" peri<Jd ::. ~
ti I "':F ~ ~ ~ loI. n h lD3tÍC K~ J
~
empio~ :::r 1:
famous e..;..-:~
).
tJ
P 1ItDere I:±:.t :-.
-'!.ere í
I ti
~
:e:
. ~
~~
~
~
•
~' aOO f':Il.i!
~ Ied .íL~:.
pboo) \,;: :
PiaDo C:·IIJt.;C
S::~: '!II
Unresolved dissonances, as in the Liszt example, are typical of sorne late 1)"j:leS ..." ;1L :..: :
nineteenth-century music. In many cases they come about through the juxtaposition of Eumple:- :'1:1;:
apparently independent musical ideas (melodies, sequences, and so on) with no attempt loade S'¡:I :. 1)
being made to put those dissonances into any traditional context, and they often contribute iJOCe ~.. ~
to a feeling of suspended tonality. Daoce. Or; :.
The Twi/ight of the Tonal System 11
e::'cent is the ostinato in Augmented triads and diminished-7th chords are both examples of equal division of
~ .:... The nonfunctional the octave. Real sequences also frequently divide the octave into equal parts, usually by
!e':ures are sometimes transposing the pattern by a minor 3rd or a major 3rd. Traditional division of the octave
l :~39. for example). had been asymmetrical, as in the perfect 5th and perfect 4th of the tonic-dominant rela
..~,'!'JoVf'ity does Httle to tionship and the major and minor 2nds that make up the major scale.
The music of Example 1-10 is less radical tonally than the previous example, but
the voiee leading is much more complex. All of the voiees of the predominantly four-part
e :.~ /952 Schott & texture in the piano tend to move by step, often chromaticalIy, but there is no precon
::..,~ American Music ceived pattern to be discovered. The nonfunctional bass Une does little to help us get our
tonal bearings, except at the end, where a V7-1 cadence in G major is apparent. Often in
the excerpt the distinction between chord tones and embellishments is unclear, making
chord labeling difficult. Nevertheless, if you play through the example slowly, you will
notice the following:
D major tonie (m. 7)
Tonieization of A minor (E7-F in mm. 7-8 sounds like a: V7-VI)
Tonieization ofB~ major (F7-B~ in m. 9)
Tonicization of C minor (G7-<: in m. 10
Modulation to G major (iv6-Ger+6-I~-V7-I in mm. 10-12)
A truly thorough analysis would have to eonsider the funetion, harmonie or otherwise, of
all of the notes in the passage, but it will ofien serve the purposes of the performer or stu
dent just as well to identify the broader harmonie motions, as we have done in this case .
.
~ . CHROMATICISM ANO MUSICAL FORM
The diatonic tonal reIationships typically found within single movements in the Classical
period (typically I-V or i-nI) are gradually replaced in the nineteenth century with chro
matic tonal relationships. While there are still many works from the nineteenth century that
~
employ the traditional key schemes, a good number of others explore other relationships. A
~-_.
..

famous early example is the first movement of Beethoven's "Waldstein" Sonata, Op. 53,
where the two keys of the exposition are C major and E major.
More destructive to the tonal system is the notion of beginning a movement in one
key and ending it in another. 8 "Wrong key" beginnings, in which the Iistener is deliberate
Iy led astray for a few bars, constituted the tirst step. Examples include Beethoven's Sym
• phony No. 1 (1799), beginning with a V7/IV, and the last movement of Mendelssohn's
Piano Concerto No. 1 (1831), whieh begins with a short seetion in the supertonic key.
Still more experimental are the numerous works that seem to be in two keys. 1\\10
:<é sorne late types can be identified. In the tirst, the piece eontains two distinct parts, each in its own key.
...;~~ition of Examples inelude Schubert's Waltzes, Op. 50, Nos. 7,24, and 31 (1825), and Chopin's Bal
,~ .T1l!. :¡() attempt lade No. 2, Op. 3.8 (1839). In the seeond type, the tonality of the work alternates more than
lT<.:::! ..:ontribute onee between a major key and ¡ts relative minoro Examples inelude Schubert's German
Dance,Op. 33, No. 15, and Schumann's Davidsbündlertanz, Op. 6, No. 11 (1837).
•
12 The Twilight 01 the Tonal System
EXAMPlE 1-10 Hugo Wolf:"Anacreon's Grave" ("Anakreons Grab") (1888),mm. 7-12 n

::IIl.."1(j¡! :::i
p ~.~( i
L~.Q: , i
weich ein Grab ¡se hier, das

---
al - - le GlIe ter mie Le
pb.::~:,
lLWl.:Cf
7l
'oi
1
~
).:1!á..lL ::::a
~é~
pp~r~L
-=::::::
rcresc. _ ~
S~,:!:,~
..: 3a
-.&IDEO,
D E~ F
. pp E.a:c-'.i:~ 11
,., - ll:r¡CCL':ll!l
.::::r:C;!"O::.: ~
.~
r ~.:;e:::C'''' 1
- ben schOn be- pflantz- und ge • zien? lI.,
" "~I 1. í ~
....
- r--r-I
.
I~I
.
.~'.
=-...:.:~-:.~:.
-::1a:
tJ
~r r'~1 I I r"--r!_ ';;:J~.IIIII
) :
)!!( I /" ~ li'_.
p -=::::
Lh'""'I . .
11ff¡ ::::::=- p
~~
: ....0 .
....~
J¡
::eI
~ Jm
F 56 Bb aó65 Bb 65 G 43 G 65
C6 Jm
11 ti 11
pp G: iVÓ
~
~
tJ ~
Es ist A • na . kre· ons Ruh.
~
11 ¡¡ ~
.
•..1",:::.::
)r ~.~:=-~ ,
D;
i:Ju- _~
~. ~ tf~.... ~ q1llV~'
;f
~ ~~ ~f:
pp., ~I ,~I
i
'-'--..~¡
----
------..
"....
'-----'
Ger+6 12
.....
r
v7 1
~.
-
The Twilight o( the Tonal System 13
881. mm. 7-12 The final stage is reached with those works that proceed through several keys, with
none of them seeming to govern the tonality of the piece as a whole. Such works simply
cannot be considered "tonal" in the traditional sense of the termo Exarnples inelude
Liszt's symphonic poem Orpheus (1854) and the first movement of Saint-Saens's Sym
phony No. 3 (1886).
There was also experimentation in the nineteenth century with unusual key schemes
arnong the various movements of multimovement works. The greatest challenge to the
tonal tradition carne from those works in which the first and last movements are not in the
-: ~:'~17Ii~~1If~. sarne key. For instance, the three movements of Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 2 (1840)
are in B~ major, G minor, and D major. With Mahler the practice is almost a mannerism:
~~ Symphonies Nos. 2, 3,4,5,7, and 9 (1894--1909) all belong to this category.
SUSPENDED TONALITY AND ATONALlTY

Earlier in this chapter we used the term "suspended tonality" to describe a passage with a
momentarily unelear or arnbiguous tonality. This term is appropriate only when used in the
: .
context of a tonal composition. It is not the sarne as atonality, a term that will appear fre
quently in this text, and which needs to be defined at this point.9
In a very general way, atonality means music without a tonal center. More specifical
ly, it refers to the systematic avoidance of most of those musical materials and devices that
traditionally have been used to define a tonal center. Those materials and devices would in
elude, arnong others, the following:
Diatonic pitch material

Tertian harmonies
Dominant-tonic harmonic progressions
c· Dominant-tonic bass lines
e Resolution of leading tones to tonics
Resolution of dissónant sonorities to more consonant ones
Pedal points
Although chromaticism led historically to atonality, chromatic tonal music is not the
sarne as atonal music. A more thorough study of atonality will have to be postponed until
later chapters, although the term will come up from time to time throughout this texto
••
•
14 The 7Wilight of the Tonal System
~
SUMMARY ':1
-,..
..,.¡¡
The decline of the tonal system as the primary organizing force in music coincided with
.di
and was largely due to the ascendancy of chromaticism. Diatonic tonal music is essen
tially diatonic on aH levels, whereas chromatic tonal music is based to a much greater
extent on the chromatic scale. Sorne of the characteristics of chromatic tonal harmony
1I'l!I
are the foHowing (listed in the order in which they are introduced in the chapter): :la
!III
Chromatic mediant relationships
,.
WI
Direct modulations
Tritone relationships
.,
Real sequences ::11
-
Brief tonicizations m
Suspended tonality
Enharmonicism
Parallel voice leading
Diminished-7th chords
Nonfunctional chord successions
Voice-leading chords
Augmented triads
,.....
Unresolved dissonances
Equal division of the octave

N onfunctional bass lines
Unclear distinction between chord tones and embellishments

......
:a
Chromaticism is also a factor in musical forms in the nineteenth century, both with
in and between movements. At times. tonality lost its control over the tonal structure
=:'11
of individual movements and of multimovement works as well. IitIl
Atonality is not a characteristic of music of the nineteenth century. Atonal :r-.
music avoids the use of most of those musical materials and devices that traditional ."i,I
;.
-
Iy have been used to define a tonal center.
.::~~
NOTE.S
1. "Diatonic" here simply mean s "in a given key." The notes and chords diatonic lo C
major are all drawn from the scale C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C.
2. Greg A. Steinke, Bridge to 20th Century Music, p. 79.

3. Gregory Proctor, "Technical Bases of Nineteenth-Century Chromatic Harmony:
A Study in Chromaticism," p. 131.
4. See, for example, notes 2 and 3.

5. The term "pitch class" is used to group together all pitches that have an identical
sound or that are identical except for the octave or octaves that separate them. For ex
:r:,..::, k: coincided with ample, all B#'s, C's, and D~~'s belong to the same pitch class, no matter in what octave
J:¡r..ll music is essen they are found.
c': :0 a much greater 6. The omnibus progression is discussed in BenwardlSaker, pp. 227-228, Gauldin,
ti~ tonal harmony pp. 599-602, and KostkalPayne, pp. 455-457.
rr ::::.e chapter): 7. Octave registers in this book follow the convention that names the octave starting with
middle C as octave no. 4, the one below it as octave no. 3, and so on.
8. Much of the discussion that follows is based on: Sarah Reid, "Tonality's Changing
Role: A Survey of Non-Concentric Instrumental Works of the Nineteenth Century."
9. There are various well-founded objections to this termo Nevertheless, it has by now at
tained a permanent place in our theoretical vocabulary, whereas possible improve
ments, such as "pantonality," have noto AIso, though "atonal" is used by sorne writers
only in reference to the preserial works of the second Viennese school, it is used in this
book in its broader meaning of "not tonal."
EXERCISES
Part A: Fundamentals
1. For each triad below, list the four triads that are in a chromatic mediant relationship to it.
B~ major C minor F major D minor E rnajor
2. Name several traditional chord progressions in tonal harmony that make use of chro
matic mediant relationships. Use Roman numerals.
1 ':l!':'Jmry. both with
Example: IV-VN
le" -::".c tonal structure
3. Which of the following progressions involves dominant 7th chords that share two
::rm::::" .:enrury. Atonal pitch classes?
lI[L::!"- tlu.t traditional V7-V7/vi V7/ií-V7N V7IlV-V7N
4. For each dominant 7th chord below, list the three dominant 7th chords that share two
pitch classes with it.
E~7 G7 F7 q7
111: • -,,::'cls diatonic to C
~~ -:'matic Harmony:
Part B: Analysis
1. Fauré: Barcarolle No. 6, Op. 70 (1896), mm. 24-28
(a) This passage begins and ends in B major, but chords 4 and 5 imply sorne other
key, although one of them is spelled enharmonically. What key is it, and what is its
relationship to B major?
(b) The raised 5th in chord 6 results in how many common pitch classes between
chords 5 and 6?
(e) Provide Roman numeral s for all of the chords.
dolee ~
.,
:>
2 3 4 5
:>
:>
6 7
2. Berlioz: Requiem (1837), mm. 66-78.

This passage modulates from B~ major to G minoro
(a) Are the keys of B~ major and G minor in a chromatic mediant relationship?
(b) Still another tonality is implied in mm. 71-74. What is it, and what is the relation
ship between that key and G minor?
(e) Explain the construction of mm. 66-68.
(d) Provide aRoman-numeral analysis in G minor of mm. 68-70 and mm. 75-78.
""
dim.-·· .. --- .... ······-·-· p
e - is. do na e is, re ~ qui- em, Do - mi - ne,

5 irnply sorne other
l!I:i';é
; t.=: is it, and what is its JI' dim... - .... - ........ - .... · P unís.
Lt~b úFijr I ~J I J ~UI~~#(zjJ#+=*í=-=tg

! :": r.:h classes between do - - - '" na e -.
18, re.
- qUl- em, Do~'
- - - nu - ne, et
dim.- .... --- .. ·- .. - .. -·-· P
~ ter • nam do - na e - ís, Do • mi - oe,
;.~.~
~ ~ :::rln
\-'~~~~~~~~
.
I~~~~~~~~~
lux per tu a lu ce- al e· is.
lux per-pe-tu-a lu ce al, lu - ce-al e· - is.
el lux per • pe tu • a lu ce-- at e ls.
." ": ~"lIlShip?

lIu:: .-..:[~" me relation
_< ::-2L 75-78.

3. Grieg: "Summer's Eve," Op. 71, No. 2 (1901), mm. 9-19

(a) Label the root and ehord type of each of the numbered ehords (e.g., "G7," "fII," etc.).
(b) List the tonalities implied by these ehords.
(e) Which ofthose tonalities is eonfirmed by a tonie triad?
(d) The sixteenth-note figures use pitches from what tonalities?
(e) What single tonality is the most important in this passage?
(f) How many pitch c1asses are shared by chords 9 and 11? chords 12 and 14?
chords 15 and 16?
(g) Do these shared pitch elasses appear in the same register?
(h) Discuss the use of sequenee in this passage.
pocomosso
2 4 5 6 7
'la
'la
9 10 11 12 13 14
8""--- --- ----. -- -- --- -- --_ .... --.. ::.--;- ---- ---------- -- ---- -----
r...
15 16
---
........
The Twilightofthe Tonal System 19
4. Brahms: "Der Tod, das ist die kühle Naeht," Op. %, No. 1 (1884), mm. 7-10.
. . . . . '=-... "G7"
"'" "(1 ,1 , , " ete ...
"~# )
(a) Ana1yze the first and last ehords in the key of C.
(b) Label the roots and qualities of all of the other ehords.
(e) Assuming that second-inversion triads tend to be heard as tonie ~ ehords, list a1l of
the keys implied by dominant 7th ehords or ~ ehords.
(d) The tonalities other than e are weakly implied. at best. Explain in your own words
:hords 12 and 14? what is really going on in this passage.
Es dun . kell sehon. mich sch\ll· fert,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8
5. Wagner: Siegfried, Aet 1, Scene 1

(a) Explain this passage as best you ean in your own words, following the approaches
used in the previous exercises and in the chapter text. Incidenta11y, would there be
any justification for hearing the B~ in chord no. 7 as an A#?
.. fj »
Heftig beschleunigend
J lo.
---'
tJ
Was frommt sei-ne hel - le Schnei - de. ist der
1'1 Ji (Er halt das Schwert angstlieh in der Hand fest, das Siegfried ihm heftig entwindet.)
~--'-Z--+--
freu'n.
1'1 »
...
.,
.
, r T. 1 r I l
...- t - -..
• ,
tJ
f fp~.. .. cresc. . ..J ............ .1> .
.
---~--~----~-~~-- --~--------------~
-- --
---
u.
-
2
- 3
-=-4
s
tNUiMIi
-r..¡¡
,.
.;. - :~
.'(1
,.:L,"'::
':l'C"
" _ :t
..::IDi1l
,,',
'. :·e,~
::.,¡¡¡
JII
6 7 8
,. ,
*
,: J
Part C: Composition
l. Continue this example, using chromatic mediants aboye the asterisks and employing .:;. J
conventional voice leading. ,.:::. j
:'!li: ......
C * G * C
* F n7 G ~,,""~éill
1''''",;: ::a:
~ !le
2. Wagner: Siegfried. Act 1, Scene 2 .~ .~. "lo ''i,lU
Use the first two measures of this accompaniment as the first part of a three-part real
a
sequence, moving down a minor 2nd each time. Place a <ID> between each pair of
.......
chords in a chromatic mediant relationship.

ili·""', "...,
,. liS
....
.-JI
e wig ge - bor· chen sie al le des Spree res lo:,
5~1I1\;\ljli!i'ijl~
;,;"'1' ''''',1íItJE..
¡s
i
~
3. Using only augmented triads in a four-voice texture, see if you can combine a chro
maticalIy ascending soprano line with a circle-of-5ths sequence in the bass. Continue
for several chords.
4. Compose a passage similar to ExampIe 1-9, using a chromatically descending melody
with chromatically ascending half-diminished-7th chords as an accompaniment. The
accompaniment chords should be in second inversion and should ascend faster than
_.....-----AL
the meIody descends. Let the dissonances fall where they mayo
-- .... -
~
..• 5. Compose an example in four-part texture using a conventional hannonic progression
a and employing mostly stepwise motion in aH of the voices. Then elaborate with a gen
erous application of stepwise nonchord tones, especially chromatic passing tones,
neighbors, and suspensions. The added tones, in most cases, should not create sharp
dissonances (minor 2nds, major 7ths) with the chord tones or with each other. Be sure
to do this work at a piano! The excerpt below can serve as an example.
11 ~ I I I I
JIIS;~c::~.~ks and employing

)~ I
.d J
I
.d J J _
I
Jete.
.d
I I
FURTHER READING
The suggested reading assignments are intended to help you get a broader exposure to the
subject of this chapter. The approach and terminology used in the texts will probably differ
from each other as well as from this texto Complete bibliographical information is provid
ed in the Bibliography at the end of this book.
ALDWELL, EDWARD, AND CARL SCHACHTER. Harmony and Voiee Leading. See Chap
"I!I..- .~.l mree-part real ter 31, Chromatic Voice-Leading Techniques, and Chapter 32, Chromaticism in
Ii" ~ each pair of
Larger Contexts.
BENWARD, BRUCE, AND MARILYN SAKER. Musie in Theory and Praetice, Vol. 2. See Chap
ter 12, Chromatic Mediants.
KOSTKA, STEFAN, AND DOROTHY PAYNE. Tonal Harmony with an Introduetion to Twentieth-
Century Muste. See Chapter 27, Tonal Hannony in the Late Nineteenth Century.
. res
SAMSON, JIM. Musie in Transition. See Chapter 1, The Nineteenth-Century Background.
SIMMS, BRYAN R. Musie 01 the Twentieth Century. See Chapter 1, Tonality in Transition.
STEINKE, GREG A. Bridge to 20th Century Muste. See Chapter 4, Expanded Tonality, Chap
ter 5, Ultrachromaticism 1, Chapter 6, Ultrachromaticism n, and Chapter 7, Denial
of Harmonic Function.
,.
---------TWO--------- ~~,~-as
iIIo."::iÚe.. thte ,.;.~
lI1IIIJIIOr" SC".::;: O.:l>o
liriIif ~,:;s
Scale Formations
lS 0IÍ:Ic:IIl <L"C": 111
~ci:."':'..:(
in Twentieth-Century Music
EXAtPLE :_1
...
~~D
Ax:. -~
~J::r'::~
""ooes =
INTRODUCTION
The music of the Baroque, Classieal, and Romantie periods was based almost exelusively a:::
on the major and minor seales with which we are all familiar. Though these scales have not
been disearded altogether, eomposers in this eentury have also made use of a large number
of other seale formations. Not all of these scale formations are new-in faet, some of them
had been used long before the tonal era and had sinee fallen out of fashion. But new or old,
these scales were all unfamiliar to audienees aceustomed to major/minor tonality, and so
T-.rs:x:l
they helped composers to distance themselves from the older style.
It is unusual in the twentieth century to find an entire pieee that uses only a single
scale (with the exeeption of chromatic and microtonal seales). Instead, one typically finds ______ .~. -& D
that only a few measures will use a particular scale, or the melody may eonform to the
scale while the aecompaniment does not, or the musie may inelude only a few notes that
seem to imply the seale.
The organization of this ehapter is based on the number of notes in the scale; that is, n.::: ~1:::.iDl
five-note scales first, then six-note, and so on. (In counting the number of notes, we do not i8iD'~ r: r.s.
inelude the octave, so the major scale, for instanee, is a seven-note scale.) Examples have ~:- .!.l~
been chosen to illustrate elearly the seales being diseussed, but the reader should be aware ilJll!i·~.U,·I"j¡!,r;rI!'r'""!,~·
that in mueh musie it would be diffieult to say with eertainty what seale formation is the .. ÍIIdIÍlt. h =-' ...:m
basis of a given passage. ... ~T::-_....:.~.
~,.' I"'e!tl ~'! .l,'.

~'lIlIIIe~c!lll
.. b :tIae ~':
~';rr ~ •
22
Scale Formations in Twentieth-Century Musíc 23
FIVE-NOTE SCALES
"Pentatonic" is a generic term for all five-note scales, but when one refers to the pentatonic
scale, the scale in Example 2-1 is usually the one that is meant. Notice that it uses only
major seconds and minor thirds. Because this version of the pentatonic scale contains no
half steps, it is sometimes called the anhemitonic pentatonic scale. The pentatonic scale
ns is often used to give an oriental fiavor to a passage, but it certainly occurs often enough
outside ofthe Orient, particularly in folk melodies and children's songs.
, Music EXAMPLE 2-1 The Pentatonic Scale
Any member of the pentatonic scale can serve as tonic; thus, five "modes," or
rotations, are available.
EXAMPLE 2-2 Modes of the Pentatonic Scale
1a'5<'d almost exclusiveIy

:.bese scales have not
*' .L"C of a Iarge number
¡-;TI fact, sorne of them And, of course, the pentatonic scale can be transposed.
.:':.L-..h.íon. But new or oId,
lIl::::11nor tonality, and so
EXAMPLE 2-3 Transposítions of the Pentatonic Scale
~ :::har uses onIy a single

lIlCliI.i. one typicalIy finds
III!? may conform to the
* 00ly a few notes that
L~"",, m the scale; that is, The pentatonic scale is obviously a Iimited source of melodic pitch material, and it is
~ of notes, we do not also limited in its tertian harmonies. The only tertian chords that could be constructed from
le ;.:ale.) ExampIes have Example 2-1 are triads on C and A and a minor 7th chord on A. This means that the ac
~ :-e-.3Ider should be aware companiment to a pentatonic melody will probably be either nontertian or nonpentatonic
• ;.:ale formation is the or both. In Example 2-4 Bartók harmonizes a pentatonic melody (top line in the example)
with major triads, using the melody note as the root of the triad in each case. The accom
paniment here uses no particular scale, although the tonality is certainly C. A few measures
later, the same melody is harmonized again with major triads, but this time each melody
note is the 5th of its triad. The last melody note is changed to a D, resulting in a "half
cadence" on a G chord.
',.",
24 Scale Formations in Twentieth-Century Music
EXAMPLE 2-4 Bartók: Bluebeard's Castle (1911) (piano reduction) (© Copyright 1921, 1925 In me USA 11
by Boosey & Hawkes, lne. Copyright renewed. Reprlnted by pennisslon.) Debuss~
I even m(
Larghissimo (.1= 66 ) poco allarg. other th
8""· -..... are the.
r."\~ sonori~
-&....- - El
usingW
.fJ1f
l'
EXAHPlE 2-6
~~
\;1 1,# a
::,
bnl
~~~
\ ~
Other versions of the pentatonic scale are possible-versions employing minor
2nds and major 3rds-but they occur less often in Western music. One example is the
scale sometimes known as the ffirajoshi pentatonic-as in A-B-C-E-F-which occurs
in the c10sing section oC George Rochberg's Slow Fires ofAutumn (1979) and in the sec
'",,1 h-~
ond movement of Janice Giteck's Om Shanti (1986); another, sometimes called the
Kumoi pentatonie-as in D-E-F-A-B-was used by Ralph Yaughan Williams Cor the
opening theme of his Concerto for Bass Thba (1954) and by Jonathan Kramer in his
Moving Music (1976). • :>
SIX-NOTE SCALES
The only six-note scale to see much use in the twentieth century is the whole-tone seale.
It is constructed entirely from major 2nds (although one oC them has to be notated as a
.
"'"'
diminished 3rd). In terms of pitch-c1ass content, only two whole-tone scales are possible;
any other transposition or "mode" will simply duplicate the pitch-c1ass content oC one of
the scales in Example 2-5. The actual spelling of the scale is usually irrelevant; for
instance, the first scale in the example could have used G~-A~-B~ instead of F#-G#-A#.
The scales in Example 2-5 are labeled according to a convention that identifies the whole
tone scale that contains a C as WT-O and the scale that does not as WT-1.
EXAMPLE 2-5 Whole-Tone Scales

WT-1 l,.¡
'l:1lr: ....::iii
1!:t.K :::1:..: 1
TI. -",.. 1
liL :. 'TIlllI
--
Sea/e Formations in Twentleth-Century Music 25
~ 1921, 1925 in me USA The whole-tone scale is often associated with Impressionism, and especially with
Debussy, but it is also found in the music of many other composers. Interestingly, it is
even more limited than the pentatonic scale, both melodically and harmonically. No triads
other than augmented ones are possible, and the only complete seventh chords available
are the dominant seventh with the fifth lowered (the tradítíonal French augmented-sixth
i":"í____. sonority) or raised.
•• -e-~ Example 2-6 begins with three measures using WT-O followed by two measures
;1__ m __
using WT-l. The tonality or tonalities of the passage would be open to sorne interpretation.
JJJj EXAMPLE 2-6 Paul Dukas:Ariodne ond 81uebeord (1906),Act 111

r - 3----¡
au c1air de lu- - ne! ..
'ti:.:c~ employing minor

¡,;..: ()ne example is the
-C -E-F-whích occurs
Ir . 'l"'9) and in the sec
. .,.: rnctimes called the

1IILtf::'J.,m Williams for the
.:r.. 2..I.han Kramer in his
~-----------------------
!!- -:.':: -bote-tone scale.

I :""-, \O be notated as a
IOlIé -.::ales are possible;
...: 4..,;, .:-ontent of one of
...~.-illy irrelevant; for

p - -:ead of F#-G#-A#.
_,~tifies the whole
...... -1.
If&__
--------
__e
A more recent use of the whole-tone scale is seen in Example 2-7. Here the whole
o tone scale (WT-O) is in the vocal duet, except for the A at the end ofToni's melody. Notice
that the pitch class G#/ A~ is spelled one way in Hilda's part in m. 984 and another way in
m. 986. The tonal center of this excerpt, if there is one, would be difficult to determine. The
accompaniment will be discussed in more detaillater in this chapter.
EXAMPLE 2-7 Hans Wemer Henze: E1egy for Young Lovers (1961). Act l. Scene '2. mm. 98+-986 The
(@ by 8. Schoa's Soehne, /96/. @ Renewed. AII ,ighU reserved. Used by pe,mission of European American sorne use
Music DisrributDrs Corporation. sale U.S. and Canadian agent (O, B. Schoa's Soehne.) halfsteps ¡
four-note'
that the pi!
bring· íng your wife.---.. what ís hers_ _ _ _ _ __ EXAMPLE 2-8 m

(freely)
would_ __ my • self
~.if~'rt!~~
and be· Ir sub.
~
~.____
jif: ..•q.!_~~-ill~
..-.-----=---ª:-=={itd~~41t1SW~ SEVEN.NOTE S(
v--~
~! Modal
".~
sea)
". Baroque...
~~~-.-;.~ . ====1'
- .
1Y,,"-'
:>
. Mazurka UJ
redisco\ere
of the Rena
portant in 11
ofthe e rn.a
HILDA
EXAMPlE 2-9 Th
Ionian
lo be· come.~-
~
_._.~_.
TONI
.: .. -~-o'::n~
come.
Lydian
t:t-;-u
~A!l~-=i~
o
o·u . . . .
•
Thelom~
~
~ "loman" ".)
sions. TI..e:
triad. An..:c
:> "'--" :> '
'- String Q"'-il
=--
Scale Formations in Twentieth-Century Music 27
cene 12. mm. 984-986 The augmented scale (sometimes called the "hexatonic scale"), which also saw
lISSO'1 of European American sorne use in both concert music and jazz in the twentieth century, consists of altemating
~.} half steps and minor 3rds. Two related instances are seen in Example 2-8, in both of which
four-note sonorities are transposed down a minor 6th to create an augmented scale. Notice
that the pitch-class content of the two scales is the same: C-C#-E-F-A~-A.
EXAMPLE 2-8 Ellen Taaffe Zwilich: Piano Trio (1987).111 (piano only) (© Theodore Presser Ca.)
--.::>----
freely
b, Bva. ___ •••.....•
141 (0«:.)
be-
SEVEN-NOTE SCALES:THE DIATONIC MODES
Modal scales had been largely out of favor with composers since the beginning of the
'.
tI::_._ '
~
Baroque, although interesting exceptions, such as the Phrygian opening of Chopin's
Mazurka in C~ minor, Op. 41, No. 1 (1839), do occur. But modality was enthusiastically
rediscovered by a number of early twentieth-century composers. Though the modal theory
of the Renaissance recognized both authentic and plagal modes, the distinction is not im
portant in modem usage. One way to present the modes is to notate them using the pitches
of the C major scale.
EXAMPLE 2-9 The Diatonic Modes

lonian Dorian Phrygian
Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
The Jonian mode is the same as the major scale, although sorne writers find it useful to use
"lonian" to refer to major-mode passages that do not employ traditional harmonic progres
sions. The Locrian mode has rarely been used, probably because it Iacks a consonant tonic
triad. An unusually clear use of the Locrian mode occurs in the opening of Shostak:ovich's
String Quartet No. 10, Op. 118 (1964), second movement.
4
28 Sea/e Formations in Twentieth-Century Music
It is most efficient to learn the modes in relation to the major and natural-minor scale 1
pattems. The following information should be memorized: movem
second
Major Modal Pattems
11
Lydian: same as major with raised 4. * EXAMPLE 2-11
11
Mixolydian: same as major with lowered 7.
Minor Modal Pattems

