1906508-Communication Systems and Networks Lab Manual

SRM VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR-603 203.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
1906508 – COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

LABORATORY
Regulation - 2019
Semester/Branch : V semester ECE
Academic Year : 2021-22 (ODD)
Prepared By : Mr. D. Murugesan, Assistant Professor (Sel.G)

Mr. T.V.Sudhir, Assistant Professor (O.G)
Ms.S. Abirami, Assistant Professor (O.G)
SRM VEC/ECE/LM/1906508/CSNL/2021-22/ODD
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur – 603 203
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
VISION OF THE INSTITUTE
Educate to excel in social transformation
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE
• To contribute to the development of human resources in the form of professional

engineers and managers of international excellence and competence with high motivation
and dynamism, who besides serving as ideal citizen of our country will contribute
substantially to the economic development and advancement in their chosen areas of
specialization.
• To build the institution with international repute in education in several areas at several
levels with specific emphasis to promote higher education and research through strong
institute-industry interaction and consultancy.
VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT
To excel in the field of electronics and communication engineering and to develop highly
competent technocrats with global intellectual qualities.
MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT
M1: To educate the students with the state of art technologies to compete internationally,
able to produce creative solutions to the society`s needs, conscious to the universal moral
values, adherent to the professional ethical code.
M2: To encourage the students for professional and software development career.
M3: To equip the students with strong foundations to enable them for continuing
education and research.
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur – 603 203
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and
an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health
and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of
the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOME (PSOs)

PSO1: Ability to apply the acquired knowledge of basic skills, mathematical foundations, principles of
electronics, modelling and design of electronics based systems in solving engineering Problems.
PSO2: Ability to understand and analyze the interdisciplinary problems for developing innovative sustained
solutions with environmental concerns.
PSO3: Ability to update knowledge continuously in the tools like MATLAB, NS2, XILINIX and
technologies like VLSI, Embedded, Wireless Communications to meet the industry requirements. PSO4:
Ability to manage effectively as part of a team with professional behaviour and ethics.
SYLLABUS
L T P C
1906508 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS
LABORATORY 0 0 4 2
OBJECTIVES:
The student should be able to:
 Implement the Analog and Digital Modulation schemes.
 Simulate Digital Modulation schemes and Error Control Techniques.
 Implement the different protocols in communication network.
 Familiarize with IP Configuration in a network.
 Analyse the various routing algorithms.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. AM Modulator and Demodulator, FM Modulator and Demodulator.
2. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation.
3. Delta Modulation and Demodulation.
4. Line coding schemes.
5. Simulation of ASK, FSK, BPSK,DPSK, QPSK and QAM generation schemes.
6. Simulation of Error control techniques.
7. Implementation of Error Detection / Error Correction Techniques.
8. Implementation of Flow control Algorithms.
9. Implementation of IP address configuration and Commands such as ping, Trace route, ns
lookup.
10. To create scenario and study the performance of network with CSMA / CA protocol. and
compare with CSMA/CD protocols.
11. Network Topology - Star, Bus, Ring.
12. Implementation of distance vector and Link state routing algorithm.
TOTAL PERIODS: 60
OUTCOMES:
On completion of this laboratory course, the student would be able to,
 Simulate & validate the various functional modules of a communication system.
 Apply various Error coding schemes & demonstrate their capabilities towards the improvement
of the noise performance of communication system
 Implement the different networking protocols.
 Configure a network using socket programming.
 Implement the various routing algorithms.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

2. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation
3. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation
4. Delta Modulation and Demodulation
5. Line coding schemes
6. Simulation of ASK, FSK, BPSK, DPSK, QPSK and QAM generation schemes.
7. Simulation of Error control techniques.
8. Implementation of Error Detection / Error Correction Techniques.
9. Implementation of Flow control Algorithms.
10. Implementation of IP address configuration and Commands such as ping, Trace
route, ns lookup.
11. To create scenario and study the performance of network with CSMA / CA
protocol. and compare with CSMA/CD protocols.
12. Network Topology - Star, Bus, Ring.
13. Implementation of distance vector and Link state routing algorithm.
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS
1. Signal Sampling and reconstruction
2. Time Division Multiplexing
Ex. No:1
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To study and understand amplitude modulation & demodulation circuit and calculate
modulation index for various modulating voltages.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. AM transmitter trainer kit
2. AM receiver trainer kit
3. CRO
4. Patch chords
PRE LAB EXERCISE:

1. What is meant by modulation?
2. Explain Amplitute modulation and Demodulation?
3. Define modulation index.
THEORY:
Amplitude Modulation is a process by which amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, but frequency and phase
of carrier wave remains constant.
MODEL GRAPH
TABULAR COLUMN:
Vm(p– p) EMAX EMin Practical Theoretical

M=E max – Emin M=A max – A min
(Volts) E max +E min A max +A min
(Volts) (Volts)
% %
PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit wiring is done as shown in diagram
2. A modulating signal input given to the Amplitude modulator
3. Now increase the amplitude of the modulating signal to the required level.
4. The amplitude and the time duration of the modulating signal are observed using
CRO.
5. Finally the amplitude modulated output is observed from the output of amplitude
modulator stage and the amplitude and time duration of the AM wave are noted
down.
6. Calculate the modulation index by using the formula and verify them.
7. The final demodulated signal is viewed using a CRO at the output of audio power
amplifier stage. Also the amplitude and time duration of the demodulated wave are noted
down.
POST LAB EXERCISE:

1. What was the value of modulation index observed?
2. As related to AM, what is over modulation, under modulation and 100%modulation?
3. What type of AM signals was generated in the kit?
RESULT:
The amplitude modulation circuit was designed and its modulation index was calculated
for various modulating voltages and was compared with theoretical values.
Ex. No: 2
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To study the characteristics of FM transmitter and receiver using trainer kit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. FM transmitter trainer kit
2. FM receivertrainerkit
3. CRO
4. Patch chords
PRE LAB EXERCISE:
1.What is FM?
2.Define frequency deviation in FM.
3.What are the advantages of FM?
THEORY:
Frequency modulation (FM) is a form of modulation that represents information as variations
in the instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave. (Contrast this with amplitude modulation, in which
the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.) In analog applications,
the carrier frequency is varied in direct proportion to changes in the amplitude of an input signal.
Shifting the carrier frequency among a set of discrete values can represent digital data, a technique
known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity
broadcasts of music and speech (see FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast
using FM. A narrowband form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio
settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio,
narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals
into space.
FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by most analog VCR systems, including VHS, to record
the luminance (black and white) portion of the video signal. FM is the only feasible method of
recording video to and retrieving video from magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video
signals have a very large range of frequency components — from a few hertz to several megahertz, too
wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below -60 dB. FM also keeps the tape at
saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction, and a simple limiter can mask
variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-through and pre-echo. A
continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal — as was done on V2000 and many Hi-band formats
— can keep mechanical jitter under control and assist time base correction.
MODEL GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN:
SIGNAL AMPLITUDE(V) TIME PERIOD(ms)
INPUT SIGNAL
CARRIER SIGNAL
FM SIGNAL
DEMODULATED
SIGNAL
PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit wiring is done as shown in diagram

2. A modulating signal input given to the Frequency modulator
3. Now increase the modulated signal to the required level.
4. The amplitude and the time duration of the modulating signal are observed
using CRO.
5. Finally the frequency modulated output is observed from the output of
frequency modulator stage and the amplitude and time duration of the FM wave are
noted down.
POST LAB EXERCISE:
1.What type of FM generation was done in the kit?

2.What do you mean by narrow band and wideband FM?
3. Was the demodulated output same as the message signal?
RESULT:
Thus theFM signal was transmitted using FM trainer kit and the FM signal detected
using FM detector kit.
Ex. No:3
PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To perform pulse code modulation and demodulation and to plot the waveforms for
binary data at different frequencies.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. FM transmitter trainer kit
2. FM receiver trainer kit
3. CRO
4. Patch chords
PRE LAB EXERCISE:
1.What is PCM?
2. List the advantages of PCM.
3. Summarize the application of PCM.
THEORY
Pulse code modulation is a process of converting an analog signal into digital. The
voice or any data input is first sampled using a sampler (which is a simple switch) and then
quantized. Quantization is the process of converting a given signal amplitude to an
equivalent binary number with fixed number of bits. This quantization can be either mid-
tread or mid-raise and it can be uniform or non-uniform based on the requirements. For
example in speech signals, the higher amplitudes will be less frequent than the low
amplitudes. So higher amplitudes are given less step size than the lower amplitudes and thus
quantization is performed non-uniformly. After quantization the signal is digital and the bits
are passed through a parallel to serial converter and then launched into the channel serially.
At the demodulator the received bits are first converted into parallel frames and
each frame is de-quantized to an equivalent analog value. This analog value is thus
equivalent to a sampler output. This is the demodulated signal.
In the kit this is implemented differently. The analog signal is passed through a
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) and then the digital codeword is passed through a parallel
to serial converter block. This is modulated PCM. This is taken by the Serial to Parallel
converter and then through a DAC to get the demodulated signal. The clock is given to all
these blocks for synchronization. The input signal can be either DC or AC according to the
kit. The waveforms can be observed on a CRO for DC without problem. AC also can be
observed but with poor resolution.
MODEL GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN
S.No Name ofthe signal Amplitude in V Time period in Sec Frequencyin Hz
1 ModulatingSignal
2 CarrierSignal
3 Modulated Signal
4 Demodulated
Signal
PROCEDURE:
1. Power on the PCM kit.
2. Measure the frequency of sampling clock.
3. Apply the DC voltage as modulating signal.
4. Connect the DC input to the ADC and measure the voltage.
5. Connect the clock to the timing and control circuit.
6. Note the binary work from LED display. The serial data through the channel can be
observed in the CRO.
7. Also observe the binary word at the receiver end.
8. Now apply the AC modulating signal at the input.
9. Observe the waveform at the output of DAC.
10. Note the amplitude of the input voltage and the codeword. Also note the value of the
output voltage. Show the codeword graphically for a DC input.
POST LAB EXERCISE:
1. What is the expression for transmission bandwidth in a PCM system?

