Fundamentals of Petrophysics

Conversions and Constants Sedimentary Rock Properties Clay Mineralogy

1 kPa = 0.1450 psi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 acre = 43560 ft2 1 m3 = 6.2898 bbl R = 459.67 + °F 1 lbm = 453.59 g Clay Group Structure Swelling
1 MPa = 10 bar 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 bbl = 5.6146 ft3 K = 273.15 + °C 1 cp = 1 mPa-s Class Formation Name Mineralogy 𝜌 𝑔Τ𝑐𝑐
Kaolinite 1:1 No
1 atm = 14.696 psi 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 bbl = 42 US gal °F = 1.8 °C + 32 Rock fragments compacted Sandstone Quartz 2.65 Smectite 2:1 Yes
1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal Clastic
1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 mile = 1,609 m and cemented together Shale Clay minerals 2.2-2.7 Illite 2:1 No
1 bar = 1 x 106 dynes/cm2 1 Darcy = 9.8692 x 10−9 cm2 Gas Constant = 10.732 psia ⋅ ft 3 Τlbmol ⋅ R Dissolution and Limestone Calcite 2.71 Chlorite 2:2 No
Carbonate precipitation of calcite
1 Newton = 1 x 105 dynes 1 mD/cp = 6.33 x 10−3 ft2/psi−day Water density at SC = 62.37 lbmΤft 3 Dolomite Dolomite 2.87 2:1 structure lacks hydrogen bonding
−6
1 dyne = 2.248 x 10 lbf Τ Τ
1 lbm gal = 0.052 psi ft Molar Mass of Air = 28.966 g/mol Gypsum Gypsum 2.32 2:1 Structure
IG Evaporite Evaporation of water Anhydrite Anhydrite 2.98 1:1 Structure Silica
Standard Temperature = 60°F Standard Pressure = 14.696 psia VM = 379.3 scfΤlbmol @ 14.696 psia Silica Alumina
Salt -- 1.87-2.03 Alumina Silica
Single Phase Flow Coal -- 0.64-0.93 Water can enter
Accumulation of organic Silica
and clay swells
Continuity Equation Darcy’s Law Organic debris Peat -- -- Alumina
Strong hydrogen Silica
Diatomite -- 0.224
Mass balance leads to Continuity Equation 𝑞 𝑘 Fluid flows from higher potential bonds between layers
Alumina
𝛷 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑢= 𝑢 = − 𝛻𝛷 Silica
Mass of
−
Mass of
=
Fluid 𝐴 𝜇 to lower potential (not pressure)
fluid in fluid out accumulation Porosity
𝛷 = flow potential 𝑞 = flow rate = 𝐿3 Τ𝑡
Porosity Definition Packing Structures
𝑢 = fluid velocity = 𝐿/𝑡 𝜇 = viscosity Seal ratio of pore volume to bulk volume Cubic Packing Hexagonal Close Pack
𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 𝑘 = permeability[=]𝐿2 Water 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 = solid 3 ABA Sequence
−𝛻(𝜌𝑢) = 𝜙= =1− 𝑉𝑏 = 2𝑟 = 8𝑟 3 Layer B
𝑉𝑠 = 6 𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 8𝜋𝑟 3
𝜕𝑡 Aquifer 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 volume
𝐴 = cross sectional area perpendicular to flow Oil 𝛷2 A
𝑉𝑠 = 4Τ3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝛷1 Effective Porosity B
A porous medium has a permeability of Permeable Zone interconnected porosity 4Τ3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑉𝑏 = 6𝑟 2 3 4𝑟 2Τ3
𝜙 = 1− A
𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑥 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 1 𝜕(𝜌𝑟𝑢𝑟 ) 𝜕(𝜌𝜙) 1 Darcy if a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm residual 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙 𝑇 − 𝜙𝐸 8𝑟 3 Top View
8𝜋𝑟 3
− = − = creates a velocity of 1 cm/sec for a 1 cp fluid. 𝛷2 > 𝛷1 Creates hexagon with 𝜙 = 1− = 0.26
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 Water flows towards oil zone 𝜙 𝑇 = total or absolute 𝜙𝐸 = effective 𝜙 = 0.476 tetrahedron above & below 24𝑟 3 2