;hg~
Aeolian: same as natural minoro
11
Dorian: same as natural minor with raised 6.
11
Phrygian: same as natural minor with lowered 2. In
11 11
Locrian: same as natural minor with lowered 2 and lowered 5. (mm. 5
device. ~
You will not always be able to identify the scale being used just by determining the
tonic and looking at the key signature because not all composers use modal key signatures. EXAMPLE 2-12
Instead, a composer might use the conventional major or minor key signature and add the
accidentals necessary to produce the modal scale desired. This is the case in Example
2-10, where we see a G minor key signature used for a G Phrygian theme. Notice the Triste er ¡.
leading-tone F1 in the viola. Such nonscale tones are as common in modal music as they
are in major/minor music, and we should not let them confuse us in our analysis.
EXAMPLE 2-10 Debussy:String Quartet, Op. 10 (1893),1, mm. 1-3

Animé et tres décidé
u 3
-~
Cerrrhm
f d'un'fona
u
-::::¡
u
I&f
_ g?:
_____
~;J
::>
f
*The caret over a number indicates scale degree.
-==----.~
· ;md natural-minor scale There is no key signature at all for Example 2-11, the opening theme of a
movement in A. The accompaniment to this Lydian tune consists only of A major triads in
second inversion.
EXAMPLE 2-1 1 Bartók: Music far String Instruments, Percussion, and Ce/esto ( 1936). IV, mm. 5-9
(melody only) (© Copyright 1937 in the USA by Boosey lit Howkes,/nc. Copyright renewed.
Reprinted by permission.)
In Example 2-12 the music drifts easily from D Aeolian (mm. 1-4) into D Dorían
(mm. 5-7). A change in modal flavor such as we find here is a frequently encountered
device. Note that this is not a modulation, because the tonal center is unchanged.
i .1I.i.:<'¡ by determining the
11< -:1.;::da} key signatures. EXAMPLE 2-12 Debussy: Preludes, 800k 1 (1910), No. 6,"Footprints in the Snow"
=::. ': gnature and add the ("Des pas sur la neige"), mm. 1-7
-
~" :.'1e case in Example
I~-L"l :heme. Notice the Triste et lent (J = 44 )
r: -:".odal music as they -.. ,
lit :.J analysis.
I -
~-3 pp p expressif et douloureux

""'S.L=- ~ - ,,---.....
r r piúppr
Ce rythme doit avoir la valeur sonore
r r r
d'unfond de paysage triste el glacé.
m.d. ~
r:~m~
- - - - - - - ~m.l
- - - -- - -
30 Scale Formations in Twentíeth-Century Musíc
OTHER SEVEN-NOTE SCALES EXAMPLE 2-15

Many other seven-note scales are possible, although none of them have been used as frequent Andan
ly as the diatonic modes. Fourteen modes can be derived from the scales shown in Example
2-13. All of them use major and minor 2nds exclusively, yet none of them is identical to any
of the diatonic modes. These two scale systems, along with our familiar diatonic modal
system, exhaust the possibilities for seven-note scales using only major and minor 2nds. Pi
EXAMPLE 2-13 Two Seven-Note Scale Systems ±:
YOll may expect to encollnter these scale formations occasionally in twentieth ---::¡
centllry mllsic. The first scale in Example 2-13 (a mode of the melodic minor scale) was
used several times by Bartók, and it has acqllired the name Lydian-Mixolydian because of
its combination of raised 4th and 10wered 7th scale degrees. Debussy makes momentary
e
use of tbis scale on in the first three meaSllres of Example 2-14. Then the G and A are
replaced by A~ in m. 148, resulting in the WT-O whole-tone scale.
-
EXAMPLE 2-14 Debussy: The joyous Isle (I:isle joyeuse) (1904). mm. 145-/51
3 3 To
--... particular
certain se
~~I_~:_"m~l~
BGHT-NOTES
Octatooil
r~ scale. Tlu:
another Oii
---
dimi.nisIIe
chords COI
There are
and one bI
ble transp
harmonic,
content of
tional; for
--------t- ---t l
a.
~.
Sorne seven-note scales make use of one or more augmented seconds. A familiar
example is the harmonic tninor scale. Example 2-15 would seem to be constructed from a ~
G Aeolian scale with a raised fourth scale degree.
Scale Formations in Twentíeth-Century Musíc 31
EXAMPLE 2-15 Grieg:"Shepherd Boy:' Op. 54, No. 1 (1891), mm. 1-8 (From Edltion Peters.)
·¡¿' been used as frequent
.;:;,;les shown in Example

f :nem is identicaI to any
f.lrniliar diatonic modal
fI
tt)
I
Andante espressivo
--- r
:--
~...:-...
~
- ;.-=--.
/"
'l'
r
- .. :¡JI
, ,
.., . .md minor 2nds. P cantabile --=: F ::= -==
. .-:--.... a:-.... I
<:./.
:3S10nally in twentieth
~¡,,:x1IC minor scale) was
-"f¡1;oIydian because of
U:S': makes momentary
L T:len the a and A are
SI
To list all of the possibilities would be impractical. 1 It is enough to be aware that a
.---------
particular passage must be approached on its own terms, not with the assumption that only
certain scales are aIlowed.
EIGHT-NOTE SCALES
Oetatonic, like pentatonic, is a generic term that has nevertheless come lo refer to a specific
scale. This scale, illustrated in Example 2-16, consists of altemating whole and half steps, so
another name for this scale is the wbole-step-half-step scale. Yet another name for it is the
diminisbed scale, whÍch refers to the faet that any two nonenharmonic diminished-7th
chords combined will produce an octatonic scale (in Example 2-16a they are f# 07 and gI07).
There are only two modes to this scale-one beginning with a whole step (Example 2-16a)
and one beginning with a half step (Example 2-16b).1n addition, there are only three possi
ble transpositions: the two shown here and one that combines a d0 7 and an e07 (or their en
harmonic equivalents). Any other transposition or mode will simply duplicate the pitch-class
content of one of these three octatonic scales. The actual spelling of an octatonic scale is op
tional; for instance, the PI and al in Example 2-16a could have been written as ab and Ab.
EXAMPLE 2-16 The Octatonic Scale

a. b.
1Ie': <..eConds. A familiar
L :-te .:onstructed fram a
11 J1f!F!'
'""""c;'Oi'CC"_O' _~~ ~ _.~!¡¡\¡._. _ _ _ ,
....,_
,~
·41
32 Sea/e Formations in Twentieth-Century Music
The octatonic scale is a rich source of melodic and harmonic material. It contains aH EXAMPLE 2-1
ofthe intervals, from minor 2nd up to major 7th. AH ofthe tertian triads except for the aug
mented triad can be extracted from this scale, as can four of the five common 7th-chord
types (the major-7th chord cannot). If it has a weakness, it is its symmetrical construction, Fag. I
a characteristic it shares with the whole-tone scale, which can malee establishment of a
tonal center more difficult.
Certain nineteenth-century Russian composers, notably Rimsky-Korsakov, were Tr. ba 1
among the first 10 make use of the octatonic scale. An excerpt from a twentieth-century
Russian work appears as Example 2-17. In this passage Scriabin uses the octatonic scale
formed by diminished-7th chords on A and A# (or C and C#. etc.-the speHings are
arbitrary). The tonality here, ifthere is one, would seem to be E~. Arpa
EXAMPLE 2-17 Alexander Scriabin: Prelude, Op. 74, No. 5 (1914), mm. 14-17 (Excerpt.ed (rom the
Intemationol Musi(; Co. edítion. New York, NY 10018.)
CEd.
v.. Celli
CH. ~
,J~l~; . nSj~
1~~-6 === ::: _

Fag.
~J#JJJ I
2
Cor..
3
-:,
T:c.ba
:::::::= ~=f
CEd.
Another Russian-boro composer whose name is associated with the octatonic scale
is Stravinsky.2 Diminished-7th chords on B and C# account for all of the pitch material 'f Celli 1~~:j!
in the first 6\1 measures ofExample 2-18. The q in the bassoon begins a transition back
to a diatonic pitch material. The horos are in F in this excerpt.
.....:a........
Sea/e Formations in Twentieth-Century Music 33
,.; material. It contains all EXAMPLE 2-18 Stravinsky: Oedipus Rex (1927), rehearsal no. 158 (© Copyright 1927 byHawIes & Son
::-¡ads except for the aug (London) Ud. Copyright renewed. Reprínted by permission of Boosey & HOwKeS, Ine.)
ñ\e common 7th-chord
~~unetrical construction, Fag. 1
:-de establishment of a
~~,==t=,d~
conSord. ~----_
-:-------- ~
ve Itfj} Cf9Jtl
R::nsky-Korsakov. were Tr. ba 1 ~
'ji"'"
':-,:1Tl a twentieth-century
.!l, n.-::::::::=:::::
_.,..es me octatonic scale ,-,
,
:;:,:,-the spellings are
f laissez vibrer i
I
...... I 7 (Exeerpted from the tt:::: :::;

ff
CEd. ~c
11
..,
,.~....-
E - - - -
~-----
- -
,..
- -
,..
- - -
---
V. Celli
-3---1
,"----,
(~)~------- ... ~
pizz.
C.B.
'" laissez vibrer
rallo
11 " t:\,---"
Cl. Si ~
"'
Fag,
ti " " • • • • ji,,!, ~~'"t~~
- --- P
..
rallo
rall.
,.}
..L.L..L~~
3
...
"'"t
-
t:\
_T!7
11
ii--. 1
,. 2 ..,
i J
f~ W;2 Ir~Ti ~ ,~
• Coro
11 -
3 ..,
---
p' v"- /
-- -~~ 11
. -rallo t:\
- Tr. ha
:-=~
ti r r
senzaSord.
CEd.
11
..,
~ ,- --..,
rallo
t:\
- - - go e - xul ex - su - - - - lto.
II!' ~-c octatonic scale
".. . ~. 11.. ,. t:\
I .-o! pitch material V. Celli
II!" 1 rransition back rallo
34 Seale Formations in Twentieth-Century Musíe
While the use of whole-tone and modal scales declined as the twentieth century pro ~l::llI'
gressed, the opposite seems to have been true of the octatonic scale, which made frequent .W,"'lllll'!l
appearances even in music of the 199Os. The octatonic scale has also found a home in ,J
contemporary jazz, where it is especially useful in improvisation over diminished-7th ¡;¡j¡¡;::' ."'1
chords and altered dominants. "J;::~, ~i.
·1:::ii"'~
THE CHROMATIC SCALE 'k~-:.;; fI

f1"~
Many musical passages in the twentieth century avail themselves of all or nearly all of the OlII;..¡,¡¡¡¡-a
tones of the chromatic scale. In some cases it is only the harmony or onIy the meIody that is 1:nr'~ ' "
chromatic, whiIe in other cases both are. In ExampIe 2-19 Hindemith omits onIy the pitch
class D in the course of an eighteen-note melody. Hindemith's melody is obviousIy a tonal
one, beginning strong1y on F and ending with a convincing meIodic cadence on A. We could
~If:'1III:~!fI "
even "expIain" the chromaticism in terms of diatonic scales-F major (notes 1-6), G~ major
(notes 7-14), andA minor (notes 14-18}-but such explanations of chromatic passages are
not always helpful. Thm back to Example 2-7 and consider the accompaniment. The voices,
."
<ir
you will recall. are confined almost entirely to a whole-tone sca1e, but the accompaniment
uses the chromatic scale as its pitch source. All twelve notes of the chromatic scale are used
in the first 1!Jí measures of the accompaniment, and though there are some conventional .!:l :::JL:::I¡I
JIo..,.;;.~
•
sonorities (an A major triad in m. 984 and a D~ major triad in m. 986), it makes no sense to
attempt to discuss the accompaniment in terms of any scale other than the chromatic. ~1::l:I''''
~.:..::: :-)1
EXAMPLE 2-19 Paul Hindemith: Sonata for Trombone and Piano (1941 ).1, mm. 1-5
(trombone only) (CSchott &. Co., ltd.• London. /942. Renewed.Assigned to B. Schott's Soehne,
Mainz. AII rights reserved. Used by permission by European American Mus/(: Distributors Corpomion. sole
U.S. and Canadian agent for B. Schott's Soehne. Mainz.)
•
21 r J r IJ
¡,
r ir IT"Pr~G'r r I¡ro -f' ~ tii. ~
~.::
~
"
HICROTONAL SCALES
In modero usage, microtone means any interval smaller than a minor second. While we .. -j
might assume that microtones are a very recent discovery, they actually were used in the :¡
music of andent Greece and were mathematically defined by the theorists of that time.
Nevertheless, microtones, like the diatonic modes, were rediscovered in the twentieth cen
tury by composers who have used them in new and varied ways.3 Though in most cases the
microtones empIoyed have been quarter-tones-that is, an interval half the size of a minor
2nd-other microtonal intervals have been used as welI.
A number of methods have been derived for specifying microtones in musical nota
_'::':':
:r'~,j,
.
'1óII
,. &Z" •
.".'
tion. In his Chamber Concerto (1925), Alban Berg notated quarter-tones by placing a "Z" ',_.."" ~
(for "Zwischenton") on the stem. The "z" means the performer must raise the tone if the 1..... , :1d
musicalline is ascending chromaticalIy and lower it if it is descending. Jutián Carrillo, in _11

his Bosquejoslor String Quartet (1926), used a slanted tine after the notehead to indicate a ",.. ...:::l
;;:::..,
Nientieth century pro

Ilt: quarter-tone alteration up or down, wbile Bartók used ascending and descending arrows
Io1>hich made frequent
1IlJe. aboye the notes in his Violín Concerto No. 2 (1937).
t> .:Jso found a home in Other methods have typica11y invoIved variants of the traditional system of acciden
~:c o,"er diminished-7th tals. Gyorgy Ligeti uses microtones of various sizes in his String Quartet No. 2 (1968). In
bis system, an arrow is attached to a fiat, sharp, or natural sign, pointing up or down. The
resulting intervaIs are no larger than quarter-tones and may be smaller, the precise size
being determined partIy by context and partIy by the choice of the performer. Krzysztof
Penderecki in several wórks uses variants of the traditional sharp sign to indicate tones a
d ill or nearly a11 of the quarter-tone and three quarter-tones higher, and variants of the fiat for a quarter-tone and
r ,:<nIy the melody that is three quarter-tones lower. Traditional accidentals are used for half-step intervals.
rJ::r':h omits only the pitch A method used by Witold Lutoslawski is seen in Example 2-20. In this work he
!ÍI-~ ís obviously a tonal employs four special accidentals:
on A. We could
: .:;;¡,jence
jLT !}(){eS 1-6), G~ major
~ = lower the note by a quarter-tone
i ;::romatic passages are .¡, = lower the note by three quarter-tones
OC'Jl!'aníment. The voices, ... = raise the note by a quarter-tone
.:":I the accompaniment • = raise the note by three quarter-tones

.:i::romatic scale are used
~ re sorne conventional In each of these two phrases Lutoslawski fills in the quarter-tone chromatic space between
!!te " ir makes no sense to A4 and ES, cadencing first on C, then on D~. The midpoint, of course, would be the
m: tbe chromatic. quarter-tone between these two pitches.
EXAMPLE 2-20 Witold Lutoslawski: üvre pour Orchestre (1968), mm. 1-4
. '. '"Tim. 1-5
(first half of Violin 1only)
~ :l) 8. Schou's Soehne,
r ~ Corponltion, sole
i J=ca 80 rito
=::É= ~ ~ ~ ~=- 3-, . r - 3-, f.'\==:===l
~rpT
P
U7Eiifi1P2Tf
RP
f~?r
R
Fr~
IIlX:Xlf second. Whíle we

were used in the
i:T....;,;.•J y
e :±leorÍsts of that time.
me:.: ~!1 the twentieth cen
'!l!o... g.h in most cases the
I uf the size of a minor Microtones smaller than a quarter-tone have been used on occasion. One example by
Ligeti was mentioned aboye; another is Ben Johnston's String Quartet No. 2 (1%4), em
1\1':'(, :'-:0 in musical nota ploying a scale with 53 tones to the octave. Harry Partch advocated microtones of various
f.-r.-:.e"s by placing a "Z" sizes, especially a 43-tone scale using unequal intervals, and he designed instruments to
.'~ :-:Use the tone if the play them. 4 Julián Carrillo founded an ensemble, the Orquesta Sonida 13, that specialized
1111:::-: ~ Julíán Carrillo, in in playing in microtones. In his own music, Carrillo experimented with intervals as smalI
le -,(;!head to indicate a as sixteenth-tones-one-eighth of a minor 2nd.
;fjj
36 Scale Formations in Twentieth-Century Musía
Stringed instruments would seem to be the most suited of all traditional instruments
for playing microtones, pianos and organs the least. Nevertheless, microtonal works for
specially tuned pianos have been composed. Examples inelude Three Quarter-Tone Pieces 'Im",_
UiIU.. ..... " ...
__
for Two Pianos (1923-24) by Charles Ives, Henri Pousseur's Prospections (1952) for three
pianos, using sixth-tones, and Johnston's Sonatafor Microtonal Piano (1965). The most
natural environment of all for mierotones is the electronie medium. where the entire pitch
spectrum ean be preeisely partitioned into intervals of any size or eombination of sizes;
however, a diseussion of electronic musie will have to be postponed until a later ehapter.
....,:.
OTHER POSSIBILlTIES
It would not be correet to assume that everything there is to know about scales in twentieth
:JI
,.
Ji¡¡~.
eentury music has been diseussed in this ehapter. There are always other possibilities. Olivier
;~
Messiaen, for example, has been interested in what he ealls "modes of limited transposition."
~
These are scales of from six to ten notes that have fewer than twelve transpositions without
duplieation of pitch-elass eontent. 5 He has identified seven sueh seales, including the whole
:':;;¡¡¡Q
tone and diminished (octatonie) scales, and used them in various compositions. (This quality,
known as "transpositional symmetry;' is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.)
Another possibility is the simultaneous use of more tban one scale type. We have
already seen this in connection with Example 2-7, where a whole-tone vocal duet was
provided with a chromatic aceompaniment. In Example 2-21 an E Phrygian melody is set
over an E major ostinato.
EXAMPLE 2-21 Bart6k:Mikrokosmos (1926-37),No.148.Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm.No.l,

mm. 4-8 (© Copyright /940 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by
permiss/on of 800sey & Howkes. Ine.)
!-::r_
:'llltIe ..
=~
~.
r "'JI
,
,
"'¡/JI
~:.QII
:..
Seale Formatíons in Twentieth-Cenwry Music 37
L rraditional instruments Be sure not to eonfuse the simultaneous use of different seales with "polytonality,"
:n.icrotonal works for
s,;:, a term for the simultaneous use of different tonal eenters. This will be discussed in a
""'!' i Quarter-Tone Pieces later ehapter.
~lriOns (1952) for three
P'-.J.no (1965). The most
!1:. '. . here the entire piteh
(T .:ombination of sizes; SUMMARY
EIlte"':: until a later chapter.
Though the major and minor seales of the tonal era have by no means become extinet
in the twentieth century, they have to sorne extent been supplanted by a variety of
1IIC\:'4.l1 scales in twentieth
other seales, sorne of them quite oId, others recently devised, using from five to
:ó:!T possibilities. Olivier dozens of notes within the octave. The scales most often eneountered in twentieth
cf I1mited transposition:' century music are included in this ehapter, but you should not be surprised lo
"toe transJX)sitions without
eneounter still others, sorne of which may not even have names. 6 The scales
~_ meluding the whole
discussed in this chapter inelude the following:
~'Sitions. (This quality,
C-~9.)
Pentatonie seale (with modes and variants)
~ scale type. We have WhoIe-tone scale
olil!'-tone vocal duet was Augmented seale
: Ptu-ygian melody is set

Diatonie modes
Other seven-note scales using onIy major and minor 2nds
~ Rhythm, No. 1, Seven-note scales using augmented 2nds
!Ir ~ Reprinted by Oetatonie (diminished) scale
Chromatic seale
Microtonal scales
Modes of limited transposition
The distinetive eharacter of a particular phrase or meIodic figure may often be

explained by reference to sorne scale type that is only hinted at. For instance, Exam
pie 2-12 was seen to conform entirely to the Aeolian and Dorian modes. But
Debussy ehose to begin the melody in a manner that reminds us of yet another scale,
the whole-tone scale: B~-C-D-E-D-C-B~.
NOTE.S
;::
1. Vincent Persichetti illustrates and names several on p. 44 of his Twentieth-Century

Harmony.
2. Pieter C. van den Toom, in The Music 01 Igor Stravinsky, finds the octatonic
"collection" in mueh of Stravinsky's music.
~~~
f"
~~
~ ~WC"C""M'7Rd"",,,,"'!"'" 111'111""
• .
,. .... _,;.",,,,_
".,..=="""~.,~ __
,,~'O:-'<" "-_:""'-"X~"'_·''''-'?''''§U· ".
38 Scale Formations in Twentieth-Century Musia
3. Joseph Yasser, in A Theory 01 Evolving Tonality, attempted to show that a nineteen

tone seale would be the logical historieal sueeessor to the ehromatic scale.
4. Harry Partch, Genesis 01a Music. R..~~

5. Olivier Messíaen, The Technique olMy Musical Language, pp. 58-62. 1. :l:J.
6. Several dozen scales are named and defined by Robert Fink and Robert Rieci in The
Language olTwentieth Century Music; see especially the list on p. 114.
EXERCISES
Port A: Fundomentols ------

l. Taking the pattem e-D-E-G-A as the model, notate pentatoníe seales starting on the
G
following notes:
F# B E~
:J¡,o,
--
z- :.ms
.I~"'"
2. Notate whole-tone scales starting on the following notes:
E e# A~ F
~.i.:.",,!
3. Notate the following modal scales:
(a) Dorian on F (e) Phrygian onA (i) Lydian on D~ i 'JI
(b) Mixolydian on E (f) Aeolian on A~ (j) Dorian on e
- ~
:lIICli
(e) Lydian on E~ (g) Aeolian on G (k) Phrygian on B
~
(d) Mixolydian on D (h) Locrian on F# (1) Ionian on B~ r~
4. Notate the following octatonic (diminished) scales:

(a) One beginning F#-G (d) One eombining a07 with b07 I i 1
\ ~~
(b) One beginning A~-B~ (e) One eombining d#o7 with e07
-<
(e) One beginning D-E~ (f) One combining al°7 with e#o7 ,e.
,
5. Notate and label every major, minor, augmented, or diminished triad available in the ,~~
following scales:
(a) Pentatonic on A
(b) Whole-tone on B
(d) Mixolydian on A~ I i)
(e) Oetatonie beginning E-F "
~~ ~
\. .
(e) Phrygian on e# - ""'"
':+IE .
. f,.
=
Seala Formations in Twantiath-century Moa: •
(ni to show that a nineteen Part B: Analysis

;:hromatic scale.
l. Respighi: The Pines ofRome (1924), "PiDes near a Catacomb:' mm. 6-9 (piano jiOIM .·iN"
i. pp. 58-62.
(a) The tonal center in this excerpt is E~. Name the scale.
:nk and Robert Ricci in The
>,[ on p. 114.
.<.J.!"'. ~
'~ - ------
I ~ .. "!!!
L JJ~~; -Jl JI I
- -,
I
-~ .!J'I
3 r -
- ~
- ·1 ¡ __ -&
:...:.!,)¡ÜC scales starting on the

e Copyright /924 by Casa RJcon:lil8MG RJcon:li S.p.o. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of Hendon
~./nc., a Boosey & Howkes Company. U.S.Agents.)
2. Debussy: SixAntique Epigraphs (1914), 1, mm. 4-7

(a) Name the scale found in the melody.
Lydian on D~
(b) The melody at the beginning of the excerpt suggests G as a tonal center. If it is. dile
Dorian on e melody combined with its accompaniment uses what G scale?
t: Phrygian on B
(e) The cadence at the end of the excerpt suggests e as a tonal center. In that case. tbe
Ioruan on B~
melody combined with its accompaniment uses what escale?
:¡.::h b=7
:: '..::1! e:7
fI <!),Lb . .------:- .~ (i) 3 ~CJ)
)~
"';é: en =
p 7 TIff
!$<rJ triad available in the
1--' ,
~--: r' - ~-'-----
E-f , fI
(! )
,-~- ~ "'!"
(i) (!)
~ ~ ~ JJJ
ti
~
"!"
p : TIff
( :
--- .L
-
$:i
-
-
40 Sea/e Formations in Twentieth-Century MuSlc
3. Anton Webem: Symphony, Op. 21 (1928),1, rnm.l-14

(a) Thís is a "concert score"-all of the instruments sound as notated. What scale is f1
...
L.
beingused?
~" ...J
)
""
..
Ruhig schreitend (J =ca 50)
Kla.rinette· )
el iilIitTL
r~
1*)
10 ~ :j
- ~
ln:J" ::::::.=
"'"
HOrner P ....-.=:::: ¡
~ _lit
2*)
10 ~ lb.
= ~-,;--
~•
P ~ .
11
-- - :J
Harfe
,
<
I
el
~:
P
- ~
~~
-- t-~~
P.k "",. •
2. Geige
11
~
=,..------ - • '1
~
el
pizz. mpbti> ::::: arco ~\ 111J::
~
Bratsche
arco
-
mp ~--
pizz.
L ~ -
P
00--
Violincell
t·_""'--J
e_
-~--
""
~ -<::
P
\iI
7'1
•
"'i~"
11'
'14
1111
-----
Scale Formatíons in Twentiet1'l-Cenltly ~ a
11
KI.
~.
.:=¡
..
·:-:.¿ as notated. What scale ís
::::::=:::-::
411 l7u' -
1IIPIiiIJ_
_, _1
Bass
.J1i: .,..,--- "t:;., .- ...
Klarinette _.-
_.-'"
<>
A~
~
p
Hm.
2
t-I-.
411
~.
-~
~
~- -~
~
P
~ . j¡.
,
J
..
~
..
.
- ....,
_.. ..
~
pp mp p
)
~~
411 ~~

---== .----.
pp
-~
.- ..,-.
I ~i.
=
.=
Hrf. p
~
. --..-. . ..,.
I .,:
~ ~
----
..
./'¡
pi::;: iII1JIIOl'...,._
... _ . ...-.- .::.

_
~-......---
l. Geige _. ..
-
411
;;
~- ~-
......
~-
-= . JI
¡--....-.
~------
~
Br.
~. _',1
-=:::::::::::: ::::::=:=
~
" P p -c:::::
!I; ~
arco
Vlc. ~.::
l--~
--- .- ~.
~...: y. p
" -==:::: ~.
pp
----~-f__--
(Copyright 1929 by Universal Edition. Copyright renewed. AII rights reserved. Use<! by permission o( European
American Music Distributors Corporation, sole U.S. and Canadian agent far Universal Edition.)
4. Alfredo Casella: Eleven Children's Pieces (1920), "Siciliana," mm. 1-19

This excerpt suggests several scales, all with D as a tonal center. Be sure to consider
the accompaniment when answering the following questions.
(a) Which scale is used in mm. 1-9?
(b) And in mm. 9-11?
(e) What scale is hinted at in m. 121
(d) And what scale is used in mm~ 13-171
(e) There are eight pitch classes in mm. 18-19. Do they form a diminished scale?
'8
AlIegretto dolcemente mosso ~ ...•

(il ritmo sempre malta preciso) -.
¡Id
ti ""--:' ~' .... . c;--:. ... ....
~
- ~
,.. ~
45
p espressivo, semplice, come una melodia popolare 'I~~
· ("l. a. . l. .. .
.
~
------
.-
-~
IJ
...eL
iJ~--:. -, ~
(
~
...J"" .. - ".[,:;¡j:~.
::::::::==- PP dolcissimo
",'
-
~'
..--- "'-"-"..-
f~' -
(~- .. -F----f+..-
.......
16
TI
.
..-
, ti
"---"" "'-" ./' ~ '-....../ .. (q)*' ~~ /' ~"
-
,
( ·
!.I.
(Copyright /92/ by Universal EdiDon. Copyright renewed. AII righu reserved. Used by permission of European
American Music Distributors Corporation, sole U.S. and Canadion agent for Universal Edition.)
..
~_
Sea/e Formations in Twentieth-Century Musía 43
5. Joan Tower: ¡sland Prelude (1988), m. 135 (oboe cadenza)

This excerpt is derived from a single scale, with the exception ofthe predominant B's
in the second system. (These may be intended to help prepare the final cadence in m.
145, which is on an E chord with a B in the oboe.) What scale is used here?
slowly and freely poco accel.
-=:;......
l····
,. -····-R-f=-----Ar'
8<
1I
,
.,
...:;. ".
44 Sea/e Formations in Twentíeth-Century Musíc
6. Debussy: Preludes, Book I, "Sails" ("Voiles"), mm. 38-44 ;. C:r,:s

(a) Two scales are used in this excerpt. The first is in mm. 38-41. What is it?
\.~
(b) The second scale is found in mm. 42-44. Name it.
Serrez --.------------------- /1
~ :;. --- "'
1~~
p p
".
.t e :',=,r::n:
17ü' - , l7ü 3 3
\. ~:¡.~:
'I~I--
Cédez _______________ /1 En anímant
~ l~~;- - 7,.
.o; C:!"'"CJIl'I¡J
!',-~
~ C:rr:1I:M
~7 i
~~~,:1_ 1:4
~ :w
Emporté ------.!/ Cédez_._ /1 :.J:::',', m
~
&0-----------,
-~
J"~":"" ~
,\~;~d
J:l:1': e
j¡;¿""-",, s,
. 1""t.Jl1
i Pe.I,s;.:" -El!
hr' ......
.-'.IIIJII
Part C: Composition ~:...:
5''''"''E::::-"",-,,~ ...J
l. Compose short melodies illustrating the pentatonic, whole-tone, octatonic, and chro·
~,,!,:.~
matic scales.
2. Compose short melodies illustrating the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, and
". ,r.. ";:,."- .iJ
Aeolian modes. In each melody, try to emphasize the tonic note as well as those notes
. 'DI
that are especia1ly characteristic of that scale.
=
Scale Formations in Twentieth-Century Musíc 45
3. Continue this example. using the G Mixolydian mode.

\\'hat is it?
-- ... ---.-.-.- .... II

1 1
1 1 1
4. Continue this example, using the F Dorian mode.