2. What is the expression for quantization noise/error in PCM system?
3.What are the disadvantages of PCM?
RESULT:
Thus the PCM signal was generated using PCM modulator and the message signal was
detected from PCM signal by using PCM demodulator and graphs were plotted.
Ex. No:4
DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To transmit an analog message signal in its digital form and again reconstruct back the
original analog message signal at receiver by using Delta modulator.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Delta Modulator kit
2. CRO and
3. Connecting probes
PRE LAB EXERCISE:

1. Explain DM.
2. What is the advantage of DM?
3. Differentiate PCM and DM.
THEORY:
Delta Modulation is a form of pulse modulation where a sample value is represented as a
single bit. This is almost similar to differential PCM, as the transmitted bit is only one per
sample just to indicate whether the present sample is larger or smaller than the previous one.
The comparison of samples is accomplished by converting the digital to analog form and
then comparing with the present sample. This is done using an Up counter and DAC as
shown in block diagram. The delta modulated signal is given to up counter and then a DAC
and the analog input is given to OPAMP and a LPF to obtain the demodulated output.
MODEL GRAPH
TABULAR COLUMN
SIGNAL AMPLITUDE TIME PERIOD

(Volts)
(sec)
INPUT
INTEGRATEDOUTPUT
DELTA MODULATED
WAVE
DELTA DEMODULATED
WAVE
PROCEDURE
1. Switch on the kit. Connect the clock signal and the modulating input signal to
the modulator block. Observe the modulated signal in the CRO.
2. Connect the DM output to the demodulator circuit. Observe the demodulator
output on the CRO.
3. Also observe the DAC output on the CRO.
4. Change the amplitude of the modulating signal and observe the DAC output.
Notice the slope overload distortion. Keep the tuning knob so that the distortion
is gone. Note this value of the amplitude. This is the minimum required value
of the amplitude to overcome slope overload distortion.
5. Calculate the sampling frequency required for no slope overload distortion.
6. Compare the calculated and measured values of the sampling frequency.
POST LAB EXERCISE:

1. How to over come slope overload distortion?
2. What is the other name of Granular noise?
3. What is meant by staircase approximation?
RESULT:
Thus the analog message signal in its digital form was transmitted and again the original
analog message signal was reconstructed at receiver by using Delta modulator and
Demodulator
Ex. No:5
LINE CODING TECHNIQUES
AIM:
To study different line coding techniques and its characteristics.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Communication trainer kit

2. Multi Output Power Supply.
3. Patch chords.
4. DSO/CRO
PRE LAB EXERCISE:

1.What is the purpose of line coding schemes?
2.State NRZ unipolar format
3.Explain Manchester format.
THEORY:
We need to represent PCM binary digits by electrical pulses in order to transmit
them through a base band channel. The most commonly used PCM popular data formats are
being realized here. Line coding refers to the process of representing the bit stream (1‟ s and
0‟ s) in the form of voltage or current variations optimally tuned for the specific properties
of the physical channel being used. The selection of a proper line code can help in so many
ways: One possibility is to aid in clock recovery at the receiver. A clock signal is recovered
by observing transitions in the received bit sequence, and if enough transitions exist, a good
recovery of the clock is guaranteed, and the signal is said to be self-clocking.
Another advantage is to get rid of DC shifts. The DC component in a line code is called
the bias or the DC coefficient. Unfortunately, most long-distance communication channels
cannot transport a DC component. This is why most line codes try to eliminate the DC
component before being transmitted on the channel.Such codes are called DC balanced, zero-
DC, zero-bias, or DC equalized.Some common types of line encoding in common-use
nowadays are unipolar, polar, bipolar, Manchester, MLT-3 and Duobinary encoding. These
codes are explained here:
1. Unipolar (Unipolar NRZ and Unipolar RZ):
Unipolar is the simplest line coding scheme possible. It has the advantage of being
compatible with TTL logic. Unipolar coding uses a positive rectangular pulse p(t) to represent
binary 1, and the absence of a pulse (i.e., zero voltage) to represent a binary 0. Two
possibilities for the pulse p(t) exist3: Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) rectangular pulse and
Return-to-Zero (RZ) rectangular pulse. The difference between Unipolar NRZ and Unipolar
RZ codes is that the rectangular pulse in NRZ stays at a positive value (e.g., +5V) for the full
duration of the logic 1 bit, while the pule in RZ drops from +5V to 0V in the middle of the bit
time.
A drawback of unipolar (RZ and NRZ) is that its average value is not zero, which means
it creates a significant DC-component at the receiver (see the impulse at zero frequency in
the corresponding power spectral density (PSD) of this line code. The disadvantage of unipolar
RZ compared to unipolar NRZ is that each rectangular pulse in RZ is only half the length
of NRZ pulse. This means that unipolar RZ requires twice the bandwidth of the NRZ code.
Polar (Polar NRZ and Polar RZ):

In Polar NRZ line coding binary 1‟ s are represented by a pulse p(t) and binary 0‟ s
are represented by the negative of this pulse -p(t) (e.g., -5V). Polar (NRZ and RZ) signals
.Using the assumption that in a regular bit stream a logic 0 is just as likely as a logic
1,polar signals (whether RZ or NRZ) have the advantage that the resulting Dccomponent is
very close to zero.
BIPHASE SIGNALS (PHASE ENCODED SIGNALS) :
a) BiPhase – LEVEL (Manchester Coding)
b) Biphase – MARK and
c) Biphase – Space Signals
These schemes are used in magnetic recording, optical communications and in satellite
telemetry links. This phase encoded signals are special in the sense that they are composed
of both the in phase and out-of-phase components of the clock.
Manchester Coding (Biphase –L):

With the Biphase – L, a ‘one’ is represented by a half bit wide pulse
positioned during the first half of the bit interval and a ‘zero, is represented by a half bit wide
pulse positioned during the second half of the bit interval.
Biphase Mark Coding (Biphase –M):
With the Biphase – M, a transition occurs at the beginning of every bit
interval. A ‘one’ is represented by a second transition, one half bit later whereas a zero has no
second transition.
Bi-Phase Space coding (Biphase –S):
With a Biphase – S also a transition occurs at the beginning of every bit interval. A ‘zero’ is
arked by a second transition, one half bit later, where as a ‘one’ has no second transition.
Return to zero – Alternate Mark Inversion Coding (RZ-AMI):

This coding scheme is most often used in telemetry systems. This scheme comes under both
the category of return to zero scheme and multilevel scheme. The one’s are represented by pulse
width of half the bit duration existing in the alternate direction whereas zero’s are represented
by absence of the pulse.
OBSERVATIONS
DATA :
AMPLITUDE :
TIME PERIOD :
PROCEDURE
1. Give the connections as per the experimental setup.

2. Observe the clock signal &the data and measurethem.
3. Observe the standard data &the coded data formats and verifywith theknown formats.
POST LAB EXERCISE:
1.Which among the above format is widely used?

