Lesson Types of Communicative

1 Strategy
(Week 1)

People communicate every day to establish and maintain relationships, know

and understand themselves, and find meaning in the daily grind. Moreover, since
humans are social beings who survive more effectively through sensible discourses,
they are always driven to learn the skills of creating and sustaining meaningful
conversations. Successful communication requires understanding of the relationship
between words and sentences and the speech acts they represent. However, a
conversation may be complex at times; that is why some people get lost along the way
and misunderstand each other. It is only when we willingly cooperate and speak in
socially approved ways that we can make a conversation meaningful.

Communicative strategy (CS) is defined in different ways:

1. CSs are strategies that a speaker uses to solve the communication problems, which
are caused by the lack of appropriate forms in the mental-lexical. The speaker
compensates either by going to the conceptual stage or by trying out alternative
linguistic formulations. – Poulisse (1989)
2. CS is a systematic attempt by the learner to express meaning by a target language
in which the suitable systematic target language rules have not been formed. –
Cohen (2004)
3. CSs are techniques of dealing with difficulties in communicating in an imperfectly
known second or foreign language. – Stern (1983)
4. CS is a systematic technique employed by a speaker to express his own idea when
faced with some difficulties. – Corder (1978)

Types of Communicative Strategy

Since engaging in conversation is also bound by implicit rules, Cohen(1990)
states that strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation. Knowing
and applying grammar appropriately is one of the most basic strategies to maintain a
conversation. The following are some strategies that people use when
communicating:

1. Nomination uses statistics and valid facts to present important and relevant ideas.
A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively establish
a topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a topic with the
people you are talking to.

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 When beginning a topic in a conversation, especially if it does not arise from a
previous topic, you may start off with news inquiries and news announcements as
they promise extended talk. Most importantly, keep the conversational
environment open for opinions until the prior topic shuts down easily and initiates
a smooth end. This could efficiently signal the beginning of a new topic in the
conversation.

2. Restriction constrains or restricts the Response of the other person involved in

the Communication Situation. 
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a
speaker. When communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or while hanging
out with your friends, you are typically given specific instructions that you must
follow. These instructions confine you as a speaker and limit what you can say.
For example, in your class, you might be asked by your teacher to brainstorm
on peer pressure or deliver a speech on digital natives. In these cases, you cannot
decide to talk about something else. On the other hand, conversing with your
friends during ordinary days can be far more casual than these examples. Just the
same, remember to always be on point and avoid sideswiping from the topic during
the conversation to avoid communication breakdown.

3. Turn-taking acknowledges the necessity of observing the fine art of conversation

by recognizing someone’s need to speak when it is his/her turns.
Sometimes people are given unequal opportunities to talk because others take
much time during the conversation. Turn-taking pertains to the process by which
people decide who takes the conversational floor. There is a code of behavior
behind establishing and sustaining a productive conversation, but the primary idea
is to give all communicators a chance to speak.
Remember to keep your words relevant and reasonably short enough to express
your views or feelings. Try to be polite even if you are trying to take the floor from
another speaker. Do not hog the conversation and talk incessantly without letting
the other party air out their own ideas. To acknowledge others, you may employ
visual signals like a nod, a look, or a step back, and you could accompany these
signals with spoken cues such as “What do you think?” or “You wanted to say
something?”

4. Topic Control acknowledges the need of keeping the conversation active by asking
relevant questions and giving appropriate responses.
Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the
development of topic in conversations. For example, in meetings, you may only
have a turn to speak after the chairperson directs you to do so. Contrast this with
a casual conversation with friends over lunch or coffee where you may take the
conversational floor anytime.
Remember that regardless of the formality of the context, topic control is
achieved cooperatively. This only means that when a topic is initiated, it should be
collectively developed by avoiding unnecessary interruptions and topic shifts. You
can make yourself actively involved in the conversation without overly dominating
it by using minimal responses like “Yes,” “Okay,” “Go on”; asking tag questions to
clarify information briefly like “You are excited, aren’t you?”, “It was unexpected,
wasn’t it?”; and even by laughing!

5. Topic Shifting sends comprehensive details and information regarding the topic to
address a certain communication breakdown.
Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to
another. In other words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and where
another begins.
When shifting from one topic to another, you have to be very intuitive. Make
sure that the previous topic was nurtured enough to generate adequate views. You
may also use effective conversational transitions to indicate a shift like “By the
way,” “In addition to what you said,” “Which reminds me of,” and the like.

6. Repair introduces a new topic after a thorough interaction of the other topic.

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 Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening,
and comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation. For example, if
everybody in the conversation seems to talk at the same time, give way and
appreciate other’s initiative to set the conversation back to its topic.
Repair is the self-righting mechanism in any social interaction (Schegloff et al,
1977). If there is a problem in understanding the conversation, speakers will
always try to address and correct it. Although this is the case, always seek to
initiate the repair.

7. Termination is used to signal an end to a conversation.

Termination refers to the conversation participants’ close-initiating
expressions that end a topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the topic initiator
takes responsibility to signal the end of the discussion as well.
Although not all topics may have clear ends, try to signal the end of the topic
through concluding cues. You can do this by sharing what you learned from the
conversation. Aside from this, soliciting agreement from the other participants
usually completes the discussion of the topic meaningfully.

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 Communicative Competence
Lesson
Strategies in Various Speech
2
(Week 2) Situations

When communicating with other persons, people interact in different ways. In the
same manner, people do not communicate in just one way, using only one method. In
the previous lessons, you have learned about the different Types of Speech Context,
Speech Styles, Speech Acts, and how to use the Types of Communicative Strategies
which are crucial in building in the communication process.

In any conversation, different styles of expressions are appropriate in different

situations. We can go from the formal to the informal, the written to the spoken, from
technical language (or jargon) to slang.