3 " 1
--------------------
~
.....
,
5. Compose an example that makes use of several different scales, using the Casella
excerpt (Example 2-B-4) as a modeL Label each scale you use.
6. Compose an example of two-voice counterpoint using the octatonic scale. Start with a
slow, rather simple tune, unaccompanied, and bring in the second voice afier a mea
--
sure or two. Continue to a cadence on an octave. Compose for instruments in your
.JI Cédez .. _ II class, or be able to play it at the piano.
.. --..'~
FURTHER READING
~a ~::::,
~ - ..
..
_ JO
DALLIN, LEON. Techniques o/ Twentieth Century Composition. See Chapter 3, Modal
Melodic Resources, the section titled "Additional Scale Resources" in Chapter 4,
and Chapter 16, Microtones.
KOSTKA, STEFAN, AND DOROTHY PAYNE. Tonal Harmony with an lntroduction to Twentieth
Century Musie. See the section titled "Scales" in Chapter 28.
PERSICHETTI, VINCENT. Twentieth-Century Harmony. See Chapter 2, Scale Materials.
PISToN, WALTER. Harmony. See the section titled "Modal Scales and Modal Harmony" in
Chapter 30 and the sections titled uThe Pentatonic Scale," uThe Whole-Tone Scale."
and "Artificial Scales" in Chapter 31.
STEINKE, GREG A. Bridge fo 20th Century Muste. See Chapters 9 and 10, Enlarged Scale
Resources 1 and n.
_I~ ,olydian,and VINCENT, JOHN. The Diatonie Modes in Modem Musie. See Chapter 30, The Modes in the
'11:
• - .::s those notes Contemporary Periodo

--------THREE--------
J!~- ,,!u
'1iII:~i
-,.';:"'",..
~l:nr:
The Vertical Dimension:
.1r.....::'
k ,.~-:'
..:.'lD
",::Ili
~"Iilll
Chords and Simultaneities

aiII!rc"
~
.-::1111
-.~,,_
~~>, Pli
::-:,iI
~I.'-'-",,'1I'l:
1I:a"":. '.':":::t1IlII
• 'I:I::IIO:~ J:II
'~"u1l1lJl
~i 1';:: iiI
~TL1l.
INTRODUCTION D'...IIi."'P': ;: )
The music of the tonal era is almost exclusively tertian in its harmonic orientation. That is,
its harmonies can generaIly be thought of as being constructed of stacked 3rds, the only ex
ceptions being "voice-Ieading chords" such as the family of augmented-6th chords and the
chords produced by the omnibus progression. That tonal music used tertian harmony was e
+1
not the result of a conscious decision on anyone's part but instead was the result of classi
fications of consonance and dissonance and the development over centuries of various
voice-Ieading procedures. The faet that the underIying harmonies in the tonal style are
known to be tertian makes the labeling of chords and the identification of nonchord tones lEJl.¡t¡¡"'P': ;: ]
in tonal music a relatively simple task.
Much of the music of the twentieth century is also basically tertian, but there is in ad
dition a good deal of music using chords built from 2nds, from 4ths, and from combina
tions of various intervals. Even the tertian music frequently uses new kinds of tertian
sonorities, as we shall see. Qne result of this unlimited array of harmonic material is that
the distinction between chord tones and nonchord tones is often difficult or impossible to
'4
c.•
make. AIso, chords sometimes seem to result more or less accidentalIy from the combina
tion of harmonically independent lines. For these reasons, many writers prefer at times ~"'",,,q
to use terms such as "verticality:' "simultaneity," "sonority," or "note complex" instead of _" ,1:: ::,.:;,
"chord." In this text, however, "chord" will be used freely along with the other terms to i_":'T::!l"':~;',Lt
refer to any vertical collection of pitches, no matter how it originates. I~ ¡ - '.
The present chapter surveys in an organized way the chords found in twentieth ,8aiI: "~" "
century music. The contexts in which these chords are used is a subject that involves both ".lIIII ,c.l:lJll]ll
voice leading and harmonic progression. These topics wilI be taken up in ehapters 4 and 5. rllll'=-"w.il:II
46
~'~~~~~-~"",..",----
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and SimultaneitiBs 47
CONVENTIONAL TERTIAN SONORITIES

Teman triads and 7th chords are an important, if less preponderant, part of the harmoruc
vocabulary of twentieth-century music. Certain composers make more use of these sounds
than others do. Sorne of the works by composers such as Sergei Rachmaninoff, Gian CarIo
Menotti, and Aaron Copland, for example, might be expected to contain a high proportíon
asíon:
of triads and 7th chords, whereas other composers, such as Paul Híndemith, tend to reserve
the pure sound of a triad for important cadences or even for the end of a movement. Still
Ineíties
other composers rarely make use of these more traditional sounds. Examples of the use of
triads and 7th chords will be found in later chapters, where voice leading and harmonic
progression are díscussed.
Teman sonorities "taller" than the 7th chord-9th chords, 11th chords, and 13th
chords-are not an important part of the harmonic vocabulary before the late nineteenth or
early twentieth century. In theory, any diatonic triad can be extended to a 13th chord before
its root is duplicated (see Example 3-1). In practice, however, it is the dominant and sec
ondary dominant chords, and to a Iesser extent the supertonic and submediant chords, that
tend to be singled out for thís treatrnent. Chromatic alterations, especially of chords with a
dominant function, are often used. Example 3-2 illustrates sorne of the possibilities.
EXAMPLE 3-1 Diatonic 13th chords
11:.....;,..: orientation. That is,

!iWLt.:OO 3rds, the only ex
It:Pé~-6th chords and the
1!!iC"':: :.."1tian harmony was C: 113 iii 13 (etc.)
t "'::' !:he result of classi
II'",~ ~enturies of vanous
1:" -!.be tonal style are
c¡¡c 'oc ,,,f nonchord tones EXAMPlE 3-2 Altered Dominants
~~.L.:. !:!ut there ís in ad

11m, !:.Wod from combina
11:' ',:-" kinds of tertian
.- r--,~material is that
Ir" . - ~ oc impossible to
• .~:>ffi the combina
.=-, prefer at times Chords taller than a 7th are frequently incomplete, posing certaÍn problems in analy
--:::-k\" instead of siso In Example 3-3, for instance, the first chord would probably best be analyzed as an
:-r.: odler terms to " " " bass line, but one could also argue
incomplete supertonic 11th chord because of the 2-5-1
that it is a V¡. And is the second chord an incomplete dominant 9th or an incomplete dom
~..: In twentieth inant 13th? The answer depends on whether one hears the C5 in the melody as a chord tone
'.¡[m\'olves both or as an appoggiatura, and either reading is defensible. The final chord is a tonic triad, the
··~"""lers 4 and 5. F3 in the tenor being an ornamented suspension.
48 The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneities
EXAMPLE 3-3 Debussy: Preludes, Book 11 (1913), "Heaths" ("Bruyéres"). mm. 1-5 EXAMPLE 3-5 Protc:CII
Calme-Doucement expressif (M..sc III!
~
~=66 ~
Moderdto , '" ' I
.."
A~:
~--~~~-=-~.
Hll
~,
y9? 1
-
•.31
.""
Ninths and other tall chords can be inverted, of course, but inversions can be problematical,
as wejust saw with the ipl chordin Example 3-3. Referring back to Example 3-1, nOtice that
the pitch-cIass content of every diatonic 13th chord is identical, meaning that every diatonic D
,.,
13th chord could be analyzed as an inversion of every other diatonic 13th chord. The situa
tion is only slightly less ambiguous with 9th and 11 th chords, as Example 3-4 iUustrates.
TERTIAN CHOROS '"
EXAMPLE 3-4 Inverted 9th and 11 th chords
Though the pc",Ni
by theorists a, ea
_=--==n=_~
chords o/ addl~;":Jl
twentieth cen~
aboye the f()(X . .iII\I
-& .Q.
could also be aDi.IIÍ
-~=-~~~----.-
---D---~
ample 3-6 ilIU,.ClI
C13? CI3't
EXAMPLE 3-6 ~
F9? Dll?
r&;Jg-~--
A typically ambiguous example is seen in Example 3-5. The excerpt begins with a
tonic triad in D major, but the next chord is open to sorne interpretation (remember to in
elude the fiute part in your analysis). The pitch elasses, in alphabetical order, are A, C. D,
E~. F#. G. Bass notes usually want to be roots. if they can, and the high D in the fiute on the
fourth beat reinforces the notion that this might be some sort of G chord. On the other C: y9
hand, the G could be the 11th of a complete D 11th chord: D-F#-A-C-E~-G, and the A5
to D6 in the fiute seems to support that. Or perhaps it should be analyzed as a D 9th chord
presented simultaneously with G. it8 note of resolution. The uncertainty i8 not resolved by
the B~ major 7th chord that follows, since neither G-B~ nor D-B~ seems particularly com incomplete 9th ,JI:
pelling as a progression. The remainder of the excerpt is more straightforward: A minor Sínce the roOl b :::':l
7th lo D minor 7th in m. 3. both slightly ornamented, to a more lavishly omamented G cal purposes, a ~:-};
major triad in m. 4. added 9th or I ¡ tt
Sr
The Vertical Dlmension: Charos and SimultBneffles ft
- """lm.I-5 EXAMPLE 3-5 Prokofiev: Sonata for Flute and Piano, Op. 94 (1943), 1, mm. 1-4
(Music by Sergel Proko~e'l. f.díted by Jeon-Pierre Rompa/. Copyright @ /986 Intemotionol MII$lc 'o.
CopyrIght renewed. Internotionol copyright $l!Cured. AII rights ff!served. Used by perm/ssion.)
Moderato (J" ti() )
~~=~1xt1~-~~~~é;j
., - 1
~:'C, ,:an be problematical,

: ::'!...lInple 3-1, nbtice that
~-.:Jlg mat every diatonic D ?
IIII.'~ : 3th chord. The situa
:LL-:-.;:1,;: 3-4 illustrates.
TERTIAN CHORDS WITH ADDED NOTES
Though the possibility of a triad's having a note added a 6th above the root was recognized
by theorists as early as the eighteenth century, chords with added notes (sometimes called
chords 01 addition) did not become an accepted part of the harmonic vocabulary until the
twentieth century. The basic chords are usually triads, and the added notes (always figured
above the root) are usually 2nds or 6ths, less frequently 4ths. Any triad with an added 6th
coutd also be analyzed as a 7th chord, but the context will usually settle the issue, as Ex
ample 3-6 illustrates. Similarly, a triad with an added 2nd or 4th could be interpreted as an
EXAMPLE 3-6 Added 6th and Inverted 7th Chords

/t ¡jo
~.
.g.
tJ f" ~ ti'
!re =1.:erpt begins with a i'
~,~"::J fremember to in
r~
d -&
.=n::
~-!Jorder. are A, e, D, =n::::_
a~:- D in the flute on the I
, C: ..:hord. On the other ¡add6 G: iig ¡

-A--C-&-G, and theAS
la: I.:-d as a D 9th chord L same sound ---1
~: ::\ í s not resolved by
IC:-::-.s particularly com incomplete 9th or 11th chord, especially if voiced with the added note above the triad.
I::'.1iLptiorward: A minor Since the root is the same in either case, the distinction is not a crucial one. For aH practi
:a,··..;;hly omamented G cal purposes, a chord with an added 2nd or 4th can be considered tbe same as one with an
added 9th or 11th. See Example 3-7.
50 The Vertics/ Dimensíon: Chords snd Símu/taneities
EXAMPLE 3-7 Chords with Added 2nds and 4ths bite to .:

.Q. added-oc
~ o
~~.=lI except L'l
pedal p...'.J
F: Iadd2 Iadd9 Iadd4 Iaddll the disx~
EXAMPLE 3-10
The situadon is unambiguous in Example 3-8. where the cadential chords are the
dominant 7th and the tonÍC with added 6th in G~ Major. And in Example 3-9, the final
chord is clearly a C triad with an added 9th. But Example 3-10 is more involved. In the first Allegro D:
phrase (mm. 1-2) a double pedal point on G4 and B4 (in the middle of the texture) adds
- t
EXAMPLE 3-8 Debussy: Preludes. Book I (1910),"The Girl with the Flaxen Hair"
tmiL=t-'i
f
("la filie aux cheveux de Un"), mm. 23-24
Cedez ...... _ II
~ .¡r
f
I~ t:Ir.:::::
.....-----_.
~. .
G:
G~: IV V vi V ---.....4 V7 Iadd6 A~

tbe lí!>te::.er·
Exampl;e .:.
EXAMPLE 3-9 Debussy: Preludes, Book 11 (1913),"Canope," mm. 29-33 cOWJX~ :
towani C~
retenu ... // Plus lent __- - -_ _ finall,: ¡.....;:.:;¡
G.
oC
3 encore plus doux
<la
tres doux et tres expressif ::::::=:::=-
-9
p¡
:;e..-
_._-~----~_.
-9
-- --
- -""
-
•
-& --.-=-~.-
-~-:---.
~-9 .... v:& :e.- ...,:e:
c: ív Iadd9
m'
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneitles 51
bite to a conventional progression. Tbough severaJ of the sonorities could be analyzed as

added-note chords, the pedal-point analysis is just as good, explaining all the dissonances
except the added 4th in the passing tonic ~. Tbe second pbrase (mm. 3-4) keeps the B as a
pedal point, sbllting it down an octave in m. 4. Again, the pedal point accounts for most of
the dissonances, but the tonic triads are probably best analyzed as added-note chords.
EXAMPLE 3-10 Stravinsky: Suite ltalienne (1932), "Introduction;' mm. 1-4 (© Copyright 1934 by
, .-,,~,=-:jaJ chords are the Boosey & Haw1<es (Landon) Ud. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of 800sey & Hawkes, lne.)
• "-',-'-'TIple 3-9, the final
I'U"': :n'iolved. In the first
..:;: :,f fue texture) adds
.. :""';; Flaxen Hair"
\¡~~~~~~~~~~
r~'~~f~~~~~~~~~*
G: 1 Iy6 IS íi 6 y7 1 1 y6 Iy6 IS ii 6 ygN Y
(add 4) (add 2) (add 4)
Added notes are a feature of what is sometimes called "wrong-note style," in which
the listener's conventional expectations are almost met, but not quite. Tbis was the case in
Example 3-10, where Stravinsky is almost quoting Pergolesi, an early eighteenth-century
composer. The result is often humorous, as in Example 3-11, where the melody heads
toward a G4 but lands a half-step too high (m. 41), then a half-step too 10w (m. 42), before
final1y succeeding (m. 43).
EXAMPLE 3-11 Gian Cario Menotti: The Telephone (1946),mmAI-43 (piano vocal score)
(© Copyright 1947 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc. (ASCAP) Internationa/ copyright secured. AII rights
'"li,"*, ":;.~'JiLt Reserved. Reprinted by permission)
==
y7 1
•
qM'Iiilllí':k-=,"',.
TERTIAN CHORDS WITH SPLlT CHORD MEMBERS
A special kind of added-note chord features one or more chord members that are "split" by as d;"1iI
adding a note a minor 2nd away. Common examples are triads and 7th chords with split
3rds, but split roots, 5ths, and 7ths also occur. Sorne of the possibilities are shown in Ex
ample 3-12. There is no standard analytical symbol for split chord members. In this text an EXAJ1
exclamation point will be used, as in the example. The dominant 7th chord with split 3rd is
a traditional "bIues" chord, where it is anaIyzed as a dominant 7th with an augmented 9th.
Debussy uses a D~7 (3!) in Example 3-13 to achieve a Spanish Havor. 'Ole split 3rd (F\I) is
spelled here as an augmented 9th (E~). Either analysis is acceptable.
~~
..
EXAMPLE 3-12 Chords with Split Chord Members
~1 ~. . tE "1 t~
F (3!) F(1!) F7(7!) F7(3!)
EXAMPLE 3-13 Debussy: Preludes. Book 11 (1913), "La Puerta del Vino:' mm. 9-1 S
3
\~í
::::=
r.:. t:J u
rJ
/i~
lit.
6
-ly::.- C.
k :::.C ;;a
'iI
-.
"" ~. :',i
r:.. ~
~
The Vertical Dlmension: Chords and Simultaneities 53
In Example 3-14 Ravel uses a series of major triads with split roots. The effect is not
as dissonant as you might expect because of the speed at which the chords are played.
:::r:: :;';:!"S that are "split" by
111"': -!.h chords with split
ir:"r___ :les are shown in Ex-
EXAMPLE 3-14 Ravel:Mirrors (1905)."Sorrowful Birds:' m. 15
t -::-tmbers. In this text an
-":- ~hord with split 3rd is 8'" --. --------,
t ... :th an augmented 9th. -~ ..... ~
It. ~lo!.
q~
_u Ii}~~~
¡r•• r_ The split 3rd (F~) is fI ~ lo!
.....
LL
\
--
t·_té:
tJ
11fI pressez
~
,.. ~ ~ ~ J~~.I t h. ..4
tJ r I , , I I I , I r
-""'r 9-15
Aaron Copland uses split-3rd chords on C and E in Example 3-15. The effect is intensified
by the strings, which play E's that are a quarter-tone fiat and G's that are a quarter-tone
sharp. Notice the notation that Copland uses here for the quarter-tones, a system used also
by Alois Haba, among others.
54 The Vertical Dimensíon: Chords and Simultaneities
EXAMPLE 3-15 Copland: Vitebsk (1929), mm. 1-2 (© Copyright 1934 by tire Aaron CopIond FUlld (or Music, BA"""P.J
lile. Copyright renewed. Reprimed by permissiOll o( Boosey & Hawkes,/lIc. Sole licellSee.)
Lento molto marcato (J = 52 )

:> :>
:> ;;:--.,...---:> ~ :>
~~~ . ~==i1~~~ms~~~-===D~~~
Ji,n:¡
'~!:,,""
JYf1J2 úJ% úJ% fIJ2 '11ft

.I ri
~ '~-'-_C_-~li:_~~
1:.1I!L
~~~
-lL_~_.- -===t-~~ ~~-~~ '-:
,=--=l-~~
JIA
JYf1J2
> :::=;F - ;; ,¡y. ,¡y. W' .,
¡
.
1JI:¡.4...
... -'ol
'lr.
r
:i..
,il ...
rIJ% úJ% rIJ%
!" •
..,.
""
:> :>
1!11
• Al¡
.:1.. .1!:
..... 1!
A more complex example was contained in Example 2-7 (p. 26). The accompani ...
ment in m. 984 clearly contains an A major triad on beat 3, accented. Below and above it
are qs (a split 3rd), the bigher e leaping up to an F (a split 5th), while an inner voice sus
..., -=
••
tains an E~ (another split 5th). Meanwhile, the singers produce B~ (split root) and G#
(adding a major 7th to the chord). The listener cannot follow aIl of this, of course; the auraI -!
effect is one of extreme dissonance competing with the sound of a pure triad. 1
OPEN-STH CHORDS e
:1
While a Iarge number of added-note chords are possible, there is only one important
"chord of omission"-that is, a traditional sonority that is transformed into something un
usual by Ieaving out a note-and tbis is the triad without a 3rd. Omitting the root or the
5th, or omitting anything from a 7th chord, only resuIts in yet another traditionaI sonority.
But the sound of an open 5th had been out of style for centuries, except for its occasionaI
use in two-part counterpoint.
The sound of open 5ths rapidly becomes tiresome, so extended passages based on iI
this chord are rareo TypicalIy they are used to create an impression of the Orient or of the 1
distant past. In Example 3-16 open 5ths on G and A are used to introduce a chant melody
in the chorus. The notation of the time signatures in Example 3-16 is a very practical one I
that a number of twentieth-century composers have adopted. l!
~
The Vertical Dimensíon: Chords and $ímultaneitíes 55
~ "':>-00 Cof>Iond Fund far Music. txAMPLE 3-16 Carl Orff: Cormino Burono (1936),"Veris leta facies:' mm. +-6 (Copyright 1937
"" :';.¡e icensee.) 8. Schutt's Soehne. Moinz. Copyright renewed. AlI rights reserved. Used by pennissiun uf European Ameri
can Music Dlnributors Curporotion. sole U.S. ond Conadlon agent far 8. Schott's Soehne. Mainz.)
j=40
1f 2/¡. 8/¡ .
sempre un poco pesante molto flessible j
11 Coro piccolo ·:.80 t:\
..,
"
.., ~ ...
- '--'
JL
'-...,; --...../ ~
-......,..
'-'
. ris le • ta fa . ci· es . do pro pi· na . tur._

f\ "~
T
tJ pespr.
B r-J%
--:-- .----...
- ~ ---..~. 11
>
-
:±::tt:
Ve ris le ta fa . el· es mun do pro pi· na
±-..¡....::::::j
. tur,_
8"'... "... _......... -_... --.. -... - _... -_.. - - _. _. - _... -... - - -.. - ... - _...- --- -••... - - _.... _...... ,
1\ ;; ,&, ~ LJ
~.:
; ~6 f. The accompani
Below and aboye it
'IIIO,:.•.c an joner voice sus
~ E ~ . "plit root) and GI
F 1'" c:)f course; the aural
l :--..:e uiad. I
): ~
klangv~ll
_.--JI
COr., Trbne., Pno.
e'
-;
.
JI
QUARTAL AND QUINTAL CHORDS

Composers of the twentieth century have not restricted themselves to tertian sonorities--that
, _''I'!ly one important is, 10 chordal formations based on stacked 3rds. There are essentialIy only four possibihties:
lImé"_ :mo something un
Chords buílt from 2nds (7ths)
):r. ::mg the root or the

Chords buílt from 3rds (6ths)
r ::-aditional sonority.
:"C.:~'! for its occasional
Chords buílt from 4ths (5ths)
Chords bullt from mixed intervals
1iIIt!::::'..lssages based on In this section we will explore quartal and quintal chords-those built from 4ths and 5ths.
: ," ":::'cOrient or of the Later sections will deal with chords constructed from 2nds and with mixed-interval chords,
I!I::.~_.~;;, a chant melody A quartal chord can have as few as three pitch classes (as in Example 3-17a) or it can
~. ~~. practical one have several (Example 3-17b). It is sometimes possible to omit a member of a quartal or
quintal chord (the E4 in Example 3-17b, for instance) without losing its character. Various
56 The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneilies
voicings and octave duplications are also used (as in Example 3-17c), but sorne arrange
ments could destroy the quartal character of the sonority. Quintal chords work the same way ':O:ltl
(as in Example 3-17d), but they have a more open and stable sound and, of course, occupy :·~·I
more vertical space per chord member. Surely a near-record for range must be held by the
ten-note quintal chord that occurs near the end of Gyorgy Ligeti's Melodies lor Orchestra
(1971), spanning a range of more than five octaves, from A~ 1 to B6.
EXAMPLE 3-17 Quartal and Quintal Chords
----- .
~=_
~~~~
-~-~--. -
-----=-.--.-~.-~
~-~-y-
(a) (e) IEXN"IPLE 3-

-~. ~
(b)
~.. . 11 p:. 11 ~ : -q~ ..

:> •
A convenient way to describe quartal and quintal chords is to use, for example, FI=..~
\~!
"3 X 4 on B" to mean a three-pitch-class quartal chord with B as the bottom pitch class, as
in Example 3-17a. Example 3-17b would be a "7 X 40n C#." AH of the chords in Exam
pIe 3-17c would be "4 X 4 on E;' and "5 X 5 on G" would describe Example 3-17d.
EXAMPLE 3-18
A static 6 X 4 chord on A is the basis for Example 3-18.
Howard Hanson: Symphony No. 2, Op. 30 (1930),1, rehearsal J (strings only)

~-. ~ =~
(Copyright © /932 by !he Eastman School of Music. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of earl ~.
Fiseher, /ne., sole ogent for !he Eostmon School of Music Publlcotíons.)
~
"b~~ \',.i ~ b~ ~ be ~~~ ~J._
H~)~~~H~
-~---+--+--1L-
~~~.:~:JC
~'!oC~
C\C~
Molto pió mosso (~" tt2 ) ::::.: ':"j~

±r~3
" b.J~.J~.J~.J.
- • I ~ (!i; • ~~~-~~~-------,~ ~ (!i; • ~ ~
.l ~:QIII
Vl.l
-¡)pp :::..L-::a.J
con sordinó IÍ:!é --.::1
"
...
VI. II I~~----===-~
VI•. I~,om~ó~; rlt.~

.... I
pp
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneíties 57
- -~ . rol sorne arrange The chords in Example 3-19 are almost exc1usively quartal, but the analysis is
"!r" -~, .... orli: the
same way complicated by arpeggiations and voicings. One possibility is to analyze the harmony as
aL ':"'-'.:1. of course, occupy four quartal chords. as marked on the score.
:u:;: :nust be held by the
, V:, . .odies for Orchestra a==5X40nP.
t
b == 3 X 4 on D ("inverted")
e =5 X 4 on B~
-...
d=4x40nD~
'
...... EXAMPLE 3-19 Copland: Piano Fantasy (1957). mm. 20-24 (© Copyright /957 by the Aoron Cof>Iand
Fund for Musi<:, 'ne.; copyright renewt'd. Used by pennlulon o( fIoosey & Howkes, Inc~ sote licensee.)
8""--- .. ----------,
use, for example,

Jb.: -.:·"om pitch das!!, as
11l- :.-,e chords in Exam
r-...:-~ Example 3-17d.
. -... J (strings only)

...'~,: :y permission of Corl
~.~
La----.J ,_'_ _ b _ _ _ _ _---'1 LI_ _ C ----.J L -_ _ _ d _ _ _---'
A second approach (and still others are possible) would be to combine a and b into a
single 7 X 4 chord on F. and to combine c and d into a single 7 X 4 chord on B~. Both of
these analyses are supported by the pedal markings. Notice that the a/b chord contains all
of the pitch classes of the G major scale, whereas the pitch classes from C~ major make up
the dd chord. Notice also the oversize time signatures Copland employs here. Presumably
these are seen more readily than are the traditional time signatures, certainly when used in
a conductor's score, as in Example 3-20.
The last 21 measures of the movement from which Example 3-20 is taken are static
harmonically, consisting for the most part of embellishments of a quintal chord on D~. At
the very end, shown here, the chord turns out to be a 5 X 5 chord on Dk
..
EXAMPLE 3-20 Percy Grainger: Uncolnshire Posy (1937), 111. "Rufford Park Poachers;' mm. 99-103 EXAMPLE 3-21
(Copyright~ 1966 (Renewed) by G. Sdlirmer, Inc. (ASCAP) Intemational copyright secured.AlI rights
reserved. Reprinred by permission.)
Slowoff
~._---------------- ~~--------------------~~----*----~--------------------1
long
.~
p-,a···· 5 4 F=
~ .
.4 3
8 .
8 t:'I
'--'
lb
+=~===--t-=:=;::
lead lO p
p Alexaro
he seldOl
shown in
two of tIl
correct t(
3 other an,¡
4 3-22b. If
in varioo:
~
EXAMPl
I.:J
long
pp
Quartal and quintal chords are most often made up of perfect intervals, but augment
ed and diminished 4ths and 5ths may be included. In Example 3-21 each of the arpeggiat
ed triplet chords, as well as the eighth-note chords beneath them, is a 3 X 4 chord, with the
lower 4th augmented.
SECUNDAL Ct1
The third
majoror r
rather thaJ
placed adJ
and "tone
The
but the aq
provides a
"'"'
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneities 59
=-oachers," mm. 99-103 ::XAMPLE 3-21 Debussy, Preludes, Book 11 (1913),"Ondine:' mm. 4-7
~ secured.AII rights
-=..=;:-===--+ppp
The use of diminished 4ths and augmented 5ths in quartal and quintal chords can
lead to perplexing questions, since these intervals sound like 3rds and 6ths. An example is
Alexander Scriabin's "mystic chord," a sonority that ftavors much of his music, although
he seldom uses it in literal fashion. The "mystic chord" is found in at least the two forms
shown in Example 3-22. Example 3-22a contains one °4, while Example 3-22b contains
two of them. As long as the voicing is predominantly quartal, as it is here, it is probably
correct to analyze both chords as altered 6 X 4 chords, but other voicings might lead to
other analyses. The diminished scale can serve as the source for the chord in Example
3-22b. If you turn back to Example 2-17, you will see that this chord is strongly suggested
in various transpositions and voicings in that excerpt.
EXAMPLE 3-22 Scriabin's Mystic Chord

\!I 11
long ~ ...
pp
4t.l
(a) .~~
t :Lc.ervals, but augment
:: :...;..:h of the arpeggiat
1:- • -+ chord, with the
SECUNDAL CHORDS
The third possibility for chord construction is the secundal chord, a sonority built from
major or minor 2nds or from a combination of the two. Such chords may be voiced as 7ths
rather than as 2nds, but this is the exception. More often the notes oi a secundal chord are
placed adjacent to each other, an arrangement sometimes referred to by the terms "cluster"
and "tone cluster."
The secundal chord in the second measure of Example 3-21 is voiced as a cluster,
but the arpeggiations obscure this somewhat (the chord is F#-G-A-B-C#). Example 3-23
provides a clearer illustration of clusters.
60 The Vertical Dlmension: Chords and Simultaneíties
EXAMPLE 3-23 Charles Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2 (Concord) (1915),11 (Copyright© 195·
by Assodated Mus;c Publishers,/nc. (aMI) Intemational copyright secured.AU righu resenec.
by pennission.)
a.
(faster and faster)
Rw- -- -- - -- -- -- - -- - -. - - -- - --. - -- - -,
!fJJI
The
secunda! .;
other chor
not as du,
incomplef.t
-.-- _.- -.- - --- --- ---- --- --- ---- - -- ---- --- - --- -- --- ---- --- -- --. -........ -...... _.. -...... ·to here
G:>J.
In some keyboard works, special notation is used to indicate whether or not the C4
black keys are to be included in the cluster. Others require that the cluster be performed
with the forearm or with a board. In Example 3-24, the pianist plays black keys with the
left hand and white keys with the right, resulting in nearly chromatic clusters of eight or
A,.~
nine pitches each.
EXAMPLE 3-24 Sofia Gubaidulina: Lamento for Tuba and Piano (1977)
D3
(© /99/ by Musikverlag Hans Sikorski, Hamburg.)
B,:
."
The Vertical Dlmension: ChDrdlil and Sim~ G1
~@ 1951 (Renewed) In Example 3-25a. the composer suggests two ways of playing a "lateral tremoIo
!t I.J .,.nts reserved. Reprinted between white and black keys. shown in Example 3-25b.
:xAMPLE 3-25 William Bolcom. No. 5 from 12 New E.tudes for Piono (1986). m. 11
(@ 1988 by Edward B. Maria Musíc Com/lllny.)
b. A lirtle slower J ~ c. 70
J -----
-.~-------'.~~-I
-~._-
l' .?
passionate
The chords that accompany the first violin in Example 3-26 might be explained as
secundal chords, the first one containing the pitch classes G~, A~. B~, C, and D, and the
r.h. other chords being transpositions of the first one. The voicing of the chords, however, is
::>f':\ not as clusters, but as altemating major 3rds and tritones, resulting in the sound of an
incomplete B~ 13th chord:
.. ·---tohere G~4
11h::l:.:: ~'bether or not the C4