2.List the applications of Line coding schemes.
3.Which coding format has mean around zero?
RESULT:
Thus the different line coding techniques was studied and its characteristics are plotted.
Ex. No:6 a
SIMULATION OF ASK, FSK, BPSK GENERATION SCHEMES
AIM:
To obtain the signal constellation of ASK, FSK, BPSK waveforms using MATLAB.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
SYSTEM with MATLAB software
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS :
1. What is ASK modulation?
2. Compare the performance of ASK, FSK and BPSK.
3. What is Constellation in the digital modulation techniques?
THEORY:
Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data.
PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits. Usually, each
phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the
particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the
modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents,
thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the
received signal to a reference signal — such a system is termed coherent (and referred to as
CPSK).Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be
used to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the
phase of the received signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference
between successive phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be
significantly simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to
have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase of the received signal (it is a non-
coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces more erroneous demodulations.
ALGORITHM:
1. Start.
2. Get the data bits and compute its length.
3. Get the input frequency.
4. Generate the BPSK waveforms with their corresponding carrier frequency.
5. Plot the output waveform.
6. Stop
PROGRAM FOR ASK:
%%%%% ASK %%%%%%
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1; fc=10;
t=0:Tb/100:1;
c=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=zeros(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%product of carrier and message
ask_sig(i,:)=c.*m_s;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
%plot the message and ASK signal
subplot(5,1,2);axis([0 N -2 2]);plot(t,message(i,:),'r');
title('message signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('m(t)');grid on
hold on
subplot(5,1,4);plot(t,ask_sig(i,:));
title('ASK signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('s(t)');grid on
hold on
end
hold off
%Plot the carrier signal and input binary data
subplot(5,1,3);plot(t,c);
title('carrier signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('c(t)');grid on
subplot(5,1,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');grid on
Output
PROGRAM FOR FSK:
%%%%%%%%%% FSK %%%%%%%%%%%%%%
clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=[0:0.0001:5];
s=square(2*pi*t,100);
s1=square(2*pi*t);
s2=0.5*(s+s1);
s3=-square(2*pi*t);
s4=0.5*(s+s3);
x1=sin(2*pi*6*t)
x=x1.*s2;
y1=sin(2*pi*2*t)
y=y1.*s4;
z= x+y;
subplot(4,1,1)
plot(t,s1)
axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
title('Message Bits')
subplot(4,1,2)
plot(t,x1)
axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
title('Carrier Signal 1');
subplot(4,1,3)
plot(t,y1)
axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
title('Carrier Signal 2');
subplot(4,1,4)
plot(t,z)
axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
title('Frequency Shift Keying(FSK) Output');
Output
Message Bits
1
0
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Carrier Signal 1
1
0
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Carrier Signal 2
1
0
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Frequency Shift Keying(FSK) Output
1
0
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
PROGRAM FOR BPSK:
%BPSK Modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
n=input('Enter the data bits'); y=length(n);
freq=input('enter the frequency');
for i=1:y
if n(1,i)==0
for t=((i-1)*100+1):(i*100)
y(t)=sin(2*pi*freq*t/1000+pi); x(t)=0;
end
else
for t=(i-1)*100+1:(i*100)
y(t)=sin(2*pi*freq*t/1000); x(t)=1;
end
end
end
figure(1);
subplot(2,1,1); plot(x);
title('inputdata');
subplot(2,1,2); plot(y);
xlabel('time in sec');
ylabel('amplitude in volts');
title('PSK');
grid on;
Command Window input
Enter the data bits [1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0]

Enter the frequency 10
Output
input data
amplitude in volts
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
time in sec
carrier signal
amplitude in volts
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
time in sec
BPSK modulated signal
amplitude in volts
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
time in sec
POST-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Plot Constellation diagram for ASK signal.

2. Obtain FSK Constellation with binary mapping.
3.Generate the BPSK signal for the data 11101110.
RESULT:
Thus the ASK PSK and FSK signals are generated using MATLAB.
Ex. No:6 b
SIMULATION OF GENERATION OF QPSK, QAM AND DPSK SCHEMES
AIM:
To obtain the signal constellation of QPSK, QAM and DPSK waveforms using MATLAB.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
SYSTEM with MATLAB software
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS :
1. What is M-ary modulation?
2. Compare the performance of QPSK and QAM.
3. What is Constellation in the digital modulation techniques?
THEORY:
Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The
demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines
the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the
original data. This requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a
reference signal — such a system is termed coherent (and referred to as CPSK).Alternatively,
instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be used to change it by a
specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the phase of the received
signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference between successive
phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be significantly simpler to
implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to have a copy of the
reference signal to determine the exact phase of the received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In
exchange, it produces more erroneous demodulations. The exact requirements of the particular
scenario under consideration determine which scheme is used. Quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM) is both an analog and a digital modulation scheme. It conveys two analog message signals,
or two digital bit streams, by changing (modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using the
amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog
modulation scheme. QAM is used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital telecommunication
systems. Arbitrarily high spectral efficiencies can be achieved with QAM by setting a suitable
constellation size, limited only by the noise level and linearity of the communications channel.
ALGORITHM:
1. Start.
2. Get the data bits and compute its length.
3. Get the input frequency.
4. Generate the waveforms with their corresponding carrier frequency.
5. Plot the output waveform.
6. Stop
PROGRAM FOR QPSK:

%%%%%%%%%% QPSK %%%%%%%%%%%%%%
clear;
clc;
b = input('Enter the bit stream = ');
n = length(b); % length of the input bit stream
t = 0:0.01:n;
x = 1:1:(n+2)*100;
for i = 1:n
if (b(i) == 0)
u(i) = -1;
else
u(i) = 1;
end
for j = i:0.1:i+1
input_bits(x(i*100:(i+1)*100)) = u(i);
if (mod(i,2) == 0)
even_bits(x(i*100:(i+1)*100)) = u(i);
even_bits(x((i+1)*100:(i+2)*100)) = u(i);
else
odd_bits(x(i*100:(i+1)*100)) = u(i);
odd_bits(x((i+1)*100:(i+2)*100)) = u(i);
end
if (mod(n,2)~= 0)
even_bits(x(n*100:(n+1)*100)) = -1;
even_bits(x((n+1)*100:(n+2)*100)) = -1;
end
end
end
input_bits = input_bits(100:end);
odd_bits = odd_bits(100:(n+1)*100);
even_bits = even_bits(200:(n+2)*100);
cost = cos(2*pi*t);
sint = sin(2*pi*t);
x = odd_bits.*cost; % In-Phase Signal component
y = even_bits.*sint; % Quadrature phase Signal Component
z = x+y; % QPSK Signal
subplot(3,2,1);
plot(t,input_bits, 'linewidth',3);
xlabel('n ---->');
ylabel('Amplitude(volts) ---->');
title('Input Bit Stream');
grid on ;
axis([0 n -2 +2]);
subplot(3,2,2);
plot(t,y,'linewidth',3);
xlabel('Time(sec) ---->');
title('wave form for Inphase component in QPSK modulation');
grid on ;
axis([0 n -2 +2]);
subplot(3,2,3);
plot(t,even_bits,'linewidth',3);
xlabel('n ---->');
title('Even Sequence');
grid on ;
axis([0 n -2 +2]);
subplot(3,2,4);
plot(t,x, 'linewidth',3);
title('wave form for Quadrature phase component in QPSK modulation');
grid on ;
axis([0 n -2 +2]);
subplot(3,2,5);
plot(t,odd_bits,'linewidth',3);
xlabel('n ---->');
title('Odd Sequence');
grid on ;
axis([0 n -2 +2]);
subplot(3,2,6);
plot(t,z,'linewidth',3);
title('QPSK modulated signal (sum of Inphase and Quadrature phase signal');
grid on ;
axis([0 n -2 +2]);
%Command Window Input
Enter the bit stream = [1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0]
Output
Input Bit Stream wave form for Inphase component in QPSK modulation
2 2
Amplitude(volts) ---->
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n ----> Time(sec) ---->
Even Sequence wave form for Quadrature phase component in QPSK modulation
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n ----> Time(sec) ---->
Odd Sequence QPSK modulated signal (sum of Inphase and Quadrature phase signal
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n ----> Time(sec) ---->
Constellation: QPSK,Gray Mapping,PhaseOffset=0.7854rad
1.5
1
1 0
Quadrature Amplitude
0.5
-0.5 3 2
-1
-1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

In-phase Amplitude
PROGRAM FOR QAM:
nbit=16; %number of information bits
msg=round(rand(nbit,1)); % information generation as binary form
disp(' binary information at transmitter ');
disp(msg);
fprintf('\n\n');
%XX representation of transmitting binary information as digital signal XXX

x=msg;
bp=.000001; % bit period
bit=[];
for n=1:1:length(x)
if x(n)==1;
se=ones(1,100);
else x(n)==0;
se=zeros(1,100);
end
bit=[bit se];
end
t1=bp/100:bp/100:100*length(x)*(bp/100);
figure(1)
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t1,bit,'lineWidth',2.5);grid on;
axis([ 0 bp*length(x) -.5 1.5]);
ylabel('amplitude(volt)');
xlabel(' time(sec)');
title('transmitting information as digital signal');
% binary information convert into symbolic form for M-array QAM modulation
M=M; % order of QAM modulation
msg_reshape=reshape(msg,log2(M),nbit/log2(M))';
disp(' information are reshaped for convert symbolic form');
disp(msg_reshape);
fprintf('\n\n');
size(msg_reshape);
for(j=1:1:nbit/log2(M))
for(i=1:1:log2(M))
a(j,i)=num2str(msg_reshape(j,i));
end
end
as=bin2dec(a);
ass=as';
figure(1)
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(ass,'Linewidth',2.0);
title('serial symbol for M-array QAM modulation at transmitter');
xlabel('n(discrete time)');
ylabel(' magnitude');
disp('symbolic form information for M-array QAM ');

disp(ass);
fprintf('\n\n');
%XXXXXXXXXXXXXX Mapping for M-array QAM modulation XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
M=M; %order of QAM modulation
x1=[0:M-1];
p=qammod(ass,M) %constalation design for M-array QAM acording to symbol
sym=0:1:M-1; % considerable symbol of M-array QAM, just for scatterplot
pp=qammod(sym,M); %constalation diagram for M-array QAM
scatterplot(pp),grid on;
title('consttelation diagram for M-array QAM');
%XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX M-array QAM modulation XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