Although we communicate with one another, we interact based on a specific Speech

Context. A speaker cannot whisper a Speech to an audience, nor can we talk as
though a Public Speaker at the person giving the job interview. Communication is
divided in to certain levels based on the number of participants in the process. The
level of communication dictates the types of Speech Style and Speech Acts to be used
in a Communicative Strategy.

Speech Styles vary with the purpose of Communication and the speech context.
Intimate and Casual are used in Dyadic Communication, Consultative may be used for
group discussion, Formal and Frozen may be used with public communication.

Speech Acts are helpful in elaborating meaning of what is being said. For a
Locutionary act to make sense, the same meaning should be shared by both the
speaker and the listener. Illocutionary act embodies the speaker’s intention,
Perlocutionary act is meant to elicit a response from the listener.

All the above mentioned are crucial in building a Communicative Strategy—a way, a
plan, a means—of sharing information to achieve a purpose

One’s communicative competence is enhanced when all the above-mentioned are

taken into consideration and the Communicative Strategies are used.

The shift in speech context, speech style, speech act, and communicative strategy
affect language form, duration of interaction, and relationship of speaker.

I. Language Forms

Language form is the “How we say it” in a communication. It includes the sentence
structure, grammar, and even word endings. It also has something to do with the
manner in which you say something rather than what you say. In communicating with
someone, our language forms vary when there is a shift in speech context, speech
style, speech act, and communicative strategy.

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 II. Duration of Interaction

The use of time as a communicative channel can be a powerful force during an

interaction. Some recognizable types of interaction that shows time/duration are as
follows:
a. Regulating Interaction- When the speaker is opening the floor for a response,
they will pause. However, when no response is desired, the speaker will talk a
faster pace with minimal pauses.
b. Expressing Intimacy- As relationships become more intimate; certain changes
are made to accommodate the new relationship status. Some of the changes
that are made include lengthening the time spent on mutual gazes, increasing
the amount of time doing tasks for or with the other person and planning for
the future by making plans to spend more time together (Patterson, 1990).
c. Effect Management- The onset of powerful emotions can cause a stronger effect,
ranging from joy to sorrow or even to embarrassment. Some of the behaviors
associated with negative effects include decreased time of gaze and awkwardly
long pauses during conversations (Edelman &Iwawaki, 1987).
d. Evoking Emotions- Time can be used to evoke emotions in an interpersonal
relationship by communicating the value of the relationship. When someone
who you have a close relationship with is late, you may not take it personally.
However, if it is a meeting with a total stranger, their disrespect for the value of
your time may be taken personally.

III. Relationship of Speaker

When we communicate, we don’t simply speak words, we meet people in the

eye, and the communication becomes part of the building of relationship or one
another. However, communication varies depending on the relationship of the speaker
and the listener. For instance, when an interviewer interviews an interviewee in a job
hiring situation, the level of formality in the communicative situation is formal as we
expect intense preparation on both sides.

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 Communicative Competence
Lesson
Strategies in Various Speech
3
(Week 3) Situations
Being able to use any of the communicative strategies makes certain not only the
achievement of the Speech Purpose but also the enrichment of the communication
experience for both Speaker and Listener. Communicative Strategies when used by
the Speaker allow for the adjustment of the Message and its Delivery.

Speech communication, in its simplest form, consists of a sender, a message and a

recipient. The speaker and sender are synonymous. The speaker is the initiator
of communication. Effective speakers are those who can most clearly deliver their
message to their recipients.

There will come a time when conversation becomes a challenge to the speaker during
an uncontrollable situation. In this case, the speaker should remember his or her
roles and responsibilities to have a smooth-sailing communication process.

THE SPEAKER’S ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Throughout the conversation, not only does the speaker have their own set of
responsibilities, but the listener as well. Listening is an essential key in
communication. Without effective listening, one will not be able to understand
another’s point of view, or fully understand a conversation. With the cooperation of
both parties, successful communication should take place.
The speaker is the initiator of the communication. Effective speakers are those who
can most clearly deliver their message to their recipients.
Effective communication involves effective speaking and active listening. Verbal
exchanges in discussions are not sufficient in relaying messages. Other factors include
variation of tones and the use of non-verbal cues as discussed in the First Quarter.
Breaking the monotony is vital in effective communication. Speaking in the same tone
and maintaining the same face throughout the conversation may sound a bit boring to
the listener. Therefore, the speaker should vary the tone depending on the message
conveyed and the associated emotion.
The speaker and the listener have active and passive roles to play in communication.
They should work together, making use of non-verbal cues to ensure that the
discussion is productive.
I. TIPS FOR THE SPEAKERS

When speaking to anybody, paying attention not just to your words but also to how
the overall conversation is proceeding may help you convey your message effectively.
The following tips can be helpful to keep in mind when you are the “speaker”.
 Speak attentively. Just as one listens attentively, one should also speak in the
same manner, maintaining appropriate and direct eye contact and looking for
body signals that indicate that the other person is engaged. If the listener seems
disengaged, you may need to modify your approach and pause to check if you
are making sense.
 Phrase meaningful questions. One way to shorten a conversation is to ask
questions that can be answered by “yes” or “no”. Consider asking open-ended
questions, as these may elicit more helpful, accurate information that may help
you understand the listener’s perspective.
 Avoid monologues. Stick to the point and avoid overly lengthy or repetitive
statements. We sometimes repeat ourselves when we feel we have not been

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 understood. Instead of repetition, which may seem condescending, pause and
allow the listener to clarify and reflect on what they hear from you.
 Accept silence. Sometimes one of the best ways to make a point is to pause or
leave a period of silence after speaking. This can allow you and the listener to
digest what has been said.
 Do not cross-examine. Avoid firing questions at the listener when attempting
to gather information during a conversation. Tact and diplomacy express
respect and may be far better means for learning what you need to know.