} tritone
[ ::-:te .:Iuster be performed

¡l'U.' 5
'-:.ó.l.2':
bJack keys with the
c1usters of eight or
A~3
} major3rd
y77)
D3
} tritone
} m.jO>" 3m
-
B~2
EXAMPLE 3-26 Paul Hindemith: String Quartet No. 3, Op. 22 (1921), V, mm. 64-66 (© B. Schott's
Soehne, Mainz, 1923. © Renewed. AII rights reserved. Used by permission of European American Music s.0~
Oistributors Corporotion, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for B. Schott's Soehne, Mainz.) ¡aL... i
[eTIJI>
~
dJ,e".y
colJ'lllll
~.
WHOLE-TCl
A.r.:
- loor I
dim. molto
.ff e-C: :lt
h~~
re::::.:D
.ff dim. molto tr.,:1D
e ''"'0111
MIXEO-INTERVAL CHOROS EXAI'

A mixed-interval chord is one that did not originate as a series of 2nds, 3rds, or 4ths,2 but
instead combines two or more of those interval types (with their inversions and com
pounds, of course) to form a more complex sonority. The possibilities are numerous.
~~
..
Most mixed-interval chords are subjects to other interpretations-that is, they could,
on closer inspection, be arranged to look like secundal, tertian, or quartal chords. The
mixed-interval chord in Example 3-27 will be used to illustrate this. It could be arranged,
although incorrectIy, as:
S('a.l~
a secundal chord D-E-F-G#-A#-B ~

a tertian chord E-G#-B-D-F-A# B$:aJ
a quartal chord F-B-E-A#-D-G# nam .."
f',I.Ü:D
EXAMPLE 3-27 George Walker: Piano Sonata No.o4 (1985),11, m. 58 (© 1985, MMB Music) pre5e:lll
1
ba.~j
:> •';;:>i¡;=:>i:;==:>.==:>i¡;=:>~
¡ :>
¡ :>
¡ :>
¡ :> :> :> :> :> >
momo:
In thu
sure .J
plamo:
s<xooJ
~ntlll
ton.al .=,
\\1--(1'.
::..
~"~
The Vertical Dimensian: Charos and Simultaneities 63
-,-,. M-66 (© 8. Schott'$ In most cases the context will suggest the best analytical approach. For instance, the
ri ~,~n American Mu$ÍC sonata from which Example 3-27 comes is an atonal work with few, if any secundal, tert
_. """"'z-! ¡an, or quartal chords, so it is appropriate to call this a mixed-interval chord, even if that
term istoo broad to be very descriptive.
tr This brings us to the question of just how one goes about analyzing and labeling
these sonorities, a complicated problem that has been tackled by various composers and
theorists-notably Paul Hindemith, Howard Hanson, and Allen Forte. Because so many
combinations of intervals are possible, a completely new system of chord classification
had to be devised, and this system is the subject of much of Chapter 9.
WHOLE-TONE CHORDS
Any ehord whose members could be obtained from a single whole-tone scale is a whole
tone chonV A numher of sueh chords are possible, of eourse. A few of them are illustrat
ed in Example 3-28. Such sonorities for the most part appeared rarely in elassieal tonal
harmony, but sorne whole-tone ehords, including those in Example 3-28, are at least
reminiseent of traditional ehords. Example 3-28b, for instance, is an ineomplete dominant
7th ehord, and Example 3-28d is a French augmented-6th ehord, but Examples 3-28e and
e would have to be explained as altered versions of simpler ehords.
EXAMPLE 3-28 Whole-Tone Chords

ti >,J". 3rds, or 4ths,2 hut
:::versions and com
III:!"'':::
kL'!" are numerous.

t:j:<:--rnat is, they could,
1=.. 441
(a) (b)
11
..
.~I
(e)
11
#i'
.. ~
(d)
11 ~_
(e)
d
L " guartal chords. The
hr, could be arranged,
Whole-tone ehords will naturally oceur in any music that is based on the whole-tone
seale. For an illustration, tum baek to Example 2-6 (p. 25), a whole-tone excerpt by
Dukas. The first measure uses a French augmented-6th sonority (B#-E-F#-A#). When the
B# moves to E in the next measure, we are left with only the notes of an in complete domi
nant 7th ehord (E-F#-A#). Neither of these ehords is used in a traditional manner. The last
two measures are based on a different whole-tone seale, and the whole-tone ehords, though
MI'. s.s I© /985, MM8 Muslc) present, are more diffieult to charaeterize.
More interesting, perhaps, is the use of whole-tone chords in passages that are not
based primarily upon the whole-tone scale, because here they provide an unexpeeted har
monic color. Again an earHer example, Example 2-10 (p. 28), can provide an illustration.
In this case the pitch environment is Phrygian, exeept for the last ehord of the second mea
sure (A~-F#-C-D). The altered tone, F#, produces a whole-tone chord that could be ex
plained as a French augmented-6th chord moving direcdy to the tonie G, or as a
second-inversion dominant 7th in G with a ftatted 5th (A~). More whole-tone chords are
seen in Example 3-29. the first phrase of a work that is atonal until a suggestion of a G~
tonal center in the final eadence. In this phrase the measures altemate between WT-I and
WT-O, although each measure ineludes a passing tone that is out of the seale.
64 The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Slmultaneities
EXAMPLE 3-29 Scriabin; Etude. Op. 56. No.... (1907), mm. 1-4
Presto
~ ... ,,,~~:.op
Finally, look once more at the Hindemith excerpt, Example 3-26. We have analyzed
the chords in this excerpt as secundal chords, as mixed-interval chords, and as 13th chords; :1i
we can see now that they are also whole-tone chords, each one being derived from one of ,íIIllllli~: '::It
the two whole-tone scales. nmlill«i"i ,,,,,"iI!I

"IU::':'I""I:~
POLYCHORDS
':--r¡
A polychord combines two or more chords into a more complex sonority, but it is crucial ,.,,- .:..,
that the lis tener be able to perceive that separate harmonic entities are being juxtaposed if
the result is to be a true polychord. Any 11th or 13th chord could be explained as a combi
nation of two simpler sonorities, but this would be an incorrect analysis if we do not hear
them that way. J
EXAMPLE 3-30 Apparent Polychords
,1icS~~
D
Irc:!ª"'
D7
minor
-= -::
1
In order to be heard as a polychord, the individual sonorities that mue up the poly '!II~~!I~' 11
chord must be separated by some means such as register or timbre. In Example 3-31 the JlI!!'¡!I"'lIr~
first and last chords could easily be heard as 11th chords, but in the rest of the phrase the :::~'",'IIr":t '.
different registers and the pervading contrary motion between the two chordal units result I:t . .
in an unambiguous polychordal texture. Persichetti concludes another of his works, the ,II::::::I~
Symphony for Band, Op. 69 (1956), with a spectacular polychord that combines four '1II11:::::¡¡r'' i, óI
registrally distinct sonorities: B~ major, A major 7th, B major 7th, and F major with an 1
added 9th. The resulting polychord contains all twelve pitch classes. ,:1 1•
;:::;::.
The Verticsl Dimension: Chords aOO Simultaneities 65
E:(AMPLE 3-31 Vincent Persichetti: UttIe Piano 8001<, Op. 60 (1953), "Prologue," mm. 1-4
(© /954 flkon-Voge/,/nc. Used by permission ofÚle publisher.)
Adagio pesante
I
'" TJ
.. \: ~
H
I I
. .--r---... ...
~.·~i~~.&J
l···~···~· h~a l~: .u.O ~I ~i3-
e :'-:;6. We have analyzed

!Ir.:-rjs. and as 13th chords; Stravinsky's famous "Petrushka chord" combines two triads a tritone apart: major e
!Ie'.:J g derived from one of and F# major. This polychord is seen in Example 3-32, along with another polychord: F#
major/G major. In the orchestral version, the ascending figures are played on a piano, the
descending ones on clarinets.
[ '" -nvrity, but it is crucial EXAMPLE 3-32 Stravinsky: Petrushka (191 1), Second Tableau (© Copyright 19/2 by Hawkes 8< Son
e; :':-c being juxtaposed if (London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission o( Boosey 8< Howkes, Ine.)
. ::-.:c !'-plained as a combi
espr. :>
lit..:...' sis if we do not hear
\~~>~>.~3"3~
,. 3
(i) --=======
33=
:=::::::-- 3
The constituents of polychords are usually tertian triads or 7th chords, but all of the
!S :-.2ct make up the poly other kinds of sonorities discussed in this chapter could also conceivably be susceptible to
IP! b Example 3-3 J the polychordaJ treatment. For instance, near the end of Example 2-7 (p. 26) there is a 3 x 4
b: ~"t of the phrase the chord on E in the upper staff of the accompaniment and a nb major triad in the lower staff.
: :-- . ..:hordaJ units result The only requirement for a polychord is that the listener be able to perceive the chords as
a:C<eT of bis works, the separate entities. There will inevitably be ambiguous cases, however, where one listener
Il:r.: that combines four hears a polychord and another hears a single complex sonority.
lit lnd F major with an The use of a polychord does not necessarily indicate that a passage is polytonaJ.
c::- Polytonality will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.
66 The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneíties
SUMMARY
The harmorues of tonal music were limited for the most part to tertian triads and 7th
chords. In contrast, composers of the twentieth century have felt free to make use of
any conceivable combination of pitches. In the most simple terros, there are four
possibilities for chord construction:
Secundal chords (also tone clusters)
Tertian chords (including 9ths, etc.)
Quartál chords (also quintal chords)
Mixed-interval chords
Tertian chords, the most traditional of the four types, have been subjected to sorne
new variations:
Addednotes
Split chord members
Open 5ths
One special case, especially important in the early part of the century:
Whole-tone chords
And finally, the possibility of juxtaposing two or more auralIy distinguishable

sonorities:
Polychords
It is frequently the case that a particular sonority is open to more than one
interpretation. This is particularly true with mixed-interval chords, many of which
can be arranged to resemble secundal, tertian, or quartal chords. The student must be
sensitive to the context and the voicing in attempting to choose the best analytical
approach. The three chords in Example 3-33, though containing the same pitch
classes, obviously must be analyzed differently.
EXAMPLE 3-33 Three Different Chords Containing the $ame Pitch Classes
ifFA~ -1'_13 I§
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Slmultaneitles 67
NOTES
1. Another approach to chords wíth added notes and split chord members ís taken by
j: lLrtÍan triads and 7th Bryan Sirnms in Music 01 the Twentieth Century, pp. 55-58. He identifies nine pairs of
~~:: free to make use of "triadie tetrachords"-that is, four-note chords that contain a major or minor triad.
le :erms, there are four TIte first chord of eaeh pair ís a major triad plus one of the other nine notes of the ehro
matie seale, while the second ebord of eaeb pair is the mirror inversion of the first.
2. Sorne writers use the term compound chord.
3. Sorne theorists use the term whole-tone dominant for whole-tone chords that have a
traditional dominant function.
EXERCISES
inle:!n subjected to sorne
l. Review the nine chord types in the Summary section. TIten find one example of each
type in the example below.
¡,¡ I I I ,.. 1 ...... .11 I

-4
\
(a~.~
tt.l I I T ¡ - -
(b) (el (d) (e) .J (1) P (g)
11 .... bn
I
.
(h) (i)
,P 6
::;L!
.IIJIr-.illY distinguishable
2. Make up one example of eaeh of the nine ehord types and notate them on staff papero
Try not to duplicate any of those found in the text. Label each chord.
3. Find the doubly chromatic mediant relationship in Example 3-9.
~'t: 10 more than one 4. Name the scales used in the following exeerpts:
:a:'l"Js. many of which
(a) Example 3-3, treble-elef melody
k Tbe student must be
~ me best analytical
(b) Example 3-9, last four measures (without the E~; C is tonie)
liliil::.:ng the same pitch (e) Example 3-15
(d) Example 3-21
(e) Examp1e 3-26, cello only (missing anA)
III'I!II! ~Classes (f) Example 3-27
Part 8: Analysis
1. Two different types of tetrachords are used in Example 2-8 (p. 27), one in 8a and one
in 8b. Identify these ehord types.
2. Debussy: Preludes, Book 1, ''The Engulfed Cathedral," m. 1-5
There are three planes to the texture of tbis excerpt. One is the static three-note chord
• 11 "~
68 The Vertical Dimenslon: Chords and Simultaneities
in the highest register, another is the quarter-note chords, and the third is the three 4. De
note chords in the lowest register. What kind of chord do all three planes make use of? .-\JI
To what scale do the quarter-note chords belong?
Profondément calme (Dans une brume doucement sonore)
8""--,
.0.-
~
-----
~J f+' ..
~r~
~.
i .. ~ •
~~-~= .~
~
r~
---=----==_.
~-
:&:~
_
u ._
- -_n :
-u. n·
-&. ""--
-----
-
-~.
--
--- .s.s..
.....-- :¡;;:.
5. Ra~~
3. Stravinsky: The Rake's Progress (1951), III The
What kind of sonority predominates in this passage?
f=69 NICK
\.!~
:~f~;~
..
,
Well, thim.
-
, I,..~
--- -~~~
._----_._-
.~_.-
)1 Cemb.oSolo a
My heart_ is wild_ with fear, ____ .~
(© Copyright /95/ by Ha~ & Son (London) Ud. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of Baosey & Hawk.es,/nc.)
-
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Simultaneitíes 69
!.r,: 'J,e third is the three 4. Debussy: The Joyous Isle (1904), mm. 152-55
.:- -::::: planes make use ofl And in this one?
~
--:-'
~~
.
~
\~~~~~~~~~
sempre cresc. -
1~'-1w
r~r'
5. Ravel: "Minuet on the Name of Haydn" (1909), mm. 50-54

The chords here are tertian. Label the six bracketed chords with Roman numerals.
Lent rallo
t:\
V
1
'.:J
a '1)' e ''(1 e
¡ !
f
6. Ravel: Sonatina (1905), 1, mm. 79-84 7. Char

This excerpt contains several sonorities that could be analyzed as added-note chords. Expl.
Find them, as well as an unconventional German augmented-6th chord.
a Tempo ral len tan do
-.1
•
--==== .~
SiFlf~~4~-r=
gl~,:ij=m'
i
»>:>
Lent 8"'----, ¡:rJ:-;

IJ-~
- -. -. - - - - - - -. - ___ o -_ - -.
t:\
73ht:
-~~
~
L-e-'
K.opyright@ /942 1"
. . re$erved.~
8. Alban
Thí, ~
outpuit
the r~1¡
ered l!:
(al Th
:..J:lIo
p3II
(b¡ '\'k
1,2;a
(el T!J
1.lL"
~~
~-,~
.>..:;¡¡
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Símultaneitíes 71
7. Charles Ives: Violín Sonata No. 4 (1915), II

! l:' ..>Jded-note chords. Explain or discuss each of the five labeled chords.
lIt't ~:"iord.
do
\
,~~~~~~~~
~--- a ____ -1
' - - - - d _ _.-1
L.e--.J
ICopyright © /942 (Renewed) by Assodated Music Publishers, lne. (BMI) Intemationol copyright secured.AII
rights reserved. Reprinted by permission.)
8. Alban Berg: "Wann Is the Air" ("Wann die Lüfte"), Op. 2, No. 4 (1910), mm. 20-25
This is a complicated and intriguing excerpt from early in Berg's compositional
output. Our analysis will be concemed only with the piano part, while recognizing that
the relationship between the voice and the accompaniment would have to be consid
ered in a complete analysis.
(a) There are at least two ways to approach chords a-f analytically. One is to
understand how they are "generated"-that is, how they come about. What soft of
pattern does the bass line under chords a-f follow?
(b) Meanwhile, the right hand in chords a-f moves a three-note chord down chromat
ically. How would you c1assify that chord?
(c) The second way of dealing with chords a-f is to analyze each individually. The
last of them could be analyzed as a dominant 7th with split 3rd: B7(3!). The oth
ers appear to be mixed-interval chords. but closer inspection reveals that they
could also be analyzed as tertian chords. Which chords out of a-e could be
analyzed as incomplete dominant 7th chords with split 3rds?
(d) And which could be analyzed as incomplete 13th chords?

(e) Of the remaining chords (g-l), list any that are identical to or are transpositions of
one ofthe earlier chords (a-f). - ......,;
(f) What single category would best describe chords g, i, and k? ". $
(g) What pattem seems to emerge in chords g and i?

(h) Considering your answer to the preceding question, what note seems to be :L<cJlC!
missing from chord k?

kurzer l,~:::~::'I
Hall
p "h"Umg~
¡-3-------¡ a~
_ .. _._ pt:\ ~.::.
~===~~~@§.S • ~f •
. -.~~....~
. =: ....."".
>11.
Der Ei - ne stirbt, da ne - ben der An dre Jebe Das
.: .-:DI
'------
8"'· --. -.. - -- ---_. - ----- ---. --- -,
L.. a --l L-- b ----l L..c L..d--l L..e--l
~
L f-.l L..
. ~
g --l L - - h
tief
~
p
. ~
----..1 L.. i .......J L .._ j ----.-J L.. k.......J ,-1_ __
(Reprinted by pennission o( the original pub/isher, Robert Uenau, Berlin.)
~
The Vertical Dimension: Chords and Símuffaneitles 73
FURTHER READING
iC:!f are transpositions of
DALLIN, LP..oN. Techniques ofTwentieth Century Composition. See Chapter 6. Chord Structure.
KOSTKA, STEFAN, AND DoROTHY PAYNE. Tonal Harmony with an Introduction lo Twentieth
Century Music. See pp. 482-491.
10 ~ note seems to be PERSICHETTI, VINCENT. Twentieth-Century Harmany. See Chapter 3, Chordsby Thirds;
Chapter 4, Chords by Fourths; Chapter 5, Added-Note Chords; Chapter 6, Chords by
Seconds; Chapter 7, Polychords; and Chapter 8, Compound and Mirror Harmony.
kurzer
Halt PISTON, WALTER. Harmony. See pp. 499-507 in Chapter 31, Scalar and Chordal Types.
..... pl':'l REISBERG, HORACE. "The Vertical Dimension in Twentieth-Century Music," in Gary
~.=- .. - Wittlich, ed., Aspects 01 Twentieth-Century Music. See pp. 322-372.
lru SIMMS, BRYAN R. Music 01 the Twentieth Century. See the section titled "Triads and Triadic
Das Extensions" in Chapter 3.
STEINKE, GREG A. Bridge to 20th Century Music. See Chapters 11 and 12, Expanded Chord
Vocabulary 1 and n.
lIt:'- .:-.".,
--------FOUR-------- 11ié'.•.• .JI¡
~:i 11
1'1 r.l!! l
:;'!1.. '-.ul'!
The Horizontal Dimension:

~;:11!
no: "'J:!1
7.r~:," 1]
Melody and Voice Leading

ln.é
~'1
:.)Ie
JI
T:t"'-~
']
m¡,¡ ;..
1'!é"- .,'=::1
='~-'i:1m1
1::<:;: 1li
T::. ..
:Lt""-: •
..::..u.."::lI..:::I
INTRODUCTION
Voice leading-how chords are created by the motion of individual voices-is one of the --~-
main concems of conventional tonal theory.1 Even today the voice-Ieading conventions
followed by composers of the tonal era occupy an important part of the course of study in -:z
colleges and universities around the world. But a glance at the table of contents of this
book will reveal that voice-Ieading conventions are not a central issue in much of the music .?
of the twentieth century. In fact, as we shall see later in this chapter, one of the most
hallowed principIes of voice leading was an earIy casualty of the assault on musical con
ventions made by a number of composen; around the tum of the century.
..
MeIody, on the other hand, is usualIy slighted in courses in music theory, perhaps be
cause we tend to think of such courses as dealing with tonal harmony rather than with tonal
music. Nevertheless, all of us probabIy have a pretty good notion of what conventional
tonal meIodies are like, even if we have never actually tried to anaIyze one. The first part of
-
this chapter will examine some of the new melodic techmques that have been used by com
posers in the twentieth century. But before looking at some twentieth-century examples, it
might be worthwhile to spend a littIe time with a familiar tonal melody.
TONAL MELODY
The last movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in D Major, K. 284, is a set of variations on
an original theme (that is, on a theme composed by Mozart himself and not borrowed from :;¡
someone else). Of course, the theme consists of not just the melody, but also the accompa
mment, texture, harmony, dynamics, register, articulation, and so forth; in this discussion,
..
l'
74
-~-
The Horizontal Dimension: Melodyand Voice Leading 75
however, w.e will concentrate on the melody, given in Example 4-1. Like many fine
me1odies, this tune is deceptively simple. Its four phrases begin in mm. 1, 5, 9, and 14,
each phrase preceded by an anacrusis. In every case the anacrusis consists of two Ns, but
in the pickup to m. 9 the Ns are omamented with GI neighbors. In every case but m. 9, the
pickups are followed by a strong half-note D on the downbeat. Not only do alI the phrases
ansion:
begin the same, but they also end the same, with a two-note stepwise descent OOginning on
the strong beat of the fourth measure of the phrase. Again the third phrase offers some con
trast, this time by augmenting the rhythm of the cadential figure (m. 12), followed by an
reading
unexpected 3~ beats of silence that Mozart has much fun with in the variations. Finally,
each phrase reaches its highest pitch-the climax or focal point-in the second or third
measure of the phrase, giving them a certain simiIarity of basic contour.
The unity that is provided by the consistent OOginnings and endings of the phrases
and by their contours is complemented by an interesting motivic organization within and
between the phrases. The interior of phrase 1 uses two motives, marked "a" and "b" in the
example. Motive "a" is used in contrary motion (or inversion) in m. 2, and motive "b" is
used in sequence in m. 3. Phrase 2 begins after the pickup figure with inversions of both "a"
(m. 5) and "b" (m. 6) and introduces a new figure, "c," which is used twice in m. 7. The
third phrase offers more contrast motivically just as it did in its use of the anacrusis and
cadence figures. The figures in m. 9 are heard as variants of "c," but just as apparent to the
EXAMPLE 4-1 Mozart: Piano Sonata, K.284 (1775), 111, mm. 1-17 (melody only)
il:w...oices-is one of the
If:r.• .e.leading conventions ~2r;:b~ 3~~~ 4~
r :: :he course of study in
: '~~:e of contents of this
J Ir DJiILrEJEF[rIErErLEdLr r ~ 4 I
5..,-,,,,,,, In much of the music f
C7:"':'::"I:er. one of the most
r: ':'-'-1ult olÍ musical con
~:-:lr:·. 6 8
lII'_<': theory, perhaps 00

,;"" :-ather than with tonal p
la:'" :,( w.hat conventional
k'o 0ne. The first part of
1[ ~."". e been used by com
11~ 12~ 13
E-=-·~-. -,,;entury examples, it
a: ..'::-.
p
f
L • ~ :'et of variations on
not borrowed ftom
~. ;;'-·11
111:'. -.~:
a1so the accompa :11
, , .-_~. ín this discussion, p f
."
76 The Horizontal Dimension: Melody and Voice Leading
listener is the chromatic descent in the same measure: A-G#-G-F#, possíbly a compressed EXAMPLE 4-2 StI"3il..I5
version of "a" in contrary motion. Motive "a" is heard sequentially three times in mm.
Lebhaft beu. e"f,
10-11, the last time in rhythmic augmentation. Another interesting way to hear m. 11 is as
~
a sequential continuation of the stepwise descent from m. 9, with m. 10 serving as aforte
interruption. Finally, phrase 4 begins with a literal retum of mm. 1-2 (except for the dy
namics), followed by a literal transposition of mm. 7-8! That is, phrase 4 joins the first half ~JE02=~
_.
of phrase 1 to the second half of phrase 2 to effect a shortened retum of the opening periodo
Slightly over half of the melodic intervals in Mozart's melody are major or minor f
2nds, and 2nds and 3rds together account for seven-eighths of the intervals. All but two of
the thirteen leaps larger than a 3rd are fol1owed by motion contrary to the direction of the
¡~bk:J!Jr~
leap. One thing accomplished by the 3rds and the larger intervals is clarification of the har
monic structure. In mm. 16-17, for example, the implied harmonies are obviously I-IV (or
ii)-I-V7-I. Though the harmonies are not always so unambiguous, the basic harmonic
structure implied by the melody is usually clear.
.. . '-'
....
---
,~'L~
To summarize:
1. The melody exhibits a high degree of motivic unity, brought about through such
devices as repetition, retum, sequence, and inversion.
2. Each phrase has a single high point somewhere near the middle of the phrase.
3. The melody moves primarily in 2nds and 3rds, with larger leaps usually being Large k.a¡
followed by a change of direction. Chapter 2 I Fu
4. The basic harmonic structure is implied by the melody. whereas abom j,]¡
melody is not ...,
It would certainly be incorrect to assume that the basic characteristics of Mozart's bone is of a u. h:lrl
melody have been discarded by all composers in the twentieth century. With the exception the pitch mater..JI
of the fourth ítem in our list aboye, it would be safe to say that a great many twentieth to the compos.er
century melodies make use of the same compositional devices employed by Mozart. It woulct h
Nevertheless, we will frequently encounter differences that will help us to understand what range and use .! J
it is that gives twentieth-century melody its characteristic sound. ers do just rhe ~
the largest inta'l.
sound is its chr,:'1!
SOHE NEW STYLlSTIC FEATURES sorne segmem:.(
OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY HELODY
Phrase 1
To illustrate this part of the discussion we will begin with a famous theme by Richard Phrase 2
Strauss, a theme that belongs more to the late Romantic era than to the twentieth century, Phrase 3
but one that exemplifies how melody had developed since Mozart's time. Phrase 4
One ofthe first things that one notices about this melody is its wide range-from E~2 to
D5, just short of three octaves-with most of this span occurring in the first measure. While In each case. [he
stepwise motion accounts for about batf of the intervals, large leaps Oarger than a 3rd) are part. Another fe:.¡
much more prevalent than in Classieal-style. The rhythm, too, offers a contrast to Mozart's twentieth-cenrur:.
melody, the rhythmic variety, for example, ~ much greater in the Strauss excerpt. Certain of the carefull;o :1)
other features of this melody, including motivic o~anization, are similar to Mozart's. dictable mixtureJ
.~
•
The Horizontal Dimension: Melody and Voice Leading 77
·H. possibly a compressed Strauss: fin Helden/eben (A Hero's Life), Op. 40 (1898), mm. 1-13 (melody only)
IlCd y three times in mm.
Lebhaft bewegt
ITI~ way to hear m. 11 is as
~U.i~·WI~
1::. :7l. 10 serving as a forte
!T.. '_2 (except for the dy
;:'("_'-J.5,e 4 joins the first half
_ 3 / .
jA
!It.:.-o of the opening periodo
II!'-,:o.iy are major or minor f (

I
~ .::1tervals. AH but two of \
•.'~d·}'4iue~$5tl
nr:. LO the direction of the

~ _;. ,: larification of the har
ID::"- are obviously I-IV (or
~:'-'S. me basic harmonic
!C'_ ;Ju about through such
~ '":",:Jdle of me phrase.
j¡x-;er leaps usualIy being Large leaps occur still more frequently in the Hindemith theme discussed in
Chapter 2 (Example 2-18, p. 33). Notice that in this theme there are no 3rds at a1I,
whereas about half of the intervals are perfect 4ths or perfect 5ths. Though the range of this
melody is not wide in comparison with Mozart's, the effect when it is played on the trom
__3ICteristics of Mozart's bone is of a wider range than is actually the case. The chromatic scale that is the source of
C!!r..:..;., With the exception me pitch material in this melody is, of course, only one of the new scale resources available
1: 1 great many twentieth to the composer.
le' -employed by Mozart. It would be misleading to imply that a1l twentieth-century melodies span a wide
lile·::' us to understand what range and use a large number of leaps. Though this would be true of many melodies, oth
ers do just the opposite. The range of the melody in Example 4-3 ís only a perfect 5th, and
the largest interval is a minor 3rd. One aspect that gives this melody its twentieth-century
sound is its chromaticism. Each phrase (if we take each slurred segment as a phrase) spans
some segment of the chromatic scale:
Phrase 1 M3 (A-el)
meme by Richard
lIIC!::'c'liS Phrase 2 tt (A-E~)
I :c: :he twentieth century, Phrase 3 P4 (B-E)
~, :::me. Phrase 4 P4 (B~-E~)
i 1Ii>',je range-fromE~2 to
111 :-\le ñrst measure. While In each case, the second part of the phrase fills in chromatic notes missing from the first
11:'" larger man a 3rd) are parto Another feature of this melody is its unconventional rhythm. While details of
í:r- .1 contrast to Mozart's twentieth-century rhythm are the topie of a later chapter, we can observe here that, in spite
le 5::rauss excerpt Certain of the carefully notated changes in time signature, the Iistener perceives only an unpre
~ 'o Mozart's . dictable mixture of eighths and quarters, with stressed notes coming at irregular intervals.
78 The Horizontal Dimensíon: Melodyand Voice Leading
EXAMPLE 4-3 Bartók: Music for String Instruments, Percussion, and Celesta (1936), 1, mm. 1-4 EXAMPLE~
(© Copyright /937 in the USA by 800sey & Hawkes, 'ne. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permíssion.)
Andante tranquillo (J> = ca. 116-112)

con sordo
1.2. Viole lB gJJ>jij'r I~ l' J(1ii~ I~p -r iJJ-b I' .rjn g
~
Flute
ensol ~
1, ...
lB gftE@r-r 11i¡J , 1.f15f5i F.t3};¡u