RR=real(p)
II=imag(p)
sp=bp*2; %symbol period for M-array QAM
sr=1/sp; % symbol rate
f=sr*2;
t=sp/100:sp/100:sp;
ss=length(t);
m=[];
for(k=1:1:length(RR))
yr=RR(k)*cos(2*pi*f*t); % inphase or real component
yim=II(k)*sin(2*pi*f*t); % Quadrature or imagenary component
y=yr+yim;
m=[m y];
end
tt=sp/100:sp/100:sp*length(RR);
figure(1);
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(tt,m);
title('waveform for M-array QAM modulation acording to symbolic information');
xlabel('time(sec)');
%XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX M-array QAM demodulation XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

m1=[];
m2=[];
for n=ss:ss:length(m)
t=sp/100:sp/100:sp;
y1=cos(2*pi*f*t); % inphase component
y2=sin(2*pi*f*t); % quadrature component
mm1=y1.*m((n-(ss-1)):n);
mm2=y2.*m((n-(ss-1)):n);
z1=trapz(t,mm1) % integration
z2=trapz(t,mm2) % integration
zz1=round(2*z1/sp)
zz2=round(2*z2/sp)
m1=[m1 zz1]
m2=[m2 zz2]
end
%XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX de-mapping for M-array QAM modulation XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

clear i;
clear j;
for (k=1:1:length(m1))
gt(k)=m1(k)+j*m2(k);
end
gt
ax=qamdemod(gt,M);
figure(3);
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(ax,'linewidth',2);
title(' re-obtain symbol after M-array QAM demodulation ');
xlabel('n(discrete time)');
ylabel(' magnitude');
disp('re-obtain symbol after M-array QAM demodulation ');

disp(ax);
fprintf('\n\n');
bi_in=dec2bin(ax);
[row col]=size(bi_in);
p=1;
for(i=1:1:row)
for(j=1:1:col)
re_bi_in(p)=str2num(bi_in(i,j));
p=p+1;
end
end
disp('re-obtain binary information after M-array QAM demodulation');
disp(re_bi_in')
fprintf('\n\n');
%XX representation of receiving binary information as digital signal XXXXXX

x=re_bi_in;
bp=.000001; % bit period
bit=[];
for n=1:1:length(x)
if x(n)==1;
se=ones(1,100);
else x(n)==0;
se=zeros(1,100);
end
bit=[bit se];
end
t1=bp/100:bp/100:100*length(x)*(bp/100);
figure(3)
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(t1,bit,'lineWidth',2.5);grid on;
axis([ 0 bp*length(x) -.5 1.5]);
xlabel(' time(sec)');
title('receiving information as digital signal after M-array QAM demoduation');
%>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> end of program <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
%16-QAM Modulation Signal Constellation

clc;
M = 16; % Modulation order
x = (0:15)'; % Integer input
y1 = qammod(x, 16, 0); % 16-QAM output, phase offset = 0
plot(y1,'ok','MarkerSize',10,'MarkerFaceColor', 'r')
text(real(y1)+0.1, imag(y1), dec2bin(x))
title('16-QAM, Binary Symbol Mapping')
axis([-3 3 -3 3])
xlabel('In-Phase Amplitude ');
ylabel('Quadrature Amplitude');
grid on
Output
16-QAM, Binary Symbol Mapping

3 0000 0100 1000 1100
2
Quadrature Amplitude
1 0001 0101 1001 1101
-1 0010 0110 1010 1110
-2
-3 0011 0111 1011 1111

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
In-Phase Amplitude
PROGRAM FOR DPSK:
clc;
clear all; close all;
M = 4; % Alphabet size
x = randi([0 M-1],1000,1); % Random message
y = dpskmod(x,M); % Modulate.
z = dpskdemod(y,M); % Demodulate.
s1 = symerr(x,z) % Expect one symbol error, namely, the first symbol.
s2 = symerr(x(2:end),z(2:end)) % Ignoring 1st symbol, expect no errors. The output is below.
s1 =1
s2 =0
y = dpskmod(x,M)
s = RandStream.create('mt19937ar', 'seed',131);
prevStream = RandStream.setGlobalStream(s); % seed for repeatability
M = 4; % Use DQPSK in this example, so M is 4.
x = randi([0 M-1],500,1); % Random data
y1 = dpskmod(x,M,pi/8); % Modulate using a nonzero initial phase.
plot(y) % Plot all points, using lines to connect them
title(' DPSK signal constellation without zero initial phase')
figure (2)
plot(y1)
title(' DPSK signal constellation with zero initial phase of pi/8')
Output:
DPSK signal constellation without zero initial phase
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
DPSK signal constellation with zero initial phase of pi/8

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
POST-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. Plot Constellation diagram for 64-QAM signal.

2. Obtain QPSK Constellation with binary mapping.
3.Generate the QPSK signal for the data 11101110.
RESULT:
Thus the Constellation of DPSK, QPSK and QAM signals are generated using MATLAB.
Ex. No:7
SIMULATION OF LINEAR BLOCK CODING SCHEMES
AIM:
To write a program in MATLAB for Linear Block coding technique.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
SYSTEM with MATLAB
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. What is linear block coding ?
2. Define error controlling technique.
3. How to compute syndrome table?
THEORY:
In coding theory, a linear code is an error-correcting code for which any linear combination of code
words is also a codeword. Linear codes are traditionally partitioned into block codes and convolutional
codes, although turbo codes can be seen as a hybrid of these two types. Linear codes allow for more
efficient encoding and decoding algorithms than other codes.
Linear codes are used in forward error correction and are applied in methods for transmitting symbols
(e.g., bits) on a communications channel so that, if errors occur in the communication, some errors can
be corrected or detected by the recipient of a message block. The codewords in a linear block code are
blocks of symbols which are encoded using more symbols than the original value to be sent. A linear
code of length n transmits blocks containing n symbols.
ALGORITHM:
1. Generate the message sequence of length ‘k’.

2. Generate the coefficient matrix ‘p’ of order k by (n-k).
3. Generate the identity matrix G and multiply with p matrix to form generator
matrix.
4. Linear block code is calculated as, LBC=[M]*[G].
5. Obtain the parity check matrix.
6. Add noise to code word, [r]=[c]+[e].
7. Construct the syndrome table.
8. Decode the desired message from code word.
PROGRAM:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
n=7; k=4;
% message of length ‘k’
M=[0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 1; 0 0 1 0; 0 0 1 1; 0 1 0 0; 0 1 0 1; 0 1 1 0; 0 1 1 1];
disp('message');
disp(M);
%p is coefficient matrix k by(n-k)
p=[1 0 1; 0 1 0; 1 0 0; 1 1 0];
display('parity');
disp(p);
%Generator matri
G=[[p],eye(k)];
display('generator matrix'); disp(G);
%Linear Block Code
c=encode(M,n,k, 'linear fmt',G);
c=rem(M*G,2);
display('code word');
disp(c);
%parity check matrix
H=[eye(n-k),[p]']; display('parity check matrix'); disp(H);
%Addition of noise
display('error');
e=randerr(8,n);
display('received matrix');
r=rem(plus(c,e),2); disp(r);
%decoding error matrix
disp('syndrome error');
e=rem(r*H',2);
disp(e);
%syndrome table
disp('Decoding table');
t=syndtable(H);
disp(t);
[msg,err,cc]=decode(r,n,k,'linear fmt',G,t);
disp('decoded message');
disp(cc);
Output
message
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
parity
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
generator matrix
1 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
code word
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
parity check matrix