1-Dimensional Flow Effect of Compaction Lab Measurement of Porosity

Porosity Values (%) Isothermal Gas Expansion Method
Incompressible Fluid – Flowing at Steady State Slightly Compressible Fluid Effective stress 𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜎𝑣 − 𝛼𝑃𝑝 𝑃𝑝 = pore pressure Sands and
10 − 40 Boyle’s Law
Horizontal flow at steady state 𝜎𝑣 = overburden stress − typically on the order of 1 psi/ft Sandstones 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Horizontal Flow Non-Horizontal Flow Radial Flow
1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝜌 𝛼 = poroelastic constant − usually assume it′s 1 Limestones and Chamber Chamber
5 − 25
𝑃2

Sample
𝑃1

Expansion
Drainage Compressibility 𝑐 = − = Dolomites
Boundary 𝑉 𝜕𝑃 𝜌 𝜕𝑃 Increasing the effective stress, decreases porosity 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
Wide Grain Size
10 − 15
𝛥𝑉
𝑃2 𝜌 = 𝜌0 exp 𝑐𝛥𝑃 ≈ 𝜌0 + 𝜌0 𝑐𝑃 Compressibility Distribution
𝐿
Wellbore

1 𝜕𝑉𝑝 Similar Grain Valve Valve

re Rewrite Darcy’s Law ≈ 2 𝑥 10−6 − 50 𝑥 10−6𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1 20 − 30
𝑘 𝑑𝑃 𝜃 Fluid pore volume 𝑐𝑝 = − Sizes
h 𝑉𝑝 𝜕𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 Gas
𝑢=− 𝑃1 Random Close
𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴𝜌 𝑑𝑃 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝜌 1 𝜕𝑉𝑠 36 − 40
rw re 𝜌𝑞 = − =− Pack of Spheres Most common method for measuring 𝑉𝑠
𝛷2 = 𝑃2 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜇𝑐 𝑑𝑥 bulk 𝑐𝑏 = − 1Τ𝑉𝑏 𝜕𝑉𝑏 Τ𝜕𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 matrix 𝑐𝑟 = −
Continuity Equation 𝜕𝑢 𝑉𝑠 𝜕𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑃2 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠 + 𝛥𝑉
reduces to
𝜌 =0
𝛷1 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔 𝐿sin𝜃 𝑘 𝑑𝑃 Introduce base flow rate 𝑞0
𝜕𝑥 𝑢=− 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝜇 𝑑𝑟 some base pressure 𝑃0 The Bundle of Tubes Model
𝑘𝐴 𝛥𝑃 𝑘 𝜕𝛷 𝑘𝐴 𝛥𝛷 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑃 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑘𝐴 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 Hagen-Poiseuille Porosity and Permeability Blake-Kozeny Equation
𝑞=− 𝑢=− 𝑞=− 𝑞=− =− 𝑞0 = −
𝜇 𝐿 𝜇 𝜕𝑥 𝜇 𝐿 𝜇 𝑑𝑟 𝜇 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 𝜇 𝐿 Flow in a single tube 𝑆𝐴 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 2
Pore Volume 𝑛 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 Bundle of Tubes: = 2 =
=𝜙= 𝑉 𝜋𝑟 𝑙 𝑟
Deviations from Darcy’s Law 𝜋𝑟 4 𝛥𝑃 Total Volume 𝐴𝐿
𝑞𝑖 =
8𝜇𝑙 𝜙𝐴𝐿 Packed bed of spherical particles
High Flow Rates Non-Newtonian Fluid Klinkenberg Effect 𝑛=
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 𝑆𝐴 𝜋𝑑𝑝2 6 1−𝜙
𝜌𝑢𝐿 viscosity not constant 𝜏 ≠ 𝜇𝛾ሶ gas flow at low pressure 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = =
𝑉 1 3 𝜙 𝑑𝑝 𝜙
𝑘ൗ 𝜋𝑟 4 𝛥𝑃 𝜙𝐴𝐿 𝑘𝐴𝛥𝑃
Re > 1 Re =
𝜇
𝐿= 𝜙 Power Law Fluid 𝑏
𝑟 2 𝛥𝑃 𝑞𝑇 = = 6 𝜋𝑑𝑝 1 − 𝜙
𝑘𝑔 = 𝑘𝐿 1 + 8𝜇𝑙 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 𝜇𝐿
𝑃𝑚 slope = 𝑘∞ 𝑏 𝑢=
Forcheimer Equation apparent viscosity 𝜇𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝛾ሶ 𝑛−1 8𝜇𝑙 Equate the two models above
2 2
𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝛾ሶ = shear rate 𝑎 = consistency index 𝑘𝑔 = gas k 𝑘𝐿 = liquid k k For ‘n’ parallel tubes, 𝜙𝑟 2 𝐿 2 𝑙 𝜙𝑟 2 𝜙 𝑑𝑝 𝜙 𝑑𝑝 𝜙
− = 𝑢 + 𝛽𝜌𝑢2 𝑘= 𝜏= 𝑘= 𝑘= 𝑟=
𝑛 = flow behavior index − typically 0.4 − 0.7 the total flow rate 8 𝑙 𝐿 8𝜏 8𝜏 3 1 − 𝜙 3 1−𝜙
𝑑𝑥 𝑘 b factor important
𝑘∞[=]𝑘𝐿
𝛽 = inertial flow coefficient 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑃 when k < 10md 𝜋𝑟 4 𝛥𝑃 25 𝑑𝑝2 𝜙 3 𝑑𝑝2 𝜙 3
q=− 𝑞𝑇 = 𝑛 Empirical Approximation 𝜏= 𝑘= 𝑘≈
𝛽 depends on pore structure 𝜇𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑃𝑚 = mean flowing pressure 1/Pm 8𝜇𝑙 12 72𝜏 1 − 𝜙 2 150 1 − 𝜙 2