Voix d'Alto lti.
The examples discussed so far have been instrumental melodies, but the develop
ments in the vocal idiom have been similar. Tum back to the Berg excerpt, Example 3-B-8
(p. 72), and you will notÍCe the same tendency toward more and wider leaps, the compara
FI.
en sol
I~..
tively wide range, especially for such a short excerpt, and its use of the chromatic scale.
The rhythm, while perhaps not unconventional, is more varied than in the Mozart theme.
Observe also that the melody does not imply the harmonic structure, in that you could not
predict the chords that Berg would choose to harmonize this melody; in fact, about half of Voix I~
e.
the vocal pitches are not contained in the chords that accompany them. The same propor
tion of notes might be nonchord tones in a tonal song, but in the Berg many of the "non
chord tones," such as the first and last notes of the excerpt, are left unresolved.
Two points made so far can be reviewed with the help of Example 4-4. Beginning
with the Hute part (the Hute in G sounds a perfect 4th lower than written), notice the ex
treme range of almost three octaves, with most of that occurring within m. 2 alone, and the
Fi.
en sol ~
overwhelming preponderance of leaps, especially wide ones, over stepwise motion. The re.
vocal range is not so extreme, but the voice part is equally disjunct and difficult to perform.
Both parts draw their pitch material from the chromatic scale and employ unconventional
rhythmic techniques. Both parts also use more expression marks (dynarnics, articulation) Voix ~
.
than was customary in earlier styles, which, while not strictly a melodic phenomenon,
certainly contributes to the effect.
Fi.
en sol
Voix
e.
, 936),1. mm. 1-4 EXAMPLE 4-4 Pierre Boulez: Le morteou sons moitre (The Hommer without o Master), (1955),111,
~ ~ by (Jelmission.) mm. 1-15 (Copyright 1954 by Universal E.dition (loiICJon) Ud.,london. Final version @ copyright /957
by Universal E.ditíon (london) /.td., london. Poems de Rene OJar @ copyright 1964 by JO$e Corte, E.diteur,
París. Copyright renewed. AII rights reserved. Used by (Jelmission of European American Music Distribumrs
Corparation, sole U. S. and Conadian agent for Universal E.dition (London) Ud., london.)
Modéré sans rigueur ( j = 6%)
Flute
en sol
Voix d'Alto
~:tO':les. but the develop

;e:1.~~ Example 3-B-8 Fl.
.~.,~ leaps, the compara en 801 pp
f
5 -::=-p
~ :.:' me chromatic scale.
pour4
pouró-=
3 (j:6.f) -c::::: 4
~. :.n the Mozart theme.
re. In that you could not
(J:IOf) :------ 5 --, 2 ::::::=- p 3
4
Voix
m.r:.. m fact, about half of
''l:ri::'m. The same propor
La_.._ rou ~ lot - te rou ge au_
~ Be-rg many of the "non
flatterzunge
t :JeSOlved.
E.u.:nple 4-4. Beginning quasif#=
I -nnen), notice the ex-
FI.
1"T'"t.:"..m m. 2 alone, and the en sol
4 mp -:::::
C' ~pwise motíon. The
t ~j difficult to perform.
5 pour5
3 7 3
111 !:7!lploy unconventional 8 8 4
• :.:. namics, articulation) Voix
lo -:-:',¡: ¡odic phenomenon,
bard
mp
du
=
pour4
14
r-5---,
I'!I
- - -- - -
FI.
en sol
ciaD
80 The Horizontal Dímension: Melody and Voice Leading
The Boulez excerpt is an example of an important trend among sorne twentieth SOMEASPEC
century composers to write what many would call1ess lyrical melodies-that is, melodies
that seem inherently less vocal, less Howing, more angular, and frequently more fragment Them
ed than we might expect from a tonal melody. Other composers--Gershwin, Hanson, m'<er5-Jlo
Sibelius, and many others-have kept more faithfully to the lyrical tradition of melody by Stni
writing. A fine twentieth-century example of a long, Howing melody in the lyrical tradition were .iiI
is the opening theme of William Walton's Violín Concerto (see Example 4-5). This (Exam¡
melody contains the numerous leaps so characteristic of many twentieth-century p.641
melodies, but its implied tertian harmonies, its straightforward tonality (with sorne modal Stud: E
Havor), and aboye all its mode of expression are obviously more Romantic than modern in thal (~
conception. Sorne composers in more recent years have shown a renewed ¡nterest in enhelei.
melodicism in the traditional sense, either through the quotation of melodies from earHer
times or through the composition of new, more lyrical melodies. Both of these aspects will
be discussed in later chapters.
EXAMPLE 4-5 William Walton:Violin Concerto (1939),1, mm. 1-18 (solo violin only) Each ¡yf
(@ /939 by Oxford University Press. Reproduced wifh pennission.) segmenr
Andante tranquillo (J = 95-100 circa)

~_. :~
p sognando -=:::::::::;::::::-'2::::::>--=::::::::::::::--c::::::::.:::=---=::::::: EXAMPLE 4--ó ~
**:=~~riiUFI" '''!!;. . ~
lE' §F~
--:-."~ ~
P.Ir ~SttfilrS&1 f~--
...
~ ~
~
::::::: :.:::=-- -=::::::: -=::::::: 1Iff -<::::: ::::;:::::::- 3 --
",
G:
ten. 3
"I;J. $llrq]J¡\QnWJI.. ~.
* This kil'J..,j
ofien calle
portanl I.m
nology h..a:s
:\D\."1I
Finally, we might observe that music of the twentieth century seems to be less con twelve-WD
cerned with melody in general. While much of tonal music is essentially homophonic chromatK
melody with accompaniment-the tendency in the twentieth century has been to put more and onl~ a
emphasis on other aspects of music, such as rhythm, texture, and timbre. in ExaJ14.....
another '<:':
discussai :c
The Horizontal Dimension: Melody and Voiee Leadlng 81
~,.: among sorne twentieth SOME ASPECTS OF MELODIC ORGANIZATION

, ~¿}odies-that is, melodies
lit.: c:-equently more fragment
The motivic devices such as those seen in Mozart's melody-repetition, retum, sequence,
[!'t .·".."'f'S--Gershwin. Hanson,
inversion-occur also in twentieth-century melodies. Surely the melodies in this chapter
," 'leal tradition of melody by Strauss, Bartók, and Walton could be discussed in those terms. Repetition and sequence
té.Jy in the lyrical tradition were also seen in previous examples by Lutoslawski (Example 2-20, p. 35), Debussy
.: '-..""'e Example 4-5). This
(Example 3-21, P'. 59), Hindemith (Example 3-26, p. 62), and Scriabin (Example 3-29,
:Ir ~y twentieth-century p. 64). Other melodic devices peculiar to the twentieth century have also come into use.
1: ,:'l1alíty (with sorne modal Study Example 4-6, paying special attention to the tbree pbrase marks. The tbree segments
~ Komantic than modero in that occur under the pbrase marks, though not related in traditional ways, are related nev
DI:-" ':1 a renewed interest in ertheless. The segments are:
n: )f melodies from earlier
l. A-C-C.
:> &1dI of these aspects will
2. D~F~D
3. C#-B~-D-C#
IS-.'""'O víolin only) Each of these segments contains tbree pitch classes. If we rearrange them, we see that each
segment spans a major 3rd and the interval content of each segment is identical:
1. A-C-C# = m3 + m2
2. D-D~F# = m2 + m3 (same intervals in reverse order)
3. B~-C#-D m3 + m2
EXAMPLE 4-6 Antan Webern: Five Canons.Op. 16 (1924). l. mm. 2-5 (voice only)
(@ 1928 by Universol Edition. Copyright renewed. AI/ rights reserved. Used by pennission of Europeon
Americon Music Distributors Corporation. sale U.S. ond Conodion ogent far Universol Edition.)
~qj ~r=df3'p /Ji4t~--=:L
Chri - stus fae - tus est pro no - bis ob - e di ens
This kind of motive, really a collection of intervals that can be rearranged and inverted, is
often called a pitch-class cell. The use of cells, usually of three or four notes each, is an im
portant unifying factor in some twentieth-century music, so important that a special termi
nology has been developed to deal with it. This terminology will be introduced in Chapter 9.
Another significant factor in the organization of melody has been the development of
~. :;.eems to be less con twelve-tone melody. This term does not refer to just any melody employing the whole
i¡'!C:-:ually homophonic cbromatic scale, but instead to a melody in which each and every pitch class is used once
n-:. has been to put more and only once (tremolo figures and irnrnediate repetitions are allowed). The horo melody
t:r::,,'re. in Example 4-7 is such a melody. Once the twelve pitch classes have been presented,
another series of twe1ve pitch classes, related to the first one, can begin. This procedure is
discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.
82 The Horizontal Dímension: Melody and Voice Leading
EXAMPLE +-7 Amold Schoenberg: Wind Quintet. Op. 26 (1924). 111. mm. 1-7 VOICE LEAD
(Used by pennissíon o(8elmont Music Publishers.)
In the t
Etwas langsam (Poco Adagio) J = 8/2
voice jq
Ií
centurl<
bya1l ;;:
homogt
p suchas
So.
N" al, e\en
from t.hí
p< :::::.=:=- -=:::: ::;:::::::::=- -=:::: ::::=- -=::::: :::::::::> onIy for
immer zart und gesangvoll tonal ":D
do seem
..,
It is. of
these ':0
more f411
tertian. !;
where ID
the exá.l1l
Two points about the notation of Example 4-7 should be made here. One is that this down b~
is a "C seore," meaning that all of the instruments sound where written, a development that most par
has no doubt met with the approval of students of musie everywhere. The second point exhibit..
eoneems the boldfaee "H" and uN" that appear at the beginning of the exeerpt. Schoenberg twentierll
and others used these letters to designate the Hauptstimme (primary voice) and the inelude E
Nebenstimme (secondary voice). The end of the Nebenstimme in Example 4-7 is marked in eh:
the bassoon at the end of m. 7. In a more complex texture, the Hauptstimme and the numbe: e
Nebenstimme would be the two most important parts, and it would be up to the conductor violín H ,
and performers to bring them out. tempo,&:
Many melodies are arranged so that there is a single high point in each phrase or in compan1l1
the melody as a whole, an approach that has been followed more or less faithfully for violín 1 .íól
centuries. If you look back at the melodies presented in this chapter so far, you will find This, of;;
that this holds true for every one of them. ofthe rno
In more general terms, one couId say that melodic organizatíon in the twentieth
century tends to be less apparent at the surface level, and the progress of twentieth-century
melodies ís less predictable than that of tonal meIodies. The phrases are less ofien equal in
length, and the elear period forms of the Classical era are the exception. Repetition and
sequence, while still found. are often abandoned in favor of other techniques.
The Horizontal Dimensíon: Melody and Voíce Leadíng 83
r.I-7 VOICE LEADING IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC

In the traditional study of tonal harmony, a great deal of attention is paid to the subject of
voice leading, or part-writing, and with good reason. Throughout the tonal era and for
centuries prior to its beginning, there were voice-Ieading conventions that were followed
by all composers and that did much to contribute to the homogeneity of their styles. This
homogeneity was most pronounced among composers who lived during the same period,
such as Haydn and Mozart, but sorne elements are shared by all composers of the tonal era.
Sorne of the "rules" that we leam in harmony courses are not actually all that gener
al, even when they are tested against tonal music. These include those procedures gleaned
from the study ofthe works of a particular composer (usually Bach) or that are really valid
onIy for a particular medium (usually choral). We leam them in order to begin the study of
tonal composition in a controlled and uncomplicated environment. 1\vo conventions that
do seem to be applicable throughout the tonal era, however, are the following:
l. ParalIel 5ths and octaves, especially the former, should be avoided. 2

2. Any chord 7th should resolve down by step.
It is, of course, possible to find passages of twentieth-century music that stilI adhere to
these conventions. This seems to be the case in Example 4-8, from a work that rnay be
more familiar to you under the title "Adagio for Strings." The harmonic vocabulary here is
tertian, simplifying the task of sorting out the nonchord tones, but there are several places
where more than one interpretation is possible. A suggested chordal analysis is included in
the example. There are four 7th chords in the excerpt, with the 7th in each case resolving
~ here. One is that this down by step into the next chord; the voice leading in the other instruments folIows for the
III--:=:!n. a development that most part the traditional preference for smooth chord connection. While Example 4-8
~ ... ::Joere. The second point exhibits smooth voice leading, very disjunct voice leading is a characteristic of much
e>r :.'toe excerpt. Schoenberg twentieth-century music. Examples of disjunct voice leading from earlíer in this text
;nmary voice) and the include Example 2-7 (p. 26) and Example 2-B-3 (p. 40).
EUJnple 4-7 is marked in Closer examination of Example 4-8 reveals two sets of parallel 5ths and the same
llI"x Hauptstimme and the number of parallel octaves. One of the sets of 5ths involves a nonchord tone (mm. 3-4,
IliLIC ':'e up to the conductor violin 11 and celIo), so it might conceivably be alIowed, and both sets of octaves involve
temporary octave doubling between an omamented melody and its slower-moving ac
p: .:::1t in each phrase or in companiment (mm. 4-5 and 7-8), also possibly acceptable. But the parallel5ths between
a:'=":: or less faithfully for violín 1 and celIo in mm. 5-6 cannot be explained at all satisfactorily in traditional terms.
at:'(Zf so far, you will find This, of course, is not an error on the part of the composer, but instead indicates that one
of the most sacred rules of counterpoint no longer has the validity that it once hado
1I:L2.i:ion in the twentieth
~=.." of twentieth-century
~ .lle less ofien equal in
~.~ =-?tion. Repetition and
r i.=,,: :miques.
84 The Horizontal Dímension: Melody and Voice Leadíng
EXAMPlE 4-8 Samuel Barber: String Quartet No. 1, Op. 1I (1936),11, mm. 1-8
(Copyrifht @ /949 (Renewed) by G. Schirmer,/nc. (ASCAP) Intemational copyright secured. AlI rights Lcr.;:L
reserved. Reprinted by permission.) '!:'.,r'!
Molto Adagio Irr"::=-
,.,
tJ
I
..=.
I
---t-. --+
I I
---,--
I I I
- -'l. ~
-.::::::¡::;t
--~
. ..:~ U'!
:"~~l
1:,,, ...
P.P--=== ::::::=:::::
" I
-,
espr. cantando
- - ¡-- .- .. -
-...,..
rr:,~'!"
""':::.:JIo,.
tr U"
P.P-= f ~ ~
- ~~
~
:(9.'
P:::.
:r~iiL~
~j~".,:,"
~"
;:"":7::::¡'¡'
..-.-. .~
~. n<t'J I
I
P.P-- f:::: = P:;; '~" rr1
. I .:re' ·'!',Im
'.';';:' ;,;:~

... .
~ -¡:;;;j
-p --6'. ,~ r.J ;¡. :' 1
P.P -=:::: :1'.h:1' 1
E~m7 F ~m A~ mM7 "=-',~ .•..LtQ
,., ...-- /' - - ....

- -:---
-
-= I
'~
tJ ::::::::- I I I
,., I
..
.
tJ
~ ~ .,t:t qe:
f-.
_.
'- . '
:>
.
I""f W .....
.-:I1 .
-u ,_.,- ..
''''
.
::::> J
Gb E~m7 cfl17 F
Parallel 5ths and octaves may occur incidentally in an otherwise traditional texture.
11.
as in Example 4-8, but they frequently play a more significant role. For instance, in
Example 3-B-6 (p. 70) Ravel makes consistent use of parallel 5ths in the lowest register
Parallel5ths also occur in chordal parallelism, a very important development in twentieth
The Horizontal Oimension: Melodyand Voice Leading 85
......., 1-8 century music. In tonal music the use offirst-inversion triads moving in parallel motion was
=-rt secured. AII rights an accepted compositional device, serving in many cases as a connection between two
more important chords and in others as a means of thickening a melodic lineo The use of a
three-part texture resulted in parallel 3rds, 4ths, and 6ths, but no parallel 5ths or octaves
occurred. Other uses of harmonic parallelism included parallel °7 chords and, less fre
quently, parallel 'iY] chords. Though parallel 5ths might occur on rare occasion, as in one of
the Wagner examples (Example 1-7, p. 8), their use was exceptional.
One reason for the traditional avoidance of parallel 5ths and octaves was that these
intervals, more than any other consonant interval, when used in parallel motion imply a
breakdown of counterpoint-that is, of relatively independent musical lines. We tend to
think of counterpoint as something found in fugues, but counterpoint of sorne kind was the
basis of most tonal music, which in fact evolved the way it did largely because of contra
puntal procedures. In the twentieth century, however, composers have been unrestrained in
their use of harmonic parallelism and have shown no aversion to the use of parallel inter
vals of all kinds. This has led to a redefining of sorne aspects of counterpoint and to new
developments in texture. If we can compare a single melodic line to a line drawn on a can
=ti:~==m_~m~ vas with a pen, then the analogy used earlier comparing harmonic parallelism to painting
with a broad brush may prove helpful. In Example 4-9, for instance, ascending scales in
both hands of the piano part are broadened into root-position triads wih roots doubled,
resulting in parallel 5ths and octaves.
EXAMPLE 4-9 Bartók Piano Concerto No. 2 (1931).I,mm.29S-304 (©Copyright 1933 by Hawkes &
Son (London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes,/nc.)
al
1\
~ ..
....
f
1\
Trb.
..... - ..
f
........
==== . . Do
1\
.... -
u :rmb. 1
,In - ,....... ..
f
,.... F . **f!, e: e:
c:.r r I •• S ......
Pfte.
) f
Ie"""-:s.e traditional texture,
:re -üle. For instance, in
I II t • ..... III tt
, ••
~, :n the lowest register.
,.:r. ::: íopment in twentieth- "
al/arg. EXAMPlE4- ()
rfA
.~
IV
A . .1.. ~
\~~
tl
-==:::::: -=:::: fIWo
..A
.~ .-----.
¡",.. I~
" .:I:'f
~ ..
A
~
l"""l I II JIL
-
..:I!:;1t.. e.,,~t ;;¡ II
sw···············
L
H
""~~ tt;
•••••••••••••• H ••••••••••••• ,
Ji.
I\I~ f¡
¡tl
I
....
.. * e.e.l" -=-u -.r~.J.
nll~~
t.
.........
1""'1
~ ..
... .. .. '.
B~
Harmonic parallelism, so typical of mucb twentietb-century music, is often referred

to as planing.3 Parallelism may be diatonic, meaning tbat it uses only tbe wbite keys of tbe
~~
't.
piano or sorne transposition of tbem (see Example 4-9), real, meaning tbat tbe sonority is
exactly transposed (see tbe piano in mm. 1-2 of Example 4-10), or mixed, meaning tbat
tbe parallelism is not consistently diatonic or real (see tbe cellos in m. 4 ofExample4-10). ~I!
Thougb tbere are lots of "parts" sounding in Example 4-10, it is really an example of
tbree-part counterpoint, twentietb-century style. The tbree parts are:
1. Violins and violas. Use of diatonic planing in m. 1 and real planing in mm. 2-4.
2. Cellos and piano. Real planing until m. 4, wbere two minor triads are employed.
Tbe planing in tbis measure is mixed.
3. Basses.
Notice tbat fue tbree parts bave tbeir own contours and, to sorne extent, tbeir own rbytbms,
fulfilling tbe essential requirements of counterpoint.
7ñe Horizontal Dimension: Melody and Voice Leading 87
al/argo EXAMPLE 4-10 Roger Sessions: Symphony No. 2 (1946). IV, mm. 1........ (piano and strings only)
(Imernational copyright secured.AII rights reserved. Reprinted by pennission ofG. Schinner, Inc. (ASCA"'».
.- .... " lo!

. ..!l. A 1\ A . ..!l • A A
- ..
Piano
)2, .tr i
Allegramente (~= 126 )

A
" lo!
..) senza sordino v~! V~..,.,..~
Violín 1\ 4IJ
.tr ~A - 6
~ 7
:
1\ Ji
.1 .enza sordino V~ A v~ -li.e:;;,.
nI ...'-----~ ...

.tr~
-
4IJ ~
7
6 :
~
A .
lJ.
¡!: senza sordmo v~ ..
V -...".
Viola
..,
.tr~ 6

7
ti iI divo a3~
senza sordino
__.. lo!> ;>
:8f.... > ;> ;>
...
=
r:- is often referred
:-:l.lsíc, \íoloncello
ce ~ me white keys of the 4IJ
.tr - ¡",¡¡¡ l....IIiI ro' - .... l....IIiI ro'
~~:¡g that the sonority is
i. :"" mixed, meaning that
Bass
senza sordino
.. ..
~
..
u.. ~
."t::::::j
n ::-. """ oC Example 4-10). r r
•.L ..
[ ;, really an example of .tr

Ir:
:-::.:.1 planing in mm. 2-4.

m:;r.:,! triads are employed.
:"I::~:1r. their own rhythms,

'W,p o:Jod
,461
M ! 'W,p o:Jod
~~
~(l) 'W,p o:Jod
I 1;' 3ldWVX3
j'J0[~
r-.~
v
fJU!Pliléill 9O/oA puli/ ÁpOf9VIJ :UO!SU9W!Q fli/IUOZ.UOH 91./1 88
Mixed parallelism, as in m. 4 of Example 4-10, is not unusuaL Most of the planing

in the first two measures of Example 4-11 is diatonic, but Debussy uses an E~ in one
chord, presumably to avoid the sound of a diminished triad at this point. In the last two
measures of the example the planing is clearly mixed, although the roots of the chords all
belong to A~ major.
EXAMPlE 4-1 1 Debussy: Preludes, Book 1(1910),"Dancers of Delphi:' mm. 11-14

doux mais en dehors
\
I~~~~~~~~
o
\~.~~~~~~
I¡~~~~~~~
'----'-------------------
90 The Horizontal Dimension: Melody ami Voice Leading
Triads are not the only sonorities that can be planed. Example 4-12 begins with five record ir
inverted 9th chords, followed by five inverted 7th chords, then by five 7th chords in root po bassoou
sition, and, finally, by four root-position triads. Real planing is employed within each group. possible
The progression from complex sounds lo simple ones is aurally obvious and effective. identi~
TI
EXAMPLE +-12 Roy Harris:Symphony No. 7 (1952) (strings only) Schoent
(Copyright © /956 (Renewed) by AssodClted Music Publíshers,lnc. (aMI). ampIes,
International copyright secured. AII rights reserved. Reprinted by pennission.) listed be
Molto Tenuto Sonora ofthem
E\
h_~= E\
E\
ft h
E\.
E\.
E\.
h.
This "er:r:
ft ft dissona.c..
that req~
longer .:..!::
effect p;;:
popular .::!
Ir; s
are proe-JiÍ
I ft
thero I:':::l!
~ v
is espe.:-a
~ ...~¿~j~~ Ir~
".
CelIo pIe, parü

H ... ft a mixtt.::re
moving f:
bIe and ;&u
Nontertian sonorities are frequentIy planed as well. Real planing of quartal chords nance '::.3lli
occurs in Example 3-21 (p. 59), and there is diatonic planing of clusters in Example 3-23 dissona.lJl.:
(p. 60). In :i
We have seen that the tradition that forbade certain parallels is no longer followed in stead are
much music of the twentieth century, but what about the other convention that we dis what CC'eI
cussed, the one about dissonance treatment? In tonal music we sometimes use the term sonanC("5'
"essential dissonance" to refer lo dissonances between members of the same chord (such the "ab~"
as between the root and 7th) as opposed lO "nonessential dissonances" involving ornamen choice~ r
tation (passing tones and so forth). It is usually not difficult when analyzing tonal music to referred L:
separate the essential dissonances from the ornaments, and the essential dissonances gen er is lo ;::
erally resolve in predictable fashion. Neither of these is necessarily true in twentieth defined UII
century music. For instance, turn back to Example 4-7 and play it on a piano or listen to a how the j
r:ple 4-12 begins with five recording. At the beginning, the E~ in the horn is sustained against G-A-B-C# in the
:",. :ive 7th chords in root po bassoon, after which the C# is sustained against E~-C-B~ in the horno In neither case is it
~rk>yed within each group. possible to distinguish essential from nonessential dissonances, since there is no way of
. x'yious and effective. identifying the "chords," and the dissonances appear to be approached and left freely.
This free treatment of dissonance, called "emancipation of the dissonance" by
Schoenberg,4 is the norm in a large proportion of twentieth-century works. Many of the ex
amples already used in this text also illustrate free treatrnent of dissonance, including those
listed below. In sorne of these excerpts the chords are not difficult to identify, but in none
of them are dissonances consistently handled in a traditional fashion.
Example 2-7 (Henze, p. 26) Example 3-21 (Debussy, p. 59)
Example 2-12 (Debussy, p. 29) Example 3-23 (Ives, p. 60)
Example 2-17 (Scriabin, p. 32) Example 3-26 (Hindemith, p. 62)
.ft ft Example 2-21 (Bartók, p. 36) Example 3-31 (Persichetti, p. 65)
Example 3-10 (Stravinsky, p. 51) Example 3-32 (Stravinsky, p. 65)
Example 3-14 (Ravel, p. 53) Example 4--4 (Boulez, p. 79)
Example 3-15 (Copland, p. 54) Example 4-10 (Sessions, p. 87)
Example 3-19 (Copland, p. 57) Example 4-12 (Harris, p. 90)
This "emancipation of the dissonance" has 1ed sorne to suggest that the whole notion of
dissonance should be reevaluated, since a dissonance by sorne definitions means a sound
that requires resolution to a consonance. If sounds need not resolve, are there perhaps no
longer any dissonances? This makes very good sense, but we still need a term to label the
effect produced by certain combinations of sounds, and "dissonance" remains the most
popular choice.
In spite of the repeal of the rules governing parallels and dissonance treatrnent, there
are probably certain basic truths about voice leading that are independent of style. One of
them is that counterpoint is threatened whenever voices move in parallel motion, and this
is especially true when the intervals between the voices are exactly maintained. For exam
pIe, parallel major 3rds would tend to destroy a two-voice contrapuntal texture faster than
.ft ft a mixture of major and minor 3rds. Another principIe is that the smoothest effect when
moving from one chord to another is gained if common tones are maintained where possi
ble and all voices move by the smallest available intervaL Finally, the effect of a disso
;: " ...:.rung of quartal chords nance can be softened by smooth motion-common tones or steps-into and out of the
'; _,ters in Example 3-23 dissonance.
In the twentieth century these truths are no longer conventions to be followed, but in..
i::< ." no longer folIowed in stead are merely tools or approaches that are among those available to the composer. So
r ~ :>-mention that we dis what conventions remain to guide the composer, if the rules concerning parallels and dis
~ ... ·metimes use the term sonances no longer hold? None, really, which is what Stravinsky meant when he wrote of
~ ::he same chord (such the "abyss of freedom" and of the "terror" he felt when faced with this multiplicity of
IK~"" involving ornamen choices. He went on to say that he defined a new set of compositional rules (Stravinsky
! r ..:Jyzing tonal music to referred to them as "limitations" and "obstacles") for each work. 5 The task of the compos..
:s.x"ltial dissonances geno. er is to create a work that is consistent, that is stylistically unified within its own self..
',-i.L- true in twentieth defined universe. The task of the student is to try to understand what that universe is and
! [ . r J. piano or listen to a how the different aspects of the composition fit into it.
92 The Horizontal Dímensíon: Melody and Voice Leading
4. Arnoid:
SUMMARY 5. Igor S::r.
The traditional approaehes to eomposing melodies are still available to the eompos
er, and eertainly there are twentieth-eentury melodies that exhibit many of them.
What interests us here is not so mueh the traditional aspects of twentieth-eentury
melodies as those aspeets that set them apart from the musie of the pasto Though the
fragmentation of styles in the twentieth eentury makes any generalization diffieult, a
list of the tendencies seen in twentieth-century melody would inelude the following:
The Funda"nC
1. Find a j
Widerrange
exarnrÍle
More leaps 2. Notate j
More ehromatieism
(a) PeDl1:í
Less lyricism
(b) \\b..."1
Uneonventional rhythm
(e) Ph.~:
More expression marks (d) Dor..
Avoidanee of traditional harmonie implieations (e) OcLII
Less regular phrase strueture
3. Revíe'" I
Motivic use of piteh-class cells which ~
Twelve-tone melody
(a) the.::i
Less emphasis on melody in general
(b) the ~
Voiee-Ieading procedures in the twentieth eentury are as varied as the multiplie
ity of musical styles would suggest. The traditional procedures are still available and
have not been disearded entirely, but sorne important eonventions of tonal harmony
must now be eonsidered as options rather thai1 rules. As a result, parallel motion of all
kinds is aeeeptable, including harmonie planing, while dissonanees have been freed 1. Alban lk:
Diseus~ :j
from eonventional resolutions, and even from any requirement for resolution at all.
(a) \\1wf
(b) Is an:
NOTES (e) ~
1. Throughout this ehapter and mueh of the remainder of this book, "tonal" is used to
refer to the system of funetional harmonie tonality employed in Westem art musie
from around 1600 to around 1900. This use of the term admittedly can be misleading,
sinee it implies that all other music is atonal. The author hopes that this disclaimer will
head off any sueh miseoneeptions.
2. Parallel octaves were allowed when one part merely doubled another eonsistently at
the interval of an octave. The same eannot be said of 5ths.
3. Sorne prefer to use the term "organum" for harmonie parallelism in the twentieth re .JI /936byUniversa:'
eentury, especially when it involves root-position triads.
The Horizontal Dimension: Me/odyand Voice Leading 93
4. Arnold Sehoenberg, Style ami Idea, pp. 216-17.

5. Igor Stravinsky, Poetics ofMusic, pp. 63-65.
::l:_.lble to the eompos

::"l.::lbit many of them. EXERCISES
s -f twentieth-century
li :!:.e pasto Though the Part A: Fundamentals
¡re:-.ilization diffieult, a
r..:lude the following: The Fundamentals exercises in this ehapter provide a review of material foom earlier ehapters.
1. Find a doubly ehromatie mediant relationship between two adjaeent ehords in sorne
example in this ehapter.
2. Notate the following seales:
(a) Pentatonic on A~
(b) Whole-tone on G
(e) Phrygian on F
(d) Dorian on G#
(e) Octatonic (diminished) beginning D-E
3. Review the surnmary at the end of Chapter 3. Of the nine ehord types listed there,
which term best describes:
(a) the ehords in mm. 3-4 of Example 4-10?
(b) the ehords in Example 4-12?
iX1.e,j as the multiplie
, re still available and
11.-"1:" of tonal hannony
Part B: Analysis
l :,.inlllel motion of all
ar:"':n have been freed 1. Alban Berg: Violin Concerto (1935), 1, mm. 84-93 (solo violin only)
1: "x resolution at all.