1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
error
received matrix
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
syndrome error
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
Decoding table
Single-error patterns loaded in decoding table. 2 rows remaining.
2-error patterns loaded. 0 rows remaining.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
decoded message
1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
RESULT:
Thus the implementation of linear block code (7, 4) was done using MATLAB.
Ex-No :8 Error Correction and Error Detection Techniques
AIM:
To develop a program to study and implement the error correction and error detection using
CRC-CCITT (16bit).
ALGORITHM:
1. Multiply M(x) by highest power in G(x). i.e. Add So much zeros to M(x).
2. Divide the result by G(x). The remainder = C(x).
3. If: x div y gives remainder c that means: x = n y + c Hence (x-c) = n y (x-c) div y gives remainder 0
Here (x-c) = (x+c) Hence (x+c) div y gives remainder 0
4. Transmit: T(x) = M(x) + C(x)
5. Receiver end: Receive T(x). Divide by G(x), should have remainder 0.
THEORY :
Whenever digital data is stored or interfaced, data corruption might occur. Since the beginning of
computer science, developers have been thinking of ways to deal with this type of problem. For serial
data they came up with the solution to attach a parity bit to each sent byte. This simple detection
mechanism works if an odd number of bits in a byte changes, but an even number of false bits in one
byte will not be detected by the parity check. To overcome this problem developers have searched for
mathematical sound mechanisms to detect multiple false bits. The CRC calculation or cyclic redundancy
check was the result of this. Nowadays CRC calculations are used in all types of communications. All
packets sent over a network connection are checked with a CRC.
The idea behind CRC calculation is to look at the data as one large binary number. This number is
divided by a certain value and the remainder of the calculation is called the CRC. Dividing in the CRC
calculation at first looks to cost a lot of computing power, but it can be performed very quickly if we
use a method similar to the one learned at school.
Example : ( Write in the left side of the observation/Record)
We will as an example calculate the remainder for the character 'm'—which is 1101101 in binary
notation—by dividing it by 19 or 10011. Please note that 19 is an odd number. This is necessary as we
will see further on. Please refer to your schoolbooks as the binary calculation method here is not very
different from the decimal method you learned when you were young. It might only look a little bit
strange. Also notations differ between countries, but the method is similar
Basic mathematical process:

The message bits are appended with c zero bits; this augmented message is the dividend
 A predetermined c+1-bit binary sequence, called the generator polynomial, is the divisor
 The checksum is the c-bit remainder that results from the division operation
Table 1 lists some of the most commonly used generator polynomials for 16- and 32-bit CRCs.
Remember that the width of the divisor is always one bit wider than the remainder. So, for example,
you’d use a 17-bit generator polynomial whenever a 16-bit checksum is required.
Error detection with CRC

Consider a message represented by the polynomial M(x)
Consider a generating polynomial G(x) This is used to generate a CRC = C(x) to be appended to M(x).
Note this G(x) is prime.
Steps:
1. Multiply M(x) by highest power in G(x). i.e. Add So much zeros to M(x).
2. Divide the result by G(x). The remainder = C(x). Special case: This won't work if bitstring =all
zeros. We don't allow such an M(x).But M(x) bitstring = 1 will work, for example. Can divide 1101
into 1000.
3. If: x div y gives remainder c that means: x = n y + c Hence (x-c) = n y (x-c) div y gives remainder 0
Here (x-c) = (x+c) Hence (x+c) div y gives remainder 0
4. Transmit: T(x) = M(x) + C(x)
5. Receiver end: Receive T(x). Divide by G(x), should have remainder 0.
Note if G(x) has order n - highest power is xn, then G(x) will cover (n+1) bits and the remainder
will cover n bits. i.e. Add n bits (Zeros) to message.
Source Code:
#include<stdio.h>
int a[100],b[100],i,j,len,k,count=0;
//Generator Polynomial:g(x)=x^16+x^12+x^5+1
int gp[]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,};
int main()
{
void div();
system("clear");
printf("\nEnter the length of Data Frame :");
scanf("%d",&len);
printf("\nEnter the Message :");
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
//Append r(16) degree Zeros to Msg bits
for(i=0;i<16;i++)
a[len++]=0;
//Xr.M(x) (ie. Msg+16 Zeros)
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
b[i]=a[i];
//No of times to be divided ie. Msg Length
k=len-16;
div();
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
b[i]=b[i]^a[i]; //MOD 2 Substraction
printf("\nData to be transmitted : ");
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
printf("%2d",b[i]);
printf("\n\nEnter the Reveived Data : ");
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
div();
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
if(a[i]!=0)
{
printf("\nERROR in Recived Data");
return 0;
}
printf("\nData Recived is ERROR FREE");
}
void div()
{
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
{
if(a[i]==gp[0])
{
for(j=i;j<17+i;j++)
a[j]=a[j]^gp[count++];
}
count=0;
}
}
Output:
[root@localhost ]# cc prg1.c
[root@localhost ]# ./a.out
Enter the length of Data Frame :4
Enter the Message :1 0 1 1
Data to be transmitted : 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Enter the Reveived Data : 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
ERROR in Recived Data
Reminder is : 0000000100000000
RESULT: Thus the error correction and error detection using CRC-CCITT (16bit) was implemented.
Ex.No: 9a Implementation of Stop and Wait Protocol
AIM:
To write a C program to demonstrate the working of simple Stop and Wait Protocol.
THEORY:
The Stop-and-Wait protocol uses both flow and error control. In this protocol, the sender sends
one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next one. To detect corrupted
frames, we need to add a CRC to each data frame. When a frame arrives at the receiver site, it is checked.
If its CRC is incorrect, the frame is corrupted and silently discarded. The silence of the receiver is a
signal for the sender that a frame was either corrupted or lost.
Every time the sender sends a frame, it starts a timer. If an acknowledgment arrives before the
timer expires, the timer is stopped and the sender sends the next frame (if it has one to send). If the timer
expires, the sender resends the previous frame, assuming that the frame was either lost or corrupted.
This means that the sender needs to keep a copy of the frame until its acknowledgment arrives. When
the corresponding acknowledgment arrives, the sender discards the copy and sends the next frame if it
is ready. Only one frame and one acknowledgment can be in the channels at any time.
The advantages are Limited buffer size, sooner Errors detection and prevents one station
occupying medium for long periods.
PRE-LAB QUESTIONS:
1. What are the responsibilities of data link layer?
2. Define flow control.
3. What is the function of stop and wait flow control?
4. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of stop and wait flow control.
ALGORITHM:
(i) Start Program
1. Start
2. Declare the required variables and file pointers.
3. Get the choice from the user if he needs a Selective Retransmission or Go-Back-N protocol.
4. Select “1” for Sending the data and “2” for the end of transmission
5. For sending the data open a text file in write mode and write the data that has to be sent.
6. Once written close the file.
7. Check the ack.txt file in which the acknowledgement from the receiver is stored.
8. If the acknowledgment is positive, then send the data to the receiver.
9. If all the data are sent, then select Option “2” to end the transmission.
(ii) Stop Program
1. Start
2. Declare the required variables and file pointers.
3. For receiving the data, open a data.txt text file in read mode and read the data that was sent by
the receiver.
4. Open the ack.txt file in write mode and write as “Yes” if received correctly.
5. Else, write as ‘No” in the ack.txt file.
6. Close the file.
Sender Module
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
int ch,strt=1;
char input[20],ack[4];
FILE*in,*ak;
clrscr();
printf("\nStop and Wait Protocol\n");
printf("\n1.Send\n2.End Of Transmission\n");
strcpy(ack,"yes");
while(1)
{
if(strt|=1)
printf("\nEnter your choice...");
scanf("%d",&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
if (strt|=1)
{
ak=fopen("ack.txt","r");
fscanf(ak,"%s",ack);
fclose(ak);
}
if(((strcmp(ack,"yes"))==0)||(strt==1))
{
in=fopen("data.txt","w");
printf("\nEnter the Data...");
scanf("%s",input);
fprintf(in,"%s",input);
fclose(in);
printf("\nData Sent\n");
strt=0;
}
else
{exit(0);}
break;
case 2:
{exit(0);
break;}
}
getch();
}
}
Receiver Module
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int one,choice,frst=1;
char output[20],akstr[4];
FILE*out,*ak1;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
if(frst==0)
{
out=fopen("data.txt","r");
fscanf(out,"%s",output);
printf("\nReceived data:");
printf("%s",output);
}
fclose(out);
printf("\n1.Yes\n2.No");
printf("\nDo you want to Acknowledge the Data?\t");
scanf("%d",&choice);
frst=0;
if(choice==1)
{
strcpy(akstr,"yes");
}
else
{
strcpy(akstr,"no");
}
ak1=fopen("ack.txt","w");
fprintf(ak1,"%s",akstr);
fclose(ak1);
if(choice==2)
break;
}
}
RESULT: Thus the working of simple error control functionality was implemented using the simple
Stop and wait protocol in C language.
Ex.No: 9b Implementation and study of selective repeat and Goback-N protocols
AIM:
To write a C program to demonstrate the working of selective repeat and Goback-N Protocol.
THEORY:
Four protocols have been defined for the data-link layer to deal with flow and error control.
Simple, Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, and Selective-Repeat.
The sliding window is an abstract concept that defines the range of sequence numbers that is the concern
of the sender and receiver. In other words, the sender and receiver need to deal with only part of the
possible sequence numbers. The range which is the concern of the sender is called the send sliding
window; the range that is the concern of the receiver is called the receive sliding window.
Go-Back-N : It is based on sliding window for error control. If no error occurs ACK is sent as usual
with next frame expected. If error occurs then discard that frame and all future frames until error frame
received correctly. Transmitter must go back and retransmit that frame and all subsequent frames.
Selective Reject:
It also called selective retransmission for error control. Here only the rejected frames are retransmitted.
Subsequent frames are accepted by the receiver and buffered. This minimizes retransmission. Receiver
must maintain large enough buffer.
ALGORITHM:
1. Start the program