Average Permeability Interfacial Tension

Parallel Layers Layers in Series Force Balance Contact Angle
Radial Flow Linear Flow 𝜎𝑜𝑠 = 𝜎𝑤𝑠 + 𝜎𝑜𝑤 cos𝜃𝑐 [=] 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Τ𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑜𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠
cos𝜃𝑐 =
𝜎𝑜𝑤 Oil Water 𝜎𝑜𝑤
q1 k1 Fluid
𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑐 = contact angle
k1 k2 k3 k4 Oil 𝜃𝑐
h1 q Oil Water
q2 k2 q h
𝜎𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑐 𝜎𝑤𝑠 Oil-Wet Surface Intermediate-Wet Water-Wet Surface
q3 h2 k1 k 2 k3 k4 L1 L2 L3 L4
k3 𝜃𝑐 > 90° 𝜃𝑐 ≈ 90°
h3 Solid 𝜃𝑐 < 90°
L σ 𝐿𝑖
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = interfacial tension between phases i and j 𝜎𝑜𝑠 < 𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝜎𝑜𝑠 ≈ 𝜎𝑤𝑠 𝜎𝑜𝑠 > 𝜎𝑤𝑠
rw r1 r2 r3 re 𝑘ത =
σ ℎ𝑖 𝑘𝑖 Wellbore 𝐿
෍ 𝑖ൗ𝑘
Average Permeability 𝑘ത =
σ ℎ𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑒 Τ𝑟𝑤 𝑖 Capillary Pressure
𝑘ത = If horizontal and vertical variations, can use
Radial flow and linear flow produce ln 𝑟𝑖 Τ𝑟𝑖−1 Laplace Equation Capillary Rise Capillary Pressure Curves for Rocks
෍
same 𝑘ത when have parallel layers 𝑘𝑖 Geometric Average 𝑘ത = 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑖+1 . . . 𝑘𝑛 1Τ𝑛
1 1 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝜎Τ𝑅 r 2𝜎cos𝜃 𝑃𝑐 (𝑆𝑤 ) = 𝑃𝑛𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 𝑛𝑤 = non-wetting phase
Multiphase Flow – Relative Permeability 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎 + 𝑃𝑐 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑟 = 𝑅cos𝜃 θ 𝑟
Air R
Darcy’s Law Relative Permeability Curves 𝑅 = radius of curvature
non-wetting phase
θ
𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝑑𝑃𝑗 Capillary displacing wetting phase
Spherical Interface
Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability

𝑢𝑗 = − 𝑗 = phase 𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜
𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 h Tube
𝜇𝑗 𝑑𝑥 𝑟 Air
𝑜 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
𝑘𝑗 𝑘𝑟𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑔 cos𝜃
𝑘𝑟𝑗 = = relative permeability Liquid
𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑔 2𝜎 2𝜎cos𝜃
𝑜 𝑘𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑐 = =
Wettability 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑔 𝑅 𝑟
the strongest influence on 𝑘𝑟𝑗 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝜎cos𝜃 Τ𝑟 = 𝛥𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔ℎ wetting phase displacing
𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑔 𝜎cos𝜃 non-wetting phase
𝑟𝑒𝑠
Water-Wet Oil-Wet 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑐𝐿𝑎𝑏 ℎ = 2𝜎cos𝜃 Τ 𝑟𝑔𝛥𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜎cos𝜃 𝐿𝑎𝑏
Frequency