Diseuss this melody, including the folIowing points:
(a) What elements are especially typical of twentieth-eentury melody?

(b) Is any part of this melody a twelve-tone melody?
(e) Does this melody make use ofpiteh-class eells?
~x>l. "tonal" is used 10 Tempo 1 (J= ea. 56)

e: m Western art musie (1)
can be misleading,
~ ~-~[ this disclaimer will
p moltoespr.
1: .i:..."}other eonsistently al
1II.~~.:,;m in the twentieth Copyright 1936 by Universal E.dition. Copyright renewed. AII rights reserved. Used by permission of European American Music
Dístributors Corporation, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal E.dition.)
94 Tha Horizontal Dimansion: Melody and Voica Laading
2. Edgard Varese: Density 21.5 (1936, 1946), mm. 1-17 qualir: :

Discuss this melody, including the following points: Some~
Ca) Which of its elements are especially typical of twentieth-century melody? (a) In ..
(b) Is any part of this melody a twelve-tone melody? pr;¡,:
L¡s,¡:
(e) List those portions of the melody that could be analyzed as octatonic.
(d) How is the melody organized in terms of motives? Other aspects? (b) T,-
nO! 1
3. Karl Korte: Aspects 01 Lave (1965), 1, mm. 1-3
Write out the bass line of this excerpt, and under each bass note label the root and
L~
F:-:
~)
Jat··
11ff
.. _~_ ..
<.f ::::::=- 11ff

3 ...
P -=:::::. f
.
:::==-
LwnítEl
,........---...
11ff~
~ r-~

~j~
~--;h
~Jp J I'i$=-- ~ q=¡
3 -, ....
ro
::::::::=- f >P 11ff -=::::::: ==== -==== P subito
~'
- _ _ _, •
J}~f?F I mu _ • _,3,
t!f I p r r u-t1JdI· ~
-::::::::.f>.I.f = 11ff subito 3-c:::::::. JJ!f f
12 ~31.. ,~~. ~~~ ~ r:- 3 , (Usedby~
Ji .lr#fu. Jtz¿ltr r- l ' Atf(~r mm ,1]

>.
3 .,.,
::>
4. Revie1.l. ti
pie 4-;:
~.-¡:] ,~-~~
#J~ . .~ ..
5. Study ti:le
ExampJc
~.I.f<::: Exampie
Examp¡'~
(© 1946 by Colfranc Music Publishing Corporation-New York. Reproduced by courteous permission off. C. Kerby Ltd.,
Toranta, General Agent)
The Horizontal Dimension: Melody and Volce Leadíng 95
quality of the chord (except for the open 5ths, where the quality cannot be determined).
Sorne of the chords are spelled enharmonicalIy. Then answer the following questions.
C"-~entury melody? (a) In what ways does the voice leading in this excerpt depart from conventional
practice, especially in terms of "forbidden" para1lels and dissonance treatment?
~.:: .:s octatonic. List specific instances.
~ ...~pects? (b) Toward the end of the excerpt the composer employs enharmonic spellings. Why
notjust use sharps or fiats in all voices?
i:>' note label the root and
f
11
-.¡ I
· '.
'"
Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come'" a way.--
11ff ,.-3--, f
1\
-==== P subíto
«J
11 1J
Rise up,
~.
my love,
-,J'
my
~:--
fair
w...
one,
~
and
..
come
- .. +1'-_----""
a . way. _ _ _
-:- 3 - - , f
1\
11ff
«J
· 11
Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come a way. _ _ _
11ff '3"~- f
i ..--...
:
""
---y-.
".
· IT
Rise up, my love, my Cair one, and come'" '"a - way. _ _
(Used by permission of E. C. Schirmer Music Company. A division of ECS Publishing.)
4. Review the discussion of Example 4-10. Then briefiy discuss the texture of Exam
pIe 4-11, using a similar approach.
5. Study the voice Ieading in the following examples.
Example 2-4 (p. 24) Example 3-10 (p. 51) ExampIe 3-23 (p. 60)
Example 2-10 (p. 28) Example 3-20 (p. 58) ExampIe 3-29 (p. 64)
. . ;f E. C. Kerby ltd., Example 2-11 (p. 29) Example 3-21 (p. 59) Example 3-B-8 (p. 72)
Then answer tbe questions below, using each example only once.
(a) Which one features two sets of parallel5tbs in imitation?
(b) Which one uses diatonic planing oftriads? DALu..... l
(c) Which one uses real planing of triads? C;:"J
(d) Which two use real planing of nontertian sonorities? KLIEV.El...
G~
(e) Which one features clusters in parallel motion?
PERSIC~
<O Which one features umesolved dissonances? de:¡
(g) Which one adheres most elosely to traditional voice leading?
Port C: Composition
l. Compose a melody exhibiting several of the characteristics of twentietb-century

melody discussed in tbe Summary (but not including pitch-elass cells or twelve-tone
melody), and list those characteristics. Try not to let your melody sound too random,
and see tbat every phrase ineludes a single high point.
2. Compose a melody following tbe preceding instructions, but using tbe cell E-G-G#
and its mirror inversion E-C#-C as a unifying factor. The cell and its inversion may be
used in any transposition and in any octave, and tbe notes of tbe cell may be used in
any order. Label each appearance of tbe cell witb brackets.
3. Compose an adagio melody in tbe same style as tbe horo melody in Example 4-7,
using tbe pitch elasses from tbat melody, but in reverse order.
4. Compose a short example in which a Phrygian melody is accompanied by planed
triads (diatonic planing).
5. ContÍnue tbe following example, using real planing throughout.
Slowly
6. Compose an excerpt similar in style to Example 4-B-3, following tbese guidelines:

(a) Use triads, 7th chords, and open 5tbs only. Label each chord.
(b) Approach each 7tb by step or common tone, and leave it by step up or leap down.
(e) Inelude some parallel fiftbs.
(d) Be sure tbat each part is easy to sing.
AH of the ro((
--~-----RVE--------- diminished. TI:
Notice that le...
V7N-V-I
Harmonic Progression
VI-N6-V
If the subdorrWi
and Tonality
IV-V in the "-3!
standard chord
those that in.,\:
extend the ph..'"lI
This s:-.;¡
sion and ma.1.o:
monic strlK'nl!!"
twentieth, corn¡
ty and its as",,-=
ous" com~
introduction l":
pIes of voice l,e:
Conver:tlIí:
INTRODUCTION cadences, in '\a;¡;
The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw the decline of the tonal system, earlier in thi ~ JI.':
which had been an important organizing factor in music since the early Baroque. In its Ravel. Ex~;
place carne not a new system but a splintering, a multiplicity of solutions to the problems found in wort..~
of harmonic progression and tonality. At the most generallevel, music is either tonal or not Kid; in the \,\ ,-n
tonal (usually termed atonal), but various approaches may be taken in both of those cate of a lighter. ;:)¡
gories. As we shall see, even the tonal music of the twentieth century was of a new sort, p. 51). Since ::::.
one without a standardized vocabulary of harmonic progressions. called "neor0'C:li
Perhap, ::l
"popular" mu;;¡,
TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO HARHONIC PROGRESSION sicals to folk r::JIl
analyzed USiD:!
The beginnings of triadic tonality can be found in music composed many years before the be poser's actuaJ lI:ii
ginning of the tonal era. Through evolutionary processes (infiuenced by voice-Ieading con editions and '.. 11
ventions and the nature of musical acoustics), certain chord successions became standard especially SI:-";;:;
cadential formulas long before tonal harmony carne into being and even longer before the tendency to íe.<."l
development of the theory of chord roots. Chief arnong these was the progression that would conventional tU
later be analyzed as aV-1 cadence, but other cadences, such as IV-1, vii°6-1, and iv6-V, were without any fue
also used. As the language of tonality developed, the V-1 progression becarne the prototype
ofthenormative harmonic progression, as seen in the diatonic circle-of-5ths progression:
NEW APPROACHES
I-IV-viio-iii-vi-ii-V-I
We might expo
or
take its plaCe. ?
i-iv-VII-I1I-VI-iio-V-i root movemeilt
98
Harmonic Progression and Tonality 99
AH of the roots in these progressions move by descending diatonic 5th, either perfect or
diminished. The same is true in the foHowing progressions, which use some altered chords.
Notice that leading-tone chords can substitute for dominant chords of equivalent function.
V7N-V-I vii07/vi-vi-vii07N
VI-N6-V V7/vi-vii °7/ii-V7N
If the subdominant triad is allowed to substitute for the supertonic triad, putting ii-V and
IV-V in the same category, and viiO is allowed to substitute for V, we find that most of the
standard chord progressions of tonal music are circle-of-5ths types. Exceptions inelude
those that involve "linear" chords, such as augmented-6th chords, and others used to
extend the phrase, such as the "deceptive" progression (V-vi).
This system turned out 10 be extremely flexible. It allowed a broad range of expres
sion and made possible the composition of long works organized over a background har
monic structure. But late in the nineteenth century and in the early decades of the
twentieth, compositional assaults on the system became so insistent that traditional tonali
ty and its associated harmonic progressions all but disappeared from the works of "seri
ous" composers. The procedures that have been discussed in earlier chapters-the
introduction of new scaIes and chord types and the redefinition of the fundamental princi
pIes of voice leading-had much to do with the decline of tonal harmony.
Conventional harmonic progressions still occur with some frequency, especially at
cadences, in works from the early part of the twentieth century. Two such examples from
iin:,::~,fme tonal system, earlier in this text are Example 3-3 (p. 48), by Debussy, and Example 3-B-5 (p. 69), by
Ravel. Examples of conventional progressions from later in the century generalIy are
m.: ~JIly Baroque. In its
found in works with a nationalistic or folk-music background, such as Copland's Billy the
¡¡¡;,_~=üns to me problems
Kid; in the works by staunchly conservative composers such as Rachmaninoff; or in works
11:'_ : ~ either tonal or not
of a lighter, more entertaining sort, like Menotti's The Telephone (see Example 3-11,
~. .:": both of those cate
p. 51). Since the 1970s, conventional tonal music has found new life in an important style
:me..::. was of a new sort,
called "neoromanticism," lo be discussed in Chapter 15.
.Perhaps the healtbiest and most vital continuation of traditional harmony was in the
"popular" music of me twentieth century, which ineludes everything from Broadway mu
sicals to folk music to jazz to rock music. The harmonizations of most of this music can be
analyzed using traditional approaches, but the analysis should concentrate on the com
1II!I!óC.:. years before me be poser's actual harmonization, not on the chord symbols that often appear in popular-music
:a: :-:. "oice-Ieading con editions and which are frequently at odds with the original score. More recent rock music,
r'-- :'fIS became standard especially since the introduction of electronic synthesizers, has shown an increasing
k:: !" en longer before me tendency to leave behind its harmonic roots in the bIues tradition and to concentrate on un
ir :-<e:-gression that would conventional timbres and nonstandard progressions, while rap music is entirely rhythmic
L ,~I. andiv6-V, were without any harmony or tonality at all.
Íl:~: '::'>e".:-ame the prototype
e- ,:. 5ms progression:
NEW APPROACHES TO HARMONIC PROGRESSION
We might expect that. as the older system declined, a new one would have developed to
take its place, perhaps one built on root movements of a 3rd or on more-involved cycles of
root movements. In fact this did not happen. There is no common harmonic language
100 Harmonic Progressíon and Tonalíty
shared by aH eomposers, although eomposers are free to devise and follow their own The ~ut!
stylistie "rules" (reeaH the Stravinsky quote on p. 91). are eonsiden;'.ll
Even twentieth-century modal music tends to avoid root movements by 5ths, as weH theory or b~ lIi
as the voice-Ieading eonstraints of traditional major-rninor music. But there are exceptions, universal th>e>J
as in Example 2-B-4 (p. 42), where a simple modal melody is aceompanied by tertian Composilw". .
ehords. The harmonization of most of this excerpt is quite traditional, although the super ehords (wídJ 11
tonic ~ chords in mm. 10 and 12 and the altered dominant in m. 18 are noto Nevertheless, the middle ('7
this is a fairly close modal equivalent of a eonventional tonal progression. himself V.T~
Composers who still make use of tertian sonorities generally do so in the eontext of remained UIlI:X
unusual or unpredictable harmonie sueeessions. In Example 3-9 (p. 50) Debussy ended a Ifit>l
pieee with the following progression: ehord roolS_ ..
Em-AM-Fm-CMadd9 according 1':' ií
Hindemith .. Ji:
This suceession of chords is surely intended to be unpredietable to the listener, to delight
would aeC0WJ
and surprise rather than to perform the task of most tonal progressions, whieh is to satisfy
groups brir:p!II
expectations. It is of no help to the listener that a similar progression appeared earlier (mm.
signed a reI.1Ifl
4-5), because the similarlty is one of gesture rather than of detail:
theory, allo·.. c
E~M-A~M-G~M-Dm
their tension
Mueh of the element of surprise in these two passages is provided by doubly ehromatie withstood tÍ'lC ;
mediant relationships: A major-F rninor and G~ major-D minoro eonsidered c"F"
Examples of sueh suecessions--one hesitates to eall them progressions--abound in study his tlk;-,::~
twentieth-century tertian musie. Example 5-1 is simpler, the ehords consisting of an A minor Even ... ll1
tome triad and its B~ minor neighbor. Notice the free use of nonchord tones in the bass melody. progression- C~
type, densit) 11
EXAMPLE 5-1 Aram Khachaturian: Piano Concerto ( 1936). 11, mm. 1-8 (Copyright © 1947 UNIVERSAL we often are :1lJI
MUSIC CORP. Copyright renewed. AII Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.) approach are _2:
Andante con anima (J = 89 - 72)

NONHARMONIC "
smngSr~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~nr~~lf~1
In íts broade<..: J
ehord, is an:- .:,
are someti~
B.Cl. twentieth-een ~
a pieee are ju.;.::
11ff espress. lines: Althou::""
sion, it would .iI!
rather than ti:,.:>
major 9th loVo ~
~ ~ u sort, where me .:
typieal of mu.:t
~
cresc. ---==
Harmonía Progression and Tonalíty 101
~ .illd follow their own The subjeet of harmonie progression becomes even murkier when nontertian ehords
are considered, because the roots of such chords are not defined by any generally aecepted
.''!:nents by 5ths, as well theory or by the eommon agreement of listeners. The most successful attempt to develop a
i _: !bere are exceptions, universal theory of ehord roots was carried out by Pau} Hindemith in his Craft 01Musical
.i:!..:':'Jmpanied by tertian Composition, 1 first published in 1937. Although bis theory does account for all possible
Ir"';". a1though the super chords (with the exception of microtonal chords) and had a certain amount of infiuenee in
.. .:re noto Nevertheless, the middle of the eentury, it has sinee fallen into disfavor, largely because, as Hindemith
:-:-,,:ün. bimself wrote, "A true musician believes only in what he hears,"2 and bis fellow musicians
• ,:,,:\ so in the context of remained uneonvineed.
;- ~Ü, Debussy ended a If it is no longer possible to create meaningful harmonic progressions based on
chord roots, are there other possibilities? One would be to arrange a suceession of chords
aecording to sorne measurement of the tension, or dissonance, that each contains. Again,
Hindemith was one of the few to attempt a systematic approach to harmonic tension that
~ ._l<C listener, to delight
would account for all possible sonorities. He devised su ehord groups, with six sub
",:"'>. which is to satisfy
groups bringing the total number of classifications to twelve. To most of these was as
I! l:'peared earlier (mm.
signed a relative degree of harmonic tension, wbich, along with other aspects of his
theory, allowed Hindemith to propose "progressions" of chords arranged aceording to
their tension. 3 As with his theory of chord roots, thls aspect ofHindemith's theory has not
,; ~;. doubly chromatic withstood the test of time. Nevertheless, it would be foolish to dismiss out of hand the
considered opinions of an aceomplished composer, and the interested reader is urged to
.:·~ions-abound in study his theory in its entirety.4
;:::t::.,sting of an A minor Even without a universally accepted theory, a composer is, of course, free to attempt
Il:r.~ m the bass melody. progressions of tension. Other possibilities might inelude progressions of register, ehord
type, density, numbers of pitch classes, and so forth. We are on unfarniliar ground here, as
'-,m © /947 UN/VERSAL we often are in approaehing twentieth-century works, and imagination and fiexibility of
approach are important analytieal tools.
NONHARMONIC MUStC
In its broadest definition, harmony means the vertical aspeet of music, and a harmony, or
chord, is any collection of pitch classes sounded simultaneously. Such broad definitions
are sometimes useful, but they may also distraet us from the faet that a good deal of
twentieth-eentury musie is not harmonic in coneeption. Sometimes the "simultaneities" in
a piece are just that-the more or less uncontrolled coming-together of very independent
lines: Although Schoenberg was certainly not eompletely indifferent to the vertical dimen
sion, it would appear that the primary emphasis in Example 5-2, for instance, is on lines,
rather than the chords that they produce. (Remember that the bass clarinet will sound a
major 9th lower than written.) The terro linear counterpoint is often used for music of tbis
sort, where the compositional method is evidently overwhelmingly linear. This approach is
typieal of mueh atonal music, but it occurs in other styles as well.
-===-
102 Harmonía Progression and Tonality
EXAMPLE 5-2 Schoenberg: Pierrot Lunaire, Op. 21 (1912). "Madonna:' mm. 1-4 EXAMPLE 5-3 Bn
(Used by permísslon of Be/mont Musíc Publishers.) mp
~
®==
Flote
-==
BaB Klarinette
¡nB 1ª~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~i~~~íÍ~~!
~
Violoncell
MltBig langsam (J = ca. 50) .PPP sempri 1•.

p sehr innig <: > <
ReZitation -~
Steig,__ o Mut-Iet al - '1erSchmerten, ouf den AI- tar mei- ner Ver se! Btut
~
..
ExarJlil
ESTABLlSHING A TONAL CENTER a pedal pol::lt:.
and the Je~
Before examining how tonality is established in twentieth-century works, let us review measure~ ({
how this was accomplished in traditional tonal harmony. One important element was a de center be..: ...~
scending perfect-5th root movement to tonic combined with a half-step leading-tone mo melodical ¡! l
tion, also to tonic. The tonicizing effect was often made more convincing by a harmonic while intereii:l
tritone formed by scale degrees 7 and 4 resolving stepwise to l and 3. Other elements were Exarr~
important also, such as melodic emphasis on 1,3, and 5, melodic skips between 1 and 5, through me 1
and formal considerations. the pans ar:
AH of these elements may be present to sorne degree in twentieth-century music that later in thi;. j
has a tonal center, but a traditional V7-1 cadence would be exceptional. Instead, other ways Weli.:J
have been devÍsed to make the tonal center clear to the listener. EssentialIy, these methods the tonal ":C"IiI
establish tonie by assertion-that is, through the use of reiteration, return, pedal point, will help \1> 1
ostinato, aceent, formal placement, register, and similar techniques to draw the listener's centuries a.."lLi
attention to a particular pitch class. When analyzing the tonality of a passage, it is impor
tant to pay attention to melodic aspects as well as harmonic ones, since melodic factors are
TERTIAN AND NC
often crucial in determining the tonality.
For instance, in Example 5-3 the tonality of D is clearly indicated by the motion As we eXáICJiII
from tonie to dominant in the voice and by the D pedal point. A three-chord harmonic pro one of tVl(' :
gression eontinualIy circles around D by half-steps (q-E~-D) until the Sonnet ends with imply, the rl""j
the progression with which it began: D-Ci-E~-C-D. While there is no V-I harmonic avoids such !
progression here, Britten does outline a V7 chord in the bass until the arrival of the penul type, disp¡a~l
timate chord. Exam,."'¡
tertian pitcb-c
discussed c.;rl
Harmoníc Progression and Tonality 103
EXAMPLE 5-3 Britten: Serenade for Tenor Solo, Horn, and Strings. Op. 31 (1943). "Sonnet,"
mm. 33-37 (@ Copyright /944 by HowIres & Son (London) LuI. Copyright renewed. Reprinred by
permíssion of Boosey & HowIres, Ine.)
::ti!!!: And seal the hush- ed Cas Ice! oí ...... my Soul ............... ..
r
8'" --------- ------ -- -------------------------- --------------- --------------------------------,
:. -
-.::::::::=
--== t:'I
n
V
-
~
.
=JüiL r
(!l- 'D~ ~~ se! Blut
Example 5-1 convinced us that A is the tonal center of the passage without the use of
a pedal point. There is also no hint of dominant harmony or of any conventional scale on A,
and the leading tone appears only once (in m. 7, as A~); in addition, there are just as many
r· ''\'orks, let us review measures of B~ minor chords as there are of A minor chords. Yet we hear A as the tonal
iI':("'...il1t element was a de center because it was there first, before the melody began, and because A is important both
1If-<ep leading-tone mo melodically and harmonically at the beginning and end of the phrase. The B~ minor triads,
C!'I'r.::r..:ing by a harmonic while interesting, do not distract our attention from the true tonal center.
lit : Other elements were Example 5-2, on the other hand, does little to establish any tonal center. Play
1: • ..:;ps between 1 and 5, through the individuallines to convince yourself of this (the effect is even stronger when
the parts are performed simultaneously). We will returo briefty to the subject of atonality
ELoerh-century music that later in this chapter.
IlC",",",. Instead, other ways We will use the term pitch-centricity in reference to music that is tonal but in which
s.,;e:::naüy, these methods the tonal center is established through nontraditional means. Though not an ideal term, it
IiliCL return, pedal point, will help us to distinguish between the tonal music of the seventeenth through nineteenth
le> :0 draw the listener's centuries and the pitch-centric music of the twentieth century.
mi ¡ passage, it is impor
St.'h":';:: melodic factors are
TERTIAN ANO NONTERTIAN PITCH-CENTRICITY
D.:.',;:ated by the motion As we examine additional pitch-centric examples, we will attempt to categorize them into
II!I:;!-..:hord harmonic pro one of two types: tertian pitch-centricity and nontertian pitch-centricity. As the terms
L ~"x: Sonnet ends with imply, the first type uses primarily chords built from 3rds, whereas the second type usually
~ _' no V-I harmonic avoids such sonorities, except perhaps at cadences. Many examples will be of a mixed
r.e .:rrival of the penul- type, displaying features of both.
Examples 5-1 and 5-3 are both examples oftertian pitch-centricity. Another example of
tertian pitch-centricity is seen in Example 2-B-4 (p. 42), whose harmoníc progression was
discussed earlier in this chapter. In that excerpt, the tonality of D is clearly established, both
me10dically and harmonically. Me1odically, D is established by fonnal p1acement (beginnings

and ends of phrases), by agogic accent, and by the frequent reiteration of D. The harmonic with an F .JI
aspects that establish D as the tonal center inelude fonnal p1acement, pedal point, reiteration, 5thon F. tu:
and (in mm. 18-19) a V-I root movement (although not a traditional V7-1 progression). chords. TtJ.:. 1
Much of the composition in which Example 5-4 appears is in a tertian pitch-centric ouslycem~
style, but the excerpt shown here is nontertian. Even though there is an open 5th on D at the inner voiee-- !
end of the excerpt, suggesting a tertian harmony, the excerpt is basically nontertian, since between a2::
there is liule else about the harmony or melody that suggests tertian construction. The contraJ} I7KQ
tonality of D in Example 5-4 is established by both melodic and harmonic factors. Notice
that the first phrase in the flute begins 00 A and ends on D, while the second begins on F
(El) and eods on A, which is followed by FI and D. AlI of these notes are members of
major or rninor triads on D. In the piano part the emphasis on the pitch elasses D and A is EXAMPlE 5-~
obvious. Even though this music is basically nontertian, the traditional dominant-to-tonic
relationship is employed to help establish the tonality.
EXAMPlE 5-4 Walter Piston: Flute Sonata (1930),1, last 6 measures (Copyright © /933 (Renewed) by Asso
ciated Music PubJishers,/nc. (BMI). Intemationa/ copyright secured. AI1 rights reserved. Reprinted by pem¡ission.)
--,
~
~ ~.'11
~.-
pp
POLYTONALlTY
PolytonaJi~ .,
combination . "
the simulra.~re~q
examples COC1.~
sometimes u"-!".c
layer in a pol:.".i1l3
The la,.; 50
which is supe:-...:r:
terpoint. Onl! .iC
tonality winn: é:.f
:>
~.i.ll placement (beginnings Example 5-5 seems to have a mixture of tertian and nontertian elements. It begins
:-.::OI.'fIof D. The harmornc with an F major triad, the third chord is an F minor triad, and the last sonority is an open
~ pedal point, reiteration, 5th on F, but the other four chords in the excerpt sound more like quartal or mixed-interval
""" \-""'-1 progression). chords. The tonality in Example 5-5 is established by severa1 factors. The melody obvi
:!.' ::c a tertian pitch-centric ously centers around F, and the harmony of the phrase begins and ends on F, while in the
~ > .;n open 5th on D at the inner voices there is a double pedal point on F and C. Another interesting feature is the duet
~.L.~:.:ally nontertian, since between alto and bass, moving in parallel major lOths until the last two chords, where
:':--Jan construction. The contrary motion takes overo
! ~...L-monic factors. Notice
!ir '_'!e second begins on F
~ notes are members of
~ ::t.::h c1asses D andA is EXAMPLE 5-5 Hindemith: Ludus Tona/is (1943), Interlude (No. IX), mm. 8-10
¡al:l: 'na! dominant-to-tonic (© Schott & Co., Ud., London, 1943. Copyright renewed. AII ri¡hu reserved. Used by permission
of E.uropeon American Muslc Oistributors Corporotion, sole U.S. ond Caoodian ogen! far
Schott & Co., Ud., London.)
~ e /933 (Renewed) by Asso
!!P'~ Rl!printed by pennission.)
r=#r(rfirf¡
pp
POLYTONALlTY
Polytonality is conceptually similar to the polychord, which was defined in Chapter 3 as a

combination of two or more aurally distinguishable sonorities. Likewise, polytonality is
the simultaneous use of two or more aurally distinguishable tonal centers, almost all
examples consisting of two tonal centers rather than three or more. The term bitonal is
sometimes used for polytonal music with two tonal centers. As a general rule, each tonal
layer in a polytonal passage will be basicalIy diatonic to its own scale.
The last section of Debussy's "Fireworks" (see Example 5--6) begins in D~, over
which is superimposed a C major melody (a reference to "La Marseillaise") and its coun
terpoint. Only in the last three measures is the poIYtonal conflict resolved, with the D~
tonality winning out.
'l.
: l
"~,'. j
.1
EXAMPLE 5-6 Debussy: Preludes, Book 11 (1913). "Fireworks" ("Feux d'artifice"), mm. 91-99 EXAMPLE 5-7 Ba.rox
-
de tres loin lne. c.:
pi:.:.:
8";
aussi léger et pp que possible
.
.... ~
'=-,
8'"'-------
~.' ~.. r~@r·?I:: ..
ItiS~Ioioo;.;¡.--
~
-- "
-----=::l
~~ _ ..
(t??, "
ftg~~
•
~
(;¿--- t../ p
In Example 5-7 bitonality occurs in a modal setting. Here the first violín is in E~ An inrer~
Dorian, while the cello is in D Dorian (notice the planed triads). Meanwhile, the other second moVfIJ'le:l!
instruments are playing only D's and E~·s. In both Example 5-6 and Example 5-7 the piccolos and u-..-ec
tonalities were a minor 2nd apart, but this is in no sense a "rule" of bitonality. Other indeed to son a.:.: ,
relationships can and do occur. polytonality is L:::""
( ir"titice"). mm. 91-99 EXAMPLE 5-7 Bart6k: String Quartet No. 3 (1927). 11 «9 Copyright 1919 in me USA by Boosey & Howkes.
Inc, Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission.)
1\ V 1"'1
pt -
:. ...--+---<-..
ti ~
~ ~ ¡;--.
1-4
~~ ..
-1
-" ! I I ~
ti
F'~~ ;¡z ~r 1C 'p
pizz.
,::fa::B::::
p
PiFo q,:[
! ~ J - .
. ..
.J'f
...,........
~
.. .
• I
~
,.,
p í I
.
11 v - V 1"'1
ti
P
'-' --- -...... "'--" 1>. . . .
.
,
1\
r~-
I
" I
" I

~ . .. ~
..-'l'-
t r'
.. -"".. ... :.~
...:.,.
~----~ ~~------p
~
.J
, I ~
tr. tr.
~
.. ~
-"¡-
.. _'-""-
I P
I ~ J - . A.. ~ J'f- I
..
~.
,rJ----'--
. ..
p
• r T T ,.,
.~-
~~ i
le :.-..::tirst violín is in E~ An interesting example of polytonality involving four tonal levels is found in the
I \feanwhile, the other second movement of Henry Brant's Angels and Devils (1932,1947), where a pair of
J;: .::..id Example 5-7 the piccolos and three pairs of flutes are notated in four different keys. It would take a sharp ear
~ . . of bitonality. Other indeed to sort all of this out aurally, but most listeners are probably aware that some sort of
polytonality is involved.
Ii
'1
108 Harmonic Progression and Tonality
ATONALlTY EXAMPLE 5-8 Stra'f"n