II. TIPS FOR THE LISTENERS

Many people listen to others but only in the narrowest sense. Good listening skills
involve gaining a clear understanding of what is being said as well as what is intended
by the speaker. The following tips may be helpful when you are in the role of a
“listener”.
 Listen attentively. Maintain good eye contact with the worker and
acknowledge that you are hearing them.
 Do not interrupt. It is difficult to hear when you are talking yourself. It is
natural to feel that you want to ‘fix’ things. The problem is that you have not
heard what the entire person needs to say.
 Clarify what you hear. Regularly summarize or clarify your understanding of
what is being said. This may help you make sure that you are obtaining the
correct message.
 Reflect on what you hear. This differs from clarification. Reflection involves
showing the speaker that you are aware of or understand what they are feeling.
You hold up a metaphorical mirror so the speaker can see clearly what he or
she is saying and what reaction it is eliciting.

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 Lesson Principles of Effective Speech
4 Writing Focusing on Audience
(Week 4) Profile, Logical Organization and
Duration

The Speech Writing Process

Just like events planning, or any other activities, writing an effective speech
follows certain steps or processes. The process for writing is not chronological or
linear; rather, it is recursive. That means you have the opportunity to repeat a writing
procedure indefinitely, or produce multiple drafts first before you can settle on the
right one. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram.

A well-organized speech is simple and readily intelligible to the listeners. These

characteristics should be foremost in your mind as you go about preparing your
speech.

The preparation of a speech involves six basic steps:

1. Knowing your audience
2. Choosing the topic
3. Determining your purpose
4. Collecting your supporting materials
5. Making an outline, and
6. Writing the speech

 KNOWING YOUR AUDIENCE

Audience Analysis entails looking into the profile of your target audience. This
is done so you can tailor-fit your speech content and delivery to your audience. The
profile includes the following information.
 Demography (age range, male-female ratio, educational background and
affiliations or degree program taken, nationality, economic status, academic
or corporate designations)
 Situation (time, venue, occasion, and size)
 Psychology (values, beliefs, attitudes, preferences, cultural and racial
ideologies, and needs)

The audience is one of the major factors that determine the uniqueness of the
Speech. First, the demographic data may influence the Audience’s reaction to the
Speech. Moreover, the data will influence the way you will write the Speech – what
points to choose, what to leave out, the words to use, and even what tone of voice will
work on them.

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 Second, it is important to know the groups to which your Audience belongs as
these groups hold certain beliefs and values. You may then be able to ascertain how
your Listeners feel about certain issues without having to talk to each and every
Listener or do a survey among them.

Third, it is just as important to find out how your audience feels about the topic
of your Speech and what they already know about it (so that you do not repeat it and
bore the audience).

Finally, you should try to know how they feel about you as the Speaker and
what they already know about you. The Speaker may be able to gauge this from the
organizers of the event and the people who extended the invitation.

 LOGICAL ORGANIZATION

A speech is effective if it captures the audience’s attention and that the listeners
understand and remember the speech. Organization is the key to a brilliant speech. It
is the process of selecting and structuring the ideas in your speech, guided by
audience analysis. Here are the steps involved in organizing your speech:

a. Select a topic.
A distinguished speech writer believes that a speech is simply telling a group of people
about something that interests you. Any topic can be interesting. It can range from a
mundane object to an outlandish experience. Just keep in mind that your topic of
choice must replicate an awareness and real consideration for your audience. What
you say and how you say it is critical to making it memorable.

b. Decide on your speech’s purpose.

After you have selected a topic, ask yourself” What is my purpose in giving this
speech?” There are three general purpose: 1) to inform, 2) to entertain and 3) to
persuade. The purpose of your speech will help you narrow your speech to a specific
direction. Suppose you are passionate about cooking, you may give an informative
speech about a recipe you have recently discovered. Likewise, you can also give an
inspiring speech about the joys of cooking or present 3 reasons why a young lady
needs to learn how to cook.

c. Gather and evaluate support.

To enhance credibility and sincerity in your speech, you need research and support
most relevant to your speech. Support takes many forms: a vivid description, a
detailed personal narrative, hard facts or compelling testimony. As you prepare your
speech, you need to look into different aspects to aid you with your information and
arguments.

d. Write the thesis statement of your speech.

The next step is to write down in one sentence what you will convey in your
speech. This is to ensure that you will come up with a cohesive speech. For example,
Martin Luther King’s famous speech “I Have a Dream” can be squashed to “I believe
that someday the white people will have the same rights as the black people.”

e. Develop your main points by choosing an organizational pattern

appropriate to the flow of your ideas.

Below are different writing patterns from which you can select the one that best suits
your topic and/or purpose.
 Biographical Pattern – presents descriptions of your life or of a person, famous
or not.
Example:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about my grandfather, the late
former President Ramon Magsaysay

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 Specific Topic: Describing the life and works of my grandfather, the late
former President Ramon Magsaysay

 Categorical/Topical Pattern – presents related categories supporting the topic.

Example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade the community members to reduce, reuse and
recycle as means of eliminating garbage and protecting the
environment
Specific Topic: Why the community members should promote reducing,
reusing, and recycling

 Causal Pattern– presents cause-effect relationship.

Example:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience the effects of overeating
Specific Topic: Explaining the possible effects of overeating to one’s health

 Chronological Pattern – presents the idea in time order.

Example:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the significant events in the
1986 EDSA revolution or People Power
Specific Topic: Describing the significant events before, during, and after
the 1986 EDSA revolution or People Power

 Comparison/Contrast Pattern – presents comparison/contrast of two or three

points.
Example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience that living in the Philippines is
better than living in Australia
Specific Topic: Explaining why the Philippines is more habitable than
Australia

 Problem-solution Pattern – presents an identified problem, its causes, and

recommended solutions.
Example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience to support the educational
programs of the national government
Specific Topic: Explaining the reasons for supporting the government’s
educational programs seen as the primary means of
increasing the literacy rate in the Philippines.

f. Create an outline.

An outline is a hierarchical list that shows the relationship of your ideas. Experts
in public speaking state that once your outline is ready, two-thirds of your speech
writing is finished. A good outline helps you see that all the ideas are in line with your
main idea or message. The elements of an outline include introduction, body, and
conclusion. Write your outline based on how you want your ideas to develop. Below
are some of the suggested formats.

g. Write the Introduction, body and conclusion.

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 The introduction is the foundation of your speech. Here, your primary goal
is to get the attention of your audience and present the subject or main idea of
your speech. Your first few words should do so. The following are some strategies.
 Use a real-life experience and connect that experience to your subject.
 Use practical examples and explain their connection to your subject.
 Start with a familiar or strong quote and then explain what it means.
 Use facts or statistics and highlight their importance to your subject.
 Tell a personal story to illustrate your point.

The body of the speech provides explanations, examples, or any details

that can help you deliver your purpose and explain the main idea of your speech.
One major consideration in developing the body of your speech is the focus or
central idea. The body of your speech should only have one central idea.

The following are some strategies to highlight your main idea.

 Present real-life or practical examples
 Show statistics
 Present comparisons
 Share ideas from the experts or practitioners

The conclusion restates the main idea of your speech. Furthermore, it

provides a summary, emphasizes the message, and calls for action. While the
primary goal of the introduction is to get the attention of your audience, the
conclusion aims to leave the audience with a memorable statement.

The following are some strategies.

 Begin your conclusion with a restatement of your message.
 Use positive examples, encouraging words, or memorable lines from songs or
stories familiar to your audience.
 Ask a question or series of questions that can make your audience reflect or
ponder.

 DURATION

The person speaks in an average manner at somewhere between 125 and 150
words per minute. It's almost always better to speak more slowly than too quickly.
Thus, if you're speaking for 20 minutes, you want a total word count of somewhere
between 2,500 and 3,000 words.

Most effective speeches do not exceed 20 minutes in length. After researching a

topic, speechwriters should prepare an outline from which the speech will be
developed. They should strive to maintain a clear theme throughout the speech.

Here is a sample table for Word Count per Speech Length.

Speech length Slow (100 wpm) Fast (160 wpm)

10 minutes 1000 words 1600 words

15 minutes 1500 words 2400 words
20 minutes 2000 words 3200 words
25 minutes 2500 words 4000 words

The secret to saying something memorable in 20 minutes is to resist the urge to

say too much. Changing lives in 20 minutes takes focus. And that is something that
most people have a hard time doing. In 20 minutes, you can say roughly 2500, give or
take, and that is not very many if you have set yourself the task of changing the world.
So, you’ve got to narrow the field, resist the urge to say it all, and pick your details
judiciously.

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 How to prepare a 20-minute TED-like talk

What is TED? – TED is a non-profit organization devoted to spreading ideas usually in

the form of short, powerful talks (18 minutes or less). It started with talks focusing on
Technology, Entertainment and Design and today covers almost all topics in more than
100 languages.

1. A good 20-minute talk presents one idea, tells one story, and asks one question.

2. Begin by choosing one idea. Try to make it an idea that has universal interest,
but where your specific expertise can usefully be applied. Then narrow it down and
focus it until you can sum it up easily in an elevator pitch of a few sentences.

3. Next, pick one story to go with the one idea. Make it a story only you can tell.
And make it a story with a point, or lesson.

4. Finally, ask one question. A good talk poses a question, for which it has an
answer that might be sketched quickly at the beginning of the talk, but for which the
talk itself is the fuller answer.

One idea, one story, one question. That is how you focus your thoughts to
produce a coherent, potentially powerful 20-minute speech.

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Lesson 2
Lesson
5 Principles of Effective Speech Writing Focusing
(Week 5) on Word Choice and Grammatical Correctness

“It’s an honorable to speak tonight. I appreciate you all for coming to hear me
at this writing seminar. Many of you have travelled quite a ways and I thank you
in everyone else for attending. This writing seminar has been held here at this
college for the last ten years. It brings together writers, editors, or publishers. If
she could live you one nuggets of information about writing it would be to get no
one to critic your work with a note to sent it back. Often writer, both old and new,
forget the secret to writing and that is edit, edit, and edit again.”

The noun “honor” should be used instead of the word “honorable”.

The three nouns “writes, editors or publishers” should be connected by the
transitional word “and”.
Instead of using “she” the pronoun” I” should be used as this refers to the speaker.
“Live” should be substituted by the word “leave”.
Nuggets of information should be changed to nugget of information.
“No one” should be changed to “someone”.
“To sent” should be changed to ” to send”

Understanding the Purpose of Revising and Editing

Revising and editing allow you to examine two important aspects of your writing
separately, so that you can give each task your undivided attention.
 When you revise, you take a second look at your ideas. You might add, cut,
move, or change information in order to make your ideas clearer, more
accurate, more interesting, or more convincing.
 When you edit, you take a second look at how you expressed your ideas. You
add or change words. You fix any problems in grammar, punctuation, and
sentence structure. You improve your writing style. You make your essay into a
polished, mature piece of writing, the end product of your best efforts.

Editing/Revising your written speech involves correcting errors in mechanics such as

grammar, punctuation, capitalization, unity, coherence, and others. Andrew Dlungan
(2013), an award winning public speaker, lists power principles for speech editing.
1. Edit for focus.
“So, what’s the point? What’s the message of the speech?”

Ensure that everything you have written, from introduction to conclusion, is

related to your central message.

2. Edit for clarity.

“I don’t understand the message because the examples or
supporting details were confusing.”

Make all ideas in your speech clear by arranging them in logical order ( e.g.,
main idea first then support/examples, or support/examples first then main
idea).

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 3. Edit for concision.
“The speech was all over the place; the speaker kept on talking
endlessly as if no one was listening to him/her.

Keep your speech short, simple, and clear by eliminating unrelated stories and
sentences and by using simple words.

4. Edit for continuity.

“The speech was too difficult to follow; I was lost in the middle.”

Keep the flow of your presentation smooth by adding transition words and
phrases.

5. Edit for variety.

“I didn’t enjoy the speech because it was boring.”
Add spice to your speech by shifting tone and style from formal to
conversational and vice-versa, moving around the stage, or adding humor.

6. Edit for impact and beauty.

“There’s nothing really special about the speech. “Make your speech memorable by
using these strategies: surprise the audience, use vivid descriptive images, write well-
crafted and memorable lines, and use figures of speech.

→Rehearsing gives you an opportunity to identify what works and what does not work
for you and for your target audience. Some strategies include reading your speech
aloud, recording for your own analysis or for your peers or coaches to give feedback on
your delivery. The best thing to remember at this at this stage is: Constant practice
makes perfect.”
Some Guidelines in Speech Writing
1. Keep your words short and simple. Your speech is meant to be heard by your
audience, not read.
2. Avoid jargon, acronyms, or technical words because they can confuse your
audience.
3. Make your speech more personal. Use the personal pronoun “I”, but take care
not to overuse it. When you need to emphasize collectiveness with your
audience, use the personal pronoun “we.”
4. Use active verbs and contractions because they add to the personal and
conversational tone of your speech.
5. Be sensitive to your audience. Be very careful with your language, jokes, and
nonverbal cues.
6. Use metaphors and other figures of speech to effectively convey your point.
7. Manage your time well; make sure that the speech, falls under the time limit.

Careful writers use transitions to clarify how the ideas in their sentences and
paragraphs are related. These words and phrases help the writing flow smoothly.
Adding transitions is not the only way to improve coherence, but they are often useful
and give a mature feel to your essays. Table 8.3 "Common Transitional Words and
Phrases" groups many common transitions according to their purpose.

Common Transitional Words and Phrases

Transitions That Show Sequence or Time
after before later
afterward before long meanwhile
as soon as finally next
at first first, second, third soon
at last in the first place then

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Transitions That Show Position
above across at the bottom
at the top behind below
beside beyond inside
near next to opposite
to the left, to the right, to
under where
the side
Transitions That Show a Conclusion
indeed hence in conclusion
in the final analysis therefore thus
Transitions That Continue a Line of Thought
consequently furthermore additionally
because besides the fact following this idea further
in addition in the same way moreover
considering…, it is clear
looking further
that
Transitions That Change a Line of Thought
but yet however
nevertheless on the contrary on the other hand
Transitions That Show Importance
above all best especially
in fact more important most important

most worst

Transitions That Introduce the Final Thoughts in a Paragraph or Essay

finally last in conclusion
most of all least of all last of all
All-Purpose Transitions to Open Paragraphs or to Connect Ideas Inside
Paragraphs
admittedly at this point certainly
granted it is true generally speaking
in general in this situation no doubt
no one denies obviously of course
to be sure undoubtedly unquestionably
Transitions that Introduce Examples

for instance for example

Transitions That Clarify the Order of Events or Steps

generally, furthermore, in the first place, also,
first, second, third
finally last

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in the first place, in the first place, likewise,
furthermore, finally lastly

Lesson Types of Speech according

6 to Purpose and Delivery
(Week 6)

Speech is the communication or expression of thoughts in spoken words.

Through speech, students not only communicate information but also explore and
come to understand ideas and concepts; identify and solve problems; organize their
experience and knowledge; express and clarify their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
Listening and speaking are essential for interaction at home, at school, and in the
community.
Types of Speech according to PURPOSE and DELIVERY

 Speech delivery
- is a matter of nonverbal communication
- is based on how you use your voice and body to convey the message
expressed by your words
 Types of Speech According to Purpose
1. An INFORMATIVE speech provides the audience with a clear understanding
of a concept or idea.
Example: lectures of your teachers
2. An ENTERTAINMENT speech amuses the audience.
Example: humorous speeches of comedians and performers
3. A PERSUASIVE speech seeks to provide the audience with favorable or
acceptable ideas that can influence their own ideas and decisions.
Example: campaign speeches of the running candidates for government posts
Types of Speech According to Delivery
1. Extemporaneous

• using notes rather than a full manuscript

Description • The extemporaneous speaker can establish and maintain
eye contact with the audience and assess how well they are
understanding the speech as it progresses.
Speaking • When you are a candidate for a post in a student
Situations government and you deliver your campaign speech before a
voting public
• When you are assigned to report a topic in class
Advantages • promotes the likelihood that you, the speaker, will be
perceived as knowledgeable and credible
• Audience is likely to pay better attention to the message
because it is engaging both verbally and nonverbally.
Disadvantages • requires a great deal of preparation for both the verbal and
the nonverbal components of the speech. 
Tips • Create an outline.
• Organize your points logically (most important to least
important or vice versa).
• Use facts and real-life experiences as your examples.
• Manage your time well.
• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse
2. Impromptu

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 • presentation of a short message without advance
Description preparation
• often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words” or
give a toast on a special occasion
Speaking • informal, conversational settings
Situations
Advantages • spontaneous and responsive in an animated group context
Disadvantages • The speaker is given little or no time to contemplate the
central theme of his or her message.
• message may be disorganized and difficult for listeners to
follow
Tips • Take a moment to collect your thoughts and plan the main
point you want to make.
• Thank the person for inviting you to speak.
• Deliver your message, making your main point as briefly as
you can while still covering it adequately and at a pace your
listeners can follow.
• Thank the person again for the opportunity to speak.
• Stop talking.
3. Manuscript

Description • the word-for-word iteration of a written message

• The speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed
page except when using visual aids.
For Whom it is • Public figures
advantageous • Media personalities
• Spokespersons for government and private organizations
Speaking • Newscasting with a Teleprompter or an autocue device
Situations • Presenting the legal proceedings and verdict in court
• Reading the rules and criteria in a contest
Advantages • Exact repetition of original words
Disadvantages • typically, an uninteresting way to present
• keeping one’s eyes glued to the script precludes eye contact
with the audience
Tips • Rehearse the speech over and over again until you sound
natural.
• Observe accomplished news anchors and note how
conversational they sound when they deliver the news.
• Concentrate

4. Memorized

• the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has

Description committed to memory
Speaking • When you perform in a stage play
Situations • When you deliver a declamation, oratorical, or literary piece
• When an actor or actress in a scene performs a script from
memory
Advantages • enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with the
audience throughout the speech
• can move freely around the stage and use your hands to
make gestures
Disadvantages • might end up speaking in a monotone or a sing-song
repetitive delivery pattern.
•might also present your speech in a rapid “machine-gun”
style that fails to emphasize the most important points
• if you lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the contrast
in your style of delivery will alert your audience that
something is wrong
• might forget what you are supposed to say
• might memorize the speech mechanically resulting in a very

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 unnatural delivery
• might focus on content resulting to groping for the right
words and might make you look uptight and stiff
Tips • Rehearse the speech over and over again until you sound
natural and feel confident.
• Observe how actors/actresses perform their script in a
theater, television, or movie scene.

DELIVERY for DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

 Few situations where delivery skill will be simultaneously challenged and

honed:
- Run or be nominated for a school or local government office, so a room-
to-room and public campaign speech is required
- Be invited to welcome a visitor in your school or community, so an
opening or welcoming remark is necessary
- Be asked to represent your school or community in a literary contest

 Most common challenges in different speaking environments:

1. Speaking to a specific audience size

Description • Audience size depends on the venue size.

Advantages • You can determine your approach with your audience:
more intimate and personal for a smaller size; more formal
for a larger size.
Disadvantages • This can be challenging and intimidating.
Tips • Ask the organizers about the estimated number of the
audience so you can adjust your delivery.
• Practice, practice, practice.

2. Speaking in an open-air venue or outside a building

Description • Examples are open courts or grounds, football fields,
farms, etc.
Advantages • You will feel more relaxed due to the atmosphere of the
venue.
Disadvantages • You will encounter a lot of communication barriers such as
noise, inattentive audiences, discomfort, challenging
weather, possible absence of technology such as audio-visual
equipment, etc.
• You might be forced to make adjustments, especially in
voice projection.
Tips • Check the venue prior to your speaking engagement.
• Ask the organizers about the availability of equipment.
• Challenge yourself on how you can get and maintain the
attention of your audience.
• Use the outdoor setting or venue to your advantage as a
way of jumpstarting your speech or as an example to support
your main point.
• Practice, practice, practice.

3. Speaking in different venues

Description • Speaking venues that vary according to size: classroom,

meeting or conference room, ball room, social hall,
auditorium, covered court, open court, etc.
Advantages • You will be exposed to different venues, which will add to
your public speaking experience.
Disadvantages • You will have to make big adjustments in terms of your
nonverbal cues: volume of voice, body language, facial
expression, etc.

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 Tips • Check the venue days before your scheduled speech and
arrive hours earlier in the venue, so you can determine the
adjustments to make.
• For a large venue, speak more slowly, use pauses
frequently to highlight the most important ideas of your
speech, and make use of facial expressions and gestures.
When you use visual aids, make them more visible.
• In a small venue, your audience will see you up close.
Therefore, manage your notes well when you use them and
adjust your nonverbal cues as necessary.

4. Speaking with a microphone

Description • Its main function is to increase the volume of your voice,

not to clarify the pronunciation and enunciation of words.
Advantages • With a microphone, you can easily get the attention of your
audience because of the loudness of your voice.
Disadvantages • Using a microphone can be challenging because there is a
tendency to underuse or overuse it.
Tips • Check the microphone if it functions well.
• Check your voice in the microphone to see whether you are
audible enough.
• In a small venue, you may not use a microphone, but you
need to manage your voice’s volume well.
• Practice, practice, practice.

5. Speaking with a podium or lectern

Description • A podium or lectern is a reading desk with a stand and a

slanted top.
Advantages • Notes can be placed on the slanted top, and will work best
for extemporaneous and manuscript speeches.
• The lectern can be used as a means to hide or cover
nervousness or stage fright.
Disadvantages • Some may have the tendency to hide their hands behind
the podium, which will not help them enhance their
message.
Tips • Stand straight, as good posture exudes confidence.
• Avoid gripping the edges of the podium with both hands.
Aside from this, also avoid hiding them behind the podium.
• For extemporaneous and impromptu speakers, step to the
side occasionally once you have composed yourself, so you
can effectively use your gestures, make eye contact, and
connect more with your audience.
• Practice, practice, practice.
Note: Whatever speaking situation you are in, the most important thing is you
MASTER YOUR SPEECH. You can only do this by constantly CARRYING OUT THE
RIGHT PRACTICES.