𝑆𝑤𝑟 1-𝑆𝑜𝑟,𝑤 𝑆𝑙𝑟,𝑔 1-𝑆𝑔𝑟

𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 Water 1-𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑟𝑟,𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑛 Liquid 1-𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑛 Influence of Pore Size Distribution
O O 𝑆𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑛 Saturation
W W Saturation
𝑃𝑐 curves are closely related to pore size distribution Depth vs Water Saturation Curve
Pore radius 𝑜 < 𝑘𝑜
Water-Wet Rock: 𝑆𝑤 > 0.5 when curves intersect and 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑟𝑜𝑤 (inverse for Oil-Wet)
Non-wetting phase occupies 𝑃𝑐 𝑆𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 𝑔ℎ
2
larger pores so it flows easier Influences on Relative Permeability
Frequency

Effect of Pore Structure Effect of Interfacial Tension 1 1 Oil-water contact is depth at

1.0 Pc which 𝑆𝑤 first deviates from 1
3-Phase Permeability 1.0
High Perm Sandstone
1.0
Low Perm Sandstone
0.8 Minimal 𝜎
W: wetting phase 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 2 Normalizing Capillary Pressure Curves
Frequency

0.8 0.8
IW: intermediate 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤
0.6 𝑃𝑐1 𝑘2 Τ𝜙2
NW: non-wetting 0.6 0.6 Pore radius Water Saturation 𝑃𝑐 𝑘
IW 𝐤 𝐫𝐣 𝐽(𝑆𝑤 ) = =
𝐤 𝐫𝐣 𝜎 𝜙 𝑃𝑐2
W NW 0.4 0.4
0.4 Uniform pore size distribution creates sharp capillary pressure curve 𝑘1 Τ𝜙1
Pore radius
0.2 0.2 0.2
Elastic Properties of Rocks
𝑘𝑟𝑤 is only a function of 𝑆𝑤
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Basic Definitions Linear Elasticity Subsurface Stresses
𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑤 𝑆𝑤 , 𝑆𝑛𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤 𝑆𝑛𝑤 𝐒𝐰 𝐒𝐰 𝐒𝐰
𝜎𝑣 , 𝜎𝐻max , 𝜎𝐻min are the principal stresses
Low 𝑘 has negative effect – NW phase less sensitive to grain size Decreasing 𝜎, reduces 𝑆𝑤𝑟 & 𝑆𝑛𝑤𝑟 Hooke’s Law 𝜎 = −𝐸𝜀 𝐸
Bulk modulus 𝐾=
𝐹 𝛥𝐿 3 1 − 2𝜐 𝜎𝑣 = vertical stress 𝜎𝑣 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑏 = bulk density
Effect of Hysteresis Lab Measurement of Relative Permeability 𝜎= 𝜀=
𝐴 𝐿 1+𝜐 𝜐 Neglecting 𝜐 𝜐
Wetting phase stays connected Steady State (more reliable) and Unsteady State (more common) methods
𝜀𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 − 𝜎 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 tectonic 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝐻 = 𝜎 + 𝑃𝑝 1 −
during PD and IM cycles 𝐸 = Young′s Modulus[=]𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝐸 𝐸 𝑥 stresses 1−𝜐 𝑣 1−𝜐
Steady State flows two
𝐤 𝐫𝐣 𝑘𝑟𝑤,𝑃𝐷 ≈ 𝑘𝑟𝑤,𝐼𝑀 𝑞𝑜 𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑦, or 𝑧 𝜎𝐻 = horizontal stress 𝑃𝑝 = pore pressure
fluids simultaneously 𝜐 = Poisson′s Ratio
Pumps Core Separator
NW phase becomes disconnected 𝑞𝑤 transversal expansion 𝐸 Tectonic stresses create differences between 𝜎𝐻min & 𝜎𝐻max
Unsteady State displaces a 𝜐= Shear modulus 𝐺=
𝐒𝐰 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤,𝑃𝐷 > 𝑘𝑟𝑛𝑤,𝐼𝑀 fluid by injecting another axial compression 2 1+𝜐 Fracture orientation controlled by direction of 𝜎𝐻min

Created by James Riddle with guidance from Dr. Matthew T. Balhoff Contact balhoff@mail.utexas.edu with comments/suggestions