(Lono.:...,., ,
Atonality was a development even more radical than the various sorts of pitch-centricity in
twentieth-century music. The ways in which atonality has been achieved and the analytical ,
approaches that have been deve10ped for atonal music are extensive and will be discussed
in later chapters. For now it will suffice to define atonal music as music in which the
listener perceives no tonal center. Since this is a subjective definition, listeners will not
p
always agree as to whether a particular example is tonal or atonal, but the following exam
pIes from earlier in the text would probably be heard as atonal by most musicians.
12:8 '(~)_ ~1r··
Example 2-7 (Henze, p. 26)
Example 2-17 (Scriabin, p. 32)
Example 2-B-3 (Webern, p. 40)
Example 4-4 (Boulez, p. 79)
Example 4-7 (Schoenberg, p. 82)
Example 5-2 (Schoenberg, p. 102)
PANDIATONICISM
Most atonal music, as well as a large proportion of other works composed in the twentieth
or late nineteenth century, is based on the chromatic scale. Presumably as a reaction against
such unremitting chromaticism, sorne composers have employed a style known as
pandiatonicism. The term pandiatonic is used to describe a passage that uses only the tones
of sorne diatonic scale but does not rely on traditional harmonic progressions and disso
Tradition;L J¡¡
nance treatment. Sorne writers prefer to require a diatonic passage to be atonal before it can
survived 1:: .¡
be defined as pandiatonic, while others do not. In this text we will follow the approach that
pandiatonic passages may be tonal or atonal, tertian or nontertian. An earlier excerpt by sical" mU"I~
regarded;1." L
Ives, Example 3-23 (p. 60), illustrates nontertian pandiatonicism. Most ofthe sonorities in
the excerpt are c1usters derived from the e major scale. The three altered notes that appear erally aCCe~
is exemphñO!
do not seem to destroy the basic pandiatonic sound. The tonality is not obvious, but it is
probably G, which at the end is both the highest and the lowest pitch c1ass. simultaneltlel
The pandiatonic passage in Example 5-8 makes use of the e major scale. It is best dent lines
For tr:Ie
c1assified as tertian, but the chords are sometimes difficult to identify with certainty. Later
music has ~
in the piece, the music "modulates" through several pandiatonic areas, inc1uding q, G~,
nontertian. ~~
and F. Other famous pandiatonic passages occur in Stravinsky's Petrushka and Copland's
Appalachian Spring. ing a ton.lb~
accent (me::..
role in deren:m
Other j
employmel:: •
of a tonal ':;:-l!lI
context.
Harmoníc Progressíon and Tonaify . .
Stravinsky: Serenade in A (1925),1, mm. 52-58 (© Copyright /926 by Howfaes " S

(London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission o( 800sey & Hawkes, loc.)
• : ".lSsorts of pitch-centricity in
;-::1 achieved and the analyticaJ
, :cnsive and will be discussed #-n-J L~ I
.
I
,
I ~ r - .
..--
--
'
~~
~:.l.5iC as music in which the
¡411 1 .. ---.J"
- t"
~ - -
..
:: .lefinition, listeners will not La
:.naL but the foIlowing exam P
-"- !:>y most musicians.
~ ~- ~
.
\~)r"' I 1 r:1 I L1J
-
r r-rT
..
..
L r-r-,
P1
I I .
:
..... ----
;
\ - ~+.
- .-. -,- I 1 J
. i
.
I
I..........
-::;.L.
fIL ..fIL
rJu..u
1¡., ~·:'ffiposed in the twentieth
Ir' ~
- .r"'1 I I J J r~~
- - .lJ I
-
r"' .",
-
:-.• - -ilily as a reaction against
1:IlC": :- ed a style known as SUMMARY
.,,.¡;;! Ibat uses only the tones
.:;rr... _ ;:rogressions and disso-
1IiO:\f':: ::' be atonal before it can Traditional tonal harmony and the circle-of-5ths progressions associated with it
survived in various kinds of popular music as well as in a small proportion of "clas
.'. ::,Ilow the approach that
!:r"::.":::. :\n earlier excetpt by
sical" music in the twentieth century. Otherwise, harmonic progression has to be
&ro \füst of the sonorities in
regarded as a nonissue in an era without a cornmon harmonic vocabulary and no gen
llI'tt ::.. tered notes that appear
erally accepted theory of chord roots. The declining interest in the vertical dimension
Ir ." nor obvious, but it is is exemplified by linear countetpOint, in which the "chords" seem truly to be mere
'¡:; -~ ..:lass.
simultaneities created by the relatively uncontroIled relationships between indepen
l!It: ~ major scale. It is best dent lines.
ce -::. v.ith certainty. Later For the most part, at least after the first few decades of the century, "serious"
la: l..-:::as. including C#, G~,
music has been either pitch-centric or atonaL Pitch-centric music, whether tertian or
t =-~ ·~J.Shka and Copland's
nontertian, has had to rely on methods other than the V7-1 progression for establish
ing a tonality. These methods include such devices as pedal point and ostinato,
accent (metric, agogic, or dynamic) and formal placement. Melodies playa larger
role in determining the tonality than was the case in tonal music.
Other developments in twentieth-century tonality include polytonality, the
employment of two or more tonal centers simultaneously; atonality, the avoidance
of a tonal center; and pandiatonicism, the use of a diatonic scale in a nontraditional
context.
110 Harmonía Progressíon and Tonalíty
NOTES 4. Example _,-1

5. Exampk :-i!!!
l. Paul Hindemith, Crajt 01 Musical Composition, VoL l. 6. Copland :... j
2. Hindemith, Crajt, p. 156.
3. See especially pp. 158-60. Allegro viva.;:: ..
4. Other attempts have been made to compute the dissonance level of chords, but none
~
.
has had the inftuence of Hindemith's. One example is in Wallace Berry, Structural
Functions in Music, pp. 107-11. , -7 _o;
~"lf ma~aJo
EXERCISES L
.
>"
.,ji
Define each of the following tenns. !!:
1. Chromatic mediant relationship

2. Cluster
3. Mode of limited transposition
I
4. Pitch-centricity -~#~
5. Pandiatonicism le Copyright 1939 by The Aare.- ::

6. Pitch-class 0011 Ioosey & Hawkes, Inc. Sale I.íc_____
7. Planing
7. Darlus Mi LI;..:;. ...'::
8. Polychord
9. Real sequence Doucement
Part B: Analysis ~-~~~

..
.. .
I _
.~~
k~jJ
I
Each of the following excerpts for analysis is to be approached in the same way:
a. Assuming the excerpt is pitch-oontric, what is the tonal center, and what melodíc and
harmonic factors contribute to establishing that tonality?
b. Is the pitch-centric style tertian, nontertian, or a mixture of the two?
c. Is the excerpt polytonal? If so, discuss.
d. Is the excerpt pandiatonic? If so, discuss.
e. Do you find any evidence of traditional hannonic progressions? Explain your answer
!ft? ~ .J~~-==-.
II~
. _ ~.,-
.-.
1. Example 2-4, p. 24 (Bartók: Bluebeard's Castle) ~

2. Example 2-12, p. 29 (Debussy: "Footprints in the Snow")
3. Example 3-5, p. 49 (Prokofiev: Flute Sonata)
Harmonic Progression and Tonallf ni
4. Example 3-B-6, p. 69 (Ravel: Sonatina)

5. Example 3-B-8, p. 72 (Alban Berg: "Warm Is the Air")
6. Copland: El Salón México (1936)
Allegro vivace (J= 1(8)

sw-··········_···~
:·!'\el of chords, but none
... .illace Berry, Structural
\~--:" : . :, I
r ~ 11ff marcato .,,
-e Copyright /939 by The Aaron Cop/and Fund far Music,/nc. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by pennission of
Boosey & Hawkes,lnc. So/e Ucensee.)
7. Darlus Milhaud: Saudades do Brasil (1921), "Botafogo," mm. 1-10
Doucement
I -:.r:: ,;ame way:
~ . .:.nd what melodic and
IL'" Explain your answer.
f© copyright /922 (Renewed) by Associated Musíc Publishers,/nc. (BM/).International copyright secured. AlI
rights reserved. Reprinted by penníssion.)
......
112 Harmoníc Progressíon and Tonalíty
Part C: Composition 4. ConUfl

Brigl
As an alternative to any of the following exercises, disregacd the music that is provided and
compose your own example, illustrating the specified techniques.
1. Continue in B~. íllustrating tenían pitch-centricity.

Andante
..
f
5. Use t>1"
tonal;!)
Slov. ::
2. Continue in a mostly nontertian pitch-centric style. Try to convince the listener of a

tonal center on D.
Moderately
Ji ;¡.
~:.
•
I
••• o' o • • _~• •
tJ 1- I
I I
I I 1 I
mp~ )-J
:
., JJ. ,.2 "1 l>-J "1 J>-J
( If=
o~.
DAU..IJIi. Lc,o
Suc,;es;
HmoEMlTh.
3. Compose an excerpt using polychords withA as a tonal center. End your example with
the following cadence. inten'l
(pp. 1Q
Maestoso PERsICH.ET;'~
- . >.__.-
. ---=-J.
--_.-_.__._--
~
- (pp. :1
~~---~=r!J.
---.
~
-.~.- . _ - - -
~._.
.~.-.
._.
Cha.....
NV" f cresc. . f.I REIsBERG. t
==-~~==~~~===-
Witili:
.~. ._.
__.__
--~--_._-
_.
Harn.::
.~.. -~ .~.
STEINKE. Gi:
tonabr
ZIEuÑslG. T
Comn
Harmonic Progression and Tona/íty 113
4. Continue, illustrating C major pandiatonicism and the use of an ostinato.

Brightly
It_, K that is provided and
5. Use bitonality (B and D) at the beginning of this example, resolving into a single
tonality at the end.
Slowly
:::r.. :oce the listener of a
(
FURTHER READING
DALLIN, LEON. Techniques ofTwentieth Century Composition. See Chapter 7, Harmonic

Succession, Chapter 8, Tonality, and Chapter 9, Cadences.
HINDEMITH, PAUL. Craft of Musical Composition, Vol. 1. See especialIy the sections on
. E..-::.j your example with
interval roots (pp. 68-74, 79-89), chord roots (pp. 94-1(6), and harmonic tension
(pp. 106-108, 158-164).
PERSICHEITI, VINCENT. TWentieth-Century Harmony. See the sections on "Progression"
(pp. 182-188) and "Cadential Devices" (pp. 206-209), as well as pp. 248-261 in
Chapter 12, Key Centers.
REISBERG. HORACE. "The Vertical Dimension in Twentieth-Century Music," in Gary
Wittlich. ed., Aspects of 20th Century Music. See the section titled "Negation of
Harmony:' pp. 372-385.
STEINKE, GREG A. Bridge to 20th Century Music. See Chapter 1, which deaIs with melodic
tonalíty.
ZIELINSKI, TADEUSZ A. "Harmony and Counterpoint," in John Vinton, ed., Dictionary of
Contemporary Music.
.,
,',.IIIIlí.,• •
have COm.:S3
SIX forthe lOp 1lI
occur in the
quadruple !JI
the beat. tnI
Developments in Rhythm signatures fe
Simple
Compound
TheL>lI
beat divid~
cents, altho~
press the Tíd
added by rhe
">" indicaIlD!
Duple
INTRODUCTION
Triple
One of the many features distinguishing the music of the twentieth century from that of the
tonal era is its preoccupation with rhythm. Though rhythm is an important element of tonal
music, perhaps in ways that are still not completely understood, the surface rhythm of most Quadruple
tonal pieces is relatively straightforward and easy to comprehend, so much so that analyses
of such pieces often make Httle or no mention of the rhythmic dimensiono In contrast, in
many twentieth-century compositions the focus is on rhythm at least as much as on pitch.
and the surface rhythms are frequently varied and complexo This chapter will explore sorne
of the ways that these varieties and complexities are achieved, but first it will be useful to
review sorne terminology.
Syncopatioo ~!
unexpected nXI
Rhythm-The organization of the time element in music.
is an imponanc
Beat-The basic pulse.
ably does nO( II

Simple beat-Division of the beat into two equal parts.
Example5~ ;
Compound beat-Division of the beat into three equal parts.
lation on the :(1

Meter-The grouping of beats into larger units.
well as on the j
Duple meter-The grouping of beats into twos.
Syncop.¡e;
Triple meter-The grouping of beats into threes.
other rhythm.:.:
Quadruple meter-The grouping of beats into fours.
melody in the ::)

Measure--One fuIl unit of the meter.
well as the "'-""¡¡

hear it as a eh.=.::
In simple beat, the beat note has traditionally been as large as a half-note and as This brings lü ~,
small as a sixteenth-note. The customary time (meter) signatures for simple beat, thelL nizing that wh.:.r.
114
Developments in Rhythm 115
have consisted of a 2,3, or 4 over a 2, 4,8, or 16. In compound beat, the custom has been
for the top number of the meter signature to be the number of divisions of the beat that may
occur in the measure; thus, the top number will always be 6, 9, or 12, for duple, triple, or
quadruple meters, respectively. The bottom number specifies the duration of the division of
the beat, traditionally a quarter-note, an eighth-note, or a sixteenth-note. The usual time
thythm signatures for compound beat, then, have consisted of a 6,9, or 12 over a 4,8, or 16.
Duple Triple Quadruple

Simple 2
2
2
4 ¡ 2
16
3
2
3
8
3
16
4
2
4
8
4
16
~ ~
Compound 6 9 12
16 4 4
The listener perceives the beat type (simple or compound) by listening to the way the
beat divides (into twos or threes); the meter is conveyed by the characteristic pattem of ac
cents, although these are typically not explicitly notated in the music. The accents that ex
press the meter are usually agogic ones, but subtle dynamic accents are also sometimes
added by the perforroer. The traditional pattems of metric accents are shown below, with
">" indicating an accent, "(»" indicating a weaker accent, and "-" indicating no accent.
Duple 2 2
> >
Triple 2 3 2 3
:d': ;:entury from that of dJr
r,portant element of tonal > >
libe ~urface rhythm of mOll Quadruple 2 3 4 2 3 4
¡( ;.) much so that analyscs > (» - > (»
.:nmension. In contras!, ÍII
: Je.3St as much as on pitch..
, ..:~.apter will explore SOlDe
be! first it wiU be usefullD
Syncopation is aterro USed either when a rhythmic event such as an accent occurs at an
unexpected moment or when a rhythmic event fails to occur when expected' Syncopation
is an important element of twentieth-century music, and one that is so familiar that it prob
ably does not need much discussion here. An excerpt containing syncopation was seen in
Example 5-8 (p. 109). In that example the syncopation comes about by denying an articu
1ation on the fourth eighth-note of the melody in the first three measures of the excerpt as
well as on the downbeat of the last measure.
Syncopation that follows any kind of perceptible pattem may indicate that sorne
other rhythmic device is being employed. In the Stravinsky excerpt (Example 5-8), the
melody in the first 3)1 measures could be heard in a variety of meters, inc1uding 1and j, as
well as the notated i. Even when syncopation does not follow a pattem, one listener may
hear it as a change of meter while another hears it as a syncopation within a single meter.
w-ge as a half-note and as This brings us to one of the main difficulties of rhythmic analysis: the necessity of recog
~ for simple beat, theo. nizing that what is perceived is often different from what is written.
-~",',·"·,,4
116 Developments in Rhythm
WRITTEN RHYTHM AND PERCEIVED RHYTHM EXAMPLE 6-~
Of course, it is perfectly possible to compose music in such a way that the listener will
not be able to perceive the notated beat type or meter type or both. The first of Chopin's
®~
~:-.
t!.~_.~
Preludes, Op. 28, is heard in compound time, but it is notated in i, with most of the beats -
~=~-
r
being divided into sixteenth-note triplets. Contradictions between the way rhythm is
heard and the way it is written are especially common in twentieth-century music. An f
example similar to the Chopin prelude, but more complex, is the second movement of
Webern's Variations for Piano, Op. 27 (1936). Although written in a very fast simple
~~~~
duple, it seems lo most listeners to be in a sIower compound meter, with occasionaI odd
length beats thrown in. The beginning of the piece is seen in ExampIe 6-1, with the per
ceived rhythm notated below. (It couId aIso be heard in n
Notice the extra eighth-note ~
p ;;;¡
rest in the second measure.
EXAMPLE 6-1 Webern:Variations for Piano, Op. 27,11. mm. 1-4 (ÚlfJyright 1937 by Universal &lltion.
Copyright renewed. AII rights reserved. Used by permíss/on of European American Music Distributors
Corporation, so/e U. S. and Canadlan agent (or Universal &lltion Vienna.)
Sehr schnell J=ca. 160

EXAMPlE 6-2
IH'
~.-
'-'"
~.::::=- ..
--
:>
--
p
,I-~
:>
g ) I) .,).~., ) \)., ~~t)¡ ., 6) III '1 )¡ 1>

T:,:~
.::r. 'lIo:lI
Often the conflict between written and perceived rhythms arises out of consideration :-'.:-m
for the performer. Example 6-2a shows an excerpt from the first edition of Kent Kennan's lIID.a
trumpet sonata, in which traditional : and ~ time signatures are used. By the time of the ;e--.; ..it.."]
second edition, sorne thirty years later, performers had become so accustomed to untradi :: ~...o:m¡
tiona! time signatures that Kennan felt safe notating it as shown in Example 6-2b.
Et...i!OIlII
In many of the examples discussed in this chapter, it will be necessary to distinguish
between rhythm as written and rhythm as perceived. In all cases we will take the perceived =. :...i:JIIII
rhythm as the true rhythm. ::UIID
=-.'.illJIJ
="..lilIlII
.
~-.e;;== ~~~_ . ~_~~~_ .__ ~~
EXAMPLE 6--2A Kennan: Sonata for Trumpet and Piano (1956),1 (@ /956, Remick Music Corporation.)
l.j mat the listener will

:i The first of Chopin's
, \\ ah most of the beats
:=!D the way rhythm is
~th-century music. An
-.e 5eCond movement of
m m a very fast simple
!:!" ~ith occasional odd
ompie 6-1, with the per
re me extra eighth-note - : f ::::::=-
P subito
!Ir 937 by Universal &lition. EXAMPLE 6--28 Kennan: Sonata for Trumpet and Plano (1986),1 (@ /986 Wamer 8ras.)
!IC:Ir ,~ Dístributors
®
~.~....)JJJnt_~ ~
lB"
f
C211;;tm IUw¿:m;tIBMéf3EjI1
> 11ff 5= f
CHANGING TIME SIGNATURES

Though changing from one time signature to another in the course of a movement is not a
device exclusive to the twentieth century, it is certainly one that has seen more use in the
~:;;es out of consideration twentieth century than in the tonal era. Terms for this technique include cbanging meten,
:e:non of Kent Kennan's mixed meter, variable meter, and multimeter. Changing meters can be implied by shift
~. By the time of the ed accents or syncopations, or they can be explicitiy notated by the composer. Several
;) J.."Customed to untradi examples have already illustrated changing time signatures, among them the following:
tt bample 6-2b.
Example 2-20 (p. 35): 3 2 3
, ~essary 10 distinguish 4 4 4
Example 3-20 (p. 58): 3 5 4
.'!" '~ill take the perceived 4 8 8
Example 4-7 (p. 82): 6
4
7
4
Example 4-8 (p. 84): 4
2
5
2
4
2
Example 6-2b: 9 7 2 8 5 8 5 6 5 7
8 8 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
.... ~,
-1.+t~$f'&t.:;;;;4
A more problematical example was Example 4-9 (p. 85), where the meter signatures fluc EXAMPLE 6-3 ~
tuated between § and i, even though the perceived rhythm of the solo piano part remained 1:
steadfastIy in ~. A closer examination of the accompanying orchestral parts. however, re
veals that the changing time signatures do reflect the rhythm of the accompaniment. This (J=I26)
example will be discussed in more detaillater.
NONTRADITIONAL TIME SIGNATURES
The list of time signatures given at the beginning of this chapter has been considerably
expanded by twentieth-century composers. Of greatest significance has been the use of
values other than 2, 3,4,6,9, or 12 for the top number of a time signature. While 5 and 1
have been especially favored (this is why sorne employ the term asymmetric meter for
mp --
~:¡¡;:,..
this device), others such as 1,8, 10, and 11 have not been completely neglected.
The notated time signature in Example 4-12 (p. 90) is 1, but it is obvious from the
phrasing and accents that the perceived meter is ¡. Most examples of nontraditional meters
can easily be heard as changing meters, and this is also true of Example 4-12, which
a
sounds like altemating with ~. However, Example 4-10 (p. 81), also in l, does not seem
to divide clearly into 2 + 3 or 3 + 2. In Example 5-7 (p. 107), the divisions of the i mea
sures seem to imply l + 2 + 2, 2 + 2 + 1, and 2 + 3, with the first violin and the cello
not always in agreement in any particular measure.
Example 6-2b illustrates several nontraditional time signatures: ~, ¡, and ~. Of course,
~ contains the same number of eighth-notes as 1; Kennan presumably used ~ to call the per
former's attention to the irregular division of the measures into 3 + 3 + 2 eighth-notes
(instead of the customary 4 + 4). The term additive rhythm is sometimes used for pas
sages such as this, where sorne short note value (here the eighth-note) remains constant but In ..
is used in groups of unpredictably varying lengths. Another instance of additive rhythm is
defillillg IIIL'II
seen in Example 5-B-6 (p. 111), employing time signatures of ~, ~, and 1J .
When a traditional time signature is transformed into a nontraditional one by the use
of a nonstandard metric accent, one approach is to indicate the new metric accent with dot
ted lines, as in Example 5-B-6. Another way is to specify the new panem of metric ac /3/J+U."
cents in the time signature itself, as Bartók did in the "Scherzo" of bis String Quartet No. 5
(1934). There he transforms ~ (traditionally 3 + 3 + 3) into a nontraditional4 + 2 + 3
by use of a 4 + i + 3 time signature, a type sometimes referred to as a complex meter. At a vi The effecr .:C
yace tempo, the listener hears three beats of unequallength per measure, a variation on the final beaL TI
traditional 1 scherzo. The trio is in an unusual quadruple meter, predominantly 3 + 2 t 2 + 3. The oc
Another approach to transforming traditionaltime signatures is to use the traditional sig the fractiOl:l.a
nature, but to use accents and phrase marks to indicate the metric accent. This is the case in 4/3 over 2. 1II
Example 6-3, where the two hands play groups of sixteenth-notes of varying length in also the use ;
notated ~ and ~ meters. ments. Alrho
excerpt (the ;
m.9 m.lO m.ll m.12 a fluid and C:(
R.H.: rest 6+6 6+6 1+5+2+4
L.H.: 5+1+4+2 4+2+5+1 6+6 rest
e<::.er signatures fluc EXAMPLE 6-3 MUton 8abbitt: Three Compositions for Piano (1947). No.I,mm. 9-12
¡:"L.l.IlOpart remained (© Copyright /957 by Boell<e-&mart, Ine., Hil/sdale, NJ.)
! ;:<.ll'tS, however, re
(J =
~-':>mpaniment. This 128) 11fI
---
s ::.een considerably
boas been the use of
mp
1IILU."'e. While 5 and 7
wmetric meter for
1II!Ie'glected.
;;. 0bvious from the
L""Crraditional meters
Lalffiple 4-12, which
~ :r¡ 1. does not seem \~1~~~~~~~:::=:::::=-~
I~~~~~~-~~·----._-~.'.-~'
..__~-.
•'5,ons of the i mea
l \~olín and the celIo
. ;. and l. Of course,
~ f to call the per
:. - 2 eighth-notes
I!!{:mes used for pas
!"e'!!lains constant hut In " ... quasi una fantasía . .." (1988) Gyorgy Kurtág employs an unusual method of
~.: .>dditive rhythm is
defining nontraditional time signatures, such as these:
[Ij)j -.l.
Doc'rlal one by the use
:t1-:- accent with dot
)!fiem of metric ac
S-rr:ng Quartet No. 5
Idltional 4 + 2 + 3
....x meter. At a vi The effect of the first two signatures is to create a measure of four or five beats with a short
re. a variation on the final beato The last example creates a three-beat measure with a very long final beat.
k::>minantly 3 + 2 t 2 + 3. The nontraditional time signature that is the most difficult for performers is probably
e !he traditional sig the fractional time signature. In the third measure of Example 4-4 (p. 79) Boulez writes
:'~. This is the case in 4/3 over 2, meaning four beats, each of them the length of one-third of a half-note. Note
::-f varying length in also the use of i and , in the example, the latter apparently being divided into two 1~ seg
ments. Although each note value maintains a nearly constant metronomic duration in this
excerpt (the quarter-note, for example, equals mm. 104 or 105 throughout), the effect is of
m.l2 a fluid and constantly fluctuating tempo.
'-5+2+4
rest
~ ..
~"-~~--'----.
POLYMETER EXAMPlE 6-~

The metrical equivalent of polytonality is polymeter, the simultaneous use of two or more
aurally distinguishable time signatures. There are three possibilities: same time signature,
but displaced (Example 6-4a); different signatures, with barlines coinciding (Example
6-4b); and different signatures, with barlines not coinciding (Example 6-4c). Though all
tbree of these combinations occur, the third is perhaps the most striking aurally and the
most frequently employed. Remember that in each case we are referring to the aural effect.
not necessarily to the actual notation.
EXAMPLE 6--4 Polymeter -

n n
l
-l+~ D-tJ---JJ I
(a)
IJ:J¡¿ n IJI¿- IJ-i
t+-J"'"'J .r:LrJ--DD.. -~-1

(b)
[
t+---- J -1-J-*--L:-4-1 :>
....
=-=
Ji OLJli nLJ-1
(c)
[+J-I-4J 0~--D-i ---~

=::fti
~
foc an
In Example 6-5 the polymeter (type c) is explicitly notated in the viola and cello ed. Th
parts. It comes about through the canon at the octave, with the viola leading the cello by ic ex;u
one measure. The fourth and fifth measures of the viola part are in l and ¡, while beneath the \}(1
those measures the cello plays the third and fourth measures of the canon with time signa being ¡
tures of ~ and l. EXaJnf
Developments In Rl1ythm 121
EXAMPLE 6-5 Bart6k: String Quartet No. 3 (1 'i27), " (@ Copyright /929 in Ú1e USA by 800sey & HawI<es,
lne. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by perrnission.)
~ J,;.e of two or more
"'.!Tle tíme sígnature. o o o
11
. r-,... _~. O .. _,....
cmdding (Example
le "-4c). Though alJ
c:; g aurally and the
t~ ro the aural effect,
ti
't--
tI:
r~-
~ !II 11.~
-
~
~ ~
-
!!!:
"'.~~
~
i::'
ir.
.. ,.
-
-
iR.
_..:r-
~w - -
~ pizz. ,. .. .~
!1
.
•
.. .f1L ~ ~
p
4 •
- ¡
-
~
.~.
-. ~-~ ~- FE=--='= .~~.~-~

.~
iI P
O
O
11 O
f---I-1f¡
!~-~ ;Z '"
--1 -1
- ~
ti
J
11',...,.•• . ~""'~,,~
i '1 I
~ .
-==:::
~
-'"1-
;if 4
,ME
.. ",. . .
. J
r
Music with barlines that do not coincide, as in Example 6-5, may be troublesome
for an ensemble or a conductor, so polymeter is often implied instead of explicitly notat
:!'le viola and cello ed. This is the case in Example 6-6, a few pages later in the same quartet-again a canon
.~lding the celIo by ie example, this time between the two violins. Here the viola and celIo are c1early in ~, but
:r:d ¡. while beneath the violins sound as if they are in a polymetric canon (type a) with eaeh other, as welI as
t'é, with time signa being polymetric (type e) with the aceompaniment. The rhythms might be rebarred as in
Example 6-7.
EXAMPLE 6-6 Bartók: String Quartet No. 3 (1927). " (© Copyright /929 in me USA by Boosey & Hawkes, EXAMPLE 6-7
lne. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by f>ennission.)
,.. , V
t • .1.
11 11 »-v
. ~
ti. .,.,. ».
1"'1
»
~.'
-
,'--
~-~~r--
W) "-
f
t
11
W) ...
1"'1 V
'
1"'1 Y
ll_
-
~
" -:. ......
1"'1
II
V
~-
- ¡,¡ u. u ~-
1""""
--II*-T:: -
'r
,,=
~ :f
- menofr' f
-"I
r' :f r' ~
- "
'~ lfI r' lfI
1- -
:~
discu...,ji,
7' --~-- r'~"
mainUlil
I :¡ I I I :¡ I I :¡ tbe br.41:1
P
ReIDC':1illl
~ inS[I!'4i
ple6--!'_
p earher
me!()..--;'
p ====
"
p :::>
DfJvelopmemili in Rhythm 123
5.l " 800sey & Hawla!s, :::<AMPlE 6--7 Explicit Polymetric Notation
r ulr r ulu-r
I""! V I ulr r ulur ulr r
I wlwlwlwlwlwlwlwlw
A Iess complicated example of implied polymeter was seen in Example 4-9 (p. 85),
discussed above in connection with changing time signatures. In this instance the piano
maintains a steady ~ meter, although it is notated to conform with the changing meters of
the brasses.
Polymeter with coinciding barlines (type b) is probably the least commonly used.
a.
Remember that the simultaneous use of ¡ and for instance, is not really polymeter but
instead polydivisíon of a single meter. One example of polymeter type b is seen in Exam
pIe 6-8. Here the fiutes and harps are continuing a ~ waltz that was begun eight measures
earlier. Meanwhile, beneath the waltz, the lower woodwinds and lower strings take up a a
melody that contrasts with the waltz in both meter and tonality.
.c"'~_ ......
EXAMPLE 6-8 Stravinsky: Petrushka (1911), third tableau (Excetpted from me Nortan Critica' fdltiOn. Ke
Used by permlsslon ofW. W. Norton & Co., Ine., lInd Edwin F. KlIlmus & Co.,Im;.) five mo\
"4 ,
!11J but the Ir
Fl.pi= 1 I ear. Al ID
=1
¡éfe ~,
I
~
I ¡efe ~. hfe 4'e .-;. 1t~ 1';. ..... !. ¡efe to souoo
Fl.LI!. chapter,
'""""
'"""
- -:~ sionar) t<
~l~
Clngl.
'" ., pocor~S"ante ; ~flJ
Sol, I~l~ j I and the b
eon",P.
.1 DOCO "",ante .. -' ~ = Example
Pist!. 3-23 (p. t
Gr. ea.o¡sa.
'"
J J J I J f~ i which ir~·
Lu.:
ll"'lh I h 'I'~ I ~ j .b J II J .b
Piatti. "measure'
e e '" f f f t f f e .~ #,~¡¡"., , f e tion is del
placemem
I
~
Arpa!. 1 .....
be given d
'" "...••__••••• _ .'''''__ 0"_0., tation o; ti
fect onI~ I
___ o
Arpan. '" I~
I
... ..,
" pb::t.
" '"r--t-----, '"
CclU
EXAMPLE 6-9 Be
C.B.
F',/s['npre ~,~
~
, sempre
70,M.M. ~
~~JC$.r~
.. .
AMETRIC MUSIC fII3- JJ'-
We recogníze the beat and meter type of a passage by listening to the way that the beat di
vides and the way that beats group into larger units. Once we have grown used to devices
such as changíng meters and nontradítíonal meters, we are able to identify them aurally as
well. Yet sorne music seems to exhibít no perceivable metric organization, a style we will
MaI'J'
refer to as ametric. Gregorian chant is a good exampIe of ametric music, as is much eIec sorne degr.
tronic music.
thetempor
Sorne writers use the tenn "arhythmic" for musíc in which rhythmic patteros and going on 11
metric organization are not perceivable. But if we accept a very general definition of detail in e
rhythm as covering "all aspects of musical movement as ordered in time," I then music can
not be arhythmic, but only ametric.
~ ""::>rtrJn Critica' Edition. Not aH musie written without a time signature is ametrie. For instanee, four of the
five movements ofHindemith's String Quartet No. 3 (1921) have no meter signature at a11,
but the music is barred, and the implied time signatures are clear both to the eye and to the
ear. At the same time, some music notated with a time signature is written in sueh a way as
to sound ametrie. A good example of this is the Boulez exeerpt diseussed earlier in this
ehapter (Example 4-4, p. 79), whieh, while predsely notated, sounds free and improvi
sionary to the listener.
Music without barlines may be metrie or not, depending on the eomposer's intention
and the listener's interpretation. Although lves useó no time sígnarure ana no barl1nes In
Example 3-B-7 (p. 71), a listener still might hear a steady ~ organization. But Example
3-23 (p. 60), also by Ives, is almost certainly ametric, as is the rest of the movement from
¡¡;..s-~
---- fsub.::':::-'" ¡ which it is excerpted.
-+ ~ . Ludano Berio's Sequenza 1 (1958) uses a short barline (see Example 6-9), and the
_ • .b I "measure" itself is assigned a specifie tempo-M.M. 70 at the beginning. This composi
tion is definitely ametrie, however, beeause the actual durations are speeified only by the
placement of the notes within the measure. In the first measure, for example, the G5 is to
be given the longest duration, because it occupies the greatest portion of the measure. No
tation of this sort is sometimes ealled proportional notation. Aecidentals in this excerpt af
feet only the notes they precede.
EXAMPlE 6-9 Berio: Sequenzo I (1958), first staft'
.. .
gJ% H H p
-:b:: way that the beat di
e f!'"o......n used to deviees
JCÍCnúfy them auralIy as
lIt:Z.3.uon, a style we will Many techniques developed after 1960 result in ametric effects, often involving
. =-...iSÍC. as is mueh elee- some degree of improvisation, as in Example 6-9 and in Example 6-10. In that example
the temporal organization is determined by timed segments, with unmetered improvisation
!it :-!1:-thmic patteros and going on within them. These and other improvisatory techniques will be covered in more
r:- general definitíon of detail in Chapter 14.
t ::'7It!:' I then music ean
'1
1
r'
..... EXAMPLE 6-10 Joseph Schwantner: And the Mountoins Rising Nowhere (1977) (© 1977 He/kon Mus;, CotporatJon. AII rights reserved. Used by
t;l
penniss;on of Helicon Mus;c Corporotion.)
[[]
i" ~f ut 15" [] zo" 2"
-. A & /'\.I't... AA....J\.t.I
______~~===========================I I
A .ArA. /\. ~
--------==================================1 JJ'¿;/'A.....~ ~I
<F= 11
I
&A.~.
oa:sr_
f~~-- 11
;u
~C'\~rvJ'
r ff
At-..Jili
/., ,.r • -11
1" 5" WR 15" [] lO" 25

m i l • 1 I , t I I I I I I
10! ~:,..d I~., ddr.;ato •(iIot t ~ Ioojn~.ihcn f""'*" ¡.d~)

i.
t.
lfÍ1fHn HIt!' 43;t41O
I'!p" . • J ---~========Jf
3.
4.
r$Ua [n 1Hn'1> J
.,Ja
1---===========11
t;t if! '!lB!:'

~
4. 1-:" s .,...1. JI
f
~ Ifi1filIl1 iiin 1
wI!;,&rs ~ .EP • • --'4+
Ef. " • I .1
lh! f " It 1ff I
4" .. ~aao
JI' f---========= 11'
iI
1---5"lftlt r[-HiN!? ~I+~to
.. - .. " " • ..i.
1----.'
,. 1 ...
h
~- a
. .,. o
;¡
~
~ r> l'
" .... ..... .... ... ~ -
'"
.~- ~-
....>
,..
-¡j'
--
--1..
~
,¡ .. -. 1'r
"
l ! ~-
1
1 t
-t
I
i
J
~
t 1
~
." {
B¡ ...., .
-
i
~ !ti
•.....
..
"'i-.
-¡;:¡ i-
•1 "" ! {
ilJ
~
':.t )
!!f IWI~- , !"... 1
..1
I I!
I
'"
...:1 15
"'á ..
;jO< ~
127
:iII
128 Devslopments in Rhythm
ADDED VALUES AND NONRETROGRADABLE RHYTHMS EXAMPLE 6-12 Mes.s.a

Two techniques from the fertile imagination of Olivier Messiaen will be discussed here. Usea;lo ;
The first one, called added values, involves complicating an otherwise simple rhythmic Unpeu vif
pattern by the addition of a short duration in the form of a dot, a note, or a rest. In Example
6-11 each added value is identified by a "+". The first three measures would clearly be in ~
without the added values; with them, the effect is still of quadruple meter, but with one or ~~
PP (lointain)
two longer beats in each measure. The rest of the exaruple ís more complicated rhYthmi
cally and would probably be perceived as aruetric.
EXAMPLE 6-11 Messiaen: The Technique of My Musical Language, Example 13, mm. 1-6
(© Editions Alphonse Leduc. Used by pennission of the publisher.)
4~~
Décidé, vigoureux, granitique, un peu vif
'.8 ~[?P #M1E I#:rp~~=m·.{DQJ=3
Jf non legato, martelé + +
Another \i..c~
, .J JlOjrIB'] I JS9awe6"9PjI.l1 lHJ Jij]~!WJ ~j¡J. B rhythmic patter.: ;::l
a term used for "-~
backward. There:':II
could also be cor.:iaiI
movement of \\~
A nonretrogradable rhytbm is simply a rhythrnic pattem that sounds the sarue that is a rhythmJ~ :ti
whether played forward or backward (in retrograde). A trivial example would be a group of
four eighth-notes, but Messiaen is interested in more complicated panems. The rhythm of
each measure in Example 6-12 is nonretrogradable, and each measure also contains added
values. Notice that the rhythrnic activity builds gradually to a clímax in the seventh measure.
folIowed by an irnmediate relaxation through longer note values. Both of the Messiaen
examples are drawn from the sixth movement of his Quartet for the End ofTIme (1941).
=xAMPLE 6-12 Messiaen: The Technique ofMy Musical Language. (© /944 Edltions A/pIIonse Leduc.
Used by permission of the publisher.)
.,li be discussed here.
n ¡se simple rhythmic Un peu vif
~~.@·'n·.~~q@ I
I!. or a rest. In Example
e-;, ''¡' ouId clearly be in ~
: :neter, but witb one 01" pp (lointain)
~ ':'Jmplicated rhythmi
13.mm.l-6
Another way to look at nonretrogradable rhythrns is that each one contains sorne
rhythmic pattem followed by its retrograde, resulting inevitably in a rhythmic palindrome,
a term used for any structure in language or rnusic that reads the sarne forward as it does
backward. Therefore, any piece that rnakes use of rhythmic retrogrades on a larger scale
could also be considered an example of nonretrogradable rhythms. For ínstance, the second
rnovernent ofWebem's Syrnphony, Op. 21 (1928), begins with an eleven-rneasure tbeme
1 ::hat sounds the same that is a rhythmic palindrorne, a technique that is found through rnuch of the rnovernent.
F~.e ~'ould be a group of
~ems. The rhythm of
Ir"e also contains added
::.:¡ me seventh rneasure.
B-vth of the Messiaen
Er.d of1ime (1941).
j
,.~
-iIIIIIII
....
TEMPO MODULATION AND POLYTEMPO l. Change K ,,
Elliott Carter is generally credited with being the first to use a particular method of chang 2. Change t( ~:.
ing tempos precisely by making sorne note value in the first tempo equal to a different note compoun.:: ~
value (or at least to a different proportion of the beat) in the second tempo. Por example, to equaling a 3.-.
"modulate" from J = 80 to J = 120, one could begin using eighth-note triplets in the first there are '>~~. :
tempo. These triplet eighths have a duration of 240 per minute (three times the J = 80 there are~..:::I
rate). Tbis rate of 240 turos out to be the rate of the simple division of the beat (the eighth 3. Change {(\ ¡ •
note) at the new tempo of J = 120. (See Example 6-13). This device has been called "met
ric modulation" because it usually involves changing time signatures; however, a change of Similar in co:-".;q
tempo is the real objective, so we will use the term lempo modulation. This technique simultaneous use 01 ::w
does bear a resemblance to the common chord modulation of tonal music, in that one or Ives's The UnansuiTA
more measures will contain elements of both tempos. trompet and string'> :-:::..
are heard at increa.. ~
EXAMPLE 6-13 A Simple Tempo Modulation fJJJ. A composer ~ h.: iII
r 3 rhythmic concefIl.5 :, eJ
Mexico, composing :::!IIII
J=80 ()l = ¡" J= 120 realized on player r'~.litI!II
3
3 I
fJnJ·~IJ .J:lJ ~:r:J ¡ m m II n n n IJ .iJ.iJ
3 3
fore the advent of dJc ;lIII
posareI7:18:19:' i
1980s, and these .. ;;::-:
same issues.
In his String ,~.",
Carter evidently employed tempo modulation for the first time in his CeHo Sonata way-by explicit !K~...u
(1948). A relatively simple example is found in Movement n, which begins in cut time at but only the ceHo L .,¡''''''¡
J = 84. Later the meter changes to gwith the eíghth-note remainíng constant. The most notated, the aurall~ ~
reliable way to calculate the new tempo is to first compute the tempo of the common note
value in the first tempo:
Violin 1
If J = 84. then » = 4 x 84 = 336 Violín n
and then to figure out what that means in terms of the beat in the second tempo: Viola
CeHo
If» = 336, and the new beat is the dotted quarter, then the new tempo is
336/3 = 112.
Or, stated as ratios :::--:'I1Il
A more complex example occurs in the third movement, which begins in i with will play 10 notes Ir: :::::11
» = 70. The tempo modulation then follows these steps: tempo modulation ti"..o: 1
l. Cbange to ¡~, keeping the beat constant, so)l. = 70.

:'articular method of chang
l 2. Change to ~i, keeping the 32l1d-note constant. This unusual time signature is not
~po equal to a different note compound septuple, as one might expect. Instead, it is a triple meter, with each beat
e;:,YOd tempo. For example, lo equaling a doubly dotted eighth-note. When ). = 70 (above), ), = 420 (beca use
C"<fbth-note triplets in the fina there are six 32nds in one dotted eighth). Since the 32nd remains constant, and
~1I:;~i' (tbree times the .! = 80 there are seven 32nds in the new beat value U\.), the new tempo is 420/7 = 60..
rr, "Ion of the beat (the eightb 3.. Change to §, keeping the beat constant, so)l = 60..
~ .:e,ice has been called "mel
~::-.rres; however, a change al Similar in concept to polymeter but much less often encountered is polytempo, the
f -.odulation. This techniqoe simultaneous use of two or more aurally distinguishable tempos . 2 One example of this is
ci :Ol1al music, in that one or Ives's The Unanswered Question (1908), a work for four flutes, trumpet, and strings. The
trompet and strings maintain a steady tempo of.J 50, but the six statements by the flutes
are heard at increasing tempos and dynamics, from Adagio and p to Molto agitando and
J1f/. A composer who has devoted much of bis tife to the problem of polytempo and other
rhythmic concems is Conlon Nancarrow, who worked for decades in relative obs~urity in
Mexico, composing music with extremely complex ratios oftempos and rbythms that were
, t:o realized on player piano rolls, the only practical way such music could be performed be
;..::~IJ nnl
fore the advent of the computer. (In Study No.. 36, for example, the ratio s between the tem
pos are 17: 18: 19: 20.) Recordings of his music finally became generally available in the
1980s, and these were followed by a number of nonmechanical works that explore the
same issues .
In bis String Quartet No.. 1, Carter sol ves the problem of polytempo in a different
!ii:r-, time in his CelIo Sonata way-by explicit notation . Here all of the parts are notated in the same tempo, .! = 120,
l . hich begins in cut time al but only the celIo sounds as if it is playing at that tempo . Because of the way the music is
c:::-:,..l ming constant. The mOSl notated, the aurally perceived tempos, in terros of beats per minute are:
le ~mpo of the common note
Violín I 36
Violín II 96
r..e ;.econd tempo: Viola 180
CelIo 120
I ::oe new tempo is
Or, stated as ratios from top to bottom: 3: 8: 15: 10, meaning that the celIo, for instance,
will play 10 notes in the span of three notes in Violín 1.. AH of this is pan of a large-scale
tempo modulation that will eventually settle into the tempo heard in the viola.
-- ..
EXAMPLE 6-14 Carter: String Quartet No. 1 (1951 ).1. mm. 22-26 (Copyright© /955 SERIALlZED RHT
(Renewed) by Associated Publishers./nc. (BM/)./nternationa/ copyright secured.All rights reserved.
Reprlnted by permission.) The term SI!!
rhythmíc asp
cussed in roo
( ~ =1-fO) (~ WewtJ
using differa
L3....J
but if they do
pitch paneros
lsorhysi
'l.
::::::::=- 11fI -- effective.
first 3}<í-!De"4!!iI
ample is c:len'I
panero in thc
while Wozzcd
EXAMPLE 6-15 Berc

<J=I-fO) E.dc..
M..sc.
-
=== Po.::',~ ,
~~~
~n.
MARGRET
l._ 3--' H",