2. Include the required header files.
3. Declare and Initialize the variables and file pointers.
4. Enter the choice to choose protocol - Selective Retransmission or Go-Back-N
5. Get the size of the data to be sent
6. Check for the acknowledgement. If yes, then enter the data one by one\.
7. If the acknowledgement is not received, then ask enter the position that has be sent again.
8. If the protocol is Selective Retransmission, then the data of that particular position will be sent.
9. If the protocol is Go-Back-N, then all the data from the position will be sent.
10. It the data are transmitted then choose the Exit option to quit the program.
Selective repeat and GoBack N

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
int data[5],rec[5];
int n,m,a,i,c=0,j;
char r[5],ch='y';
clrscr();
do
{
printf("\n Enter the choice:");
printf("\n 1.Select Retransmission\n");
printf("\n 2.Go back n");
printf("\n 3.Exit\n");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\n Enter the size of data: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\n Enter the data one by one :");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d", &data[i]);
}
switch(a)
{
case 1:
{
printf("\n data is ready to send");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
rec[i]=data[i];
printf("\n %d is sent \n", data[i]);
printf("\nIf the data is received (y/n)?\n");
scanf("%s", r);
if(strcmp(r,"n"))
printf("\n ack is rec %d\n",i+1);
else
c++;
}
if(c!=0)
{
printf("\n enter position of data to send:");
scanf("%d",&m);
}
while(m>n)
{
printf("\n Wrong choice");
printf("\n Enter position of data again:");
scanf("%d",&m);
}
if(a==1)
printf("\n %d is sent again\n", data[m-1]);
getch();
}
break;
case 2:
{
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
rec[j]=data[j];
printf("\n %d is sent\n",data[j]);
printf("\nIf the data is received (y/n)?\n");
scanf("%s",r);
if(strcmp(r,"n"))
printf("\n ack is rec %d\n",j);
else
c++;
}
if(c!=0)
{
printf("\n enter starting position of data to be sent");
scanf("%d",&m);
for(i=m;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n %d is sent",data[i]);
}
}
}
}
getch();
break;
default:exit(0);
}}
while(ch=='y');
return(0);
}
RESULT: Thus the working of selective repeat and GoBack n were implemented and understood in C
language.
Ex.No: 10a Implementation of IP address
A. IP Address Configuration:
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a unique number assigned to every device on a network. Just
as a street address determines where a letter should be delivered, an IP address identifies computers on
the Internet. Network devices use IP addresses to communicate with each other.
IP addresses are required by any network adapter on any computer that needs to connect to the Internet
or another computer. Addresses are given out to network computers in one of two manners, dynamically
or statically.
To set a static IP address in Windows 7, 8, and 10:
 Click Start Menu > Control Panel > Network and Sharing Center or Network and Internet >
Network and Sharing Center.
 Click on Local Area Connection.
 Click Details.
 View for the Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) address.
RESULT:
Thus the IP address configuration was implemented successfully.
Ex.No: 10b Implementation of IP Commands such as ping, Traceroute, nslookup.
IP Commands
(i)Ping
Ping is a standard application found on most laptop and desktop computers. Apps that support ping can
also be installed on smartphones and other mobile devices. Additionally, websites that support Internet
speed test services often include ping as one of their features.
A ping utility sends test messages from the local client to a remote target over the TCP/IP network
connection. The target can be a Web site, a computer, or any other device with an IP address. Besides
determining whether the remote computer is currently online, ping also provides indicators of the
general speed or reliability of network connections.
Running Ping:
Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux provide command line ping programs that can be run from
the operating system shell. Computers can be pinged by either IP address or by name.
To ping a computer by IP address:
 Open a shell prompt (in Microsoft Windows, the Command Prompt or MS-DOS Prompt on the
Start Menu).
 Type ping followed by a space and then the IP address.
 Press the Enter (or Return) key.
Interpreting the Results of Ping
 Reply from: By default, Microsoft Windows ping sends a series of four messages to the address.
The program outputs a confirmation line for each response message received from the target
computer.
 Bytes: Each ping request is 32 bytes in size by default.
 Time: Ping reports the amount of time (in milliseconds) between the sending of requests and
receipt of responses.
 TTL (Time-to-Live): A value between 1 and 128, TTL can be used to count how many different
networks the ping messages passed through before reaching the target computer. A value of 128
indicates the device is on the local network, with 0 other networks in between.
(ii) Traceroute
A traceroute is a function which traces the path from one network to another. It allows us to
diagnose the source of many problems.
To run traceroute on Windows:
 Go to Start > Run.
 To open the command prompt type cmd and press the Enter key.
This will bring up a command prompt window. It has a line that looks like this:
C:\Documents and Settings\yourname> _ with a cursor blinking next to the ">"
symbol.
 In the command prompt, type: tracert hostname
where hostname is the name of the server connection you are testing. (IP address)
 You may have to wait up to a minute or more for the test to complete. It will generate a
list of the connections along the way and some information about the speed of the steps
along the way.
 It sends us the complete results (every line) for analysis.
iii) Nslookup
nslookup is a network administration command-line tool available for many computer operating
systems.
 The main use of nslookup is for troubleshooting DNS related problems.
 Nslookup can be used in interactive and non-interactive mode.
 To use in interactive mode type nslookup at the command line and hit return.
To run nslookup on Windows:
1. Go to Start > Run and type cmd.
2. At a command prompt, type nslookup, and then press Enter.
3. Type server <IP address>;,where IP address is the IP address of your external DNS server
4. Type set q=MX, and then press Enter
5. Type <domain name>, where domain name is the name of your domain, and then press Enter.
RESULT:
Thus the IP Commands such as ping, Traceroute, nslookup was implemented.
Introduction to Network Simulator 2
NS2 stands for Network Simulator Version 2. It is an open-source event-driven simulator designed
specifically for research in computer communication networks.
Features of NS2
1. It is a discrete event simulator for networking research.
2. It provides substantial support to simulate bunch of protocols like TCP, FTP, UDP, https and DSR.
3. It simulates wired and wireless network.
4. It is primarily Unix based.
5. Uses TCL as its scripting language.
6. Otcl: Object oriented support
7. Tclcl: C++ and otcl linkage
8. Discrete event scheduler
Basic Architecture
NS2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command Language (OTcl). While
the C++ defines the internal mechanism (i.e., a backend) of the simulation objects, the OTcl sets up
simulation by assembling and configuring the objects as well as scheduling discrete events. The C++
and the OTcl are linked together using TclCL
 Nam (Network Animator) is an animation tool to graphically represent the network and
packet traces.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an alternative communications protocol to Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) used primarily for establishing low-latency and loss-tolerating
connections between applications on the internet.
Some basic Otcl script syntax :
 Basic Command :
set a 8
set b [expr $a/8]
In the first line, the variable a is assigned the value 8. In the second line, the result of the command
[expr $a/8], which equals 1, is then used as an argument to another command, which in turn assigns
a value to the variable b. The “$” sign is used to obtain a value contained in a variable and square
brackets are an indication of a command substitution.
 Define new procedures with proc command
proc factorial fact {
if {$fact <= 1} {
return 1
}
expr $fact * [factorial [expr $fact-1]]
}
 To open a file for reading :
set testfile [open hello.dat r]
Similarly, put command is used to write data into the file
set testfile [open hello.dat w]

puts $testfile “hello1”
 To call sub processes within another process, exec is used, which creates a sub process and waits
for it to complete.
exec rm $testfile
 To be able to run a simulation scenario, a network topology must first be created. In ns2, the
topology consists of a collection of nodes and links.
set ns [new Simulator]
 The simulator object has member functions which enables to create the nodes and define the
links between them. The class simulator contains all the basic functions. Since ns was defined to
handle the Simulator object, the command $ns is used for using the functions belonging to the
simulator class.
 In the network topology nodes can be added in the following manner :
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
 Traffic agents (TCP, UDP etc.) and traffic sources (FTP, CBR etc.) must be set up if the node is
not a router. It enables to create CBR traffic source using UDP as transport protocol or an FTP
traffic source using TCP as a transport protocol.
CBR traffic source using UDP :
set udp0 [new Agent/UDP]

$ns attach-agent $n0 $udp0
set cbr0 [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr0 attach-agent $udp0
$cbr0 set packet_size_ 512
FTP traffic source using TCP :
set tcp0 [new Agent/TCP]

$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp0
set ftp0 [new Application/FTP]
$ftp0 attach-agent $tcp0
$tcp0 set packet_size_ 512
Below is the implementation of creating links between the source and destination using both ftp
and tcp :
# Create a simulator object

# Define different colors

# for data flows (for NAM)
$ns color 1 Blue
$ns color 2 Red
# Open the NAM trace file

set nf [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $nf
# Define a 'finish' procedure

proc finish {}
{
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
# Close the NAM trace file

close $nf
# Execute NAM on the trace file

exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
# Create four nodes

set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
# Create links between the nodes
$ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 2Mb 10ms DropTail
$ns duplex-link $n2 $n3 1.7Mb 20ms DropTail
# Set Queue Size of link (n2-n3) to 10