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 Lesson Principles of Speech
7
(Week 7)
Delivery

When you listen to the speeches of the champions, you may have
noticed that aside from the speech content, their delivery was also essential to their
victory. The speakers seemed so natural and at ease that you wonder. It is true that
some people are born with special gifts in public speaking, but it is also true that most
of the best public speakers either underwent intensive formal training or got involved
in several speaking situations that, over time, they were able to hone the skill.
PRINCIPLES of Speech Delivery
 Tools for Effective Speech Delivery
To be effective in your delivery, watch and emulate people who speak in
public excellently. While observing, take note of the following:
• How they approach their audience (formal, informal, personal,
conversational, intimate, among others)
• How they connect with their audience (using eye contact, body
movements, and facial expressions)
• How they present themselves (stage presence: how they look, stand, walk,
use nonverbal cues, act on and off the stage)
• How they use their voice in terms of volume (loudness or softness), pitch
(highness or lowness), rate or speed, pauses to show emphasis and strengthen
the clarity of the message, vocal variety (effective changes in volume, pitch, rate
and pauses), and pronunciation

 Principles of Speech Delivery

 1st Principle: ARTICULATION
- refers to the speaker’s skill in pronouncing the words of the speech since
clear diction effectively transmits the message
- utterance or enunciation
- act of vocal expression
 1st act of speech – breathing (get air into a storage chamber)
 2nd act of speech – phonation (process by which you force air into
vibration by the action of the vocal folds)
 3rd act of speech – resonation (your mouth, nose & throat cavities
amplify the sound so you can hear it)
 4th act of speech – articulation (modify the sound by movement of the
teeth, tongue, and lips into recognizable patterns)
 2 Principle: MODULATION
nd

- refers to the speaker’s ability to adjust or manipulate the resonance and

timbre of one’s voice
- the fine-tuning of the pitch or tone of voice that helps the audience
clearly hear and understand the lecture, presentation, and speech
delivered by a speaker

Note: Proper modulation gives life to a talk, stirs emotion, and motivates to action.
Lack of modulation may give the impression that you have no real interest in your
subject.

 Always convey your message with the variation in the pitch and
tempo. Never deliver your speech in a monotone as it will not only
bore but also send your audience to sleep.

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  Speak at a rate so that your audience can understand you because
fast delivery betrays a lack of confidence.
 Speak normally at about 125 to 150 words per minute. Check your
speed and try to bring it within this range.
 Pronounce words properly, putting stresses at the right syllables.
 Speak loud enough so that everyone in the audience can hear you
clearly.
 Pause for a moment in between sentences to control your speed and
approach better.
 Refrain from vocalized pauses and nasalization such as ‘er’, ‘ah’,
‘unh’, ‘umm’, etc.
 Take care that you do not repeatedly use such phrases as ‘you see’, ‘I
mean’, ‘What I meant’, ‘Understand?’, ‘Have you understood?’,
‘Clear?’, ‘Is it clear?’, ‘Was it clear?’, etc.

 3rd Principle: STAGE PRESENCE

- refers to the speaker’s ability to “own” the stage, filling it with one’s
personality and projecting it to the audience or group of listeners
- sum total of all the qualities that keep the audience engaged while
delivering a speech
 1st sphere - Appearance and comfort (You must be dressed to the
occasion.)
 2nd sphere - Body posture and attitude
 Right from the moment you step on that stage, your body
language matters.
 The way you stand, your speaking posture, use of hand gestures
etc. everything counts and hence must be well noted and taken
care of.
rd
 3 sphere - Tone of the speech
 You can play with different styles, as is suitable to the topic of
your speech.
 Voice modulation, use of examples, a peck of humor, etc.; all
these are important in engaging the audience.
 4th sphere - the use of stage space
 It is a smart move on the part of a speaker to choreograph his
speech, that is, he must plan a speech to be delivered using
different parts of the stage at different levels.

 4th Principle: FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, GESTURES, and MOVEMENT

A. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS are meaningful visible symbols of speech.
This reflects the speaker’s thinking and emotional attitudes
o Two Principles
a. Manifest facial expression naturally by freeing yourself of inhibition.
b. Avoid planning or rehearsing facial expressions in advance for they
should be directed by the meaning of the words being conveyed.
o Common Sins in the Use of Facial Expressions
a. Poker face is a product of nervous tension which inhibits facial
expressions.
b. Mugger is an exaggerated facial grimace which distracts the attention
of the audience for it calls to itself not the message of the speech.
c. Facial contortionist is a way whereby the speaker releases pent-up
tension through random activity of the facial muscles.

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 B. MOVEMENTS/ BODILY ACTIONS are supplements to good speech
with its being transformed into actual replacement for the audible
code. Its uses include: (a) adjusting to the speaking situation: (b)
securing and maintaining interest and attention: (c) clarifying
meaning and (d) attaining emphasis in speech.
o Common Sins in the Use of Movements
a. Statue/Stone- The speaker appears incapable of movement.
b. Pacer- The speaker paces and walks from one side of the platform to
the other and back.
c. Swayer- The speaker rhythmically moves his body from side to side or
forward and backward followed by the shifting of weight.
C. GESTURES are purposive movements of some parts of the body, but
not the entire body. These include movements of heads, shoulders,
arms and occasionally feet. These are all physical movements that
represent concretely the ideas and emotions of the speaker. These are
also the products of the inner impulses and forces of thought of a
speaker.
o Classifications of Gestures
a. Descriptive gestures indicate the meaning literally or by suggestion.
b. Symbolic gestures are representative of figurative rather than literal.
c. Locative gestures refer to pointing a place, position or direction.
d. Emphatic gestures are used when words or ideas need to be stressed
or reinforced.
e. Transitional gestures are used to move your audience from one idea
to the next or to enumerate things.
f. Dramatic/imitative gestures convey impersonation of another
person’s action.
o Uses of Gestures
a. To point the location of objects usually in the sight of the audience
but they may be in the imagination
b. To give emphasis to statements or to ask questions
c. To entreat/plead for something
d. To picture an object
e. To stimulate the imagination
o Parts of a Gesture
a. Preparation consists of taking the hand to the point where the stroke
or emphasis occurs.
b. Stroke is definite action to emphasize, supplement, describe or
suggest the thought being expressed.
c. Return brings the arm and the hand easily back to the resting
position.
o Common Sins in the Use of Gesture
a. Random action includes fidgeting with pencils, button, bracelets,
beads, pockets, coat lapels, wiggling; doing dance strokes with heels
or sales; rubbing chin and noise; running fingers through the hair;
taking eyeglasses off and putting them on.
b. Perpetual motion is a constant and continued use of hands will
hinder reinforcement of meaning.
c. Abortive gesture is an incomplete or not adequately executed
movement.

OPEN GESTURES CLOSED GESTURES

Open hands Hand covering mouth

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Palms up Making fists
Unbuttoning jacket Peering over top of glasses
Spontaneous eye contact Glancing at exit
Smile Frown
Leaning forward Leaning back
Relaxed Rigid
Hands away from face Looking at floor
Standing straight Moving away
Feet apart Legs, crossed, shaking foot
Shoulders squared Fidgeting
Uncrossed legs Locked ankles
Welcoming handshake Folded arms
Touching Cold shoulder
Patting Open palm tapping
Rubbing palms together Hand wringing
Affirmative head nods Head lowered
Calm use of facial movements Staring or eyes closed
Seating arrangement with no Stalling for time (writing, cleaning glasses, etc.)
barriers
 5th Principle: AUDIENCE RAPPORT

AUDIENCE RAPPORT- “building rapport” is the name given to the process of

creating an understanding and harmonious, bond between yourself and someone else.
Good rapport ensures that the message will be actively listened to.
Rapport builders include:
o Dressing and grooming appropriately for the occasion
o Being organized, ready with suitable content
o Demonstrating in your opening statements that you know who you’re
talking to because you’ve done your homework
o Using inclusive language- “we” rather than “I”
o Identifying and emphasizing your common ground respectfully and
sincerely
o Avoiding jargon unless everyone knows what you’re talking about
o Showing that you’re human too by sharing personal experience in the
stories you tell
o Being mindful of body language and making eye contact
o Appearing confident, positive, in control and open
o Understanding the impact of your vocal delivery

Stage fright- is a fear of speaking in front of a group of people. This is often

called “performance anxiety”. Actors call it “flop sweat”. Psychologists call it
“topophobia”.
Symptoms:
- Dry mouth -tight throat -sweaty hands
- Shaky hands -nausea -fast pulse
- Trembling lips -shaky knees -cold hands
- Any out-of-the-ordinary outward or inward feeling occurring before or
during a presentation

How to Manage Stage Fright

 Learn and practice diaphragmatic breathing
 Learn to be grounded in your physical body
 Give yourself permission to feel the nervous tension
 Use the right joke at the right time
 Involve your listeners
 Concentrate on what you’re saying, not on how you’re saying it

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  Prepare, prepare, prepare

MORE TIPS for EFFECTIVE SPEECH DELIVERY

Following are more techniques and tips to help you deliver your speech well:

1. Use a conversational style more often. This is the style that is more natural; it is
the style that you always use when you express yourself with your family and
friends. Audience members do not like the speaker to sound unnatural or
exaggerated.
2. Look your audience members in the eye so they will feel that they are part of your
speech. Eye contact should be maintained to keep the attention of your audience
and enhance your delivery.

3. Remember to adjust your volume to the size of the audience and the venue. When
addressing a large audience, modulate your voice in such a way that you speak
loudly without sounding like shouting or yelling.
4. Vary your rate or speed to keep your audience interested and to avoid a monotone
pattern. The audience might get bored if you speak very slowly and they might get
confused if you speak very fast. Hence, your rate should be at an appropriate
speed.
5. Master your voice and find your pitch level (high or low). If you have a high pitch
level, modulate or slightly move it down. If you have a low pitch level, modulate or
slightly move it up. Your performance will definitely be affected if you do not
modulate.
6. Use pauses when you emphasize the most important words, phrases, or sentences.
Your pauses should not last for three seconds. Otherwise, it will result in dead air
or a moment of awkward silence.
7. Pronounce and enunciate words correctly. You will confuse the audience if you
mispronounce words, and it could distract them and affect your credibility.
8. Avoid fillers or expressions that substitute actual words in your speech because
these words are distracting. Examples of fillers are “like,” “um,” “ah,” “uh,” and
“er.” To reduce the use of these fillers, detect the instances when you use them: Do
you generally use fillers after each sentence, between different ideas, or whenever
you make transitions? Then, instead of using them the next time you deliver a
speech, simply stop and pause.
9. Start your speech by standing straight and balancing your weight. This will give a
positive first impression.
10.Use precise movements. Avoid distracting mannerisms like swaying back and forth,
leaning on the podium, licking or biting your lips, playing with your wristwatch or
jewelry, scratching parts of your body, frowning, and others. Observe your
mannerisms and learn how to avoid them when speaking in public.
11.Avoid having a poker face or a highly animated face. These facial expressions
appear distracting and may even be annoying. Instead, follow the most highly
suggested tip: smile. However, make sure that the meaning of your speech reflects
in your facial expressions; do not smile if you are talking about something sad.
12.Dress properly and appropriately. Wearing the proper attire will make you look
more confident and professional. Make sure not to overdress, as this may distract
your audience.

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13.Observe ethics by coming prepared, being honest with your words, being polite,
avoiding offensive words and back-biting or talking negative things about other
people, or copying someone’s work without proper documentation.

14.Breathe in and out to relax before your speech. Most importantly, have fun.

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