WOZZECK ~
-~~---
I~~ l'
,-3-, ,-3-· - 1 3- 1
f
~
marc., détaché
T
-; -;
===
...
....
~©1955 SERIALlZED RHYTHM AND ISORHYTHM

L~. Al rights reserved.
The tenn serialized rhythm is generally used in connection with pieces in which the
rhythmie aspeets are govemed by some preeonceived series of durations. This will be dis
eussed in more detail in Chapter 13.
We will use the term isorhythm to refer to the use of a rhythmie pattem that repeats
using different pitches. The pitehes may or may not themselves form a repeating pattem,
but if they do, it must be of a different length than the rhythmie pattem. If the rhythm and
piteh pattems are the same length, we use the term ostinato rather than isorhythm.
Isorhythm is not a widely used deviee in twentieth-century music, but it can be very
effeetive. Much of Aet I1I, Seene 3 of Wozzeck is based on the rhythmie pattem seen in the
first 3Y.í-measures ofthe bottom staffin Example 6-15-in faet. all ofthe music in the ex
ample is derived directly from that pattem. The effect here is polymetric, the 3~-measure
pattem in the low register rising inexorably over two whole-tone scales a major 7th apart,
while Wozzeck tries desperately to explain to Margret how blood got onto his hand.
EXAMPLE 6-1 S Berg: Wozzeck (1921),Act 111, Scene 3, mm. 187-98 (Copyright 1931 by Universal
Edition A G~ Wten. Copyright renewed. AH rights reserved. Used by permissían o( European American
Muslc Distrlbutors Corporotian, sole U.S. and Conadlan ogent (or Universal Edition, AG.• Wren.)
...
rr
71ffsub. Poco allegro (cr )
Voriges J = neue J (=~80) p l
MARGRET "
~ .. ... .,.~
.,~~
..- Rot!_ Blut!
tr ,, tr
p L mp
WOZZECK :
-j
I
Ich? ¡eh? Blut? Blut?
1\
~
-_ ..
eJ
PP.P ppFag dozu
~.
. , KFag
-
I~ ..
Sajo Vd.
eolle
SololBs
~~.
:>
t_ ~~ ~ ~ ~~. ~'~~~~.~
eolle8
,
•
-=-
Es stellen sich Leute um Margret u. Wozzeck

Margret
71ff I
Oneas~.::~,
Wozzeck
"
//Frei-i¡(:~
-
performer li
to paralle: ~
/ 71ff11 back to ~.
cated rhy~
sight, it 1, ¡
Ieh glaub',- ieh
Example ~
SDme
following
SoloBr s~ n';:;.1
, IP " Ve!. oo.
1'0\:,::'
l~
h
Margret
den Tonfall Wozzecb H" f C::llI
panxIierend:
Add.::~
Po)-, :'D
Wie konunts- denn zum s~
Wozzeck I>_i
.~
,tf :l I:>:::j
Arrle.:1
~-_hab' mieh,_ ge- schnit- ten, da an der rech ten Hand_
Pro;xf'1
AdÓC-":
NOnrdl
K1. oo. Tem;x

BsKl
POJ~1~
Sena...:::l
Isortnl
meno
Cer..?.:.:ll!l
twentieth C::':Iil
you will dl"-.-";
rhythm is r.:c
"combined :::JJ
cussed here JI
SUMMARY
One aspect of rhythm in twentieth-century music that must catch the attention of any
performer is its difficulty. Certainly there was nothing in the rhythm of the tonal era
to parallel the complexity of twentieth-century rhythms, and one might have to go
back to the late fourteenth century to find a comparable preoccupation with compli
cated rhythms. Whíle most musicians could perform the rhythms of a tonal work at
sight, it is doubtful tbat tbey would be as successful with tbe works from which
Example 4-4 (p. 79) and Example 6-12 are drawn.
Sorne of tbe specific techniques discussed in this chapter have included the
following:
Syncopation
Changing time signatures
Nontraditional time signatures
Using 5, 7, etc., for the top value
Fractional top values
Complex meters such as 3 + i + 3
- ..
Additive rhythm
- Polymeter
denn ZUID
Same signature, barlines not coinciding
Different signatures, barlines coinciding
Different signatures. barlines not coinciding
Ametric music
¡en Hand-
Proportional notation
Added values
Nonretrogradable rhythms
Tempo moduladon
Polytempo
Serialized rhythm
Isorhythm
Certainly this chapter has not exhausted all of the details of rhythm in the
twentieth century, but it has brought up sorne of the main points. One problem that
you will discover if you do more readíng in this area is that terminology relating to
rhythm is not standardized. You will encounter terms such as "cross-rhythm" and
"combined meters" that were not used in this chapter but refer to techniques dis
cussed here using different terminology.
Finally, it is most important to remember that music is an aural experienee, and (e) Exar.+,
you eannot always make an intelligent observation about the rhythrn of a piece by a (d) Exa..~
easual glanee at the seore. Sueh devices as polymeter and ehanging time signatures
Ce) Exarr;¡p
may be quite perceptible aurally, even though they are not explicitly notated. In all
(f) Ex~
such cases, analyze the music by the way it sounds, not by the way it looks.
(g) Ex~
(h) Exa.~
(i) Exa.rIl!pl
NOTES
(j) Exa.rnpi
1. Harold S. Powers, "Rhythm:' in The New Harvard Dictionary 01Music. (k) EXarn;4
2. As of this writing, a comprehensive list of examples of polytempo is available al (1) Exarr~
<http://www.greschak.eornlpolytempo/ptbib.htrn>. (m) Exa..mg:.1i
(n) Ex~
EXERCISES (o) Exam,..""

(p) Exarr~
Part A: Fundamentals (q) Exarr.;'lI
1. Whieh example in tbis ehapter was the best íllustration of pandiatonicism?

2. On what seale is Example 6-1 based?
3. Which example best illustrates quintal ehords?
4. The fourth movement of Corigliano's String Quartet (1995) is a fugue that features 1. Examp;c:
J
polytempo. Let's assume thal the viola plays the fugue subject al a tempo of = 70. nol~. \\-r...Jl':
When the seeond violin enters, it has four notes to every five in the viola. The next en
2. DiscUS5 tt-..:
trance is by the first violin, whíeh plays three notes to every two played by the seeond tbat are .:::"
violin. The final statement of the subject is in the eello, which plays three notes to 3. AnalYZe E.l,;
every four in the first violin. What would be the tempo for eaeh of the instruments? precede~ D
5. The following questions dealing with lempo modulation are based on techniques used retrograJ.: l
by George Perle in his String Quartet No. 5 (1960, 1967). 4. Analyzt' El.
rhythrns .c( !
(a) In the first movement, Tempo 1 is J 96. In order to get to Tempo 11, Perle speci- pitch c!'k',.:>=
fies that the old triplet eighth-note (one-third of a quarter-note) be equal lo the new 5. Bartók: F.''''Z
sixteenth-note. What is the tempo of the quarter-note (not the half-note) in Tempo Diseuss ro: :.,
II? Show your work. pitch matC'l
(b) In the third movement, Tempo 11 is J = 96. In order to get baek to Tempo 1, Perle
specifies that the old dotted half-note be equal to the new half-note tied to an
Piu IDO......:
eighth. What is the tempo of the quarter-note in Tempo I? Show your work. ,..
(e) Also in the third movemenl, Tempo III is J = 120. In order to get back lo another
tempo, Perle specifies that the old eighth-note be equal to one-fifth of the new
half-note. Is the new tempo Tempo I or Tempo II? Show your work.
-
f
.
6. Be able to perform the rhythms of the following examples:
(a) Example 2-21 (p. 36)-right hand only, witb the eightb-note as the beat note.
(b) Example 3-20 (p. 58)-top staff only.
le: aural experience, and (e) Example 3-32 (p. 65)-top staff, with the eighth-note as the beat note.
~ -:cythm of a pieee by a (d) Example 4--2 (p. 77).
::t';'<""ging time signatures (e) Example 4--3 (p. 78).
~"t:'lícitly notated. In all
(f) Example 4--7 (p. 82)-top staff with the right hand, bottom with the left.
~O:.l. ay it looks.
(g) Example 4-B-2 (p. 94).
(h) Example 5-7 (p. 107)-top staff with the right hand, bottom with the left.
(i) Example 5-B--6 (p. 111 )-bottom staff, vivace.
(j) Example 6-2-both versions.
iIti~, oI Music. (k) Example 6-5-bottom two staves.
¡:;-.:.:-tempo is available at (1) Example 6-6--top two staves.
(m) Example 6-11.
(n) Example 6-12.
(o) Example 6-13.
(P) Example 6-14-Violin II and CelIo.
(q) Example 6-15-Wozzeek's line and the bottom staff.
1I:I!L13lOnicism?
Part B: Analysis
~ ." a fugue that features 1. Example 2-21 (p. 36) has nine eighth-notes to the measure, but the time signature is
~"": al a tempo of J 70. not ~. What do you think would be an appropriate time signature for this example?
e !.he viola. The next en 2. Discuss the rhythm and meter of Example 4--3 (p. 78), eoncentrating on those aspects
-:-.. :' played by the second that are characteristic of twentieth-century music.
I~"; ~ plays three notes to 3. Analyze Example 6-3 in more detail. (Note: Each accidental affects only the note it
:aa::-:: of the instruments? precedes.) Do any measures share identical patteros of rhythms or accents? Are any the
,t:-"....oo on techniques used retrograde (reverse) of others? Are there any repeated or retrograded pitch patteros?
4. Analyze Example 6-12 in more detail. Can you find any relationship between the
rhythms of successive or nonsuceessive measures? Is there any logic or pattero to the
I }.: Tempo n, Perle speci pitch choices?
'-,:!.Xe I be equal to the new 5. Bartók: Forty-four Violin Duets (1931), No. 33, "Song of the Harvest," mm. 6-15
~ :'1<: half-note) in Tempo
Discuss rhythmic and tonal aspects of this excerpt. To what scale does the combined
piteh material ofboth staves conform?
~ :'ack to Tempo 1, Perle
~ half-note tied to an Piii mosso, parlando, J:;: 88
r' Show your work.
r"I
~ !o get back to another
Ii .. one-fifth of the new ... :> ¡'. .
~ :.~ work.
f
en:.:' as the beat note.

f
.
.
~
poco a poco allarg.
1. Compo-""lii
time Slp
2. Compo-~
-
3. Compoil
4. COffiP'-~
able rnylÍ
(© Copyright 1933 in the USA by 800sey & Hawkes, lne. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission') 5. CompoiC
sorne ofs
6. Compo!oC
sounds ..
6. Francis Poulenc: Promenades (1921), V, "En avion," systems 3 and 4
Discuss rhythmic and pitch aspects of this excerpt, including consideration of chord
types and tonality.
COPE,DA\C 1
tres lié DALLIN, LEC,,",
_~$~bti.1 ~rp.-=.- Meter

GANN,Kru J
KOSTKA, ST"E ..
Cenr... r , j
LESTER, JOE:..
Rhydkri l
SIMMS, BR'l ' ..'

Rhytlu:: l
SMITHER, He••
SMITHER, Hc"".'
ofCor.;;!"14
WJll.IAMS. J K
RhytlL'T_ 11
WINOLD. AL:..'::::"
Aspecri :!
(Reprinted by permission of G. Schirmer, lne. (ASCAP). AII rights reserved.)

Developmenrs in Rhythm 139
Part C: Composition
1. Compose an example for clarinet or trumpet using several different nontraditional

time signatures. AH of the pitch material should be from a single diminished scale.
2. Compose a short polymetric passage for two violins in the Phrygian mode.
3. Compose a four-part clapping piece employing tempo modulation.
4. Compose and be able to perform a melody illustrating added values and nonretrograd
able rhythms.
5. Compose an isorhythmic passage for three instruments in your class. Try to employ
some of the techniques seen in Example 6-15.
6. Compose and perform an example that uses time signatures and strict tempos, yet
sounds ametric to the listener.
~: .illd 4
~ ~,'nsideration of chord
FURTHER READING
COPE, DAVID. Techniques 01the Contemporary Composer. SeeChapter 8, Rhythm and Meter.
DALLlN, LEON. Techniques olTwentieth Century Compositíon. See Chapter 5, Rhythm and
Meter.
GANN, KYLE. The Musíc olConlon Nancarrow.
KOSTKA, STEFAN, AND DoROTHY PAYNE. Tonal Harmony wíth an lntroduction to Twentieth
Century Music. See the section titled "Rhythm and Meter" in Chapter 28.
LBSTER, JOBL. Analytic Approaches to Twentíeth-Century Music. See Chapter 2,
Rhythm and Meter.
SlMMS, BRYAN R. Music 01 the Twentieth Century. See pp. 92-108 of Chapter 5,
Rhythm and Meter.
SMITHER, HOWARD E. ''The Rhythmíc Aspect of 2Oth-Century Music." See pp. 71-84.
SMITHER, HOWARD E., ANO FREDERIC RzEWSKI. "Rhythm," in John Vinton, ed., Dictionary
01 Contemporary Music.
WILLIAMS, J. KENT. Theories and Analyses 01 Twentieth-Century Music. See Chapter 7,
Rhythm and Meter.
WINOLD, ALLEN. "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music;' in Chapter 3 Gary Wittlich, OO.,
Aspects 0120th Century Music.

Koskta S. XX

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Koskta S. XX

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Koskta S. XX

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

I

Materíals and Techníques of

1 THE TWILlGHT OF THE TONAL SYSTEM 1

DIATONlC TONAL MUSIC 1

CHROMATIC TONAL MUSIC 2

CHROMATICISM AND MUSICAL FORM 11

SUSPENDED TONALITY ANO ATONALITY 13

SEVEN-NOTE SCALES: THE DIATONIC MOOES 27

OTHER SEVEN-NOTE SCALES 30

THE CHROMATIC SCALE 34

CHOROS ANO SIMULTANEITIES 46

CONVENTIONAL TERTIAN SONORITIES 47

TERTIAN CHOROS WITH AOOEO NarES 49

TERTIAN CHOROS WITH SPLIT CHORO MEMBERS 52

QUARTAL ANO QUINTAL CHOROS 55

MELOOY ANO VOICE LEAOING 74

TONAL MELOOY 74 "1::::11'1/111:::'1'. '11

SOME NEW STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY lEiijj· ·w

SOME ASPECTS OF MELODIC ORGANlZATION 81 ¡¡¡¡¡JI:

VOlCE LEADING IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC 83 :..:1

5 HARMONIC PROGRESSION AND TONALlTY

TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO HARMONIC

NEW APPROACHES TO HARMONIC

NONHARMONIC MUSIC 101

46 ESTABLISHING A TONAL CENTER 102

TERTIAN AND NONTERTIAN PITCH-CENTRlCITY 103

6 DEVELOPMENTS IN RHYTHM 114

WRITTEN RHYTHM AND PERCEIVED RHYTHM 116

CHANGING TIME SIGNATURES 117

NONTRADITIONAL TIME SIGNATURES 118

AMETRlC MUSIC 124

ADDED VALUES AND NONRETROGRADABLE RHYTHMS 128

TEMPO MODULATION AND POLYTEMPO 130

SERIALIZED RHYTHM AND ISORHYTHM 133

INFLUENCES PROM THE PAST 157

9 NONSERIAL ATONALlTY 175 '~III:-:: '.

PITCH-CLASS SETS 178

EQUIVALENCE, AND NORMAL ORDER 178 - ~

INVERSIONAL EQUIVALENCE AND BEST NORMAL ORDER 182 .'.~,

PRIME FORMS ANO SET CLASSES 185

FORTE LABELS 188

MOREABOUT SEGMENTATION 191

10 CLASSICAL SERIALlSM 198

BASIC TERMINOLOGY 199

THE TWELVE-TONE MATRIX 201

A FIRST EXAMPLE 202

ANALYZING A ROW 204

COMPOSITIONAL USES OF THE ROW 207

THE ANALYSIS OF SERIAL MUSIC 213

11 TIMBRE ANO TEXTURE: ACOUSTIC 222

WINO INSTRUMENTS 223

STRINGEO INSTRUMENTS 225

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 228

INSTRUMENTATION ANO ORCHESTRATION 232

TRADITIONAL TEXTURES AND COMPOUND TEXTURES 236

TEXTURE AS A FORM DETERMINANT 239

12 TIMBRE ANO TEXTURE: ELECTRONIC 245

CONCRETE MUSIC 246

THE CLASSICAL ELECTRONIC MUSIC SruDIO 247

Even at the highest level-key relationships between movements--diatonicism pre

dim.-·· .. --- .... ······-·-· p

dim.- .... --- .. ·- .. - .. -·-· P

el lux per • pe tu • a lu ce-- at e ls.