Modals in the Past

couldn't
can't have could could have couldn't
have
didn't need might
had to may have may not have
to have
might not ought not to ought to
must have needn't have
have have have
shouldn't
should have would have would not  
have

 
certainty

can't have e.g. I can't have lost my keys! (I'm sure

I didn't)
permission

could e.g. When I was a teenager, I could go

out as late as I wanted.
general ability
 
e.g. Tom could walk by the age of 8
months.

could have possibility, but did not happen

e.g. I could have passed my driving test

 if I'd really tried.
uncertainty
 
e.g. I guess it could have been Sandra
on the phone.

     possibility/ability
permission
  couldn't have
couldn't e.g. IWhen
couldn't possibly
I was have passed
a teenager, my
I couldn't
driving test,
stay out even if I'd
as late as Itried harder.
wanted.
uncertainty
general ability
 
 
e.g.
e.g.ItI couldn't
couldn't have
walk been Sandra
until I was 2. on
abilitythe
inphone, could situation
a particular it?  
with comparative adjectives
       
e.g. I tried hard but I couldn't     
 
e.g. I couldn't
persuade have
him to asked
go to the for better
party with
weather on my
unnecessary us.wedding
action day.
not done
unwillingness
 didn’t need to e.g. As I was alone this weekend, I
e.g. I couldn't
didn't have
need to leftcooking
do any the dog(so
in the
I
car for long (so I didn't).
didn't).

obligation (past form of must)

had to e.g. I couldn't go out last night because

I had to do my homework.

may have uncertainty

 e.g. I guess I may have been a bit hard
on her when she came home an hour
late.

uncertainty

may not have e.g. He may not have found out yet that
he has passed the test.

possibility (didn't happen)

might have
e.g. You might have been killed!
uncertainty

  e.g. I guess I might have been a bit

hard on her when she came home an
hour late.
annoyance at someone's failure to do
something
 
e.g. You might have told me that you
had invited all your colleagues round for
dinner!
  might have known + would (idiom to
ironically express that somebody's
action was typical)

e.g. I might have known that he would

 finish with me as soon as he found out I
wasn't wealthy!

uncertainty
might not
e.g. He may not have found out yet that
have
he has passed the test.

certainty

must have e.g. He must have known how much it

was going to cost.  (I'm sure he knew.)
with surely in exclamations
 
e.g.  Surely he must have known how
much it was going to cost!

unnecessary action that was actually

done 
needn't have
e.g.  Oh, you needn't have done the
washing up!

 
 criticism (more common is shouldn't
ought not to have)

have e.g. You ought not to have been so

frank with him.

expectation (should have is more

common)
ought to have
Why is she late?  She ought to have
arrived by now!

expectation

should have Why is she late?  She should have

arrived by now!
should have + verbs of thinking
 
e.g. I should have thought you knew.
with be and adjectives, describing
chance
 
e.g. It was weird that you should have
been staying in the same hostel last
month.
criticism (you didn't do something, but
it would have been the right thing to
  do)

e.g.  The party was such fun last night! 

You should have come!
 

criticism
shouldn't
e.g. You shouldn't have been so frank
have
with him.
polite expression of thanks on receiving
a gift or favour
 
"Here's a bottle of wine for you"

"Oh, you really shouldn't have!"

events in the past that did not happen

would have e.g.  I wouldn't have gone out with him,

but he didn't ask me.
assumptions
 
e.g. Oh, that would have been Sarah on
the phone just now.

unwillingness

would not e.g. I asked Tom to close the window,

but he wouldn't do it.