$ns queue-limit $n2 $n3 10
# Give node position (for NAM)

$ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n2 orient right-down
$ns duplex-link-op $n1 $n2 orient right-up
$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n3 orient right
# Monitor the queue for link (n2-n3). (for NAM)

$ns duplex-link-op $n2 $n3 queuePos 0.5
# Setup a TCP connection

set tcp [new Agent/TCP]
$tcp set class_ 2
$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp
set sink [new Agent/TCPSink]

$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink
$ns connect $tcp $sink
$tcp set fid_ 1
# Setup a FTP over TCP connection

set ftp [new Application/FTP]
$ftp attach-agent $tcp
$ftp set type_ FTP
# Setup a UDP connection

set udp [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp
set null [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $null

$ns connect $udp $null
$udp set fid_ 2
# Setup a CBR over UDP connection

set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr attach-agent $udp
$cbr set type_ CBR
$cbr set packet_size_ 1000
$cbr set rate_ 1mb
$cbr set random_ false
# Schedule events for the CBR and FTP agents

$ns at 0.1 "$cbr start"
$ns at 1.0 "$ftp start"
$ns at 4.0 "$ftp stop"
$ns at 4.5 "$cbr stop"
# Detach tcp and sink agents

# (not really necessary)
$ns at 4.5 "$ns detach-agent $n0 $tcp ; $ns detach-agent $n3 $sink"
# Call the finish procedure after

# 5 seconds of simulation time
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
# Print CBR packet size and interval

puts "CBR packet size = [$cbr set packet_size_]"
puts "CBR interval = [$cbr set interval_]"
# Run the simulation

$ns run
Ex.No :11 To create scenario and study the performance of network with
CSMA / CA protocol and compare with CSMA/CD protocols.
AIM : To create a scenario and study the performance of network with CSMA protocol
THEORY:
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network protocol that listens to or senses network signals
on the carrier/medium before transmitting any data. CSMA is implemented in Ethernet networks with
more than one computer or network device attached to it. CSMA is part of the Media Access Control
(MAC) protocol. CSMA works on the principle that only one device can transmit signals on the network,
otherwise a collision will occur resulting in the loss of data packets or frames. CSMA works when a
device needs to initiate or transfer data over the network. Before transferring, each CSMA must check
or listen to the network for any other transmissions that may be in progress. If it senses a transmission,
the device will wait for it to end. Once the transmission is completed, the waiting device can transmit
its data/signals. However, if multiple devices access it simultaneously and a collision occurs, they both
have to wait for a specific time before reinitiating the transmission process.
CSMA protocol was developed to overcome the problem found in ALOHA i.e. to minimize the chances
of collision, so as to improve the performance. CSMA protocol is based on the principle of 'carrier sense'.
The station senses the carrier or channel before transmitting a frame. It means the station checks the
state of channel, whether it is idle or busy.
Even though devices attempt to sense whether the network is in use, there is a good chance that two
stations will attempt to access it at the same time. On large networks, the transmission time between one
end of the cable and another is enough that one station may access the cable even though another has
already just accessed it.
The chances of collision still exist because of propagation delay. The frame transmitted by one station
takes some time to reach other stations. In the meantime, other stations may sense the channel to be idle
and transmit their frames. This results in the collision.
CSMA with collision detection:
CSMA/CD is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is
detected, thus shortening the time required before a retry can be attempted\
CSMA with Collision detection:
CSMA/CA collision avoidance is used to improve the performance of CSMA. If the transmission
medium is sensed busy before transmission, then the transmission is deferred for a random interval. This
random interval reduces the likelihood that two or more nodes waiting to transmit simultaneously begin
transmission upon termination of the detected transmission, thus reducing the incidence of collision
ALGORITHM:
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Create a simulator object.
Step 3 : Configure the simulator to use Link state routing.
Step 4 : Open the nam trace file.
Step 5 : Open the output file.
Step 6 : Define the finish procedure.
Step 7 : Close the trace file.
Step 8 : Create the required nodes.
Step 10 : Create links between the nodes.
Step 11 : Create a UDP agent to attach the node.
Step 12 : Create a CBR traffic router and attach.
Step 13 : Create a Null agent to the traffic sink.
Step 14 : Connect the traffic source to the sink.
Step 15 : Schedule the events for CBR agent.
Step 16 : Stop.
CSMA
#Define different colors for data flows (for NAM)

$ns color 1 Blue
$ns color 2 Red
#Open the Trace files

set file1 [open out.tr w]
set winfile [open WinFile w]
$ns trace-all $file1
#Open the NAM trace file

set file2 [open out.nam w]
$ns namtrace-all $file2
#Define a 'finish' procedure

proc finish {} {
global ns file1 file2
$ns flush-trace
close $file1
close $file2
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
#Create six nodes

set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
$n1 color red

$n1 shape box
$n5 color red

$n5 shape box
#Create links between the nodes
$ns simplex-link $n2 $n3 0.3Mb 100ms DropTail
$ns simplex-link $n3 $n2 0.3Mb 100ms DropTail
set lan [$ns newLan "$n3 $n4 $n5" 0.5Mb 40ms LL Queue/DropTail MAC/Csma/Cd Channel]
#Setup a TCP connection

set tcp [new Agent/TCP/Newreno]
$ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp
set sink [new Agent/TCPSink/DelAck]
$ns attach-agent $n4 $sink
$ns connect $tcp $sink
$tcp set fid_ 1
$tcp set window_ 80
$tcp set packetSize_ 5
#Setup a FTP over TCP connection

set ftp [new Application/FTP]
$ftp attach-agent $tcp
$ftp set type_ FTP
#Setup a UDP connection

set udp [new Agent/UDP]
$ns attach-agent $n1 $udp
set null [new Agent/Null]
$ns attach-agent $n5 $null
$ns connect $udp $null
$udp set fid_ 2
#Setup a CBR over UDP connection

set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
$cbr attach-agent $udp
$cbr set type_ CBR
$cbr set packet_size_ 100
$cbr set rate_ 0.01mb
$cbr set random_ false
$ns at 0.1 "$cbr start"

$ns at 2.0 "$ftp start"
$ns at 3.0 "$ftp stop"
$ns at 4.5 "$cbr stop"
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
$ns run
OUTPUT:
RESULT :
Thus the study on CSMA protocol is carried out and implemented using NS2.
Ex.No :12 Network Topology – Star, Bus, Ring
AIM:
To build and simulate a network under different topologies like Star,bus, mesh and ring, and
observe the performance parameters.
REQUIREMENTS:
Operating System : Windows NT/2000/XP or LINUX
Programming Tool : Network Simulator (NS2)
THEORY:
Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a network. It defines the way different
nodes are placed and interconnected with each other. Alternately, network topology may describe how
the data is transferred between these nodes.
There are two types of network topologies: physical and logical. Physical topology emphasizes the
physical layout of the connected devices and nodes, while the logical topology focuses on the pattern
of data transfer between network nodes.
The physical and logical network topologies of a network do not necessarily have to be identical.
However, both physical and network topologies can be categorized into five basic models:
 Bus Topology: All the devices/nodes are connected sequentially to the same backbone or
transmission line. This is a simple, low-cost topology, but its single point of failure presents a
risk.
 Star Topology: All the nodes in the network are connected to a central device like a hub or
switch via cables. Failure of individual nodes or cables does not necessarily create downtime in
the network but the failure of a central device can. This topology is the most preferred and
popular model.
 Ring Topology: All network devices are connected sequentially to a backbone as in bus
topology except that the backbone ends at the starting node, forming a ring. Ring topology
shares many of bus topology's disadvantages so its use is limited to networks that demand high
throughput.
 Tree Topology: A root node is connected to two or more sub-level nodes, which themselves
are connected hierarchically to sub-level nodes. Physically, the tree topology is similar to bus
and star topologies; the network backbone may have a bus topology, while the low-level nodes
connect using star topology.
 Mesh Topology: The topology in each node is directly connected to some or all the other
nodes present in the network. This redundancy makes the network highly fault tolerant but the
escalated costs may limit this topology to highly critical networks.
PROCEDURE:
1. Open a
terminal and type
the TCL file in the
vim editor with the
command
“vifilename.tcl” and
save it.
2. Run the
saved file with the command “ns filename.tcl”.
3. If any errors, edit them in the vim editor and rerun it again.
4. The output is displayed in the nam console.
STAR TOPOLOGY

proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
$n0 shape square
$tcp0 set class_ 1
set sink0 [new Agent/TCPSink]
$ns attach-agent $n3 $sink0
$ns connect $tcp0 $sink0
$cbr0 set packetSize_ 500
$cbr0 set interval_ 0.01
$cbr0 attach-agent $tcp0
$ns at 0.5 "$cbr0 start"
$ns at 4.5 "$cbr0 stop"
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
$ns run
BUS TOPOLOGY
#Create a simulator object

