Handbook

PARTS OF SPEECH
Nouns
1. A singular noun is a word that names one person, place, thing, or idea: brother, classroom,
piglet, and joy. A plural noun names more than one person, place, thing, or idea: brothers,
classrooms, piglets, and joys.
2. To help you determine whether a word in a sentence is a noun, try adding it to the following
sentences. Nouns will fit in at least one of these sentences:
I know something about ________. I know something about a(n) ________.
I know something about brothers. I know something about a classroom.
3. A collective noun names a group. When the collective noun refers to the group as a whole, it is
singular. When it refers to the individual group members, the collective noun is plural.
The class meets two days a week. (singular)
The board of trustees come from all walks of life. (plural)
4. A common noun names a general class of people, places, things, or ideas: soldier, country,
month, or theory. A proper noun specifies a particular person, place, thing, event, or idea.
Proper nouns are always capitalized: General Schwartzkopf, America, July, or Big Bang.
5. A concrete noun names an object that occupies space or that can be recognized by any of the
senses: tuba, music, potato, and aroma. An abstract noun names an idea, a quality, or a
characteristic: courage, sanity, power, and memory.
6. A possessive noun shows possession, ownership, or the relationship between two nouns:
Raul’s house, the cat’s fur, and the girls’ soccer ball.

Pronouns
1. A pronoun takes the place of a noun, a group of words acting as a noun, or another pronoun.
2. A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing. First person personal pronouns refer
to the speaker, second person pronouns refer to the one spoken to, and third person pronouns
refer to the one spoken about.
Nominative Case Possessive Case Objective Case
First Person, Singular I my, mine me

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First Person, Plural we our, ours us
Second Person, Singular you your, yours you
Second Person, Plural you your, yours you
Third Person, Singular he, she, it his, her, hers, its him, her, it
Third Person, Plural they their, theirs them
3. A reflexive pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence. An intensive pronoun adds emphasis
to a noun or another pronoun. A demonstrative pronoun points out specific persons, places,
things, or ideas.
Reflexive: They psyched themselves up for the football game.
Intensive: Freddie himself asked Julie out.
Demonstrative: That is a good idea! Those are my friends.
4. An interrogative pronoun is used to form questions. A relative pronoun is used to introduce a
subordinate clause. An indefinite pronoun refers to persons, places, or things in a more general
way than a noun does.
Interrogative: Which is your choice? With whom were you playing video games?

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Relative: The cake that we baked was delicious.
Indefinite: Everyone has already voted. No one should enter without knocking.
5. The antecedent of a pronoun is the word or group of words referred to by the pronoun.
Ben rode his bike to school. (Ben is the antecedent of his.)

Verbs
1. A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being and is necessary to make a statement.
Most verbs will fit one or more of these sentences:
We _________. We _________ loyal. We ________ it. It _________.
We sleep. We remain loyal. We love it! It snowed.
2. An action verb tells what someone or something does. The two types of action verbs are
transitive and intransitive. A transitive verb is followed by a word or words that answer the
question what? or whom? An intransitive verb is not followed by a word that answers what? or
whom?
Transitive: Children trust their parents. The puppy carried the bone away.
Intransitive: The team played poorly. The light burned brightly.
3. A linking verb links, or joins, the subject of a sentence with an adjective, a noun, or a pronoun.
The concert was loud. (adjective) I am a good card player. (noun)
4. A verb phrase consists of a main verb and all its auxiliary, or helping, verbs.
My stomach has been growling all morning. I am waiting for a letter.
5. Verbs have four principal parts or forms: base, past, present participle, and past participle.
Base: I eat. Present Participle: I am eating.
Past: I ate. Past Participle: I have eaten.
6. The principal parts are used to form six verb tenses. The tense of a verb expresses time.
Simple Tenses
Present Tense: She eats. (present or habitual action)
Past Tense: She ate. (action completed in the past)
Future Tense: She will eat. (action to be done in the future)
Perfect Tenses
Present Perfect Tense: She has eaten. (action done at some indefinite time or still in effect)
Past Perfect Tense: She had eaten. (action completed before some other past action)
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Future Perfect Tense: She will have eaten. (action to be completed before some future time)
7. Irregular verbs form their past and past participle without adding -ed to the base form.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS

Base Form Past Form Past Participle Base Form Past Form Past Participle
be was, were been catch caught caught
beat beat beaten choose chose chosen
become became become come came come
begin began begun do did done
bite bit bitten or bit draw drew drawn
blow blew blown drink drank drunk
break broke broken drive drove driven
bring brought brought eat ate eaten

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Base Form Past Form Past Participle Base Form Past Form Past Participle
fall fell fallen run ran run
feel felt felt say said said
find found found see saw seen
fly flew flown set set set
freeze froze frozen shrink shrank or shrunk or
get got got or gotten shrunk shrunken
give gave given sing sang sung
go went gone sit sat sat
grow grew grown speak spoke spoken
hang hung or hung or spring sprang or sprung
hanged hanged sprung
have had had steal stole stolen
know knew known swim swam swum
lay laid laid take took taken
lead led led tear tore torn
lend lent lent tell told told
lie lay lain think thought thought
lose lost lost throw threw thrown
put put put wear wore worn
ride rode ridden win won won
ring rang rung write wrote written
rise rose risen

8. Progressive forms of verbs, combined with a form of be, express a continuing action. Emphatic
forms, combined with a form of do, add emphasis or form questions.
Kari is scratching the cat. Loni has been washing the walls.
We do support our hometown heroes. (present) He did want that dinner. (past)
9. The voice of a verb shows whether the subject performs the action or receives the action of the
verb. The active voice occurs when the subject performs the action. The passive voice occurs
when the action of the verb is performed on the subject.
The owl swooped upon its prey. (active) The ice cream was scooped by the cashier. (passive)

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10. A verb can express one of three moods. The indicative mood makes a statement or asks a
question. The imperative mood expresses a command or request. The subjunctive mood
indirectly expresses a demand, recommendation, suggestion, statement of necessity, or a
condition contrary to fact.
I am overjoyed. (indicative) Stop the car. (imperative)
If I were angry, I would not have let you in. (subjunctive)

Adjectives
1. An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun by giving a descriptive or specific detail. Adjectives
can usually show comparisons. (See Using Modifiers Correctly on pages 9 and 10.)
cold winter colder winter coldest winter
2. Most adjectives will fit this sentence:
The _________ one looks very _________.
The dusty one looks very old.
3. Articles are the adjectives a, an, and the. Articles do not meet the above test for adjectives.

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4. A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun and begins with a capital letter.
Marijka wore a Ukrainian costume. He was a Danish prince.
5. An adjective used as an object complement follows and describes a direct object.
My aunt considers me funny.

Adverbs
1. An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Most adverbs can show
comparisons. (See Using Modifiers Correctly on pages 9 and 10.)
a. Adverbs that tell how, where, when, or to what degree modify verbs or verbals.
The band stepped lively. (how) Maria writes frequently. (when)
Put the piano here. (where) We were thoroughly entertained. (to what degree)
b. Adverbs of degree strengthen or weaken the adjectives or other adverbs that they modify.
A very happy fan cheered. (modifies adjective) She spoke too fast. (modifies adverb)
2. Many adverbs fit these sentences:
She thinks ______. She thinks ______ fast. She ______ thinks fast.
She thinks quickly. She thinks unusually fast. She seldom thinks fast.

Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections

1. A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to some other word. A compound
preposition is made up of more than one word.
The first group of students arrived. They skated in spite of the cold weather.
2. Some common prepositions include these: about, above, across, after, against, along, among,
around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by,
concerning, down, during, except, for, from, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, outside, over, past,
round, since, through, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, without.
3. A conjunction is a word that joins single words or groups of words. A coordinating conjunction
joins words or groups of words that have equal grammatical weight. Correlative conjunctions
work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight. A subordinating conjunction
joins two clauses in such a way as to make one grammatically dependent on the other.
Coordinating conjunction: He and I talked for hours.
Correlative conjunctions: Russ wants either a cat or a dog.
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Subordinating conjunction: We ate lunch when it was ready.

4. A conjunctive adverb clarifies a relationship.
He did not like cold weather; nevertheless, he shoveled the snow.
5. An interjection is an unrelated word or phrase that expresses emotion or exclamation.
Wow, that was cool! Aha! You fell right into my trap!

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

Subjects and Predicates
1. The simple subject is the key noun or pronoun that tells what the sentence is about. A
compound subject is made up of two or more simple subjects that are joined by a conjunction
and have the same verb.
My father snores. My mother and I can’t sleep.

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2. The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase that expresses the essential thought about the
subject of the sentence. A compound predicate is made up of two or more verbs or verb phrases
that are joined by a conjunction and have the same subject.
The night was cold. The guests sang and danced in the flower garden.
3. The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all the words that modify it.
The bright lights of the city burned intensely. The cheerful, soothing fire kept us warm.
4. The complete predicate consists of the simple predicate and all the words that modify it or
complete its meaning.
Dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago. The sun provides heat for the earth.
5. Usually the subject comes before the predicate in a sentence. In inverted sentences, all or part of
the predicate precedes the subject.
There are two muffins on the plate. Over the field soared the glider.

Complements
1. A complement is a word or a group of words that complete the meaning of the verb. There are
four kinds of complements: direct objects, indirect objects, object complements, and subject
complements.
2. A direct object answers what? or whom? after an action verb.
Sammi ate the turkey. (Sammi ate what?)
Carlos watched his sister in the school play. (Carlos watched whom?)
3. An indirect object receives what the direct object names.
Marie wrote June a letter. George Washington gave his troops orders.
4. A subject complement follows a subject and a linking verb and identifies or describes the subject.
A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and further identifies
the subject. A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and further describes the subject.
Predicate Nominative: The best football player is Jacob.
Predicate Adjective: The people have been very patient.
5. An object complement describes or renames a direct object.
Object Complement: Ami found the man handsome.
Object Complement: Carlo thought the woman a genius.

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PHRASES
1. A phrase is a group of words that acts in a sentence as a single part of speech.
2. A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and usually ends with
a noun or a pronoun called the object of the preposition. A prepositional phrase can modify a
noun or a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
One of my favorite meals is pigs in a blanket. (modifies the noun pigs)
The supersonic jet soared into the sky. (modifies the verb soared)
The love of a household pet can be valuable for a family. (modifies the adjective valuable)
The child reads well for a six-year-old. (modifies the adverb well)
3. An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that is placed next to another noun or pronoun to identify
it or give more information about it. An appositive phrase is an appositive plus its modifiers.
My grandfather Géza takes me fishing. C.S. Lewis, my favorite author, lived in England.

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4. A verbal is a verb form that functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A
verbal phrase is a verbal plus any complements and modifiers.
a. A participle is a verbal that functions as an adjective: Gary comforted the crying baby.
b. A participial phrase contains a participle plus any complements or modifiers: Thanking
everyone, my uncle began to carve the turkey.
c. A gerund is a verbal that ends with -ing. It is used in the same way a noun is used: Skiing
is a popular sport.
d. A gerund phrase is a gerund plus any complements or modifiers: Singing the national
anthem is traditional at many sports events.
e. An infinitive is a verbal that is usually preceded by the word to. It is used as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb: I never learned to dance. (noun) She has an errand to
run. (adjective) I will be happy to help. (adverb)
f. An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive plus any complements or modifiers: My father
woke up to watch the news on television.
5. An absolute phrase consists of a noun or a pronoun that is modified by a participle or a
participial phrase but has no grammatical relation to the sentence.
His legs terribly tired, Honori sat down.

CLAUSES AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE

1. A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate and is used as a sentence or part
of a sentence. There are two types of clauses: main and subordinate. A main clause has a subject
and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause has a subject and a
predicate, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence.
main sub.
The book bored me until I read Chapter 5.
2. There are three types of subordinate clauses: adjective, adverb, and noun.
a. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun.
The students who stayed after school for help did well on the test.
b. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. It
tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions.
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When the sun set, everyone watched from the window. (modifies a verb)
Today is warmer than yesterday was. (modifies an adjective)
c. A noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a noun.
Who will become president has been declared. I now remember what I need to buy.
3. Main and subordinate clauses can form four types of sentences. A simple sentence has only one
main clause and no subordinate clauses. A compound sentence has two or more main clauses.
A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. A compound-
complex sentence has more than one main clause and at least one subordinate clause.
main
Simple: The stars fill the sky.
main main
Compound: The plane landed, and the passengers left.
sub. main
Complex: Although the children found the letter, they couldn’t read it.
main main sub.
Compound-Complex: The earth is bountiful; we may destroy it if we abuse it.

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4. A sentence that makes a statement is classified as a declarative sentence: The Cleveland

Browns are my favorite team. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request:
Please go to the dance with me. An interrogative sentence asks a question: Who would
abandon a family pet? An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotion: Look out!

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number.
Doli runs. (singular) Doli and Abay run. (plural)
He is singing. (singular) They are singing. (plural)
2. In inverted sentences the subject follows the verb. The sentence may begin with a
prepositional phrase, the words there or here, or the verb form of do.
Out of the bushes sprang the leopard. There is never enough time.
Do those pigs eat leftover food?
3. Do not mistake a word in a prepositional phrase for the subject.
The boss of the employees works very hard. (The verb works tells the action of the boss.)
4. Make the verb in a sentence agree with the subject, not with the predicate nominative.
Her problem was the twins. The twins were her problem.
5. A title is always singular, even if nouns in the title are plural.
The War of the Worlds was a radio broadcast that caused widespread panic.
6. Subjects combined with and or both use plural verbs unless the parts are of a whole unit.
When compound subjects are joined with or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject listed last.
Chocolate, strawberry, and vanilla are common ice cream flavors.
Peanut butter and jelly is a good snack. Neither books nor a briefcase is needed.
7. Use a singular verb if the compound subject is preceded by the words many a, every, or each.
Every dog and cat needs to be cared for. Many a young man has stood here.
8. A subject remains singular or plural regardless of any intervening expressions.
Gloria, as well as the rest of her family, was late.
The players, accompanied by the coach, enter the field.

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9. A verb must agree in number with an indefinite pronoun subject.
Always singular: each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, everything, no one, nobody,
nothing, anyone, anybody, anything, someone, somebody, and something.
Always plural: several, few, both, and many.
Either singular or plural: some, all, any, most, and none.
Is any of the lemonade left? Are any of the biscuits burnt?
10. When the subject of an adjective clause is a relative pronoun, the verb in the clause must agree
with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
He is one of the singers who dance. (The antecedent of who is singers, plural: singers dance.)

USING PRONOUNS CORRECTLY

1. Use the nominative case when the pronoun is a subject or a predicate nominative.
She eats cake. Is he here? That is I. (predicate nominative)

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