#Open the nam trace file


proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
#Close the trace file
close $nf
#Executenam on the trace file
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
#Create four nodes
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
set lan0 [$ns newLan "$n0 $n1 $n2 $n3 $n4 $n5" 0.5Mb 80ms LL Queue/DropTail MAC/Csma/Cd
Channel]
#Create a TCP agent and attach it to node n0

$tcp0 set class_ 1
#Create a TCP Sink agent (a traffic sink) for TCP and attach it to node n3
#Connect the traffic sources with the traffic sink
# Create a CBR traffic source and attach it to tcp0

#Schedule events for the CBR agents
#Call the finish procedure after 5 seconds of simulation time
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
#Run the simulation
$ns run
RING TOPOLOGY
proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
#Create four nodes
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]


$tcp0 set class_ 1
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
#Run the simulation

$ns run
MESH TOPOLOGY


proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
#Create four nodes
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]


$tcp0 set class_ 1

$ns at 5.0 "finish"
#Run the simulation
$ns run
Mesh Topology
Ring Topology
Bus Topology Star Topology
RESULT:
Thus the network topologies like star, mesh, bus and ring have been implemented using network
simulator.
Ex.No: 13a IMPLEMENTATION OF DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING ALGORITHM
AIM:
To implement and simulate the distance vector routing algorithm using NS2 simulator.
REQUIREMENTS:
THEORY:
Computer networks generally use dynamic routing algorithms that are more complex than
flooding, but more efficient because they find shortest paths for the current topology. Two dynamic
algorithms in particular, distance vector routing and link state routing, are the most popular.
Distance Vector Routing
A distance vector routing algorithm operates by having each router maintain a table (i.e., a
vector) giving the best known distance to each destination and which link to use to get there. These
tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbors. Eventually, every router knows the
best link to reach each destination.
The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes called by other names, most commonly the
distributed Bellman-Ford routing algorithm, after the researchers who developed it (Bellman, 1957;
and Ford and Fulkerson, 1962). It was the original ARPANET routing algorithm and was also used in
the Internet under the name RIP.
In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by, and containing one
entry for each router in the network. This entry has two parts: the preferred outgoing line to use for that
destination and an estimate of the distance to that destination. The distance might be measured as the
number of hops or using another metric, as we discussed for computing shortest paths.
The router is assumed to know the ‘‘distance’’ to each of its neighbors. If the metric is hops, the
distance is just one hop. If the metric is propagation delay, the router can measure it directly with special
ECHO packets that the receiver just timestamps and sends back as fast as it can. As an example, assume
that delay is used as a metric and that the router knows the delay to each of its neighbors. Once every T
msec, each router sends to each neighbor a list of its estimated delays to each destination. It also receives
a similar list from each neighbor. Imagine that one of these tables has just come in from neighbor X,
with Xi being X’s estimate of how long it takes to get to router i.
If the router knows that the delay to X is m msec, it also knows that it can reach router i via X in
Xi + m msec. By performing this calculation for each neighbor, a router can find out which estimate
seems the best and use that estimate and the corresponding link in its new routing table. Note that the
old routing table is not used in the calculation.
The Count-to-Infinity Problem

The settling of routes to best paths across the network is called convergence. Distance vector
routing is useful as a simple technique by which routers can collectively compute shortest paths, but it
has a serious drawback in practice: although it converges to the correct answer, it may do so slowly.
ALGORITHM:
Step 1 : Start.
Step 3 : Configure the simulator to use dynamic routing.
Step 4 : Open the nam.trace file.
Step 8 : Create all the nodes.
Step 10 : Create a TCP agent to attach the node.
Step 15 : Stop.
Distance Vector
$ns rtproto DV
proc finish {} {
global ns nf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
#Create four nodes
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]
#$ns duplex-link $n1 $n2 1Mb 10ms DropTail
$tcp0 set class_ 1
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
#Run the simulation
$ns run
OUTPUT:
RESULT:
Thus the distance vector routing algorithm have been implemented and simulated using NS2
simulator.
Ex. No: 13b IMPLEMENTATION OF LINK STATE ROUTING ALGORITHM
AIM:
To implement and simulate the link state routing algorithm using NS2 simulator.
REQUIREMENTS:
THEORY:
Link State Routing
Distance vector routing was used in the ARPANET until 1979, when it was replaced by link
state routing. The primary problem that caused its demise was that the algorithm often took too long to
converge after the network topology changed (due to the count-to-infinity problem). Consequently, it
was replaced by an entirely new algorithm, now called link state routing. Variants of link state routing
called IS-IS and OSPF are the routing algorithms that are most widely used inside large networks and
the Internet today. The idea behind link state routing is fairly simple and can be stated as five parts.
Each router must do the following things to make it work:

1. Discover its neighbors and learn their network addresses.
2. Set the distance or cost metric to each of its neighbors.
3. Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.
4. Send this packet to and receive packets from all other routers.
5. Compute the shortest path to every other router.
In effect, the complete topology is distributed to every router. Then Dijkstra’s algorithm can be
run at each router to find the shortest path to every other router. Link state routing is widely used in
actual networks, so a few words about some example protocols are in order. Many ISPs use the IS-IS
(Intermediate System-Intermediate System) link state protocol (Oran, 1990). It was designed for an
early network called DECnet, later adopted by ISO for use with the OSI protocols and then modified to
handle other protocols as well, most notably, IP. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is the other main
link state protocol. It was designed by IETF several years after IS-IS and adopted many of the
innovations designed for IS-IS. These innovations include a self-stabilizing method of flooding link
state updates, the concept of a designated router on a LAN, and the method of computing and supporting
path splitting and multiple metrics. As a consequence, there is very little difference between IS-IS and
OSPF. The most important difference is that IS-IS can carry information about multiple network layer
protocols at the same time (e.g., IP, IPX, and AppleTalk). OSPF does not have this feature, and it is an
advantage in large multiprotocol environments.
ALGORITHM:
Step 1 : Start.
Step 3 : Configure the simulator to use Link state routing.
Step 4 : Open the nam trace file.
Step 8 : Call x-graph to display the result.
Step 9 : Create 7 nodes.
Step 11 : Create a UDP agent to attach the node.
Step 16 : Stop.
Link State
$ns rtproto LS
set nf [open link.nam w]

set tf [open link.tr w]
$ns trace-all $tf
proc finish {} {
global ns nf tf
$ns flush-trace
close $nf
exec nam out.nam &
exit 0
}
set n0 [$ns node]
set n1 [$ns node]
set n2 [$ns node]
set n3 [$ns node]
set n4 [$ns node]
set n5 [$ns node]


$tcp0 set class_ 1
$ns rtmodel-at 0.7 down $n0 $n5
$ns rtmodel-at 2.5 up $n0 $n5
$ns at 5.0 "finish"
$ns run
OUTPUT:
RESULT:
Thus the Link state routing was implemented and analyzed using NS2 program.

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SRM VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution)

SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR-603 203.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

1906508 – COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Semester/Branch : V semester ECE

Academic Year : 2021-22 (ODD)

Prepared By : Mr. D. Murugesan, Assistant Professor (Sel.G)

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

Educate to excel in social transformation

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

• To contribute to the development of human resources in the form of professional

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOME (PSOs)

1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

PRE LAB EXERCISE:

Vm(p– p) EMAX EMin Practical Theoretical

POST LAB EXERCISE:

FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

PRE LAB EXERCISE:

SIGNAL AMPLITUDE(V) TIME PERIOD(ms)

1. The circuit wiring is done as shown in diagram

POST LAB EXERCISE:

1.What type of FM generation was done in the kit?

PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

PRE LAB EXERCISE:

S.No Name ofthe signal Amplitude in V Time period in Sec Frequencyin Hz

POST LAB EXERCISE:

1. What is the expression for transmission bandwidth in a PCM system?

DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

PRE LAB EXERCISE:

SIGNAL AMPLITUDE TIME PERIOD

POST LAB EXERCISE:

LINE CODING TECHNIQUES

To study different line coding techniques and its characteristics.

1. Communication trainer kit

PRE LAB EXERCISE:

Polar (Polar NRZ and Polar RZ):

Manchester Coding (Biphase –L):

Return to zero – Alternate Mark Inversion Coding (RZ-AMI):

1. Give the connections as per the experimental setup.

POST LAB EXERCISE:

1.Which among the above format is widely used?

SIMULATION OF ASK, FSK, BPSK GENERATION SCHEMES

PROGRAM FOR ASK:

PROGRAM FOR BPSK:

Command Window input

Enter the data bits [1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0]

1. Plot Constellation diagram for ASK signal.

SIMULATION OF GENERATION OF QPSK, QAM AND DPSK SCHEMES

PROGRAM FOR QPSK:

%Command Window Input

Enter the bit stream = [1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0]

Constellation: QPSK,Gray Mapping,PhaseOffset=0.7854rad

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

%XX representation of transmitting binary information as digital signal XXX

disp('symbolic form information for M-array QAM ');

%XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX M-array QAM modulation XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX